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KNIGHT'S 

AMERICAN 

MECHANICAL  DICTIONARY. 

A  DESCRIPTION  OF  TOOLS,  INSTRUMENTS.  MACHINES,  PROCESSES. 

AND    ENGINEERING;    HISTORY    OF    INVENTIONS; 

GENERAL  TECHNOLOGICAL  VOCABULARY; 

AND 

DIGEST  OF  MECHANICAL  APPLIANCES  IN  SCIENCE  AND  THE  ARTS. 
By  EDWARD   H.  KNIGHT, 

CIVIL   AND    MECHANICAL  EKGIKKER,   ETC. 

Sinujsftrarcb 

WITH  UPWARDS   OF  SEVEN  THOUSAND  ENGRAVINGS. 

VOLUME  I.  — A-GAS. 


"Thus  Time  brings  all  things,  one  by  one,  to  sight, 
And  Skill  evolves  them  into  perfect  light."  —  Lucretius,  Book  V. 


First  Steam  Engine 


BOSTON: 
HOUGHTON,  MIFFLIN  AND   COMPANY. 

SDlje  KitjcrsiOf  ^3rrs0,  <rambrtDgc. 

1882. 


Copyright,  1872, 
By  J.  B.  FORD  AND   COMPANY. 

Copyright,  1876, 
By  HURD  and  HOUGHTON. 


WVERSIDE,  cambkidqe: 

BLECTROTYPED  AND    PRINTED    BY 
II.  O.   llOUOHTOIf  ADD  COMPANY. 


PREFACE 


More  than  twenty  years  ago  the  author  commenced  collecting  memoranda  of 
mechanical  and  scientific  information  with  a  view  to  forming  a  systematic  digest, 
but  \\ithout  any  well-defined  prospect  of  its  publication.  Somewhat  over  four 
years  ago  he  was  requested  by  the  present  publishers  to  undertake  the  work 
wliich  is  now  put  forth,  and  since  then  has  devoted  to  it  the  principal  part  of  his 
time.  While  engaged  in  this  duty,  much  encouragement  has  been  afforded  by 
repeated  assurances  that  there  was  great  need  of  such  a  work,  and  by  ready  and 
valuable  assistance  from  personal  friends  of  the  author,  experts  in  various  depart- 
ments of  science  and  industry. 

After  carefully  considering  the  mode  of  presentation,  it  was  thought  best  to 
adopt  the  form  of  a  Dictionary,  —  a  "  word-book,"  which  describes  things  in  the  al- 
phabetical order  of  tlieir  names,  —  and  not  that  of  an  EincychiicKdia,  which  considers 
them  in  the  order  of  their  scientific  relation.  A  Dictionary  answers  directly  the 
questions  propounded ;  an  Encyclopccdia  is  a  collection  of  treatises. 

The  aim  has  been  to  place  the  information  in  the  most  systematic  order,  so  that 
any  specific  point  of  detail  may  be  readily  reached  when  required-  A  book  or  a 
mind,  though  a  closely  packed  repositoiy,  unless  order  has  supplemented  industry, 
is  unavailable  in  an  emergency,  reminding  one  of  "  the  fool  i'  the  forest " ;  — 

"  And  in  his  brain  — 
Which  is  as  diy  as  the  remainder  biscuit 
After  a  voyage  —  he  liath  strange  places  ci'ammed 
AVith  observation,  the  which  lie  vents 
In  mangled  forms." 

As  to  the  general  scope  of  the  book  and  the  method  pursued  in  its  preparation, 
it  must,  in  the  main,  speak  for  itself.  Wliile  the  greater  portion  of  the  work  is 
occupied,  of  course,  by  details  of  solid  import,  there  is  some  little  romance  and  a 
great  deal  of  interest  in  the  study  of  the  History  of  Inventions.  Without  deviating 
into  irrelevancy,  the  author  has  sometimes  become 

"  A  snapper-up  of  unconsidered  trifles," 

worthy  of  a  more  careful  estimate. 

"  First  the  blade,  then  the  ear,  then  the  full  corn  in  the  ear,"  is  the  natural  order 
in  invention,  as  well  as  in  other  departments  of  mind  and  in  the  Kingdom  of  Grace. 
When  we  read  Pliny's  account  of  the  reaping-machines  in  the  plains  of  Tilicetia, 
about  A.  D.  70,  we  wonder  that,  the  idea  once  blocked  out,  the  machine  should  after- 


jy  PREFACE. 

wards  relapse  into  utter  oblivion.  It  was  the  time  that  was  "  out  of  joint."  At  the 
latttT  end  ol'  tlie  last  century  and  the  early  portion  of  the  jiresent,  attention  was  again 
directed  to  the  reaper,  and  the  machine  described  by  Pliny,  and  by  Talladius  tluee 
centuries  later,  was  reinvented  exactly:  it  yet  survives  in  our  (7ort/--/a((r/<T.  This 
instance  is  by  no  means  .singular.  One  favorite  Ibnu  of  rotary  steam-engine,  n]i(in 
which  treatises  have  been  written  within  two  yeai-s  past,  is  but  a  reprodtu'tion  nf 
the  feolipile  of  Hero,  which  revolved  in  tlie  Serapeum  of  Alexandria  in  tlie  secimd 
century  B.  C.  Many  similar  examples  might  be  cited,  but  this  duty  belongs  to  the 
body  of  the  book,  and  not  to  the  Preface. 

In  the  adaptation  of  machinery  to  common  use,  our  country  excels  all  others: 
for  instances,  the  reaper  and  the  sewing-nuichine.  The.se  became  useful  instru- 
ments in  American  liauds,  not  merely  by  facility  of  adaptation,  but,  most  distinctly, 
by  the  invention  of  those  all-important  points  which  constituted  success.  A  rea- 
sonable share  of  space  in  this  work,  therefore,  has  been  devoted  to  the  feature  of 
Mcchaniml  Fcuhifion  ;  the  aim  being  to  give  not  only  the  present  state  of  the  respec- 
tive arts,  but  also  the  various  stages  by  which  the  relatively  perfect  appliances  at- 
tained their  development. 

Suhjirt-muttcr  Indexes  are  introduced  in  their  alphabetical  order  throughout  the 
body  of  the  work,  and  a  list  of  the  principal  ones  follows  this  Preface.  These  will 
afford  means  for  ascertaining  the  names  of  the  tecluiical  implements  of  the  re.spec- 
tive  Arts,  Mamdactures,  and  Tnides,  and  also  serve  as  cross-indexes  for  the  terms  so 
cited.  The  subjects  indicated  are  necessarily  considered  in  tiieir  alpliabetical  order  ; 
for  instance,  the  five  hundred  "Agricultural  Implements"  are  not  treated  in  a 
single  article, —  as  they  would  be  in  an  Encyclopiedia,  —  but  each  in  its  own  place 
under  its  own  name.  Their  assemblage,  however,  in  a  single  list,  or  index,  is  con- 
venient for  many  puqjoses,  and  it  is  estimated  that  over  twenty  thousand  technical 
words  have  been  thus  gathered  in  groups. 

Every  useful  machine  is  an  illustration  of  the  laws  which  the  Creator  has  im- 
pressed ui)on  matter.  There  is  a  touch  of  sublimity  in  the  thought  that  while  so 
unuh  around  us  is  nnuidaue  and  fleeting,  tliere  arc  some  things  in  which  we  are 
allied  to  tlie  intelligences  of  otlier  worlds.  Mechanics  is  a  science  and  an  art,  and 
Mathematics  affords  the  .statement  of  its  laws.  Wliatever  mi\y  be  the  terms  and 
conditions  of  other  existences,  and  in  whatever  mode  tlieir  experiences  and  attaiu- 
nu;nts  nuiy  find  expression,  it  is  certain  that  we  ha\e  a  mutual  interest  in  these 
allied  sciences.  As  every  thread  of  knowledge  is  a  filament  of  the  great  central 
cluster  and  will  lead  thereto  if  rightly  followed,  .so  may  each  study  form  a  clue 
whicli  will  lead  us  towards  tlie  Source  whence  emanates  all  that  is  wortli  knowing. 

With  tliese  convictions,  the  author  cannot  be  otlierwise  tlum  profoundly  im- 
pressed with  the  majesty  of  his  subject  and  his  own  insufficiency,  but  the  philoso- 
pher will  consider  leniently  this  attempt  to  summarize  the  meciiauical  appliances 
wliich  have  been  developed  by  the  experiences  of  at  least  forty  centuries. 

EDWARD   H.   KNIGHT. 

VVa.siiingti)N,  D.  C,  December  15,  1873. 


LIST  OF  SPECIFIC  INDEXES. 


The  Specific  Indexes  in  the  following  list  are  to  be  found  in  their  alphabetical  places  in  the  body  of  the  work, 
index  embraces  the  technical  appliances,  etc.,  appertaining  to  its  subject. 


Agricultural  and  Husbandry  Implements. 

Air  Appliances  and  Machinery. 

Alarms. 

Alloys. 

Artificial  and  Prosthetic  Appliances. 

Astronomical  Instruments. 

Axes. 

Baths. 

Batteries. 

Bits,  Boring. 

Blacksmith's  Tools  and  Appliances. 

Blocks,  Nautical. 

Boats. 

Boilers. 

Bolts. 

Bookbinder's  Tools  and  Processes. 

Boxes. 

Bridges. 

Brushes. 

Calculating  and  Measuring  Instruments. 

Carpentry. 

Carpets. 

Carriages  (see  Vehicles). 

Cars. 

Cements. 

Chaii-s. 

Chisels. 

Civil  Engineering. 

Clamps. 

Compasses. 

Cooper's  Tools. 

Cotton,  Flax,  Wool,  Hemp,  and  Silk. 

Couplings. 

Currier's  Tools. 

Dental  Apparatus  and  Appliances. 

Dilators. 

Docks. 

Domestic  Appliances. 

Drafting  Instruments  and  Appliances. 

Drills. 

Dryers. 

Electrical  and  Magnetical  Appliances. 

Engraving. 

Escapements. 

Fabrics. 

Faucets. 

Files. 

Filters. 

Fine  Arts. 

Fire-arms. 

Forceps. 

Forks. 

Fortification. 

Founding. 

Furnaces. 


Gages. 

Gas  Appliances. 

Gearing. 

Glass. 

'Graph. 

Grinding  and  Polishing. 

Grinding-Mills. 

Hammers. 

Hoisting- Machines. 

Hooks. 

Horological. 

Hydraulic  Engineering  and  Devices. 

Ice,  Manufacture  and  Uses  of. 

Indicators. 

Jacks. 

Jaw  Tools. 

Joints. 

Keys. 

Knitting. 

Knives. 

Lamps. 

Lathes  and  Appliances. 

Leather,  Tools,  Machines,  and  Appliances. 

Lenses. 

Levels. 

Lights  and  Photic  Appliances. 

Locks. 

Looms  (see  Weaving). 

Masonry  and  Architecture. 

Measures. 

Metallurgy. 

Metal-Working  Tools  and  Machines. 

Meters. 

Micrometers. 

Mills. 

Mining  Appliances  and  Temis. 

Musical  Instruments. 

Nails. 

Nautical  Appliances. 

Needles. 

Optical  Instruments. 

Optical  Toys,  Scenes  and  Effects. 

Ore  (see  Metallurgy). 

Paper. 

Photography. 

Piles. 

Pipes. 

Planes. 

Plasterer's  Tools  and  Work. 

Plows. 

Plumbing  and  Sheet-Metal  Work  and  Tools. 

Pottery  and  Clay. 

Presses. 

Printing. 

ProjectUes. 


LIST  OF  SPECIFIC  INDEXES. 


Propellers. 

Pulleys. 

Puiiii)s. 

Punches. 

Pyrotechnics. 

Kails. 

Kailway  Engineering  and  Plant. 

Ucfjisti-i-s. 

Kej^nlatoi's. 

KoUers. 

SaiUUery  and  Harness. 

Sails. 

Saws. 

'Seoi>e. 

Scwing-Machines  and  Attialimeiits. 

Sheai'S. 

Sliipwrighting. 

Signals. 

Siieculunis. 

Springs. 

Steani-Engiiie  (Parts  and  Appliances). 

Steam-Kngiiii's  (Varieties). 

Stoves  uiid  Heating  Appliances. 

Sugar-Machinery. 

Supporters. 


Surgical  Instruments  and  Appliances. 

Syringes. 

Telegraphs. 

Telescopes. 

Tinman's  Tools. 

Tobacco. 

Traps. 

Tubes. 

Turning-Tools. 

Type. 

Valves. 

Vehicles  (Tools,  Appliances  and  Parts  of). 

Vehicles  (Varieties). 

Ventilators. 

Vessels. 

Watches. 

Water- Elevators. 

Water-Wheels. 

Wea2)ons  and  Accouterments. 

Weaving. 

Wlieels. 

Wire-Working. 

Wood- Working  Tools  and  Machines. 

Wrenches. 


LIST  OF  FULL-PAGE  PLATES. 
Vol.  I. 


Plate.  Subject.  Page. 

I.      SUSPENSION    BRIDGE.      {East  River,  N.Y.) Frontispiece 

II.     PIER  AND   CAISSON.     {Illinois  and  St.  Louis  Bridge.) 49 

III.  ARCHED-BEAM  ROOF.    {Hudson  River  and  Harlem  R.  R.  Depot,  N.  Y.)     .  139 

IV.  ARMOR-PLATED   VESSELS.     {English  and  American.) 152 

V.     ARTESIAN   WELL.     {Grenelk,  Pans,  France.) 163 

VL  BATTERY-GUN.     {Gatling's,  — Egyptian  Service.) 249 

VII.  ATMOSPHERIC   RAILWAY-BRAKE.     {Westinghmise's)      ....  356 

VIIL  KRUPP'S   1200-POUNDER  BREECH-LOADING  RIFLED  GUN       .  .      448 

IX.  CHAIN-BRIDGE.    {Over  the  River  Dnieper,  at  Kieff,  Russia.)  ....  518 

X.  COMPRESSED-AIR  ENGINE.    {Bardonnkhe,  Mont  Cents  Tunnel.)  .        .  .602 

XI.  HOE'S  TEN-CYLINDER  TYPE-REVOLVING  PRINTING-MACHINE   .  670 

XIL  SINGLE  LARGE-CYLINDER  FOUR-ROLLER  PRINTING-MACHINE  .      671 

XIII.  FLOATING   DERRICK.     {Neiu  York  Department  of  Public  IVorlcs.)      .        .  .689 

XIV.  DIVING-BELL  AND   CORAL-DIVERS.    {Gibraltar.)  ....        714 

XV.    WORTHINGTON  DUPLEX  PUMPING-MACHINE.    {Newark, N.J.)    .        .    763 

XVL     BREECH-LOADING   FIRE-ARMS.     {Ainerican  and  European.)         .  .851 

XVH.     BREECH-LOADING    FIRE-ARMS.      {Recommended  by   the   United   States 

Board,  1873.) 852 

XVni.     BREECH-LOADING   FIRE-ARMS.     {American  and  Stuiss.)     ...  853 

XIX.     ENGLISH  FLOATING   DOCK.     {The  "-Bermuda.") 884 


KNIGHT'S   MECHAMCAL   DICTM^ARY. 


A. 


Ab'a-cis'cus.  A  small  sijuare  stone  or  tessera  fov 
a  tesselati-il  pavement. 

Ab'a-cus.  An  instrument  used  from  time  im- 
memnvial  in  performing  the  operations  of  addition 
and  sulitractiou. 

A  smooth  board  with  a  marginal  ledge  formed  the 
WTiting  and  calculating  table  of  the  Greek  school- 
boys and  accountants.  For  wi'iting,  it  was  strewn 
with  sand,  upon  which  marks  were  made  with  a 
stylus ;  thus  they  learned  to  write,  and  on  this  they 
executed  geometrical  figures.  The  primary  use  of 
the  hoard  is  indicated  by  its  name,  which  is  derived 
from  the  first  three  letters  of  the  Greek  alphabet, 
A  B  r.  It  was  called  an  abax,  and  retains  the  name, 
but  slightly  modified. 

The  abii.i-  strewed  with  sand  is  ihe pulvis  cruditus, 
or  the  Mensa  Pi/tJmgorca  of  classic  autliors. 

For  aritlimetieal  calculation,  the  same  hoard  was 
used  without  the  sand,  to  contain  the  counters,  which 
were  arranged  thereon  in  parallel  rows,  representing 
respectively  units,  tens,  hundreds,  thousands,  etc. 
Solon  (about  600  B.  C.)  refers  to  the  arbitrary  de- 
nominations of  the  several  lines,  in  a  metaphor  which 
compares  the  different  gi'ades  of  society  to  the  differ- 
ent values  of  the  counters  in  the  several  rows. 

The  counters  were  pebbles,  beans,  or  coins,  espe- 
cially the  former.  The  Greek  word  for  the  counters 
of  the  abacus  was  derived  from  a  word  signifying  a 
pebble.  Pythagoras,  the  great  aritlnnetician,  hated 
beans,  —  an  antipathy  he  derived  from  the  Egj'ptian 
priests,  his  instructors.  About  the  same  time  Daniel 
was  eating  pulse  in  Babylon  without  gi'umbling, 
and  Horatius  Was  hewing  down  the  bridge  of  the 
Janiculuni. 

The  Itoman  word  calculus,  fi'om  which  we  derive 
our  woril  cnlculale,  was  the  diminutive  of  ccilx,  a 
stone,  and  referred  to  the  pebbles  which  formed  the 
counters  of  the  abacus. 

Sometimes  the  counters  were  shifted  to  the  right 
in  counting,  sometimes  totlieleft.  Itis  stated  that 
the  Greek  and  Roman  practices  differed  in  this  re- 
spect. Several  varieties  of  instruments  are  repre- 
sented on  the  ancient  monuments. 

The  step  was  easy  from  a  fiat  board  with  shifting 
counters  arranged  in  rows,  to  a  board  with  grooves 
in  which  the  pebbles  were  rolled.  Afterwards  we 
find  pellets  Strang  upon  wires,  and  thus  the  Chinese 
have  used  it  for  ages. 

The  illustration  sliows  the  last-mentioned  form  of 
the  device,  an'anged  for  decimal  counting.  The 
number  indicated  by  the  beads  on  the  right  hand  of 
the  frame  is  198,764,  and  it  will  be  seen  that  by 
transposing  the  heads  to  one  side  or  the  other,  as 
reijuired,  either  addition  or  subtraction  may  be  read- 
1 


ily  perfomied.     A  person  accustomed  to  the  instra- 
ment   will    perform 
theseoperationswith  '^'    " 

gi'cat  rapidity  and 
accuracy.  The  Chi- 
nese term  the  instru- 
ment a  swan-pwan, 
and  are  very  dexter- 
ous in  its  use. 

The  original  of  the 
Chinese  abacus  has 
been  supposed  to  be 
the  "knotted  cord," 
used  in  China  for 
keeping  accounts  be- 
fore the  invention  of 
writing.  The  knots 
are  made  movable  by 
substituting  sliding 
beads,  fleuce  like 
Wise  seems  to  have 

been  derived  the  mode  of  keeping  the  Chinese 
Tung-tkn,  or  perforated  coins,  which  are  Strang 
upon  a  cord. 

One  fonn  of  the  Chinese  abacus  has  two  compart- 
ments, five  beads  in  one  and  two  in  the  other  ;  the 
fonner  have  tlie  value  of  one  each,  the  latter  five 
each.  Tlie  wires  are  nine  in  number,  and  each  runs 
through  the  two  comiiartments. 

The  Piomans,  contrary  to  the  customs  of  the  Phce- 
nicians  and  Greeks,  from  whom  they  received  their 
alphabet,  expressed  their  numbers  1,  2,  3,  not  by 
the  first  letters  of  the  aljihabet,  but  by  strokes, 

I       II       111; 

in  this  respect  unconsciously  copying  the  Chinese 
numerals  of  the  same  value. 


Tlie  difference  in  the  direction  of  the  figures  gives 
the  numerals  in  each  the  same  position  ncross  the 
column ;  for  the  Roman  writing  is  in  horizontal 
colunm,  the  C'liinese  vertical. 

The  resemblance  between  the  Chinese  and  Roman 
numerals  extends  much  further  than  the  above,  and 
sliows  a  common  origin. 

Perhaps  it  may  be  accounted  for  by  the  studies  of 
Pythagoras  in  India,  and  the  subsequent  instruction 
ol  Nunia  in  the  school  founded  by  the  sage  of  Samos 
in  Crotona,  a  city  of  Magna  Grsecia.     {Plutarch.) 


ABACUS. 


ABACUS. 


(commonly  known  us ' 
lU 
11 
12 

13 


Roman. 

X 
XI 
XII 

XIII 


Chinese 

+ 

± 
± 

± 


20  XX 

30  XXX 

The  resemblance  cannot  be  accidental.  I'ytluigoras 
iinil  K>iiis-fii-tzo  (Confucius)  were  conteinporaues. 

Anotlii'V  U)0(U!  among  the  Chinese  of  e.xpiessing 
2'K  :iU,  etc.  wa.s  by  placing  2,  3,  etc.  before  the  si'rn 
of  ten  ;  so  tliat  they  in  some  degree  anticipated  the 
Hindoo,  where  a  numeral  before  the  zero  expressed 
so  many  tens,  e.  g. 

Chinese.  Arabic. 

= 

The  great  advance  in  the  Hindoo  over  the  other 
systi'ms  of  notation  was  in  giving  a  place  value  to 
ligures.  In  Sanscrit,  the  initial  rettere  of  the  San- 
scrit munes  of  the  Indian  numerals  are  employed  from 
1  to  9.  The  original  zero  was  a  dot.  The  Greek 
letter  omioron  (o)  was  afterwards  substituted,  and 
forms  our  naught.  It  is  amusing  to  see  the  com- 
bination of  Hindoo  and  Roman  figures  during  the 
fourteenth  and  lifteenth  centuries,  such  as 
(Written.)  (To  be  read.) 

x3  13 

x4  14 

40  1  41,  etc. 

Showing  that  the  force  of  the  zero  and  the  value 
froiu  position  were  not  understood  at  first,  even  when 
the  new  characters  had  become  customary. 

The  decimal  and  duodecimal  systems  of  arithmetic 
wei-e  in  n.se  in  Egypt  at  the  earliest  period  of  its 
known  history.  For  the  respective  systems  the 
nuudjers  of  counters  in  the  rows  would  vary,  each  line 
representing  a  multiple  by  10  or  12  of  the  line  below 
it.  There  is  no  representation  of  the  abacus  for  count- 
ing on  the  Egyptian  moTiuments.  "The  Assyrians 
counted  by  60's  as  well  as  by  lOO's."  —  Rnwlitisoti. 

The  instrument  was  probably  invented  by  the  Chi- 
nese, and  passiMl  thence  westwardly  through  India 
and  Aiiiliia  to  Europe.  The  evidences  of  ancient 
trade  o!i  this  line  are  found  at  both  ends  and  at  in- 
termediate points.  The  glass  bottles  with  Chinese 
inscriptions,  found  with  the  Egyptian  mummies, 
prove  the  existence  of  trade  relations  between  those 
nations  lii^l'ure  the  founding  of  Athens,  and  also  dis- 
sijiate  the  myth  of  Pliny  as  to  the  discovery  of  gl:x,ss 
by  certain  mariners  of  Phoenicia,  a  few  centuries 
previous  to  the  time  at  which  he  made  lus  curious 
collection  of  vagabond  information. 

Ov(U'  this  famous  route  travelled  the  mariner's 
compa.ss,  gunpowder,  the  art  of  glazing  pottery,  of 
nn'dng  papei'  of  pulp,  and  much  else  that  we  value. 
Kelting  cif  animal  lilier  was  also  ilerived  from  Asia,  but 
proliaUly  entered  Europe  by  a  more  northern  route. 

The  Creek  and  Koman  minieration  was  decimal, 
but  their  system  of  notation  was  very  unfortunate, 
Hi  any  one  may  ascertain  by  trying  a  sum  in  multi- 
plication : 

CCXLVIII 
XLV 

? 

The  Oriental  .system  of  notation  was  introduced  by 

the  Arabs,  and  was  credited  to  them,  but  they  more 

jiroperly  term  tli'in  Imliini  numerals,  referring  to 

their  d(!rivation  from  the  Hindoos.     This  system  of 


notation  pa.ssed  with  the  Saracens  along  the  north- 
ern coast  of  Africa,  and  was  carried  by  them  into 
Spain.  The  caliphate  of  Cordova  was  established 
by  Abderahman,  A.  D.  755,  and  the  university  at 
that  place  was  founded  A.  D.  968.  At  this  dis- 
tinguished seat  of  learning  was  educated  the  famous 
Gerbei  t  of  Auvergne.  This  enlightened  eeclesiiLstic 
was  successively  a  schoolmaster  at  Kheims  (where 
he  introduced  the  abacus,  the  Arabic  numerals,  the 
clock,  the  organ,  and  the  globe),  archbishcjp  of  Ra- 
venna, and,  eventually.  Pope  Sylvester  II.,  to  which 
position  he  was  elevated  by  the  decree  of  the  Em- 
peror Otho  III.  Patron  and  prelate  died  of  poison 
shortly  after,  about  A.  D.  1002. 

Gerbert  was  probably  the  first  to  use  in  a  Chris- 
tian school  the  nine  digits  and  a  cijiher,  which 
proved,  as  William  of  Malmesbury  said,  "a  great 
blessing  to  the  sweating  calculators." 

A  translation  of  Ptolemy,  published  in  Spain  in 
1136,  used  the  Hindoo  notation.  Tlie  Hindoo  nu- 
merals were  introduced  into  England  about  A.  U. 
1253. 

The  accounts  of  the  kings  of  England,  previous  to 
the  Norman  Conipiest  —  and  the  same  is  probably 
true  of  most  contemporary  European  nations  —  were 
calculated  by  rows  of  coin  disposed  as  in  the  abacus, 
that  is,  placed  in  parallel  rows  wdiieh  represented 
gi-adually  increasing  denominations  in  the  ascending 
series.  At  the  Conijuest  an  amplification  of  the 
same  idea  was  introduced,  the  calculations  being 
performed  by  the  teller,  at  a  large  table  called  a  sac- 
carium.  This  had  a  ledge  ai'ound  it,  and  was  cov- 
ered by  a  black  cloth  ruled  with  chequer  lines. 
Hence  the  word  Exchequer,  as  applied  to  English 
national  finances. 

In  the  twelfth  century,  this  table  was  five  by  ten 
feet,  and  its  cloth  cover  was  divided  by  vertical  and 
horizontal  lines.  The  horizontal  bars  represented 
pence,  shillings,  pounds,  tens,  hundreds,  thousands 
of  jiounds.  Coins  were  used  for  counters  ;  the  first 
and  lowest  bar  advanced,  by  dozens,  the  number  of 
pence  in  the  shilling  ;  the  second,  by  scores,  the  num- 
ber of  shillings  in  the  pound  ;  the  higher  denomina- 
tions by  tens.  This  was  a  true  abacus,  and  was  used 
down  to  a  comparatively  recent  period. 

The  accounts  of  merchants  were  kept  in  Roman 
numerals  till  the  close  of  the  sixteenth  century, 
and  the  use  of  the  abacus  was  maintained  to  a 
much  later  date.  Until  1600  its  use  was  a  branch 
of  popular  education. 

Offices  for  changing  money  came  to  be  indicated 
by  a  checker-board,  and  the  sign  was  afterwards 
appropi'iated  by  the  keepers  of  inns  and  hostelries. 
This  sliows  that  peopU'  met  at  such  jilaces  to  settle 
accounts,  a  friendly  drink  being  a  tribute  to  "ndne 
host."  The  Jerusalem  and  Lloyd's  coH'ee-houses  are 
noted  in  the  history  of  trading  companies  ;  the  lat- 
ter especially.  The  checker-board  on  the  doorpost 
of  th(^  tavern  is  about  the  last  phase  of  the  abacus, 
in  Eurojie  at  least. 

Tile  checkers  on  the  posts  of  an  inn  door  are  to  be 
seen  upon  a  house  in  disentombed  Pompeii. 

The  tiillii  .system  was  also  introduced  into  England 
at  the  Norman  Conipu'st.  This  was  not  for  calcu- 
lating, but  for  kee|iing  accounts.  The  name  of  the 
device  came  with  it  across  the  Channel,  being  de- 
rived from  the  Ereneh  hiillrr,  to  cut,  the  lalh/sticks 
being  cut  and  notched  with  a  knife.  A  scjuared 
stick  of  hazel  or  alder  was  prepared,  and  the  money 
account  was  notched  on  the  edge,  small  notches 
re])resenting  pence  ;  largc^r,  shillings  ;  still  larger, 
pounds.  The  stick  was  then  S]dit  longitudinally,  so 
as  to  leave  notch-marks  on  eaeh  ]iortion  ;  one  part 
was  laid  away  in  the   excheipu'r  strong  room,    the 


ABAKA. 


ABRADANT. 


other  was  given  to  the  creditor  of  tlie  government. 
When  the  pereon  came  for  payment,  his  portion  of 
the  stick  was  laid  against  that  in  possession  of  tlie 
exchequer,  and  if  they  tallud  the  claim  was  admit- 
ted, perhaps  paid. 

This  system  survived  the  introduction  of  Arabic 
numerals  into  England  about  670  years.  In  1826 
the  time  camj  for  the  venerable  system  to  abdicate 
in  favor  of  the  other  Oriental  method  which  had 
been  asserting  itself  for  so  long.  The  pile  of  sticks, 
in  companies,  regiments,  and  brigades,  that  had  liy 
this  time  accumulated  was  something  terrific.  The 
question  was,  How  to  get  rid  of  them  ?  Prescriptive 
custom  would  prevent  their  being  issued  to  the 
poor,  or  sold  to  bake  the  bread  of  the  people,  as  the 
Alexandrian  library  heated  the  baths  of  that  impe- 
rial city  ;  so  one  tine  day  in  183i  tliey  were  to  be 
privately  burnt.  A  stove  in  the  House  of  Lords  was 
selected  as  a  proper  place  for  tlie  incremation  of 
anotlier  relic  of  the  past ;  the  wainscoting  of  the 
chamber  protested  by  catching  fire,  the  House  of 
Lords  set  fire  to  the  House  of  Commons,  and  both 
were  burnt  to  the  ground,  — a  gi'and  funeral-pile. 

The  bakers  insisted  for  some  years  in  keeping 
tally-stick  record  of  loaves  purchased  by  their  cus- 
tomers ;  some  of  us  recoUect  it. 


The  oldest  surviving  treatises  on  matheraaties 
are  by  the  famous  Alexandrians,  Eucl.,1,  abo  .t 
B.  C.  300  ;  Ptolemy,  A.  D.  130  ;  and  Uiopliantus, 
A.  D.  156. 

Decimal  fractions  were  invented  14S2. 

The  first  work  on  aritluu'tie  ]iiil>lished  in  England 
was  by  Tonstall,  Bishop  of  London,  1.522.  Tlie  Ital- 
ians had  been  in  that  field  many  years  before. 

(Architecture.)  The  crown  member  of  the  capital 
of  a  column. 

Ab'a-ka.  A  fiber  from  which  Manilla- rope  is  made. 
Ropes  and  caliles  of  this  material  Hoat  in  sea-water. 

Ab'a-mu'rus.  .A.  buttress  or  second  wall,  built 
to  streii-_;tli(Mi  another. 

Ab'ap-tis'ton.     (Surgical. )     A  trepan  saw. 

Abat-jour'.  (Building.)  A  skylight,  or  aperture 
for  the  admission  of  liglit. 

Ab'at-voix'.  A  sounding-board  over  a  pulpit  or 
rostrum. 

Ab'at-tis.  (Fortification.)  An  obstacle  employed 
in  military  operations  for  delaying  the  approach  of 
an  enemy  and  keeping  him  under  fire  as  long  as 
possible.  It  is  formed  of  trees  or  large  limbs  bavin  ^ 
the  branches  under  two  inches  in  diameter  chopped 
off,  the  larger  ones  being  sharpened  and  interlaced, 
and  pointed   toward   the   enemy.       The   butt   cuds 


Fig.  2. 

<fcr«H»>/,l»n»VUimtfm;)lnnrllfc»<w..;t»-/,(.«.-l.t,t.Vll'.».WinA<i^fc^^^ 


gf^i^p^^^gEjr 


are  secured  by  pickets,  and  may  be  partially  em- 
bedded in  the  earth  to  prevent  them  from  being 
readily  removed. 

Abattis  are  usually  placed  in  front  of  the  ditch 
in  field  fortifications,  but  they  may  be  placed  in  the 
ditch  against  the  counterscarp  ;  in  the  former  case 
they  should  be  protected  from  the  enemy's  fire  by  a 
small  glacis. 

In  a  wooded  country  an  abattis  is  readily  formed 
by  felling  the  trees  in  such  a  way  that  their  branches 
shall  interlace,  leaving  the  trunk  connected  to  tlie 
stump  by  a  portion  not  cut  ;  the  stump  should  be 
high  enough  to  protect  a  man  behind  it. 

A  small  parapet  formed  of  logs  and  backed  by 
earth  may  be  thrown  up  in  the  rear  of  the  abattis, 
which  thus  constitutes  a  very  efficient  and  available 
means  of  defence. 

The  abattis  is  referred  to  by  Herodotus,  Tliucyd- 
ides,  and  Xenophon,  and  was  a  coimnon  military  de- 
f_'nce  derived  from  savage  life.  An  aliattis  of  thorny 
shrubs  or  limbs  is  the  usual  defence  of  an  African 
Krvtl  against  predatory  beasts. 

Abb.     (IFcaving.)     Yarn  for  the  warp. 

Ab-dom'i-ual  Sup-port'er.  A  bandage  for  the 
compression  of  the  relaxed  abdominal  walls,  intended 
to  assist  the  muscles  in  holding  the  viscera  in  place. 
The  simplest  are  made  of  elastic  rubber  covered  with 
silk  or  cotton  ;  they  encircle  the  body  from  the  navel 
to  the  pubes.  Others  are  made  of  two  steel  springs 
passing  over  the  crests  of  the  pelvic  bones,  with  a 


small  pad  resting  on  either  side  of  the  spine,  and  a 
large  frontal  one  ;  their  posi- 
tion and  action  being  simi- 
lar to  that  of  a  person  hold- 
ing his  abdomen  with  both 
hands.  They  are  of  various 
patterns  and  designs  ;  are  used 
in  cases  of  obesity,  before  and 
afterparturition,  andsometimes 
in  cases  of  umbilical  liernia. 

Moody's    Supporter,     1864, 
has  a  corset  A,  with  lacings  c  d  jij 
and  air-bag  B  secured  by  elastic 
plates  b  to  the  stays.     The  pad 
acts  as  an  elastic  truss. 

There  are  various  forms,  pat- 
ented and  otherwise. 

A-bee'.  (Fabric.)  A  woven  stnfi"  of  wool  and 
cotton  made  in  Aleppo. 

A-beam'.  Opposite  the  center  of  tlie  ship's  side  ; 
as,  "  the  wind  is  aheain.'' 

Ab'e-run'ca-tor.    A  weeding-nneliiue. 

A-bout'-sledge.  The  largest  hiiiumer  used  by 
blacksmiths  ;  wielded  by  the  helper,  turn-about  with 
the  smaller  hammer  of  the  blacksmitli  himself. 

A-bra'dant.  A  material,  generally  in  powder, 
for  grinding.  The  tenii  includes  em  'iv,  sand,  glass, 
and  many  other  materials.  Laps,  glaz"rs,  ritles,  pa- 
per, etc.  are  armed  with  abradants.  See  Emery  ; 
and  Grinding  and  Polishing  Materials. 


Ah'laminnl  Supporter. 


ABREUVOIR. 


ACCELERATOR. 


A-breu-voir'.  iArcaileclure.)  The  iiiortai-joint 
or  inti  rsti.e  Ixtwueu  two  voussoii's  of  an  anh  or  the 
stoii<*s  4>t'  u  wall. 

A'brid.  .\  brushing-plate  around  a  hole  in  wliith 
a  piiitli*  wdvks. 

Ab-sorb'iug-^reU.  A  well  or  shaft,  du^,  borei., 
or  drivi-ii  tliiimjjh  a  retentive  stratum  to  allow  sur- 
faec  or  .sprin;;  water  to  pass  to  a  porous  stratum  be- 
low the  t'onner,  so  as  to  foim  an  outlet  for  ilraina<.je. 

.Sueh  wells  aie  maile  at  di.seretion  in  England,  but 
in  Krauee  are  regarded  with  jealousy,  and  their  use 
is  oidy  pi-nnitted  after  an  examination  and  report  by 
ex|)i'rts  as  to  their  possible  etl'ect  npon  watercourses, 
drainage  or  irrigation  of  other  properties,  etc. 

In  the  United  States  they  are  but  little  used,  and 
pre  not  under  public  regulation. 

Absorbing-wells  are  known  as  dead  wells  in  the 
South  of  England  ;  they  are  made  in  the  gi-avel, 
the  upper  portion  being  elose-steened  work  and  the 
lower  open-steened  work.  The  bottom  is  ,un- 
pavi'd.  ti>  allijw  tlie  water  to  infiltrate. 

A-but'ting-joint  (Ctirijctdnj.)  A  joint  in 
whieh  thi-  lllieis  iif  one  piece  are  perpendicular  to 
those  of  the  other. 

(Mafhin  ri/.)  A  joint  in  which  the  pieces  meet 
at  a  right  an^le. 

A-but'ment.    A  lixed  iroint  or  surface,  alford- 
iug  a  rchitivcly  immovable  obje<-t  against  which 
a  biiily  iiliKis  or  ]iresses  while    resisting  or  moving 
in  the  contrary  direction.     See  I'lEU  ;  Skewback. 

1.  (Building.) 
Kg.  *•                         A  structure  which 

receives  the  lateral 
thrust  of  an  arch. 
The  abutment  may 
be  a  pier  or  wing 
■walls  foraiing  ahor- 
izcntalarch  ;  orthe 
arch  may  be  con- 
tinued to  a  pileil  or 
liewn  foundation, 
which  is  then  the 
abutjneiU. 

2.  (MncJiincri/.) 
A  solid  or  station- 
ary surtace  against 
which  a  fluid  re- 
acts. 

«.  The  wedge 
which  lifts  the  ])is- 
ton  of  one  form  of 
^  rotary  steam  -  en  - 
gine,  and  which 
forms  a  surface  for 
the  steam  to  react  again.st  as  it  presses  the  ])iston 
forward  in  its  circular  path. 

h.  The  wedge  block  in  a  rotary  pump,  where  the 
piston  traversi-s  an  annular  chamber. 

^,f<<\       c.    One  of  the 
m-  5.  ,^<\\V>  cylinder    heads 

of  a  steam-en- 
gine, receiving 
the  back  press- 
ure of  the  steam 
—  which  is  made 
effective  upon 
the  piston. 

3.  {Cnrpni- 
tni.)  The  junc- 
tion     of      two 


Wg.  6. 


Movable  Abutment. 

i.  (Fire-nmi.i.)  The  block  at  the  rear  of  the  barrel 
of  a  fire-ann  (es])ecially  a  breech-loader),  which  re- 
ceives the  rcarwarii  force  of  the  charge  in  firing. 

It  lia-s  tlic  function  of  the  brccch-pluij  or  brccch-pin 
in  the  mu/zle-loading  fire-arm. 


Pier  Abutment. 


Piled  Abutment. 


pieces  of  tini- 
bei,  wliere  the 
grain  of  one  is 


Stationary  Abutment. 

A  similar  term  is  applied  to  the  corresponding  por- 
tion in  breech-loading  cannon. 

In  Fig.  6,  the  ahulmcnl  D  is  movable  upon  an 
a.xis  so  as  to  expose  the  rear  of  the  bore  for  the  in- 
sertion of  the  cartridge. 

In  Fig.  7,  the  iibiilinciit  D  is  stationary,  relatively 
to  the  stock,  and  the  barrel  slips  away  from  the  abut- 
ment to  allow  the  insertion  of  the  cartridge.  The 
variations  in  the  arrangement  are  very  numerous,  uu  I 
the  different  devices  form  the  subjects  of  numerous 
patents  in  the  United  States  and  foreign  countries. 
See  Fii!E-.\r..M  ;  BnEEin-L.i.XDiXG. 

5.  {Sit.tpemiini  BritJiie.)  The  niasonrj'  or  natural 
rock  in  and  to  which  the  ends  of  a  suspension  cable 
are  anchored. 

Fig  8. 


at  a  right  angle  to  that  of  the  other,  or  nearly  so. 


Suspension  Bridqe  Abutment 

6.  (Hijdrnulic  Enginccrinij.)  A  dam  is  in  some 
sense  an"  abutment,  as  it  sustains  the  lateral  thrust 
of  wati-r.      Sec  IXvM. 

A-but'ment  Arch.     .\n  end  arch  of  a  bridge. 

A-can'tha-lus;  Acan-tha'bo-lus.  .\n  instru- 
ment I'.ir  cxtractiui;  lhm)i>  <ii  siiliutcrs  fnmi  a  wciun<l. 

Ac-cel'er-a'tor.  1.  A  light  van  used  in  England 
for  ccnvi'ving  naiils  between  post-oflici'S  and  railway- 
station.s,  etc. 

2.  A  cannon,  with  several  powder  chandlers,  wlioso 
charges  are  exploded  consecutively,  in  order  to  give 
a  constantly  increiwing  rati'  of  progression  to  the  pro- 
jectile as  it  passes  along  the  bore. 


ACCENTED   LETTERS. 


ACCORDEOX. 


Ac'oent-ed  Let'ters.  Vowels  havingsigiisahove 
tlieiii  (or  bi'low,  in  the  case  of  the  cedilla  "  9  ")  to 
indicate  a  specific  pronunciation  ;  as  :  — 


Acute, 
Grave, 
Circumflex, 


Diieresis, 

Long, 

Short, 


Ac-cip'i-ter.  {Surf/enj.)  A  handa^e  applied 
over  till'  nose  ;  so  called  from  its  likeness  to  the  claw 
of  a  hawk. 

Ac-commo-da'tion  Lad'der.  (Xnutic/tl.)  A 
laiUler  su.-~|iended  at  the  side  of  a  vessel  to  facilitate 
the  |>ass:iL'e  to  and  from  tlie  boats  along.-ide. 

Siile  la  Iders  and  stern  ladders  hang  from  tliese 
pirts  of  :i  ship. 

Ac-cor'de-on.  A/rcc-rrtvnnsfrunient introduced 
into  England  from  Germany  about  1S2S.  The  exte- 
rior fonn  of  this  instrument  is  a  parallelopiped.  The 
action  consists  of  a  bank  nf  vibrating  reeds  or  tongues 
wliieh  are  operated  by  the  bellows.  Keys  open  the 
air-ducts  to  the  respective  reeds  as  the  bellows  are 
e.x'pm.led  and  contracted.  Dampers  are  attached 
to  the  end,  which  is  grasped  by  the  left  hand, 
while  the  other  end  is  furnished  with  keys  by  which 
the  notes  are  somuled  by  the  fingers  of  the  other 
hand. 

The  concertina  is  an  improved  form  of  the  accor- 
deon. 

A  common  form  of  the  accordeon  is  she  'm  in'  the 
engraring,  which  affords  three  riews  :  — 

A  general  exterior  view  ; 

A  sectional  view  in  the  plane  of  the  key -board,  and 
exhibiting  the  separate  wind-cells  ; 


Fig.  9. 


A  sectional  view  at  right  angles  to  the  latter,  and 
exhibiting  the  parts  concerned  in  the  course  of  the 
air,  —  damper,  bellows,  ducts,  and  cells. 

n  <f  is  a  rectangular  box,  the  lower  portion  0! 
which  is  of  air-tight  flexible  material  fonuing  the  bel- 
lows and  wind-chest  ;  <;  is  a  partition  fomiing  the 
top  side  of  the  wind-chest,  and  the  lower  surface  ol 
the  large  cell  d,  and  the  ten  smaller  cells  e  e.  1  n  the 
bottom  of  each  cell  are  two  apertures  cut  through 
the  partition  c  ;  each  of  these  apertures  is  covered 
on  one  side  by  a  thin  metallic  plate,  which  has  a 
long  rectangular  opening  in  which  a  free  reed  jilays 
as  the  air  passes  througli  the  opening  when  the  bel- 
lows is  in  action,  and  the  appropriate  key  is  lifted. 
See  Fkee  Keed. 

On  the  side  of  eaeh  aperture,  opposite  to  that  oc- 
cupied by  the  reed,  is  a  flap  or  valve  of  thin  leather, 
cemented  by  an  edge  to  the  partition  c.  The  reeds 
of  eai.h  cell  are  fixed  one  to  the  ujiper  side  of  the 
partition  and  the  other  to  the  lower  .side  ;  the  reed 
a!)ove  the  partition  is  sounded  when  the  bellows  is 
extended,  and  that  below  the  partition  when  the 
bellows  is  collapsed  ;  the  Haji  of  leather,  in  each  ease, 
prevents  the  sounding  of  tlie  reed  when  the  wind 
goes  in  a  direction  contrary  to  that  de.scribed. 

The  large  cell  rf  has  also  apertures,  which  are 
provided  with  reeds  and  valves  at  the  ri'spective 
ends  of  the  apertures,  as  just  descrilied.  The  ]ilates 
of  these  reeils  have  two  or  three  tongues  of  greater 
size  and  lower  tone,  forming  a  liase  which  chords 
with  the  other  notes  by  wldch  the  air  is  played. 

Tlie  tops  of  the  cells  c  c  d,  or  the  partition  c,  are 
.•overed  with  bufl'  leather,  against  which  the  umler 
siile  of  the  cover  i  i  slides  when  it  is  pushed  into 
closed  position. 

In  the  cover,  over  each  of  the  small  cells,  is  a  hole 
closed  by  a  key  k,  and  over  the  large  cell  </  are  two 
holes,  one  at  each  end,  closed  by  the  keys  1 1,  which 
are  moved  .simultaneously  by  the  knob  m.  The 
valve  n,  at  the  bottom  of  the  wind-chest,  forms  a 
damper  by  wliiidi  the  bellows  may  be  extended  or 
contracted,  when  rcijuired,  without  sounding  a  note. 

Several  notes  may  be  sounded  together,  and,  the 
reed  of  each  .small  cell  bi'ing  ditl'ereut,  the  compass 
is  equal,  tones  and  semi-toues  being  counted,  to  the 
number  of  reeils. 

The  accordeon  difi"ers  from  the  meloderni  more  in 
size  and  the  mode  of  manipulation  than  in  principle. 
The  latter  will  be  considered  liy  itself,  but  may  be 
statcil  to  be  of  such  size  as  to  constitute  a  piece  of 
standiug  furniture,  having  its  keys  in  a  bank,  like  a 
piano,  and  foot-pedals  for  the  generation  of  wind,  by 
which  the  reeds  are  vibrated  as  the  action  of  the 
keys  opens  the  corresponding  valves.  The  same  in- 
strument is  known  in  England  as  the  harmoiiium, 
and  has  lieen  known  at  various  times  by  the  nauies 
of  seraphiiie,  leolophon,  symphonium. 

F.4..\.s,  .Tune  13,  1854,  combines,  with  the  diatonic- 
scale  of  the  large  keys,  two  other  scales,  viz.,  one 
for  producing  all  the  intermediate  notes  or  .senu- 
tones,  and  the  other  founded  upon  the  subdnmi- 
naut  of  the  diatonic  scale  ;  both  arranged  so  as  to 
be  fringed  by  a  single  set  of  small  keys,  to  enable 
the  performer  to  produce  harmony  in  any  key.  The 
valves  of  the  lower,  or  small,  keys  stop  two  s /ries  of 
apertures  opening  from  the  wind-chest  below.  The 
two  series  of  apertures  aie  alternately  opened  and 
closed  by  means  of  a  wind-stop,  with  two  rows  of 
apertures  arranged  in  alternate  order.  These  an: 
governed  by  levers  jointed  to  the  wind-stop  and  to 
one  another. 

A  sounding-board  gives  strength  and  le.sonance  to 
the  tones,  and  allows  space  for  the  described  arrange- 
ment of  the  valves. 


ACCOUPLEMENT. 


ACCOUTEEMENTS. 


Faas,  August  12,  1S56.  Inunediatcly  beneath 
the  perforated  board  through  wliose  openings  the  air 
enters,  is  a  thin  sliding  lioard  with  corresponding 
apertures.  By  means  of  a  lianiUe  tlie  operator  ad- 
justs tile  position  of  the  board  so  as  to  vary  the 
strength  of  the  tones  by  regulating  the  quantity  of 
air  admitted  to  the  reeds.  Double  keys  elose  the 
apertures  of  the  ba-se  reeds,  the  smaller  keys  eover- 
iug  holes  through  the  lai'ger  ones,  by  which  arrange- 
ment an  entire  octave  of  bivse  notes  is  produced. 

Zi.M.MEliM.\N,  July  10,  ISGB,  has  certain  distin- 
guishing keys  between  the  consecutive  octaves, 
which  give  the  same  tone  in  either  inflating  or  com- 
pressing the  wind  chest. 

PluES,  June  21,  1864.  The  aceordeon  is  so  con- 
structed as  to  admit  of  its  being  played  in  any  key, 

to    accompa- 


Fig.  10. 


Priests  Aceordeon. 


ny  an  o;  ches- 
tra  ;  this  is 
accomplished 
by  arranging 
double  key- 
boards, one 
on  each  side 
of  the  instru- 
ment, which 
admit  the  ad- 
ditional num- 
ber of  keys, 
conveniently 
arranged  for 
the  addition- 
al reeds  ne- 
cessary for 
the  purpose. 
The  keys  in 
the  respec- 
tive banks  of 


each  end  represent  octaves,  and  the  respective  ends 
represent  different  chromatic  scales. 

The  instnmient  is  called  by  the  inventor  an 
orcltcstron,  and  the  banks  of  keys  are  placed  at  an 
angle  with  the  side,  so  as  to  jiresent  the  keys  more 
conveniently  to  the  fingers  of  the  performer. 

Ac-couple-ment.  {Carpentry.)  A  timber  tie 
or  brace. 

Ac-cou'ter-ments.  {Mih'tnnj.)  Tlie  devices  liy 
which  a  soldier  carries  his  arms,  ammunition,  etc. 
These  vary  in  the  difi'erent  arms  of  the  service, 
acconling  to  the  exigencies  of  the  case. 

Those  for  infantry  consi-st  of  a  cartridge-bo.x  and 
plate,  cartridge-box  belt  and  plate,  waist-belt  and 
plate,  gun-sling,  bayonet-scabliird,  and  cap-pouch  ; 
to  which,  on  a  march,  ai-e  added  the  knapsack, 
canteen,  and  haversack. 

The  infantry  cartridge  -  box  i.?  made  of  black 
bridle  -  leather,  with  an  outer  flap  which  turns 
over,  covering  the  top,  and  is  fastened  by  a  short 
strap  to  a  brass  button  ;  inside  of  this  is  a  lighter 
leathern  cover  to  protect  the  ammunition  when,  as 
in  action,  the  outer  fla])  is  necessarily  left  unf;is- 
tened.  A  brass  plate  is  generally  affixed  to  the 
llap,  but  is  not  essential,  being  rather  ornmnental 
than  useful.  In  the  interior  of  the  box  are  two 
tins,  each  having  an  ujiper  and  a  lower  compart- 
ment, the  former  Ix'ing  divided  into  two  parts,  one 
containing  six  and  the  other  four  loose  cartridges, 
while  a  bundle  of  ten  is  placed  in  the  lower  com- 
partment, which  is  open  at  the  side  ;  the  box  thus 
contains  forty  cartridges  when  filled.  At  the  side 
is  a  small  pocket,  covered  by  a  llap,  for  coTitaining 
t\u:  implements,  or  "append:iges,"  belonging  to  the 
nuisket,  a-s  the  screw-driver  and  eone-wrench,  wiper, 
ball-screw,  spriug-vice,  and  tumbler-punch. 


Two  loops  are  attached  to  the  back  for  the  pas- 
sage of  the  cartridge-bo.x  belt,  which  passes  diag- 
onally across  the  body  in  front  and  rear  from  the 
left  shoulder  to  the  right  side,  where  it  passes 
beneath  the  waist-belt  and  is  secured  to  the  car- 
tridge-bo.x by  two  buckles.  For  ornament  a  round 
brass  plate  (in  the  United  States  service  stamped 
with  an  eagle)  is  attached  to  this  belt  so  as  to  fall 
about  the  centre  of  the  chest  of  the  wearer.  The 
wai.st-belt,  as  its  name  imports,  piasses  around  the 
waist,  and  camcs  the  bayonet-scabbard  and  cap- 
pouch  ;  it  also  serves  to  keep  the  cartridge-box  and 
belt  in  place  close  to  the  body  ;  it  is  fastened  by  a 
brass  plate  of  oval  shape,  having  two  studs  and  a 
hook,  the  studs  entering  two  holes  in  one  end  of  the 
belt,  which  is  drawn  tight  and  the  hook  inserted  in 
a  hole  at  the  other  end. 

The  bayonet-scabbard  is  made  of  black  bridle- 
leather  ;  it  is  triangular  in  shape,  to  fit  the  bayonet, 
and  has  a  brass  fernile  at  its  bottom  for  ornament 
and  protection  ;  its  length  is  19J  inches  ;  a  leather 
loop,  or  fr«g,  is  attached  to  the  upper  part  of  the 
scabbard  for  inseiiing  the  waist-belt. 

The  cap-pouch  is  also  made  of  black  bridle-leather, 
and  has  a  llap  and  inner  cover,  the  flap  being 
fastened  by  a  brass  button  ;  the  pouch  is  3  inches  in 
length  and  dc]ith,  and  is  lined  with  sheep-skin  with 
the  wool  on,  to  prevent  the  caps  from  -being  jarred 
out  and  lost  when  the  flap  is  not  buttoned.  A  cone- 
piek,  of  steel  wire,  bent  so  as  to  form  a  ring  at  one 
end,  is  inserted  in  a  loop  in  one  corner  of  the  cap- 
pouch. 

The  gun-sling  is  of  nisset  bag-leather,  IJ  inches 
wide  and  40  inches  long  ;  it  has  a  standing  loop 
at  one  end  and  a  brass  hook  at  the  other,  with 
a  s'idiug  loop  between.  For  use  it  is  passed 
through  the  giuird-bow  and  middle-band  swivels  of 
the  musket,  the  hooked  end  passed  through  the 
loops  and  inserted  in  one  of  a  series  of  holes  punched 
in  the  .sling  ;  the  gun  may  then  be  slung  across  the 
back,  leaving  both  hands  free,  or  it  may  be  sus- 
pended from  any  suitable  object. 

All  belts  in  the  United  States  land  service  are 
black,  and  are  made  either  of  leather  or  of  a  strong 
species  of  felting,  called  b>iff,  probably  because  belts 
were  fonnerly  made  of  that  color. 

Until  within  a  very  few  years  a  separate  belt  was 
used  for  suspending  the  bayonet-scabbard,  passing 
over  the  left  shoulder  and  crossing  the  cartridge-box 
licit  diagonally  on  the  breast,  which  was  ornamented 
with  a  jilate  at  the  crossing  ;  the  intei-section  of 
these  two  white  lines,  particularly  when  relieved 
against  the  dark-blue  ground  of  the  uniform,  ren- 
dered the  soldier  as  perfect  a  target  as  a  marks- 
man need  desire,  the  plate  representing  the  "bull's 
eye." 

The  cartridge-box  belt  has  sometimes  been  dis- 
pensed with,  particularly  for  riflemen,  the  whole 
weight  of  the  accouterments,  with,  in  this  case, 
the  addition  of  a  heavy  sword-bayonet  and  scabbard, 
being  borne  by  the  waist-belt,  which  of  course  had 
to  be  drawn  veiy  tight,  forcibly  compressing  the 
abdomen,  and  causing  gieat  and  unnecessary  fatigue 
or  even  pennanent  injury. 

Tliis  arrangement  was,  we  believe,  generally  con- 
demned by  medical  men,  and  in  fact  by  every  one 
who  thought  on  the  subject  ;  but  as  the  weapon 
above  mentioned  was  in  very  limited  use,  toward  the 
close  of  the  war  esjiecially,  the  evil  was  not  so  gen- 
eral as  it  might  have  been. 

The  cartridge-box  for  cavalry  resembles  in  exter- 
nal appearance  that  for  the  infantry,  but  is  smaller, 
and  its  two  loops  are  arranged  so  as  to  pass  the 
si>ber-belt  through  them.     Those  used  by  our  troops 


ACCOUTERMENTS. 


ACCOUTERMENTS. 


during  the  late  war  were  variously  arranged  in  the 
interior  to  suit  the  sujiposed  ne^'essities  of  the  car- 
tridges of  each  particular  kind  of  carbine,  as  Bum- 
side's,  MeiTill's,  etc.,  etc.  That  adapted  for  a  paper 
cartridge,  as  Sliarjj's,  of  which  a  greater  number  was 
issued  than  of  any  other,  ajipeared  to  answer  reiy 
well  for  othei's,  though,  no  doubt,  for  nietaUic 
cartridges  a  special  bo.x  is  better. 

The  cavalryman  is  also  provided  with  a  small 
box  or  pouch  for  revolver  cartridges  and  a  cap- 
pouch. 

The  saber-belt,  to  which  all  the  preceding  are 
attached,  consists  of  a  waist-belt,  with  two  brass 
rings  for  the  shoulder-strap  and  saber-slings,  and  a 
bi-ass  loop  sewed  at  one  end  to  receive  the  plate, 
which  is  rectangular  and  connects  the  two  ends  of 
the  belt  together.  The  shoulder-strap  passes  from 
a  ring  on  the  left  side  over  the  right  shoulder,  and 
returns,  supporting  the  saber,  which  is  suspended 
by  two  saber-slings  passing  from  the  brass  ring  at 
the  waist-belt  through  two  iron  lings  on  the  saber- 
scabbard,  and  buttoned. 

The  accouterments  for  horse  artillery  merely  con- 
sist' of  a  pistol  cartridge-pouch  and  a  cap-pouch, 
both  similar  to  those  above  described,  and  a  saber- 
belt  which  diB'ers  from  the  cavalry-belt  only  in  the 
omission  of  the  shoulder-strap. 

A  number  of  patents  have  been  granted  in  the 
United  States  for  improvements  in  the  construction 
of,  and  in  slinging  accouterments.  Since  the  com- 
mencement of  the  late  war  thirty-five  patents  have 
been  gi'anted  in  this  branch  of  inventions.  Atten- 
tion has  been  directed  to  several  points  :  — 

First.  The  ease  of  the  soldier  in  carrying  his 
knapsack,  etc.  has  been  attempted  to  be  secured  :  1. 
By  making  one  portion  of  his  accouterments  balance 
another,  as  in  Mann's,  Mizner's,  and  Wood's  ;  2. 
By  a  saddle-piece  resting  on  the  hips,  as  in  Dick- 
ey's ;  3.  By  suspension-hooks  on  the  shoulders,  as 
in  Sweeney's  ;  4.  By  a  frame  reaching  from  the 
shoulders  to  the  buttocks,  as  in  Baxter's  ;  5.  By 
modes  of  shifting  the  weight  occasionally  to  vary 
the  point  of  pressure  and  relieve  the  otherwise  con- 
stant strain,  as  in  Short's  and  Siis's. 

SccuHiilij.  In  arrange- 
ments for  making  the 
knapsack  do  service  as  a 
shelter,  couch,  or  mat- 
tress. 

Thirdly.  In  devices  for 
the  more  compact  arrange- 
ment of  the  compartments 
of  the  knapsack,  haver- ; 
sack,  or  cartridge-box  to 
increase  their  utility,  read- 
iness for  duty,  and  light- 
ness. 

The  accompanying  cuts 
will  render  it  unnecessary 
to  give  a  lengthened  de- 
scription, and  the  exam- 
ples are  placed  in  the  or- 
der stated,  founded  on  the 
similarities  of  purpose  and 
means. 

Manx,  December  8, 
1863.  The  cartridge-box 
is  worn  in  front  of  the 
person,  and  acts  as  a 
counterbalance  to  the  oth- 
er accouterments,  the 
weight  of  the  whole  be- 
Mann-!  iMe  ofsliv^nf  "  *".?  thrown  upon  the 
AecoHterments.  shoillders. 


Wood,  May  15,  1866. 
The  deWces  refer  to  the 
means  for  slinging  the 
gun,  bayonet,  cartridge- 
box,  and  canteen  so  as  to 
countei-poise  each  other 
and  the  knapsack.  The 
gun  is  hung  to  hooks  ou 
the  strap.  A  hook  on  the 
cartridge-box  adajrts  it  to 
be  attached  to  any  part  of 
the  equipment.  The  bayo- 
net is  also  slung  \>y  a  liook 
on  its  scabbard. 

When     the     accouter- 
ments are  shifted  to  the  I 
rear,  the  hind  side  of  the/, 
lielt  is  connected  to  a  ring 
beneath  the  knapsack,  to 
help  sustain  the  belt. 

MizXEK,  January  16, 
1866.  The  hai'ersack, 
which  is  earned  on  the 
shoulders,  forms  a  coun- 
tei-poise  for  the  cartridge- 
boxes,  which  are  worn  on 
the  front  of  the  belt ;  the 
npjier  portion  of  the  divis- 
ional havei'sack  is  occupied 
by  boxes,  to  contain  three 
days'  meat,  cotfee,  sugar,  and  salt,  in  separate  ceases  ; 
the  lower  or  bag-like  portion  being  adapted  to  con- 
tain an  equivalent  quantity  of  bread.  A  straj)  pass- 
Fig.  13. 


Acfoitltrtneals. 


Mizn^fs  Cavalry  Accouterments- 


Fig.  U. 


ing    along   the    bottom   and    up    one    end  of   the 
cartridge-bo.x  affords   the   means  for  elevating   the 
packages    of  cartridges,   wliich 
tit  closely  therein,  and  are  diffi- 
cult  of    removal   by   the    fin- 
gers. 

Dickey,    March   21,    1865. 
To   relieve    the  soldier  of   the 
backward  pulling  of  the  knajv 
sack  it  is  partially  supported  , 
b}'  adjustable  standards  lising*^/ 
from    a     saddle-piece,     which  j 
rests  upon  the  hips. 

Sweeney,  February  4, 1862. 
Tlie  knapsack  is  so  susi)ended 
that  an  air  space  may  inter- 
vene between  it  and  the  back 
of  the  soldier.  The  cuned 
pads  c  rest  upon  the  shoulder, 


Dichry^^  Knapsack 
Stipportfr- 


ACCOUTERMENTS. 


ACCOUTERMENTS. 


*'^^^--S|n 


Sweeney^s  Knapsaci; 


Fig.  16. 


Fig-  16-  and  the  bars  £ 

descend    there- 
from to  the  back 
j  plate    D.      The 
I  kiia[)sack  is  sc- 
IciUL-d  by  phites 
t'i    tlicsc    parts, 
ajid  rigidly  held 
at     a     distance 
I  from  the  back. 
B  A  X  T  E  11 , 
March  17,  1863. 
This     imjirove- 
ment  is  intend- 
ed   to    prevent 
the   pressure  of 
the  knapsack  upon  the  small  of  the  back  and  the 
cramping  of  the  movement 
of  the  arras,   and  it  con- 
sists   in    supporting    the 
Siick    by   strips   of   wood 
extending  from  the  shoul- 
,  der  to  the  hips  ;  also  in 
1  securing   the  chest-straps 
as   to   leave  the  arms 
'  free. 

Short,  January  28, 
1862  ;  December  14,  1862. 
The  mode  of  slinging  the 
knapsack  permits  it  to  be 
loosened  so  as  to  fall  away 
from  the  shoulders  and 
spine  of  the  wearer,  as  a 
means  of  shifting  the 
weight  and  pressure,  and 
allowing  circulation  of  air 
agaiust  the  back  of  the 
person.    Tlie  ari'iuigement  also  permits  it  to  be  raised 

Fig-  li. 


Baxter^R  Knerpsnck  Sthig. 


1864.     This  invention  consists  in  the  employment 
of  a  pair  of  suspending  straps  which  pass  over  the 


Fig.  19. 


Fig.  20. 


Weber\f  Knapsack, 

shoulder  in  connection  with  another  shorter  pair 
of  straps  attached  to  the  top  of  the  knapsack  near 
its  center,  and  also  a  pair  of  straps 
attached,  one  to  each  end  of  the 
knapsack,  for  the  purpose  of 
varying  the  position  and  shift- 
ing the  weight  of  the  same  when 
desirable. 

Weber,  January  31,  1865. 
The  frame  of  the  knajisack  is 
capable  of  being  changed  into  a 
couch,  and  the  cover  fonns  a 
-  shi'ltcr.  The  central  section  has 
jointed  and  folding  si  les. 

Krsii,  March  2.o,  S()2.  The 
frame  of  the  km.psu'k  is  made 
of  two   parts,    hinged    together. 


Sltort^s  Kn(qi9aclc. 


or  lowered  in  a  vertical  line  according  to  the  con- 
venience of  the  sol- 


Fig.  18. 


\-  Knnpaacb. 


dier.  Tlie  neck  and 
shoulder  strap  is  con- 
uwted  to  the  upper 
part  of  the  knaji- 
4ack  by  intermciliatc 
strajis,  and  the  lower 
part  of  the  same  is 
designed  to  prevent 
lateral  swaying  dur- 
ing quick  move- 
ments. 

Sus,       May       17, 


Hush's  Knapsack: 

At  the  thick  end  of  one  part  are  pivoted  two  aims, 
which,  when  tin  own  out,  rest  \ipon  the  edge 
of  the  knapsack,  and  serve  to  hold  the  canvas 
lor  forming  a  bed. 

Fruusham  and  Levett,  October  1,  ISGl. 
This  invention  consists  of  an  india-rubber 
casing  made  w;,tcr-tight  and  containing  a  bag 
of  finely  cut  coik  or  other  UUing,  thus  form- 
ing a  life-prcseiver.  A  pocket  is  )iiade  in 
the  rubber  casing  to  contain  articles  of  cloth- 
ing, thus  tbiming  a  knapsacl;,  which  wlien 
unrolled  becomes  a  bed,  the  contained  articles 
forming  a  pi  low. 

MizNEU,  Novendier  27,  1866.  The  knaji- 
sack is  combini'd  with  a  haversack.  The  straps 
that  secure  the  parts  of  the  sack  together, 
when  jiackcd  and  folded,  are  not  sewed  to  the 
mati'iiul,  but  ai'c  riveted  to  each  olhi'r,  and 
also  to  the  sling-straps.  The  latter  pass 
froiu  the  knapsack  over  the  slunilclers,  be- 
neath the  aimiiits,  and  unite  liehind  the 
back. 

MoEvoY,  Jainiary   7,   1862.      The  body  is 

Fig.  idl. 


Frotlsliam  anrt  LeietCs  Kitapsaek> 


ACCUMULATOR. 


ACHROMATIC   LENS. 


Fig.  22. 


Fig.  23. 


AlizjtfT^s  Knapsack. 


McEvoy's  Knapsack. 


made  of  wicker-work,  ami  lias  partitions  ami  doors  ; 
it  is  covered  with  watcrjiroof  material,  and  con- 
tains medicines,  lint,  banda.i,'es,  splints,  and  surgical 
instruments.  It  is  designed  to  Le  carried  by  the 
surgeon's  orderly  in  an  engagement  or  during  field 
duty. 

Ac-cu'mu-lator.   .\n  iiulia-rubber  spring  which 
accuiualates   lifting  force,  and   is  applied  to  many 


z 


Fig.  SI. 


"^^ 


"EHT 


r^'^.^ r».JSA, 


^^ 


specific     pui'})Oses     on     board     ship,    in    machine- 
shops,  etc. 

An  apparatus  used  in  working  hydraulic  cranes 
and  other  machines  where  a  steady  and  powerful 
pressure  of  water  is  rojuired.  The  accumulator  is 
intended  as  a  substitute  for  a  natural  head,  as  being 
more  compact.  Sir  William  Araistrong,  in  the  fii-st 
applications  he  made  of  this  principle  to  hydraulic 
cranes,  employed  a  natural  head  of  water  as  the  mo- 
tive agent,  obtaining  the  same  by  pumping  water 
into  tanks  at  an  elevation  of  about  200  feet  ;  but 
subsei[uently  he  has  always  employed  thcaccumulut- 
or,  as  oftering  the  advantages  of  greatly  increased 
capacity  for  pressure,  and  a  less  prime  cost  of  erec- 
tion. The  acciunulator  is  shown  iu  Fig.  24  ;  it  con- 
sists of  the  large  cast-iron  cylinder  n,  fitted  with  the 
plunger  b,  which  works  water-tight  by  means  of  the 
gland  c,  and  packing.  To  this  plunger  is  attacheil, 
by  means  of  the  bolts  /,  and  strong  cast-iron  ci  oss- 
head  e,  the  loaded  weight-case  d.  Thus  a  pressure 
is  obtained  upon  the  water  in  the  cylinder,  cipial 
to  a  column  of  water  1500  feet  high,  or  tiOO  lbs. 
upon  the  square  inch.  As  the  water  is  jumiped  into 
the  cylinder  by  the  pumping  engines  through  the 
pipe  h,  the  piston,  with  the  weighted  case,  rises, 
being  guided  by  the  strong  wooden  framework  j/, 
and  is  made  to  regulate  the  amount  of  water  pumped 
in,  by  actuating  a  throttle-valve  in  the  steam-pipe 
of  the  pumping  engine,  which  it  closes  after  baring 
reached  a  certain  height.  When  the  cranes,  etc. 
are  in  operation,  the  water  passes  from  this  cylinder 
through  the  pipe  )',  to  those  actuating  the  motion  of 
the  cranes,  and  the  weighted  plunger  naturally  de- 
scends, always  keeping  up  a  constant  pressure  upon 
the  water  ;  in  descending,  the  same  causes  the  throt- 
tle-valve to  open  again,  and  the  water  is  again 
pumped  in. 

Aces,     iyauiical.)     Hooks  for  the  chains. 

A-cet'i-fi-er.  An  apparatus  for  exposing  cider, 
wort,  or  other  wash  to  the  air  to  hasten  the  acetiti- 
cation  of  the  fermented  liquor.     See  Guabvator. 

Ace-tim'e-ter.     See  Acidimeteu. 

Ac'e-tom'e-ter.  A  hydrometer  suitably  gradu- 
ated lor  ascertaining  the  strength  of  acetic  acid  and 
vinegar. 

Ach ro-mat'ic  Con-dens'er.  An  achromatic 
lens  or  comliination  used  to  concentrate  rays  upon  an 
object  in  a  ndcroseope.  See  Carpeakr  on  the  Micro- 
scvjir.  ].p.  117 -int.  ed.  ISo". 

Ach 'ro-mat'ic  Lens.  Achromatic,  literally  col- 
orless, lenses  were  first  introduced  by  John  Dollond, 
of  London,  about  the  year  1758.  Ever  since  the  in- 
vention of  the  telescope  it  had  been  a  desideratum 
with  astronomers  and  ojiticians  to  obtain  a  lens 
which  would  give  a  perfect  image  free  from  color 
with  a  moderate  focal  length,  it  having  been  found 
by  experience  that  it  was  necessary  to  increase  the 
length  of  focus  of  the  object-glasses  of  tclesco]ie3  in 
the  proportion  of  the  square  of  the  magnifj-ing  )wwer 
desired,  to  obtain  distinct  vision.  This  was  owing 
in  part  to  the  distortion  or  spheiical  aberration, 
caused  by  the  rays  striking  the  lens  at  gieater  or 
less  distances  from  its  center,  being  refracted  at  dif- 
ferent angles  in  proportion  to  the  gieater  or  less  con- 
vexity of  the  lens,  and  converging  to  difi'erent  foci 
more  or  less  distant  from  the  latter  ;  but  principally 
to  the  dispersion  or  decomposition  of  the  light,  as  in 
prisms,  to  two  of  which,  joined  at  their  bases,  the 
lens  is  in  fact  equivalent.     See  PniSM. 

This  fringed  or  colored  appearance  may  be  obsei-ved 
about  the  margin  of  almost  any  object  viewed 
through  a  lens  of  short  focal  length,  such  as  an  or- 
dinary microscope. 

The  excessive  length  which  had  to  be  given  to  re- 


ACHROMATIC   LENS. 


10 


ACOUSTIC   INSTRUMENTS. 


fcu-tiiig  telpst'opos  in  order  to  obtain  wliat  i.s  now 
consiilereil  a  vury  moderate  niagnil'ying  jiower,  100 
feet  tor  a  i)o\ver  of  200,  led  Gregory  and  Newton  to 
the  construction  of  reHeeting  telescopes  (see  Tele- 
.-scopk),  and  these  for  many  years  were  almost  the 
only  kind  in  use.  The  dispersion  of  light,  or  the 
length  of  the  spectrum  formed  by  prisms  having  the 
same  refracting  angle,  varies  greatly  in  ditt'erent  sub- 
stances though  their  refracting  powers  may  be  ecjual 
or  nearly  so. 

Newton  had  supposed  that  the  dispersion  was  al- 
ways proportional  to  the  refraction,  and  it  was  in 
the  course  of  a  seiies  of  experiments  undertaken  in 
order  to  verify  this  theory  of  Newton,  which  had 
been  controverted,  that  Dollond  was  led  to  his  dis- 
covery. 

He  found  that  a  prism  of  white  flint  glass  whose 
refracting  angle  was  about  25  degi-ees  refracted  the 
light  in  a  nearly  equal  degree  with  one  of  crown 
glass  whose  refracting  angle  was  29  degrees,  but  that 
the  dispersive  power  of  the  former  was  much  greater  ; 
so  that,  when  thej'  were  applied  together  to  refract 
contrary  ways,  a  beam  of  light  passed  through  them 
was  separated  into  its  component  colors,  although 
the  incident  and  emergent  parts  of  the  beam  contin- 
ued parallel. 

From  this  he  inferred  that  if  two  lenses,  one  con- 
vex and  the  other  concave, — which  are  in  effect 
equivalent  to  two  prisms  refracting  in  different  ways, 
—  were  so  arranged  as  that  the  dispersive  power  of 
the  flint  glass  would  be  corrected  by  the  crown  glass, 
that  the  image  produced  by  the  excess  of  refraction 
of  the  latter  would  be  sufliciently  colorless  and  dis- 
tinct to  bear  an  eye-glass  of  much  shorter  focal 
length  and  consequent  magnifying  power  than  could 
be  applied  to  a  non-achromatic,  double-convex  lens, 
formed  of  a  single  piece  of  glass  ;  and  by  further 
experiment  he  ascertained  the  most  advantageous 
focal  lengths  to  be  given  to  each  glass  in  order  to 
produce  clearness  and  distinctness. 

He   adopted  a   combination    of  three  lenses,  the 
middle  one  being  of  flint  glass  and  double  concave, 
and  the  two  e-xterior  ones  of   crown  glass,  double 
convex,   believing  that 
Fig.  25.  it  produced   better   re- 

sults and  more  ettcctu- 
ally  corrected  the  spher- 
I  ical  aberration  ;  the 
I  ombination  of  two 
;;Iasses  is  now,  however, 
,  universally  adopted. 

It  has  been  proposed 
'  to  use  metallic  solutions 
and  other  li(iuids  which 
have  a  higher  dispersive 
powjr  than  flint  glass, 
enclosed  in  glass  disks  of  the  proper  curvature  her- 
metically sealed  at  their  edges,  in  place  of  that 
article  for  the  concave  lens,  but  though  several 
of  these  substances  ajipear  to  have  given  excel- 
lent results  experimentally,  they  have  never  been 
brought  into  general  use. 

On  account  of  the  difliculty  of  obtaining  a  good 
article  of  flint  glass,  more  particularly,  and  the 
trouble  and  skill  required  in  grinding  and  polishing 
the  faces  of  each  piece  so  that  they  may  have  the 
proper  curvature  and  fit  accurately  together,  achro- 
matic lenses  have  always  been  and  will  probably 
continue  to  be  very  expensive,  especially  the  larger 
sizes.  Dr.  Dick  mentions  one  of  5i  inches  aperture 
and  5i  feet  focal  length,  which  cost  200  guineas. 

Plopl,  an  optician  of  Vienna,  has  recently  invented 
an  improvement  on  the  achromatic,  which  he  calls 
the  dialytic  telescope,  in  which  the  several  ditt'erent 


kinds  of  glass  composing  the  compound  object-glass 
are  not  placed  close  together,  but  at  regulated  dis- 
tances apart.  This  arrangement  allows  a  shorten- 
ing of  the  tube. 

Chester  More  Hall,  of  Essex,  England,  invented 
the  achronuitic  telescope  in  1729,  but  did  not  make 
it  public.     Uollund  had  to  invent  it  over  again. 

Ac'id-im'e-ter.  An  instrument  for  determining 
the  jiurity  or  strength  of  acids,  founded  on  the 
pnnciple  that  the  strength  of  any  sample  of  acid  is 
proportionate  to  the  quantity  of  alkali  which  it 
will  neutralize,  or  the  quantity  of  carbonic  acid  gas 
which  it  disengages  from  a  carbonate  of  soda  or 
jiotash.  An  accurate  and  economical  apparatus  for 
this  purpose  is  proposed  by  Dr.  Ure,  as  follows : 
a  graduated  glass  cj'linder,  having  a  discharge  tube 
and  capable  of  containing  10,000  grains  of  distilled 
water,  is  attached  by  a  flexible  tube  to  a  Florence 
flask  containing  a  supersaturated  solution  of  car- 
bonate of  soda  or  potash,  in  which  is  a  test-tube 
containing  a  .sufficient  proportion  of  acid  by  weight 
to  evolve  carbonic  acid  gas  equal  in  volume  to  the 
contents  of  the  cylinder.  Bicarlionate  of  soda  is 
prefeiTed,  as  one  equivalent  of  any  acid  disengages 
from  it  two  equivalents  of  carbonic  acid  gas,  and  the 
quantities  of  various  acids  required  to  evolve  a  vol- 
ume of  gas  equal  to  10,000  grains  of  distilled  water 
are  as  follows  :  — 

Anhydrous  sulphuric  acid,  16.80  grains. 

Oil  of  Wtriol,  20.58 

Anhydrous  nitric  acid,  22.67  " 

"  hydrochloric  acid,   15.33  " 

"  acetic  acid,  21.42  " 

Crystallized  citric  acid,  80.64       " 

' '  tartaric  acid,  63.00  " 

By  tilting  the  flask  the  test-tube  is  upset  and  the 
acid  brought  in  contact  witli  the  alkaline  solution, 
liberating  the  carbonic  acid  gas,  which  passes  over 
into  the  cylinder,  displacing  a  bulk  of  water  equal 
to  that  of  the  gas  evolved,  the  amount  of  which  is 
shown  Ijy  the  graduations  on  the  side  of  the  cylin- 
der. This  indicates  the  strength  of  the  acid.  For 
example,  if  the  water  should  be  depressed  to  the 
mark  50  on  the  cylinder,  it  shows  that  the  sample 
contains  but  fifty  per  cent  of  pure  acid.  This  appa- 
ratus is  the  converse  of  tlie  alkalimctcr,  wliicli  see. 

A-cis'cu-Us.  A  small  mason's  pick,  with  a  flat 
face  and  jiointed  peen. 

A-cock'bill.  1.  The  situation  of  the  yards 
when  they  are  topped  up,  at  an  angle  with  the  deck. 

2.  The  situation  of  an  anchor  when  it  hangs 
from  the  cat-head  by  the  ring  only. 

A-cou'me-ter.  An  instrument  invented  by  Itard 
for  measuring  tlie  degree  or  extent  of  hearing. 

A-cous'tic  In'stru-ments.  Instruments  or  ap- 
paratus pertaining  to  the  ears,  the  perception, 
measurement,  or  projection  of  sound. 

I.  Those  appertaining  to  the  ear  are, — 1.  Pro- 
sthetic.    2.   For  e.rploratio'i} .     3.   For  o})cration. 

1.  Of  the  prost/ictic  are  the 

Auricle. 
Cane  Trumjiet. 
Cornet. 

Conversation  Tube. 
Ear  ;  Artificial. 
.  Ear  of  Dionysius. 
Ear  Trumpet. 
Sonifer. 
Tympanum  ;  Artificial. 

2.  Ex-plorritmn. 

Acoumetcr. 
Ear  Speculum. 
Oto.scopc. 


ACOUSTIC  TELEGKAPH. 


11 


ACTION. 


3.   Operation. 

Ear  Spoon. 

Ear  Syringe. 

Eustachian  Tube  Instrument. 

Meatus  Knife. 

Organic  Vibrator. 

II.  Instruments  for  making  or  conveying  audi- 
ble sounds. 

(Not  including  those  of  a  prosthetic  nature  cited 
in  Class  I.) 

Acoustic  Telegraph. 

Air  pipe. 

Alarms.     ( Varieties  ;  see  Alarms.  ) 

Musical  Instruments.    (Varieties,  see  Musical 

Ix.STKU-MENTS.) 

Speaking  Trumpet. 
Speaking  Tube. 
Steam  Whistle.  • 

III.  Instruments  for  measuring  the  quality  of 
sound,  the  extent  of  hearing,  the  number  of  vibra- 
tions in  a  given  time,  etc. 

Acoumeter. 

Kalcidophone. 

Metronome. 

Sirene. 

Sonometer. 

Tonometer. 

lY.  Auscultation  Instruments. 
Percussor. 
Pleximeter. 
Stetliometer. 
Stethoscope. 

(See  the  above  in  their  alphabetical  order.) 

A-cous'tio  Tel'e-graph.  A  telegraph  making 
audible  instead  of  visual  signals. 

In  this  sense  —  the  most  general — every  sounder 
may  be  included  in  the  class,  for  it  is  capable  of 
being,  and  is,  used  to  convey  information  by  an 
arrangement  of  repetitive  blows  and  intervals. 

The  present  common  use  of  the  Jloi-se  instrument 
brings  it  within  this  category,  the  signals  being  read 
by  ear  rather  than  by  consulting  the  paper  ribbon. 

The  speaking-tube  maj'  be  considered  another 
firm,  conducting  a  puff  of  air  to  the  other  end, 
where  it  operates  a  whistle,  or  the  sound  is  recog- 
ni2ahle  as  an  audible  expression. 

Bright's  (English  Patent)  is  adapted  to  communi- 
cate phonetic  signals.  It  consists  of  an  axle  having 
a  magnet  aud  double  arm  ;  the  magnet,  when  acted 
upon  by  electro-magneric  coils,  causes  the  a.xle  to  vi- 
brate or  deflect  in  one  direction,  thus  sounding  a  beU 
by  means  of  a  hammer-head  on  one  arm  ;  the  subse- 
quent reversal  of  the  electric  current  causes  a  muf- 
fler on  the  other  arm  to  stop  the  sound. 

In  a  more  perfef  t  form,  Bright's  Acoustic  Telegraph 
con.sists  of  a  hammer  in  connection  with  a  lever, 
which  is  acted  upon  by  every  polarization  of  a  set 
of  electro-magnets  by  the  local  current,  and  there- 
upon strikes  a  small  bell.  A  pair  of  these  bells 
are  connected  to  each  wire  ;  one  bell  is  struck  by 
the  passage  of  the  positive,  and  the  other  of  the 
negative  current,  the  alphabet  being  readily  formed 
by  the  difference  in  their  tones  and  the  number  of 
beats. 

Another  form  of  audible  telegraph  consists  of  a 
wire  which  is  tapped  and  conducts  the  sound  to  a 
resonant  diaphragm. 

Wilson's  Patents,  1866,  refer  to  the  production 
of  a  musical  note  by  the  action  of  a  valve  governed 
by  the  electro-magnetic  current.  The  sound  is 
continuous  or  intennittent,  and  variable  in  tone 
or  pitch,   as  may  be  required. 

Ac'ro-ter.  A  small  pedestal  placed  on  a  pedi- 
ment and  serving  to  support  a  statue 


Ac-tin 'o-graph.  An  instrument  for  registering 
the  variation  of  tile  chemical  intensity  of  the  sun's 
rays.  As  contrived  by  Mr.  Hunt,  it  consists  c  f  a 
K.xed  cylinder  on  wliich  is  placed  a  prepared  photo- 
gi-aphic  paper  covered  by  a  revolving  cylinder  hav- 
ing a  triangular  ojiening  divided  by  bars  through 
which  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun  pass  ;  their  effect 
upon  the  paper  indicates  their  chemical  intensity  at 
difl'erent  times. 

Ac'ti-nom'e-ter.  An  instniment  for  measuring 
the  I'owei  of  the  sun's  rays,  invented  by  Sir  .1.  F. 
"W.  Hersehel  about  1825.  A  hollow  cylinder  of 
glass  filled  with  a  colored  liquid  is  soldered  to  a 
theniiometer-tube  blown  into  a  baU  at  the  upper 
end  ;  being  exposed  alternately  to  the  sun's  rays  and 
removed  to  the  shade,  a  comparison  of  the  differ- 
ences of  expansion  of  the  liquid  indicates  the  rela- 
tive intensity  of  the  solar  radiation. 

The  discovery  of  the  presence  of  another  principle, 
associated  with  the  light  and  heat  derived  from  the 
sun,  seems  to  have  been  made  some  years  ago  by 
Mr.  E.  Hunt  in  England. 

Sir  J.  Hersehel  proposed  to  establish,  as  a  unit  for 
the  intensity  of  solar  heat,  that  value  which  would, 
in  a  minute  of  time,  dissolve  a  thickness  equal 
to  one-millionth  part  of  a  meter  of  a  horizontal  sheet 
of  ice,  when  the  sun's  light  falls  vertically  upon  it. 
This  he  calls  an  adine,  and  from  experiments  made 
by  him  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  he  detei  mined 
the  value  of  a  degree  on  the  scale  of  one  of  his 
acfinmneters  to  be  equivalent  to  6.093  actiiies. 

The  actinometer  is  useful  in  detennining  the 
quantity  of  solar  heat  which  is  absorbed  in  passing 
through  the  different  strata  of  the  atmosphere,  for 
which  purpose  the  observations  must  be  made  at 
stations  differently  elevated  above  the  level  of  the 
earth  or  sea.  It  may  also  be  employed  to  deter- 
mine the  diminution  of  heat  which  takes  place 
during  eclipses  of  the  sun. 

See  Manual  of  Scientific  Inquiry,  published  bj' 
the  English  Board  of  Admiralty. 

One  form  of  actinmncter  is  sometimes  called  a 
photometer.  The  former  name  indicates  that*  its 
purpose  is  to  deteraiiiie  the  actinic  power  of  the 
solar  rays,  while  the  latter  name  indicates  a  meas- 
urer of  the  intensitii  of  the  light. 

One  use  of  the  actinometer  is  to  ascertain  the 
proper  time  for  exposing  a  plate  in  the  camera,  or 
a  sensitized  paper  in  the  printing-frame.  The  box 
has  a  spring  bottom  and  a  glass  and  wooden  cover. 
On  the  under  side  of  the  glass  are  secured  a  series 
of  thin  strips  of  paper  ananged  in  layers  so  that 
each  layer  projects  over  the  edge  of  the  strip  above 
it,  thus  producing  a  graduated  semi-transparent  me- 
dium. The  number  of  laj'ers  of  any  particular 
point  is  indicated  by  black  figures  on  the  lowest 
strips  of  paper.  Upon  this  false  bottom  is  spread 
a  series  of  strips  of  paper  rendered  sensitive  by 
saturating  with  alkaline  chromate.  The  apparatus 
is  then  exposed  to  the  light,  and  the  strips  of  sensi- 
tive paper  will  be  successively  darkened  according 
to  the  depth  of  over-lying  paper.   See  Photometer. 

Ac'tion.  An  exertion,  applied  in  machinery  to 
an  effective  motion  ;  &.%  — 

A  single  action  ;  illustrated  in  the  ordinary  Uft- 
pump,  the  atmospheric  engine,  etc. 

A  double  action,  in  which  the  go  and  return  mo- 
tions are  each  made  effective  or  are  positively 
effected  by  the  motor :,  as  the  double-acting  pump, 
throwing  a  stream  at  each  course  of  the  piston  ;  the 
ordinary  high-pressure  steam-engine,  in  which  the 
piston  is  driven  each  way  by  the  force  of  stream. 

(Music.)  The  movements  or  working  parts  of  a 
stiinged  or  wind  instrument,  which  is  operated  by 


ACUPUNCTURATOR. 


12 


ADDRESSING  MACHINE. 


a  key-board  ;  such  as  an  organ,  inano-foite,  nielo- 
deon,  etc. 

It  includes  the  portion  between  the  keys  and 
the  strings,  —  the  portion  engaged  in  slrikinrj  and 
damping. 

Tlie  axlions  are  known,  by  a  peculiarity  in  tlui 
in.strunient,  as  (jraiul,  square,  piccolo,  sinijle,  dnuble, 
tiprii/h/  actions  ;  or  IVom  the  inventors,  as  Broad- 
\\ood's,  Col'iird's,  Fravd's,  Steinway's,  etc.  See 
PlANO-FnUTK. 

Fk'.  26. 


Piano-Fortf  Action 

A  is  the  key  ;  B,  the  hammer  whicli  falls  back 
upvin  the  cluck,  and  a  bar  mid  length  of  the  stock, 
c. died  the  Immmer-niil.  C  is  an  adju.stable  bar  on 
wiiicb.  is  mounted  the  jock,  whereby  the  hammer 
is  actuated.  E  is  the  rail  to  which  the  hammer 
is  hinge  J. 

Ac'u-puuct'u-ra'tor.  Periveil  homacus  (Lat. ),  a 
needle.  An  acieulai-  instrument  for  treating  certain 
complaints,  such  as  headaches,  lethargies,  etc.  It  is 
of  gi'eat  antiipiity  in  the  East,  and  of  late  years  it  has 
been  introduced  somewhat  extensively  into  Europe 
and  the  United  States.  The  essential  apparatus 
employed  is  simply  a  set  of  needles  set  in  a  handle, 
or  detai'lied  needles,  which  by  a  slight  rotary  move- 
ment aie  passed  to  the  reipiired  depth  beneath  the 
tissues  and  allowed  to  lemain  for  a  length  of  time 
varying  from  a  few  minuios  to  an  hour. 

In  the  si.xteenth  century,  according  to  Jerome  Car- 
dan, the  jtraetitioners  of  this  art  travelled  from  place 
to  place,  and  rubbed  their  needles  with  a  magnet 
or  substance  which  they  pretended  renderi-d  their 
insertion  ]iai]de.ss.  Without  any  such  application, 
however,  the  punctures  are  so  minute  that  pain  is 
not  felt  after  the  lirst  insertion  of  the  needle. 

The  needles  are  sometimes  used  for  conducting 
the  galvanic  current  to  parts  at  some  distance  be- 
neatii  the  surfa,-e  of  the  skin,  and  are  sometimes 
made  hollow  foi'  the  injection  of  a  sedative  into  the 
tissues,  for  the  re'ief  of  neuralgic  alfections.  This 
latter  mode  of  application  was  suggested  by  Dr. 
Alexander  Wood  of  Edinburgh,  Scotland.  See 
AN^ESTUi'.Tia  Arl'AR.VTUS. 

It  is  sometimes  called  a  Dermopaihic 
or  IrrUation  Inslrimienl,  and  is  used  to 
intidiluce  a  vesicatory  liquid  beneath  the 
epiilermis. 

Flu.MKXicii's   in.strunient,   March   18, 

<f^iidtili'^  18t>2,  may  be   considered   a  type  of  its 

fflBS"   /J   class.     The  piston  containing  the  needles 

"  Blliii.-!!'       is  adju.stable  in  its  cylinder,  which  holds 

the  medicinal  jtreparation.      The  neeilles 

^  project    tlirough   the    diaphragm   to   the 

required  extent,  and  the  episi)astiG  liquid 

insinuates  itself  along  with  the  needles 

into  the  punctures;. 

Klee's  acupuncturator,  June  19,  1866, 
has  a  regulating  nut  ;;,  to  adjust  the 
depth  of  penetration  of  the  needles  which 
|irojei-t  through  the  diaphragm  to  con- 
duet  tlie  liquid  from  the  cylinder  A  and 


introduce  it  through  tlie  skin.  The  needles  6  are 
stocked  in  the  ]iiston  B,  whose  .stem  d  is  sleeved 
in  the  stem-screw  cf. 

In  Oriental  eountiies  the  needles  are  made  of 
gold  or  silver.  In  China  their  manufacture  is  regu- 
lated by  hiw.  They  are  of  ditl'i'rent  sizes,  some 
about  four  inidies  in  length  and  having  spiral  han- 
dles to  facilitate  tlieir  lotation  after  insertion.  They 
are  driven  in  by  a  small,  lead-loaded  hanuner  with 
a  leathern  face.  Their  use  is  very  common  in 
China  and  Japan,  and  was  communicated  to 
Europe  by  the  ])hysician  to  the  Dutch  Em- 
bassy in  tlie  seventeenth  century.  It  was 
revived  in  France  in  1810.  The  English 
needles  are  long,  made  of  steel,  and  liave 
knobbed  heads  to  facilitate  turning  after 
introduction.  The  tendency  here,  judging  by 
the  jiatent.s,  is  to  have  the  needles  in  clusters. 
The  0]Jeration  is  well  performed  by  a  tubu- 
lar needle  connected  with  a  syringe,  by  which 
^H-^JJl^i  wuak  solution  of  morphia  is  iiijecti'd  into  a 
' { tliseased   tissue,    producing  local  aiuesthesia. 

See    ANiESTllETIC    1.NSTRUMENT.S  ;    llvi'ODEU- 

liic  SvKiNGE.  For  the  reverse  use  of  hol- 
low needles,  see  TuocAR. 

A'cus.     A  needle.     As,  — 

Acus  Cannulata  ;  a  trocar,  or  tubular  needle  for 
discharging  liquids. 

Acus  Iiitcrpumluria ;  a  couching-needle  used  in 
operations  for  cataract. 

Acus  (Ip)ithalmica ;  one  used  in  operations  for 
oplithulmia  or  cataract. 

Acus  Triquctrii :  a  trocar,  or  three-sided  needle. 

Ac'u-ten-ac'u-lum.  A  needle-holder  or  for- 
ceps ;  a  nei'dle-handle  ;  a  purtc-aiguillc. 

A-dapt'er.  1.  A  glass-tube  open  at  botli  ends, 
and  used  to  connect  a  retort  with  its  receiver. 

2.  A  receiver  with  two  opposite  necks,  one  of 
which  admits  the  neck  of  the  retort  while  the  other 
is  joined  to  another  receiver.  It  is  used  in  distilla- 
tions to  give  more  space  to  elastic  vapors  or  to  increase 
the  length  of  the  neck  of  a  retort.     See  Aludel. 

3.  A  tube  to  adapt  or  tit  an  accessory  ajijiaratus 
to  the  body  of  the  microscope,  as  the  adapter  which 
canli's  till-  analyzer  of  the  polarizing  apparatu.s,  etc. 

Ad'a-tis.  A  species  of  fine  cotton  cloth  made  in 
India. 

Ad-den'dum.  {Oearin;/.)  The  difference  between 
the  real  and  the  geometrical  radius  of  a  circular 
cog-wheel ;  that  is,  between  the  radius  of  the  ^^//c/i. 
circle  and  the  outer  circle  which  touches  the  crests 
of  the  teeth. 

Ad'dice.  The  obsolete  name  of  an  adze  ;  which 
see. 

Add'ing  Ma-chine'.  An  instrument  or  machine 
by  wliieli  adding  of  numbers  is  efl'ected.  See 
Abacus  ;  .ViiriiLMiiMETEi!. 

Ad-dress'iiig  Ma-chine'.  A  machine  for  ad- 
dressing newspapers  and  magazines  in  which  the 
same  serii's  of  names  is  repeated  from  time  to 
time  as  the  day  of  issue  recurs.  There  are  two 
n.odes.  One  is  to  )uint  the  addresses  consecutively  . 
upon  sli]is  wlii(h  are  gummed  on  the  back  and  fed 
intennittingly  to  the  cutter  which  cuts  olf  each 
adilress.  This  is  then  jnessed  upon  the  folded 
liaper  or  pamphlet,  which  is  placed  in  jiosition  to 
receive  its  direction.  The  other  mode  is  to  set  up 
the  type  of  each  address  in  a  form,  and  so  arrange 
the  Ibrms  that  they  are  successively  presented  at  a 
spot  to  which  tlu;  enveloped  papers  are  consecu- 
tively fed. 

Over  twenty  piatents  have  been  granted  in  the 
United  States  on  machines  for  this  jmrjiose. 

One  of  the  earlier  forms  of  this  device  is  that  de- 


ADDRESSING  ilACHINE. 


13 


ADDRESSING  MACHINE. 


scribed  in  Moesek's  patent,  June  24,  1S51.  The 
different  addresses  are  set  up  in  columns  in  a  galley, 
and  are  brought  under  the  action  of  a  stamp,  being 
moved  intermittingly  by  means  of  a  slide ;  the 
addresses  are  exposed  seriatim  at  a  slit  in  a  plate, 
allowing  the  paper  or  object  to  be  printed  to  be 
pressed  down  upon  the  address  beneath  the  slit 
of  the  plate,  and  shielding  the  paper  from  the  ad- 
joining lines.  This  series  of  addresses  forms  a  me- 
chanical record  on  which  changes  may  be  made  as 
they  become  necessary.  This  patent  was  reis.sued 
January  30, 1S66,  audwas  extended' to  the  year  1872. 

Campbell,  Januari,-  20,  1S63.  The  addresses  are 
set  xip  in  parallel  columns,  and  are  secured  in  a 
common  chase.  The  machine  is  supported  over  the 
chase  by  end-pieces,  and  is  automatically  advanced 
after  each  depression  of  the  platen.  Resting  upon 
ways  which  span  the  chase  is  a  traversing  bed-piece 
with  an  upright,  afforxliiig  a  pivotal 
attachment  for  a  lever  which  alternately 
elevates  and  depresses  a  platen  on  the 
guide-rod.  The  elevation  of  the  lever, 
by  means  of  the  toggle,  actuates  the 
wheel,  which,  mashing  into  a  rack,  ad- 
vances the  jilaten  to  deliver  another 
impression  on  an  advanced  point.  Alter 
exhausting  all  the  addresses  in  a  given 
column,  the  bed-piece  is  moved  later- 
ally to  bring  the  platen  into  correspond- 
ence with  the  next  column.  A  paper 
is  fed  beneath  the  platen  just  previous 
to  the  down  stroke  of  the  lever.  The 
foi-m  is  previously  inked  so  that  each 
address  is  ready  to  deliver  its  impres- 
sion when  called  on. 

Tiffany  and  Soule,  March  £0, 1860. 
The  t^Tie  addresses  are  contained  in  a 
partitional  galley  or  chase,  which  is 
moved  by  a  pawl  dependent  from  the 
platen  lever,  as  the  latter  is  raised.  A 
pinion  on  the  shaft,  whose  ratchet  is 
thus  actuated  by  the  lever-pawl,  is  the 
means  of  forwaniing  the  galley,  a  cog 
at  a  time,  and  each  line  of  tj'pe  as  it 
comes  to  the  wide  pinion  is  separated 
from  the  rest  by  elevation  so  as  to  ex- 
pose it  at  the  slit  in  the  plate  above,  in  contact  with 
the  paper  which  is  placed  upon  it  below  the  de- 

Kg.  2B. 


Fig.  29. 


Soide's  Addressing  Machine. 


ScHi'H,  April  26,  1S59.     The  hopper  C  contains 
the  documents,  which  are  discharged  consecutivelv 


Kg.  30. 


^^fl||ipnmrmTrrfHrf[ 


TJ 


3 


Tiffany  and  Souie's  Addressing  Mac/itne, 

scending  platen.  A  sheet  metal  plate  depresses  the 
type  after  the  impression  is  delivered. 
"  SoiLE,  October  2,  1860.  The  forms  of  the  ad- 
di^esscs  ai-e  arranged  in  columns  in  the  chase  F, 
and  the  plate  moves  intermittingly  above  it.  The 
oscillating  platen  C  is  pivoted  to  bearings  D,  on  the 
jilate  ^,  which  has  a  slit  brought  into  correspond- 
ence with  each  address  in  turn.  The  plate  is 
advanced  intermittingly,  after  each  impression,  by 
the  contact  of  the  descending  lever  with  an  oblique 
end  to  one  arm  of  the  bell-crank  which  is  pivoted  to 
the  plate,  the  other  end  of  the  lever  engaging  a  rack 
on  the  bed-plate. 


Schuh's  Addressing  Machiru. 

by  the  movements  of  a  sliding  gate  which  is  pro- 
vided with  a  heel  or  step  w  Inch  drives  the  document 
before  it  from  beneath  the  pile.  The  t}-pe  ad- 
dresses are  fed  down  an  inclined  board  H,  and 
thence  are  forwarded  along 
a  level  channel  E,  to  the  rig.  31. 

point  beneath  the  platen 
P.  On  aniving  at  this 
point  they  are  successivelyrf 
raised  by  the  action  of  a 
piston  L,  which  is  raised 
bv  a  cam  on  a  hoiizontal 
shaft  beneath.  The  ad- 
dress is  elevated  to  meet 
the  descending  platen  P, 
and  the  paper  introduced 
between  them  receives  the 
pressure  from  one  and  the 
impression  from  the  other. 
The  type  is  then  forwarded 
by  the  type-shifter  G,  along 
the  elevated  channel  g, 
from  whence  the  addresses 
are  removed  in  gangs.  The 
notice-bell  R  is  actuated  by 
the  type  at  inten-als  to  an- 
nounce that  a  certain  gal- 
ley is  exhausted.  Dnvis'a  A  Unvins  .Vackinr. 


ADDRESSING  MACHINE. 


14 


ADDRESSING  MACHINE. 


Davis,  September  6,  1859.  The  blocks  r  on 
whicli  tlie  addresses  are  cut  or  placed  are  attaclied 
in  compact  coluiim,  but  indepimdently,  to  a  Hexible 
baml  wliicli  nins  over  two  rollers  p  t,  tlie  lower  one, 
t,  being  of  small  diameter  so  as  to  cause  the  o\iter 
edges  of  the  blocks  to  separate  at  the  lowest  point 
of  their  revolution,  as  seen  in  the  figure.  \iy  this 
separation  the  lowest  block  for  the  time  being  is 
distinctly  presented  to  the  paper  or  envelope  which 
is  placed  beneath  it,  and  raised  to  the  type  by  ilie 
treadle  which  raises  the  table  a. 


i'ig.  32. 


Boiclus^s  Addressing  Mac/tine. 

BoWLUS,  May  1,  1860.  The  endless 
chain  has  type-bo.xes  c,  wliich  have  spring 
sides  for  clasping  the  forms,  each  of  which 
constitutes  an  address.  The  forms  are 
placed  in  a  column  in  the  feed-bo.x  ^4,  are 
taken  one  at  a  time  by  the  pockets  in  the 
feed-wheel  B,  and  are  trans- 
Fig.  33.  ferrcd  to  the  type-boxes  in 
the  endless  chain.  They 
are  carried  by  the  latter 
beneath  the  inking-roUers 
7,  which  are  presented  con- 
secutively to  the  forms,  hav- 
ing previously  received  ink 
from  the  ink-supply  rollers 
O  H.  The  paiier-feediiig 
and  iirinting-roUer  M  lias  a 
travelling  apron  whicli  feeds 
the  strip  of  paper  to  the 
fomis,  and  the  latter  are 
cleansed,  as  they  return  in  the  re- 
versed position,  by  the  rotary  brush 


A",  whicli  rotates  in  the  wash-tub  0,  and  in  contact 
witli  tlic  type. 

Dory,  January  26,  1864.  Tliis  machine  is  for  cut- 
ting oH'  addresses  I'rom  a  strip  of  paper  previously 
printed  and  gummed  on  the  respective  sides.  Tlie 
strip  is  fed  from  a  spool  0,  and  is  drawn  over  the 
concave  bed  A'  by  the  oscillating  arm  F,  whose 
finger  i  engages  the  paper.  The  gummed  side  of 
tlie  paper  being  underneath  is  moistened  by  the 
wet  sponge  a,  and  pa.sses  between  the  stationary 
cutter  E  and  the  descending  cutter  D,  whicli  is 
depressed  by  the  spring  plunger  b,  and  so  actuated 
by  the  spring  d  as  to  make  a  shear-cut  upon  the 
strip  of  paper  as  it  removes  the  address.  The  feed 
levers  F  are  ]iivoted  to  the  frame,  and  actuated  by 
projections  fiom  the  descending  plunger. 

In  Dick's  machine,  October  4,  1859,  the  ad- 
dresses are  set  up  in  columns  in  a  form,  and  the 
printed  sheet  is  cut  into  sti'ips,  each  of  which  has  a 
column  of  addresses.  The  reverse  side  is  pasted, 
and  tlie  sli[)  is  fed  forw-ard  one  address  at  a  time  ; 
the  descending  stamp-shear  removes  the  address  and 
presses  it  upon  the  wrapper  or  the  paper,  as  the 
case  may  be.  The  pressure  of  the  machine  on  the 
jiile  of  wrappers  operates  the  cutter  and  removes 
the  label. 

In  Peck  and  Wright's  machine,  January  12, 
1864,  the  wooden  blocks  upon  whicli  the  addresses 
are  cut  are  bevelled  upon  one  side,  so  that  a  series 
of  them,  wlicn  placed  in  a  column  galley,  forms  a 
continuous  ratchet,  of  which  each  block  is  a  separate 
tooth  liy  wliicli  they  are  fed  forward,  preserving  the 
requisite  intervals. 

in  some  cases  the  i|uads  of  the  forms  afford  teeth 
by  whicli  the  column  is  advanced. 

B.iiiuiNGTux,  June  14,   1S59.     The  cylinder  has 


Fig.  34. 


JJ 


Dott/^s  Addressing  Machine, 


Dirk's  Addressing  Machine. 

grooved  ribs  for  holding  forms  of  tj-pe  and  present- 
ing them  consecutively  at  the  proper  point  for 
delivering  an  impression. 

M.\RSHALL,  No%'ember  1,  1859.  The  "forms" 
constitute  links  of  an  endless  chain,  which  unwimls 
from  one  drum  and  winds  on  to  another,  being  inked 
on  their  passage  by  one  set  of  devices,  and  the  con- 
secutive links  depressed  by  a  stamp  on  reaching  a 
certain  point  of  their  progress  at  which  is  presented 
the  pajier  or  envelope  to  be  superscribed. 

NoRDYKE,  March  1,  1859.  The  envelopes  on  an 
endless  conveyer  are  fed  beneath  the  forms  wliicli  are 
fed  upon  one  track  and  discharged  u]ion  another, 
being  subjected  at  a  given  point  to  the  action  of  a 
pressure-roller. 

Carpenter,  May  5,  1857.  The  forms  are  placed 
in  pockets  in  the  periphery  of  a  wheel.     Tlie  news- 


ADHESION  CAK. 


15 


ADOBES. 


paper  being  held  above  the  form,  the  platen  is  de- 
pressed by  a  treadle  and  the  impression  obtained. 
On  releasing  the  treadle  the  spring  raises  the 
platen,  and  the  pawl  turns  the  cylinder  one  tooth, 
bringing  the  next  name  in  series  beneath  the 
platen. 

Campbell,  January  17,  1860,  patented  a  machine 
for  printing  addresses  on  the  margins  of  news- 
papers, simultaneously  with  the  piinting  of  the 
newspapers,  by  means  of  cells  or  bo.xes,  containing 
the  addresses  set  up  in  tj"]ie  and  conveyed  to  the 
form  by  means  of  an  endless  apron  having  an  auto- 
matic, intermittent  movement. 

B.\TLEY,  January  17,  18(50.  The  type  are  ar- 
ranged on  slats,  so  connected  together  as  to  be 
moved  successively  through  the  machine.  The  pa- 
pers are  fed  into  the  machine  by  finger  bars  and 
spurs,  and  the  addresses  elevated  in  succession  to 
make  the  impression. 

Lord,  September  7,  1858.  The  t>'pe  forming  the 
addresses  are  inserted  in  boxes  secured  spirally  on  the 
periphery  of  a  revolving  cylinder.  The  newspajiers 
or  envelopes  are  successively  pressed  against  the 
type  in  the  boxes  by  a  horizontally  reciprocating 
platen  whose  action  is  in  concert  with  the  cylinder. 
The  inking  apparatus  is  caused  to  follow  the  spiral 
arrangement  of  the  form,  being  gradually  moved  by 
a  screw  similar  to  a  lathe-feed  screw. 

H.\ERiLi)'s  machine  (English)  consists  of  a  slid- 
ing groove  of  some  length,  in  which  is  placed  a  galley 
containing  as  many  of  the  required  directions  as  it 
will  hold  set  up  in  type  and  locked  up.  A  treadle 
moves  it  along,  one  notch  at  a  time,  under  a  parch- 
ment friskct,  till  a  direction  arrives  just  under  the 
aperture  cut  in  the  frisket,  the  newspaper  envelope 
is  laid  over  it,  and  the  treadle  brings  a  platen  down 
upon  the  newspaper. 

The  galley  then  passes  along,  notch  by  notch,  till 
its  directions  are  exhausted,  when  it  is  superseded 
by  another. 

Ad-be 'sion  Car.  A  car  whose  wheels  are  adapted 
to  grasp  a  rail  or  to  bear  upon  it  in  such  a  way  as  to 
have  an  adhesive  or  tractive  power  gi'eater  than  that 
due  merely  to  the  weight  of  imposition. 

Among  the  foi-ms  may  be  mentioned  :  — 

The  cofigcd  rati.     See  E.\ilro.\d. 

The  center  mil,  with  a  horizontal  pair  of  gripping- 
wheels.     See  R.\iLRO.A.D  ;  Centek  R.\il. 

Another  foiin  is  a  wheel  with  an  angiilarly 
grooved  periphery,  which  bites  the  flanges  of  a 
doulde-headed  rail. 

In  the  early  history  of  railroad  engineering 
many  devices,  especially  the  cogged  rail,  were  em- 
ployed to  give  adhesion,  or  tractive  giip  upon  the 
rail.  These  were  eventually  laid  aside  as  more  cor- 
rect views  were  attained.  In  climbing  inclined 
planes,  however,  devices  of  this  kind  are  j'et  found 
useful,  and  are  noticed  under  the  appropriate  heads, 
cited  above. 

Coefficients  of  Adhesion  of  Locomotives  per    Ton    upon  the 
Driving-  Wheels. 

Lbs. 
When  the  rails  are  very  dry,  .  .  670 
When  the  rails  are  very  wet,  .         600 

In  misty  weather,     ....     350 
In  frost  or  snow,   ....         200 

In  coupled  engines  the  adhesion  is  due  to  the 
load  upon  all  the  wheels  coupled  to  the  drivers. 

The  adhesion  must  exceed  the  traction  of  an 
engine  upon  the  rails,  othei-wise  the  wheels  will 
slip. 

Ad'it.  A  drift,  or  nearly  horizontal  tunnel  form- 
ing a  road  or  drain  in  a  mine,  by  which  the  ore  is 


extracted  or  water  earned  otf.     Its  discharging  end 
is  at  the  natural  surface.     A  day-hvcl,  or  sough. 

The  great  adit  in  Cornwall  drains  the  waters 
from  the  Gwennap  and  Redruth  mines,  and  is  near- 
ly thirty  miles  long.  It  discharges  its  waters  into 
the  sea,  forty  feet  above  high-water  mark. 

Adits  may  be  driven  either  along  the  course  of  a 
vein  or  bed  or  through  an  unproductive  stratum  of 
rock,  and  are  frequently  run  in  a  direction  trans- 
verse to  the  general  bearings  of  the  veins  or  lodes, 
with  a  view  to  exploration  ;  such  an  adit  is  termed 
a  cross  cut. 

In  the  early  working  of  a  mine,  the  adit,  from  mo- 
tives of  economy,  is  made  as  short  as  practicable  ; 
but  as  the  operations  progress  it  is  often  advisable  to 
drive  another  at  a  lower  level  and  of  greater  length, 
to  avoid  the  difficulty  of  pumping  or  lifting  the  wa- 
ter from  a  considerable  depth. 

Ad-just'ing  Screw.  A  set-screw  of  an  instru- 
ment by  which  one  part  is  moved  upon  another, 
either  for  focus,  level,  tension,  or  otherwise. 

Ad-just'ing  Tool.  (Horo!ogy.)  A  tool  by  which 
the  snail  of  the  fusee  is  regulated  so  that  its  increase 
of  diameter  may  exactly  countervail  the  decreased 
strength  of  the  spring  as  it  unwinds  in  the  barrel. 
The  object  is  to  obtain  an  exactly  equal  power  at  all 
times  upon  the  train. 

Ad'mi-ral.  A  leading  ship  of  a  squadron.  (From 
Sar.  Emir,  the  Sea. ) 

"  To  be  tbe  mast 
Of  some  great  ammiral."  —  Paradise  Lost,  B.  L 

A-dolje.  Adobes,  or  unburnt  bricks,  are  prin- 
cipally in  vogue  in  the  plains  of  Shinar  and  Egypt, 
and  in  China  and  certain  portions  of  North  America 
inhabited  by  the  Puebla  Indians.  If  well  burned, 
he  clay  forever  loses  its  plasticity,  and  cannot  again 

'  reduced  to  a  mortar.  If  it  be  merely  dried,  it 
will  assume  its  original  condition,  as  it  came  from 
the  pug-mill.  Such  has  lately  (1871)  been  the 
experience  of  the  Chinese  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
Hoang-ho,  whose  houses  of  adobes  are  reduced  to 
mud-heaps  by  the  overflow  of  the  river.  Jlr. 
Tondinson,  C.  E.,  of  London,  has  treated  this 
matter  more  fully  than  any  other  author  writing 
in  our  language,  and  he  says  :  "The  first  action  of 
heat  is  to  drive  off  hygrometric  water  ;  the  clay 
then  becomes  dry,  but  is  not  chemically  changed, 
it  does  not  cease  to  be  plastic.  On  continuing  to 
raise  the-  heat,  the  chemically  combined  water  is 
separated,  and  the  cla\'  undergoes  a  molecular  change 
which  prevents  it  from  taking  up  water  again  except 
mechanically.  With  the  loss  of  this  chemically 
combined  water  clay  ceases  to  be  pla.stic." 

In  the  directions  which  have  been  published  for 
building  with  adobes,  it  is  recommended  that  they 
should  be  guarded,  by  some  material  imjierrious  to 
water,  from  absorbing  moisture  from  the  ground, 
and  also  that  the  roof  should  be  made  to  project  not 
less  than  two  feet  in  order  to  shed  the  water  and 
prevent  its  running  down  the  walls.  These  direc- 
tions seem  to  indicate  the  weak  point,  and  the  ex- 
periences derived  from  the  dry  plains  of  Asia  and 
Africa,  and  the  elevated  arid  regions  of  Northern 
Mexico  and  Lower  California,  do  not  apply  so  well 
to  our  more  humid  climate. 

The  mold  for  making  adobes  resembles  the  ordi- 
nary brick-mold  in  basing  four  sides  and  having 
handles  at  the  ends,  but  no  top  or  bottom.  It  is 
much  larger,  however,  and  sometimes  a  pair  are 
placed  in  a  single  frame.  It  is  placed  in  position  on 
the  drnng-gi-ound,  filled  with  clay,  and  when  the  top 
is  smoothed  by  a  striker,  the  mold  is  carefully  raised, 
leaving  the  adobe  to  diy  for  a  few  days,  when  it  is 
turned  to  expose  the  other  side.     A  few  weeks  of 


ADVICE-BOAT. 


16 


ADZE. 


favorable  wpather  complete  the  drying.  It  is  a 
cliea[)  material  ami  easily  built  up.  It  does  not  ap- 
pear likely  ever  to  beeome  a  favorite  mode  of  build- 
ing in  tliose  puts  of  the  United  States  which  are  at 
present  most  tliickly  populated.  It  will  not  do  to 
make  too  gemr.d  a  statement  in  a  countiy  whose 
climate  \"ari<'s  lictween  Ala.ska  and  Mexico. 

Ad-vice'-boat.  A  fast-sailing  vessel  used  for 
reconnoitei-ing.  First  used,  say  the  authorities,  in 
spying  the  operations  of  the  French  Heet  in  Brest, 
previous  to  llie  battle  of  La  Hogue,  1692.  Of  course 
Tliemistocles  and  the  consul  Caius  Duilius  never 
had  any  light  amphiprora;  to  "overhaul"  the  Per- 
si  ms  or  the  Carthaginians,  "  and  when  found  make 
note  on." 

Adze.  The  adze  is  a  very  ancient  tool,  and  has 
a  curved  blade  whose  edge  is  at  right  angles  to  the 
handle  ;  ditlVring  from  the  a:;e,  in  which  the  blade 
is  parallel  to  the  handle.    The  forms  and  sizes  dill'er 

Fig.  35. 


with  the  character  of  the  work,  and  in  some  cases 
the  bit  is  gonge-sliaped  in  addition  to  its  curve  in 
the  plane  of  its  motion.     It  is  swung  in  a  path  of 
about  the  same  curvature  as  the  blade,  the  shoulder- 
joint  being  the  center  of  motion,  and  the  entire  arm 
and  tool  forming,  as  it  were,  an  inflexible  i-adius. 
The   above   cut   from   HoltzajifTel  gives   an  idea 
of    the    presentation 
to  their  work  of  va- 
rious     wood-cutting 
tools,     a  a  represent 
the  axe   or   hatchet, 
with   two  bevels  ;  6, 
the  brtjad-axe,  or  sin- 
gle-bevelled  axe  ;    c, 
the  adze  ;  rf,  the  In- 
dian    angidar-bitted 
adze  ;   e,   the  chisel  ; 
/,   the  mode  of  pres- 
entation of  a  metal- 
cutting    tool,     intro- 
duced for  the  sake  of 
comparison. 
Fig.  36  is  the  modern  adze. 
The  adzes  of  ancient  Egypt  were  of  different  forms ; 


Adze. 


Egyptian  Adze.    (Thebes.) 


tlie   blade  generally 


the   edges   curved  or  straight, 
straight.    - 

The  ligures  in  the  accompanying  cut  are  from  a 
building  in  Thebes  ;  one  is  holding  a  carriage-pole  or 
tongue,  while  the  other  is  dressing  it  to  shape  with 
an  adze. 

In  the  other  illustration  the  blade  of  the  adze  is 
shown  confined  by  a  band  or  strap  to  the  helve.    The 


Fig.  38. 


Egyptian  Adze.     (Thebes.) 

adzeappears  often  in  the  Egyptian  painting  and  sculp- 
ture, and  was  tlie  principal  tool  in  ancient  Egypt  for 
fashioning  articles  of  wood.  Its  blade  was  of  bronze 
and  the  handle  of  tamarisk. 

The  Koinan  adze  (afcia.)  is  shown  on  many  ancient 
monuments.  Some  have  a  rounded  edge,  some  a 
straight.     It  was  then,  as  now,  a  ship-builder's  tool. 

The  acisi-uhis  had  a  similar  rounded  head,  but  was 
a  stone-mason's  tool,  having  a  square  face  and  point- 
ed peen. 

Among  many  of  the  West  India  Islanders  adzes 
and  axes  of  shell  were  used. 
When     it     was     procurable  Fig.  39. 

they  were  made  of  flint ;  this 
was  worked  into  the  shape 
of  a  tool  and  attaclied  by 
sinews  or  cords  to  a  helve, 
or  fastened  to  a  withe  (see 
Axe),  or,  as  in  Figs.  39,  40, 
the  cutting  material  of  shell, 
flint,  or  obsidian  was  lashed 
to  a  stock.  Metal  super- 
seded the  other  materials  in 
most  parts  of  the  world,  but  < 
many  barbarous  nations  of 
America  and  Polynesia  yet 
make  their  weapons  of  the 
material  generally  discarded 
at  a  very  distant  date  in  the 
Old  World. 

Fig.    39   represents   three 
stone    adzes    of    the    South      Sou ih- Pacific  Art:, 


.EOLIAN   ATTACHMENT. 


1/ 


.EOLIPILE. 


Pacific,  and  Fig.  40  a  stone  adze 
of  the  Chalam  Indians,  who  oc- 
cupy the  shores  of  Puget  Sound. 
It  suggests  the  most  ancient  form 
of  the  tool,  employed  especially 
for  digging  out  the  canoes  from 
the  solid  log.  These  canoes  were 
^  common  at  a  period  before  the 
discovery  of  iron  in  Europe,  and 
their  remains  are  there  found  as- 
sociated with  the  implements  of 
the  stone  and  bronze  ages. 

The  stone  adze  of  the  Tahitians, 

when  visited  by  Captain  Cuok,  was 

simUar  to  those  represented  in  Fig. 

39.     Large  ones  for  cutting  down 

trees   weighed  from   six   to   seven 

pounds  ;  smaller  ones,  for  carving, 

but  a  few   ounces.      All  of  them 

needed  continual  sharpening,  for  which  purpose  a 

stone  was  kept  in  readiness. 

Adzes  are  known  as 

Flat,  when  the  blade  has  a  straight  edge  ; 
Rounding,  when  the  edge  is  curved  ; 
Kotchiny,    with    a    straight    blade   and   straight 
edge. 

.Sj-oll-an.  A  contrivance  attached  to  pianos 
by  which  a  wind  instrument  may  be  introduced  as 
an  accessory  at  the  pleasure  of  the  performer,  air 
being  supplif;!  hv  a  bellows  worked  by  a  pedal. 

iE-o'li-au  Harp.  A  specit-s  of  musical  instru- 
ment, the  sounds  of  which  are  produced  by  currents 
of  air  passing  over  its  strings,  which  are  commonly 
fifteen  in  number.     Its  principle  may  be  familia,rly 

rig.  41. 


Chalam  Adze. 


Fig.  42. 


.^olian  Harp. 

shown  on  a  large  scale  by  the  action  of  the  tele- 
graph wires  stretched  from  one  pole  to  another. 
On  a  windy  day  especially  these  will  be  found,  by 
any  one  stationed  near,  to  emit  musical  tones  rising 
and  falling  in  proportion  to  the  strength  of  the 
wind,  and  more  or  less  grave  in  proportion  to  the 
tension  of  the  wires. 

Were  the  number  of  wires  increased,  and  their 
length  and  tension  properly  varied,  these  would 
constitute  a  perfect  Ji^olian. 

A  common  mode  of  construction  is  to  make  a  box  of 
thin  wood  and  of  suitable  length,  to  set  beneath 
a  window-sash.  It  may  be  five  or  six  inches 
in  width  and  depth.  At  one  end  of  the  box  are 
pins  equal  in  number  to  the  strings  employed, 
and  at  the  other  as  many  pegs  ;  the  strings,  be- 
ing made  fast  to  the  pins  at  one  end,  are  tuned 
by  turning  the  pegs  at  the  other.  The  box 
is  open  on  the  sides  presented  towards  the 
room  and  to  the  exterior  air,  and  the  strings 
are  sounded  by  the  passage  of  the  air  througli 
the  box.  Catgut  is  usually  employed  for  the 
strings. 

It  is  supposed  to  have  been  invented  by 
John  J.  Schnell,  musical-instrument  maker  to 
the  Countess  d'Artois.  It  was  suggested  by 
the  ^^bration  of  the  strings  of  a  harp  placed 
in  a  breezy  situation.  Exposed  for  sale  in 
1789  under  the  name  of  Ancmo  Ckordc. 
2 


Its  use  was  rerived  by  Kircher. 

One  of  the  Talmuds  says  that  the  harp  of  David 
sounded  when  the  north-wind  blew  on  it,  and  it 
has  been  suggested  that  he  had  an  ^Eolian,  as  we 
understand  it.  The  sounding  of  his  harp  by  a  gust 
of  wind  would  be  nothing  extraordinary  if  it  stood 
near  his  north  window,  which  was  probably  open 
for  air  and  chosen  for  its  coolness  and  shade  in  the 
climate  of  Judaea.  David  wrote  a  good  deal  in 
praise  of  shade  and  cool  drink. 

iB-o-li'na.  [^.Uitsic.)  A  modification  of  the  accor- 
dcon,  liy  Wlieatstone,  leading  to  the  concertina. 

.31-ol'i-pile.  Was  invented  or  first  described  by 
Hero,  of  Alexandria.  It 
was  a  rotary  engine,  in 
which  steam  issued  from 
the  ends  of  bent  arms  and 
by  reaction  rotated  the  hol- 
low shaft  or  sphere  to  which 
the  arms  were  attaclied. 
Hero's  engine  revolved  in 
the  Serapion  about  150 
B.  C,  and  many  applica- 
tions for  patents  in  the^ 
United  States  and  other 
countries  have  been  made 
for  the  same  device  within 
a  few  years  past.  Invent- 
ors seem  loth  to  give  np  this 
simplest  fonn  of  engine, 
but  it  is  not  probable  that 
it  will  ever  prove  a  useful 
or  economical  one. 

The  above  cut  is  copied  from  Hero's  "Spiritalia," 
edited  by  Woodcroft,  of  London.  See  Ste.\m- 
Engise. 

Ely's  ^Eolipile,  1S67,  is  adapted  for  rotating  a 
toy.  It  is  poised  with  its  boiler  on  a  central  verti- 
cal pivot,  and  is  connected  by  a  band  with  the  shaft 
on  whose  platfomi  the  toys  are  displayed. 

A  more  serious  attempt  at  applj-ing  the  principle 
of  the  »Eoli]iile  is  Banta's  Kotarj-  Steam-Engine, 
May  28,  1867.  The  hollow  amis  rotate  in  closed 
cylinders,  and  their  shafts  are  so  connected  as  to 
be  continuous,  the  packing  of  the  series  being  per- 
fonned  at  one  operation.  The  steam  passes  in  at 
the  axis  of  each,  and  issues  at  a  tangent,  driving 
the  wheel  by  reaction. 

It  is  attempted  to  obtain  the  use  of  the  steam  in 
a  nimiber  of  successive  chambers,  in  apparent  for- 
getfulness  of  the  loss  by  back-pressure.  The  steam 
enters  at  the  left,  and,  issuing  from  one  pair  of 
arms,  escapes  into  the  fii-st  chamber  ;  from  thence  it 
passes  to  the  second  vhed,  so  called,  and  emerges 
into  the  second  chamber,  and  so  on.  The  hubs  of 
the  ichcelsme  clutched  together,  so  that  their  ciuuu- 

Fig.  43. 


Heroes  Steam-Eti^ne. 


Ely's  JEoll[>ile. 


COLOPHON. 


18 


AERATOR. 


Fig.  44 


Untary  Steam-En:; 


lative  effect  is  eventu.ally  utilized  upon  the  main 
shaft,  on  whieli  is  tlie  pinion.  See  Reaction 
Stk.vm-Enoinh. 

.Sl-ol'o-phon.  The  serapliine  ;  the  predecessor 
of  thi'  iiiilc.ili'un  and  parlor  organ. 

.S'o-lus.  .\  small  ventilating  machine  for  renevv- 
iiij,'  till'  air  of  apartments. 

Aer-a'tor.  1.  An  apparatus  for  making  aerated 
waters.  These  consist  simply  of  pure  water  im- 
pregnated either  naturally  or  artificially  with  gases, 
and  are  used  largely,  when  combined  with  vegetable 
acids  and  sugar,  as  refreshing  refrigerating  beverages 
in  warm  weather,  and  in  medical  practice  during 
feverish  conditions.  The  insipid  taste  of  melted 
snow  or  rain-water  is  chiefly  due  to  the  small  quan- 
tities of  gases  therein  contained  ;  but  when  such 
water  has  come  in  contact  with  the  atmospliere  by 
trickling  down  a  ledge  of  rocks,  and  rushing  along 
a  boiling,  rapid  stream,  or  being  dashed  to  and  fro 
by  the  wimls,  it  absorbs  the  gases  from  the  air  and 
is  naturally  aerated.  Ebullition  dissipates  the  gases 
contained  in  spring-water,  rendering  it  as  flat  and 
insipid  to  the  taste  as  before  it  was  aerated.  The 
waters  of  many  mineral-springs  are  aerated  in  a  natu- 
ral way  by  the  gases  arising  from  the  decomposition 
of  minerals  washed  together  from  their  subterranean 
beds.  The  first  attempt  to  prepare  artificial  aerated 
waters  was  made  by  JI.  Venel  by  dissolving  in  a  pint 
of  water  two  drachms  of  fossil  alkali  to  which  he 
added  an  equal  quantity  of  nuiriatic  acid.  He  used 
a  vessel  with  a  narrow  neck  to  prevent  the  escape 
of  gas,  de]iositing  the  ingredients  in  such  a  manner 
that  they  would  not  communicate  with  each  other 
until  afti-r  the  vessel  was  corked.  In  this  case  the 
gas  evolved  in  a  vial  nearly  full  and  closely  corked 
snlfers  such  a  degree  of  conpression  as  to  greatly 
promote  its  combination  with  the  water.  M.  Venel 
sipposed  that  the  real  ingredient  to  which  it  owed 
thcise  qualities  was  common  air.  Two  memoirs  of 
Ins  expiM-iments  were  read  before  the  Royal  Academy 
of  Sciences  in  1750.  Dr.  Priestley  greatly  improved 
upon  the  discoveries  made  by  Venel  and  others,  and 
in  1767  eontrivcil  an  easy  method  of  impregnating 
water  with  the  principle  then  dmiomiiiated  "  fi.xeil 
air,"  by  ]ilacing  shallow  pans  of  water  near  the  sur- 
face of  the  fermenting  vessels  of  a  breweiy,  wliich  in 
a  few  ho;irs  became  jileasantly  impregnated  with  the 
escaping  gas.  He  foiinil  upon  experiment  that  the 
impregnation  was  accelei-ated  liy  pouring  the  water 
from  one  vessel  into  another  ;  but  it  did  not  occur 
to  him  till  the  year  1772  that  tliis  could  be  effected 
by  the  gases  dislodged  from  dei-oniposing  chalk  and 
other  calcareous  substam^es  confineil  in  an  air-tight 
vessel.     Dr.  John  North's  apparatus  for  impregnat- 


ing water  with  carbonic  acid  was  invented  in  1775. 
Between  the  years  isn?  and  1852  thirty-one  Eng- 
lish patents  were  granted  for  ajiiuiratus  anil  methods 
for  prei>aring  aemti'd  water,  and  fifteen  patents  for 
vesscds  to  hold  such  waters,  and  for  methods  for 
bottling.  The  most  common  beverage  is  Carbonic 
Acid  Il^ater,  generally  spoken  of  as  soda-water, 
though  it  .seldom  contains  any  soda.  H  is  pre- 
pared in  large  quantities  by  placing  whiting,  chalk, 
or  marble-iUist  in  an  air-tight,  lead-lined  vessel  with 
water  and  sulphuric,  acid.  Tlu^  sulphuric  acid  com- 
bines with  the  lime  to  form  sulphate  of  lime  (jilas- 
ter  of  Paris),  and  carbonic  acid  is  evolved  as  gas. 
The  latter  is  received  in  a  reservoir,  and  is  after- 
wards forced  into  water  agitated  by  machinery  so 
that  the  latter  absorbs  about  Ave  tunes  its  own  vol- 
ume of  the  gas.  The  water  then  constitutes  a  brisk 
sparkling  licjuid,  with  a  i)ungent  but  pleasant  acid- 
idous  taste.  It  may  be  prepared  on  a  small  scale, 
for  family  and  medical  pui-poses,  by  using  the  appa- 
ratus known  as  the  Gazogene  or  Seitzogene. 

Till'  complete  apparatus  is  shown  in  Fig.  45,  and 
also  tlie  separated  parts.  The  lower  globe  is  filled 
with  water  by  means  of  the  long  funnel,  and  then 
the  tube  is  closed  by  the  stopper,  and  the  powders, 
consisting  of  bicarbonate  of  soda  and  tartaric  acid, 
are  then  placed  in  the  upper  globe  by  means  of  the 
small  Innnel.  The  stopper  is  then  withdrawn, 
and  the  long  tube  is  inserted  and  screwed  closely 

Fig.  45. 


Fig.  46. 


Portable  Soda-Water  Apparatus. 

down.  The  apparatus  is  then  inclined  so  that  the 
upper  globe  is  about  one  thii'd  filled  with  water, 
then  placed  erect  and  allowed  to  stand  two  hours. 
If  the  screw  stopcock  at  the  top 
be  opened,  the  carbonated  water  will 
flow   out    readily    into    any   vessel  ji, 

placed  to   receive  it.     Occasionally  ife 

bisulphate   of   potash    is    used    in-  Jji 

stead  of   tartaric  acid,    to  save  the  ^^s3 
ex]>ensc  of  the  latter.  ^^^Sl 

Tin*  de^*ices  which  are  ordinarily  J_i][f 

called    Sodn-  Water   .-Ipjiaralus,    or 
Snflfi-Founiains,  are   those  used  in 
drawing  the  beverage  and  mingling 
it   with    the   flavoring   syrups,    etc.    / 
See  SdDA-FouNrAiN. 

In  the  bottle  for  aerated  liquids, 
patented  by  Wahkeu,  March  18, 
18i)2,  the  spout  of  the  metallic 
fountaiii-heacl  is  lined  with  glass  to 
keep  tlie  liquid  from  contact  with 
the  metal.  The  shoulder  on  the 
top  edge  of  the  neck,  the  alternate 
grooves,  and  the  I'idges  on  the  neck  „v,rA-,T'.<  Bnttle  for 
are  used  to  strengthen  the  attach-   Aerated  Liquids. 


AERATOR. 


19 


AERATOR. 


ment  of  the  metallic  cap  to  wliich 
the  fouutain-hcad  is  screwed. 

In  Pilitt's  ajiparatus  lor  aerat- 
ing liquids.  September  10,  1867, 


the  top  of  the  aeid-holder  c  and  the  pipe  s  in  whicli  the 
plug-rod  moves,  preserves  an  equiliuiium  of  jiressiire, 
so  as  to  prevent  the  acid  from  rising  higher  in  the 
pipe  s  than  the  level  of  the  acid  in  tile  acid-holder 


the  plunger  li.a.s  a  concavity  wliieh  i  by  which  means  the  brass-work  of  the  stulhug-box  is 


PratVs  AiratoT. 


Fig.  48. 


carrn^s  down  the  air  ;  tlie  latter 
is  expelled  as  the  plunger  reaches 
the  convex  bottom,  and  is  driven 
through  the  holes  in  the  tube 
and  disseminated  through  the 
liquid  in  the  outer  vessel. 

Wkcjlone,   August    14,    18G6. 
The  tube  is  introduced  through 
the  cork  ;  the  liquid  enters  holes 
at  its  lower  end,  ami  is  discharged 
at  the  goose-neck,  when  the  stop- 
cock is  opened.      The  bottle  may 
be  charged  by  means  of  an  aux- 
iliary tube,  also  passing  through  the  cork,  and  either 
removed  or  closed   when   the   bottle  is  filled  with 
the  aerated  liquid. 

The  liquid   contents   of  these  bottles 
may  be  aerated  by  means  of  a  simple  air- 
pump   placed   in   temporary  connection 
with  the  tube  when  the  eduction  nozzle 
is  removed  ;  or  chemicals  may  be  intro- 
duced whose  reaction  liberates  gas  when 
they  meet  in  solution.     The  aeration  of 
sparkling    champagne   and   Catawba    is 
pi'oduced  by  adding  a  .small  amount  of 
white  sugar  to  the  wine  in  bottling,  the 
slight  fermentation  eliminating   alcohol 
therefrom  and  liberating  carbonic   acid 
gas.     The  efl'ervescing   drinks,   .such   as 
ginger-beer,  are  also  dependent  for  their 
ebullition  upon  the  fermentation  of  the 
ingredients  and  the  development  of  the 
same   gas.     Carbonic   acid,   in  moderate 
quantities,    has    a    very    salutary   effect 
upon  the  stomach,  while  it  is  so  fatal  I 
when  breathed  into  the  lungs.     As  the 
Soda-Wajer  " ^"'^''  'I'^iip  "  or  "  choke  damp  "  of  the 
BoMt.       miner,   it    has   often   killed   those   who  < 
survived  the  explosion  of  the  carbureted 
hydrogen.      At  the   Black  Hole,    near  Calcutta,  it 
killed   one  hundred  and  twenty-four  persons  who 
were  confined   in   a  room   eighteen   feet  square  by 
order  of  Dowlah,  Viceroy  of  Bengal,  June  2IJ, 
1756.     As  a  gaseous  result  of  the  combustion 
of  carbon,  —  as  of  charcoal,  for  instance,  —  it 
has  destroyed   the  lives  of  many  who   have 
gone  to  sleep  in  ill-ventilated  looms. 

Machines  are  made  on  a  large  scale  for 
charging  soda-fountains. 

C'amei!On'.s  aerator  has  a  gas-generator  a 
made  of  cast-iron,  lined  with  sheet-lead  to 
l)revent  the  action  of  the  sulphuric  acid  upon 
the  iron.  The  vessel  contains  fifteen  gallons, 
and  is  partially  filled  with  water  and  whiting 
or  other  carbonate  of  lime.  The  agitator  6 
is  also  covered  with  sheet-lead,  and  its  stem 
passes  through  a  stuffiug-box  c,  at  the  top 
of  the  vessel.  The  acid-holder  c  is  formed 
of  lead,  and  has  a  capacity  of  two  gallons,  and 
is  partially  tilled  with  oil  of  vitriol.  The  acid 
is  kept  from  running  down  into  the  generator 
by  means  of  the  conical  ]ilng/,  which  fits  into 
a  conica'  seat  in  the  leaden  pipe  i/.  This  plug 
is  attached  to  a  rod,  and  moves  up  and  down 
through  the  stutfiug-box  h,  and  is  prevented 
from  turning  round  by  means  of  a  pin  /•,  mov- 
ing in  a  slit  in  the  bridle  I  ;  the  screw-init  is 
riveted  loosely  into  the  top  of  the  bridle.  The 
pipe  iiy  which  forms  a  communication  between 


jireserved  liom  injury.  To  prevent  any  of  the  sul- 
phuric acid  from  being  carried  over  by  the  etferves- 
cence,  an  intermediate  vessel  o,  containing  about 
three  gallons,  is  foimed  of  lead  or  lined  with  that 
metal.  The  interun-diate  vessel  is  filled  with  water 
above  the  eduction-pipe  from  the  generator  a. 

The  impregnator  r  holds  about  sixteen  gallons, 
and  is  made  of  cast-iron  lined  with  lead,  or  of 
tin-lined  copper,  and  the  agitator  m  is  covered 
with  lead  or  is  made  of  wood.  The  impregnator  is 
filled  to  the  dotted  line  with  water,  to  which,  in 
making  saline  waters,  the  proper  projiortion  of  »esqui- 
carbonate  of  soda,  carbonate  of  magnesia,  or  other 
ingredients  is  added. 

For  the  ordinary  soda-water  no  medicament  is  add- 
ed.   A  pressure-gauge  t  is  connected  by  a  leaden  pipe. 

The  operation  is  as  follows  :  — 

By  turning  the  nut  in  the  pdug  is  raised,  and  acid 
is  allowed  to  run  into  the  generator  «,  when  it  acts 
ujjon  the  carbonate,  disengaging  the  carbonic  acid 
gas  in  quantity  proportioned  to  the  amount  of  acid 
admitted.  The  plug  is  again  lowered  when  the  as- 
certained proper  amount  has  entered  the  generator. 
The  gas  passes  by  the  intermediate  vessel  into  the 
impregnator  v,  wliere  it  is  absorbed  by  the  water. 

The  aerated  water  is  drawn  otf  from  the  impreg- 
nator into  glass  bottles,  and  tightly  corked  ;  or  is 
removed  and  placed  in  connection  with  the  ordinary 
soda-fountain  apparatus  by  which  the  licjuid  is 
diawn  into  glasses. 

Bakkweil's  soda-water  apparatus  (Engli-sh)  has 
the  generator  and  imi>regnator  in  the  same  vessel, 
separated  by  a  diaphragm,  and  connected  by  a  pipe. 


CamfroiCs  Aijator 


AKIUAL  CAR. 


20 


AiiUO-STEAM  ENGINE. 


The  vosspI  is  on  traiuiioiis,  and  is  o.scillated  so  as 
to  allow  a  penduloiis  stirrer  in  the  lower  vessel  tii 
agitate  the  solution  of  the  earbonate  of  lime.  The 
gas  jnisses  to  the  upper  chamber,  where  it  performs 
a  cireuitous  course  in  tlu*  water  whicli  absorbs  it. 

•Itlier  apparatus 
depends  upon  me- 
chanical nu'ans  for 
injecting  the  gas 
into  the  water  by 
means  of  a  pump 
or  syringe. 

Many  other  de- 
vices might  be 
cited,  but  tliey  con- 
tain substantially 
the  same  parts  un- 
der modihed  ar- 
rangements, —  a 
generator  with  a 
means  for  admit- 
ting the  acid,  a  con- 
ductor for  tile  gas, 
andan  im])regnatov 
in  which  the  water 
is  permeated  by  the 


Apparatrnfcr  bottling  at  the  Spring. 


gas  evolved. 


TllOM.^s's  apparatus  for  bottling  mineral  waters, 
June  18,  1S67,  is  applied  directly  at  the  spring. 

The  water  is  drawn  from  a  considerable  depth 
through  a  pipe  let  down  in  the  spring  ;  a  perfo- 
rated plate  of  glass  is  placed  in  the  water  below  the 
mouth  of  the  tube,  and  jets  of  gas  from  a  reservoij' 
are  discharged  below  the  plate. 

The  object  is  to  charge  mineral-water  with  gas,  or 
to  add  an  extra  supply  of  gas  thereto. 

2.  A  contrivance  for  fumigating  grain  in  bulk,  to 
destroy  fungi  and  insects. 

Kg.  51. 


Ftmtaine^s  Atrial  RaiUvny. 

A-e'ri-al  Car.  A  ear  adapted  for  traveling  in 
the  air. 

The  name  is  somewhat  loosely  applied,  and  may 
mean  one  of  thr<^e  things  :  — ■ 

1.  The  basket  or  receptacle  of  a  balloon. 

2.  A  ear  whosc^  weight  is  partially  or  entirely 
counterbalanced  by  a  balloon,  and  which  travels  on 
wires  by  means  of  driven  wheels.     See  uext  article. 


3.    A  car  on  an  idi'vated  railway. 

A-e'ri-al  Rail'way.  An  attempt  to  govern  the 
balloon  or  aerostat  by  guiding  rails  or  wires 
stretched  between  posts. 

Foxtaine'.s  Aerial  Railway,  Febi-uary  5,  1867, 
may  be  taken  as  a  .sample. 

The  weight  of  the  car  is  counterbalanced  by  an 
attached  balloon.  The  cigar-shaped  car  is  driven  by 
steam,  the  deeply  indented  side-wdleels  travelling  up- 
on wires  which  rest  upon  brackets  whose  flanges  pro- 
ject into  the  circumferential  depressions  in  thewheels. 

Tile  wire-way  supported  on  posts  has  been  adopted 
for  carrying  freiglit.     Sei-  Wii:k-way. 

A'e-ro-hydro-dy-nam'ic  "Wheel.  A  mode 
of  transmitting  power  to  great  distances  proposed  by 
a  Belgian  engineer,  Mr.  t'alles.  The  jdan  of  Jlr. 
Calles  is  to  make  use  of  air  under  a  certain  degree 
of  compression  as  the  vehiide  of  the  force  to  be  trans- 
mitted, not  by  accumulating  the  air  thus  employed 
in  reservoirs,  but  by  driving  it,  by  tlu^  operation  of 
the  original  motor,  directly  into  a  tube  extending  to 
the  point  of  hual  application,  w'here  it  is  to  be  dis- 
charged beneath  a  wheel  submerged  in  water,  which 
it  is  to  turn  by  its  ascensional  force.     See  AlR  AS  A 

ilr.AXS    OF   TIIANSMITTING    PoWER. 

A'er-om'e-ter.  An  instrument  invented  by  Dr. 
M.  Hall,  Inr  a><certaining  the  mean  bulk  of  air  or 
gases  in  pneumatic  experiments. 

It  consists  of  a  bulb  of  glass  of  four  and  one  half 
cubic  inches'  capacity,  blowji  at  the  end  of  a  long 
tube  whose  capacity  is  one  cubic  inch.  This  tube  is 
inserted  into  another  tube  of  nearly  equal  length, 
which  is  supported  on  a  sole,  and  the  first  tube  is 
sustained  at  any  required  height  within  the  second 
by  the  pressure  of  a  spring.  Five  cubic  inches  of 
atmospiheric  air,  at  a  medium  density  and  tempera- 
ture, are  introduced  into  the  bulb  and  t\ilie,  of  the 
latter  of  which  it  will  occupy  one  half.  The  other 
half  of  this  tube  and  part  of  the  tube  in  which  it  is 
inserted  are  occupied  by  the  liquid  of  the  pneunurtic 
trough.  The  point  of  the  tube  at  wliich  tlie  air  and 
liquid  meet  is  marked  by  the  figure  5  to  denote  five 
culdc  inches.  The  upper  and  lower  halves  of  the 
tubes  are  each  divided  into  five  ]iarts,  representing 
tenths  of  a  cubic  inch.  The  external  tube  has  a 
scale  of  inches  attached. 

Aer-o-phane'.  (Fabric. )  A  light  gauze  or  imi- 
tatioii  cnipe. 

A'er-o-stat.     See  Balt.iiun. 

A'e-ro-steam  En'- 
|\_^  gine.       An    engine    iu 

LM  n  I which      the      expansive 

power  of  combined  heat- 
ed air  and  steam  is  used 
^  in  driving  a  piston. 

The  Air  Eiifiiiie  fol- 
lowed clo.sely  iu  the  wake 
of  the  Watt  Steam-En- 
gine. 

Oliver  Evans,  during 
the  latter  jiortion  of  the 
last  century,  suggested 
the  combination  of  the 
heated  gases  and  air 
w-ith  the  steam,  as  a 
motor.  He  called  it  a 
Voi.rANic  Engine,  which  .see. 

Olazebrook  used  moistened  hot-air  in  his  Air 
Engine,  English  Patent,  1797.  See  Air  En- 
cine. 

The  air  is  moistened  before  reaching  the  cylinder 
iu  Paine's  Engine,  United  States  Patent,  November 
30;  1S58.  In  this  ease  it  is  the  cool  refrigerated  air 
that   is   moistened,    and   the   amount   of   moistura 


AERO-STEAM  ENGINE. 


21 


AERO-STEAM  ENGINE. 


would  lie  very  far  below  saturation  when  the  air 
came  to  lie  heated. 

The  same  may  be  said  of  Glazebrook'.s.  1797,  with 
the  additional  remark  that  Glazebrook  conden.sed 
the  air  in  the  preliminary  proce.ss,  before  exposing 
it  to  moistnre,  so  that  the  heat  incident  to  its  eon 


ber,  where  they  mix  with  the  steam,  and  with 
it  ))ass  to  the  working  cylinders.  The  neck  g  is 
covered  with  a  valve  h  opening  upward,  the  sides 
of  wliieh  are  turned  ilown  to  cause  the  heated  air  to 
pass  through  the  water,  and  theivby  give  out  a 
jiortion  of  its  heat  to  the  latter  :  this  al.so  serves  to 


densotion  would  enable  it  to  absorb  more  water,  but  I  wash  the  heated  air  and  arrest  giit  which  would 


still  far  less  than  would  be  sutlicicnt  to  saturate  it 
when  it  cauie  to  be  heated  by  the  furnace. 


^" 


BennftVs  Airo-nteam  En^ne- 

Bennett,  United  States  Patent,  August- 3,  1838, 
introduced,  or  at  least  adopted,  two  new  features  ; 
1.  He  conducts  the  incoming  charge  of  air  to  the 
furnace,  and  makes  it  the  means  of  maintaining  com- 
bustion under  pressure  ;  2.  The  furnace  is 
air-tight,  and  the  volatile  results  pass  through 
the  steam-boiler,  are  washed,  and  jiass,  fully 
saturated,  to  the  cylinder.    See  Am  Engine. 

The  steam  and  air  might  have  been  com- 
bined in  any  required  relative  ratio  in  this 
boiler,  but  the  inventor  does  not  ajijiear  to 
have  supposed  any  specific  proportion  was 
necessary,  a.  n  is  a  vertical  cylinder  con- 
stituting the  shell  of  the  boiler,  /)  b  a,  small- 
er cylinder  placed  within  the  former  and 
forming  the  furnace  and  ash-pit ;  this  is 
entirely  surrounded  by  water,  c  is  a  tube 
connected  with  a  blowing-machine,  and  hav- 
ing two  branches  d  and  e,  — the  former  of 
which  admits  a  portion  of  air  above  the  fuel, 
and  the  latter  a  portion  into  the  ash-pit 
below  the  fire-bars.  Two  throttle-valves, 
or  dampers,  /  /,  are  provided  to  regulate 
the  draft  through  each  branch.  (/  is  a  short 
cylindrical  neck,  through  which  the  smoke 
and  heated  air  pass   into  the   steam-cham- 


injure  the  cylinder  aud  )ii.ston.  j,  a  safety-valve,  k, 
a  valve  by  which  the  pipe  that  conveys  the  steam 
to  the  engine  can  be  closed  when  required  ;  I,  the 
]ii]ie  by  which  the  water  is  conveyed  to  the  boiler 
f!om  tire  feed-prmip  ;  the  end  of  this  pipe  enters  the 
boiler  and  delivers  the  water  on  to  the  top  of  the 
valve  /* ;  this  is  with  a  view  to  ]irevent  the  valve 
becoming  excessively  heated  by  the  action  of  the 
fii-e.  m  is  the  fuel-spout  by  which  coal  is  intro- 
duced into  the  fireplace  ;  on  it  is  bolted  the  liopper 
n,  having  at  its  upper  end  a  Hat  sliding  valve  o, 
and  anotlier  one  p  at  its  lower  end  ;  these  valves 
slide  in  grooves,  and  are  moved  l>y  means  of  racks 
and  pinions.  They  are  ground  to  their  seats  so  as 
to  make  air-tight  joints,  and  during  the  wliole  time 
the  engine  is  in  operation  the  coal-hopjier  is  kept 
closed  by  one  or  other  of  these  valves.  In  kin- 
dling the  fire  the  valves  o  and  p  are  both  opened, 
lighted  kindling  is  dropped  through  the  chute,  and 
then  a  quantity  of  fuel.  The  valves  are  then  closed, 
the  blower  started.  When  the  engine  is  set  to  work, 
it  forces  air  into  the  fui-uace  both  above  and  below 
the  fuel  at  each  stroke,  which,  having  no  vent  to 
escape  but  at  the  valve  A,  accumulates  in  the  fur- 
nace until  its  pressure  somewhat  exceeds  that  of  the 
steam  upon  the  valve  li,  when  it  lifts  the  valve,  and, 
rising  up  through  the  water,  mixes  with  the  steam, 
and  passes  along  with  it  to  the  engines.  /  is  a 
slider,  by  opening  which  the  ashes  from  the  funiace 
can  be  withdrawn  ;  when  this  is  requisite  the  dara- 
lK>rs//must  be  firet  closed,  v  is  the  blow-otf  cock, 
by  which  the  water  can  be  discharged  from  the 
boiler  when  required,  and  ;;■  is  a  hole  covered  by  a 
door  for  removing  any  mud  which  may  have  accu- 
mulated. At  *  is  a  glass  gage  to  show  the  height 
of  the  water  in  the  boiler,  and  at  »/  is  a  glass  eye- 
piece through  which  the  state  of  the  fire  can  be 
ascertained.     2  is  the  man-hole  of  the  boiler. 

William  Mont.  Stoum'.s  experiments  in  com- 
bined air  and  steam  covered  the  jieriod  1851  -  55,  and 
perhaps  later.  His  Cloud  Engine,  in  which  steam 
and  air,  in  a  condition  resembling  fog,  were  used 
to  projiel  a  piston,  was  exhibited  at  the  fair  of  the 
American  Institute,  New  York,  in  1S55.  The  ma- 
chine appears  to  have  failed  to  realize  the  expecta- 


Fig.  53. 


Tanker's  Steam-  Generator. 


AERO-STEAM   ENGINE. 


22 


AERO-STEAM  ENGINE. 


tions  of  the  inventor.  Tlicre  wa.s  a  lack  of  ailjust- 
ment  .sonu'wliere,  it  may  be  supposed,  but  the  end 
is  not  yet. 

Ill  A\  AsiinuRN's  Air- Heater  and  Steam-Generator, 
Unit.'d  States  I'atent,  September  .'J,  lS(i.'j,  the  air  is 
al.so  intiochiced  under  pressure  into  the  I'uniaee,  and 
then  passed  througli  a  eleunsiny-tank  liefore  lieiug 
added  to  the  steam  evolved  in  tlie  coil  of  pipe  wliich 
constitutes  the  steani-f;euerator.  In  this  ai>pai'atus 
full  saturation  is  obtained.  See  illustration  in  AlK 
En(!Ink. 

Stii.i.m.vn'.s  Hot  Air  and  Steam  Generator,  August 
9,  1804,  has  also  the  eombiiiatioii  of  air  and  steam. 

BlcKKi)Ul>'.s  I'atent,  June  (J,  1SG5,  may  also  be 
examined  in  this  connection. 

In  Tanoich's  Steam  Generator,  December  4,  1866, 
the  air  is  injected  into  the  jiipcs  H  and  /  by  means 
of  a  foi'ce-pinnii,  and  after  being  heated  while  passing 
through  the  convolutions  of  tlie  pipes  F  anil  J,  is 
forced  into  the  lioiler  by  nipples,  as  sliciwn  at  K. 

In  Tai;i:'s  Aero-Steam  Engine,  18(J7,  tlie  air  is 
heated  within  the  furnace,  and  is  thence  forced 
through  the  pipe  into  the  steam-chest,  where  it  min- 
gles with  the  steam  coming  through  the  pijie  ;  and 
the  mixture  of  steam  and  hot  air  is  by  means  of  a 
slide-valve  admitted  alternately  above  and  below 
the  piston  in  the  ordinuiy  way,  so  as  to  produce  the 
usual  reciprocating  motion. 

Waksop's  Engine  (English),  1869,  is  started  by 
steam  in  the  ordinary  maimer.  A  single-acting  air- 
pump,  worked  from  the  crank  shaft,  compresses  air 
to  a  little  more  than  the  boik'r  pressure  ;  the  air 
then  passes  tlirough  a  long  circuit  of  straight  and 
coiled  Jiipe,  which  traverses  the  exhaust-pipe,  makes 
several  spiral  coils  in  the  chimney,  then  descends  at 
one  side  of  the  lire-box,  is  exjiosed  to  the  full  tire, 
and  finally  passes  by  a  valved  opening  into  the 
boiler  at  the  bottom  of  the  water-space. 

Warsop's  object  is  similar  to  that  of  several  of  his 
predecessors,  to  make  steam  assist  the  expansive 
force  of  air,  and  to  avoid  the  difficulties  of  lubrication 
incident  to  the  use  of  hot  air  alone.  He  attempts 
to  obtain  the  maximmn  etlect  from  nnxed  air  and 


Fig.  64. 


lVnrsop\'i  AlfTO- t^eam  Engine  Hoiler, 


steam  by  instituting  a  certain  approved  proportion 
between  tlie  two.  It  is  ijiiite  probable  that  such  a 
ratio  may  be  found,  and  that  it  may  secure  substan- 
tial economical  advantages. 

The  ]ii]ie  .;,  thi'oiigli  which  the  air  is  forced  into 
the  bnih'T  liy  the  action  of  tlie  air-]>unip,  is  of  iron, 
and  is  1|^^  inches  in  diameter  outside,  and  \\  inch 
bore.  Ou  leaving  the  puni]i  the  pipe  is  tirst  led  to 
the  heater  Ji,  shown  on  the  left  of  the  engraving, 
wherein  it  is  exposed  to  the  exhaust  .steam.  The 
heater  consists,  as  will  b(^  seen,  of  a  east-iron  cylin- 
drical vessel  placed  in  a  vertical  position  and  pro- 
vided with  two  branches — one  near  tie-  liottnm  and 
the  other  near  the  toji —  through  wiiicli  tlic  exhaust 
steam  rcsjicctively  enters  and  escapes  from  the  cas- 
ing. At  the  top  of  the  lieater  is  jilaced  a  small 
cylindrical  tank  1),  exposed  at  the  bottom  and  sides 
to  the  exhaust  steam,  and  perforated  around  the 
np]ier  part  of  the  .sides,  so  that  in  the  event  of  its 
reci'iving  an  exi-ess  of  water  the  latter  may  oveiHow 
and  fall  to  the  bottom  of  the  heater.  Thiough  a 
stulling-box  at  the  bottom  of  the  tank  there  passes 
a  tube  with  a  rose  E  at  the  lower  end,  this  tube 
being  carried  by  a  lloat  F,  which  swims  in  the 
water  at  the  bottom  of  the  heater,  as  shown,  and, 
by  means  of  a  cord  ]iassing  I'rom  the  top  of  the  tube, 
works  a  cock  G,  which  regulates  the  supjily  of 
water  to  the  tank  at  the  toji  of  the  lieater. 

The  air-pipe  ..*/,  after  leaving  the  heater  just 
described,  passes  along  the  exhaust-pipe  C  to  the 
chinmey  fl,  and,  descending  the  latter  spirally,  as 
shown,  jiasses  into  the  Hue  beneath  the  boiler. 
Here  it  is  led  backw'ard  and  forward,  as  shown  in 
the  plan,  and  after  making  several  convolutions  in 
the  smoke-box,  is  led  back  to  the  front  of  the  boiler, 
where  it  communicates  witli  a  valve-box,  contain- 
ing an  ordinary,  light  clack-valve.  The  object  of 
this  valve  is  to  prevent  water  from  entering  the  air- 
)iipe  when  the  engine  is  stopped.  From  the  valve- 
box  a  pipe  is  led  down  within  the  boiler  to  the 
bottom  of  the  latter,  this  jiipe  being  perforated  at 
intervals  on  the  upper  side.  The  perlbrations  are 
placed   closer  together  at   the  farther   end   of  the 

pipe  than  they 
are  at  the  end  at 
which  the  air  en- 
ters, and  by  this 
means  an  eipiable 
distribution  of  the 
air  at  tlie  differ- 
ent parts  of  the 
boiler  is  insured. 
The  lengths  of 
tbe  various  por- 
tions of  the  air- 
)ii])e  are  as  fol- 
lows :  III  feed- 
water  heater,  12 
feet ;  in  exhaust- 
pipe,  13  feet  6 
inches  ;  in  chim- 
ney and  tines,  in- 
cluding coils  in 
smoke  -  box  and 
under  lioiler,  58 
feet ;  total,  83  feet 
6  inches.  The 
total  external  sur- 
fai'c  exposed  by 
this  pijic  is  thus 
about  36J  square 
fei't. 

The     principal 
dimensions  of  the 


J^THIOPS   MINERAL. 


23 


AGRICULTURAL   IMPLEMENTS. 


boiler  are  as  follows  ;  Length,  8  feet ;  diameter  of 
sliell,  3  feet  6  inches  ;  lUanieter  of  fire-box  flue, 
2  feet  2  inches  ;  length  of  fire-box  and  combustion- 
chamber,  5  feet  ;  and  length  of  tubes,  3  feet.  Tlie 
tubes  are  41  in  number,  most  of  tliem  being  2§ 
inches,  and  some  of  them  2-j^g  inches  diameter. 
The  total  effective  heating  surlace  exposed  by  the 
boiler  is  about  13"  sijuai'e  feet. 

.ZB'thi-ops  Min'er-aL  A  compound  of  sulphur 
and  nu'rcury,  so  called  on  account  of  its  blackness. 
Tlie  black  sulphuret  of  mercury,  formed  by  tritu- 
rating together  meri'ury  and  sulphur  until  the  two 
combine  and  form  a  black  powi.l«-r. 

.ai'thri-  o  -  scope. 


Fig.  56. 


.Mtbrioscope, 


An  instrument  for 
measuring  the  degrees 
of  cold  arising  from 
exposure  under  dif- 
ferentconditions  of  the 
sky.  A  highly  pol- 
ished metallic  cup  or 
concave  mirror  is 
jilaced  upon  a  pedestal 
of  convenient  higlit, 
and  a  differential  ther- 
mometer is  placed 
within  it  so  that  one 
of  the  bulbs  of  the 
thermometer  shall  be 
exactly  in  one  focus  of 
the  mirror  ;  the  other 
bulb  being  not  in 
either  focus  is  not  af- 
fected by  the  pulsa- 
tions, the  effects  of 
which  on  the  cup  are 
concentrated  upon  the 
first  bulb,   the  air  in 


■nhich  being  suddenly  eonti'acted  upon  its  exjiosure 
to  a  clear  sky,  the  liijuid  in  that  branch  of  the  .stem 
is  caused  to  rise.  The  cup  is  kejit  covered  with  a  me- 
tallic plate,  exce]it  at  the  moments  of  oliservarion. 

Af  fi-nage.  The  act  of  refining  or  making  purer, 
as  the  aftinage  of  metals. 

Aft'er-rake.  The  part  of  the  stern  which  over- 
hangs the  keel. 

Aft'er-sail.  {Xantkni.)  A  sail  whose  center  of 
effort  is  abaft  the  general  center  of  effort  of  all  the 
sails.  Head-sails  are  relatively  before  the  said 
point,  and  by  means  of  these  head  and  after  sails  a 
shi]>  may  be  maneuvred. 

Aft'er-timTDers.  (Shiphuildi'ng.)  1.  Radiating 
eant-franies,  abaft  the  fashion-])ieces  and  below  the 
wing-transom,  stejtjied  piartiy  on  the  dead-\\'ood  and 
partly  on  stepping- pieces  bolted  to  the  sides  of  the 
inner  stern-post. 

2.    Those  abaft  the  midship  section. 

Ag'a-ba'nee.  (Fubric.)  Cotton  embroidered  with 
silk,  made  in  .\leppo. 

Ag'ate.  (Vrinlhiq.)  1.  A  size  of  type  between 
Pearl  and  Nonpareil  ;  called  liuby  in  England. 

renrl. 

A  (rate,  or  Ruby. 

Nonpareil. 

2.  The  draw-plate  of  the  gold-wire  drawei-s  ;  so 
called  because  the  drilled  eye  is  an  agate. 

3.  The  pivotal  cup  of  the  compass-card. 
Age'ing.     {Poffcrii.)     The   storage    of  prepared 

clay,  to  allow  it  time  to  fei-ment  and  rijien  before 
using.  The  slip,  consisting  of  levigated  clay  and 
flint,  is  run  in  a  thin  solution  through  sieves  and 
brought  to  a  creamy  consistence.  This  is  boiled 
ilown  to  give  it  more  solidity,  and  is  then  stored 
away,  sometimes  for  years,  being  occasionally  cut 


out  in  chunks  and  slapped  to  expel  air  and  develop 
the  pla.sticity.  During  the  aqeing  process  a  slight 
fermentation  occurs,  carbonic  a  id  and  sulphureted 
hydrogen  are  disengaged,  and  the  mass  is  im]u-oved 
in  texture  and  ijuality.  The  clay  is  thus  allowed 
to  temper  in  cellars  or  under  cover,  sometimes  for 
several  years. 

In  China,  a  potter  prepares  the  clay  for  the  suc- 
ceeding generation  wliile  working  "up  that  be- 
queathed to  him  by  his  ancestors. 

iJI'iiie  and  Liquors.)  Devices  for  this  pui-pose 
subject  the  licpiid  to  heat  and  agitation  ;  some  of 
them  using  the  combined  action  oi'  heat,  electricity, 
and  attrition.     See  Wixe-aoeixg  Api'ai!.\tus. 

{Calico  PrinJim/.)  The  exposure  of  printed  cali- 
coes in  a  sufficiently  moist  and  warm  air  to  allow 
the  colors  to  permeate  and  mature.  An  apparatus 
was  patented  by  Thorn,  England,  for  appl}-ing  air 
loaded  with  moisture  of  a  given  temperature  to  the 
jirinted  fabric,  which  is  then  folded  aud  allowed  to 
rest  for  a  few  hours  in  that  condition. 

A-gist'meat.  A  dik-  or  embankment  to  prevent 
the  overflow  of  land  aliutting  upon  a  stream  or  the  sea. 

Ag'i-ta'tor.  A  rotating  beater  or  armed  shaft  for 
mixing  and  disturbing  articles  mechanically  sus- 
pended in  water,  such  as 

The  pulp  in  the  stuff-chest  of  a  paper-machine. 

The  mash  in  the  nia.sh-tub  of  a  brewery. 

The  mixture  of  starch,  sugar,  etc.,  and  water,  in 
the  washing  jirocess  of  starch-making. 

Ag'ri-cult'ur-al  Im'ple-ments.  These  are 
treated,  .as  fully  as  the  limits  will  peiiuit,  under  their 
respective  heads  ;  it  is  needless  to  repeat  here  the 
history  of  their-  progressive  development  or  the 
order  of  their  succession.  See  the  followiug,  under 
theii-  respective  heads  :  — 

AcniCULTUKAL  \XD  Hr.SBAN-Dr.Y  iMrLEMF.XTS,  ETC. 

Abenincator. 
Animal-clutch 
Animal-poke. 
Apiary. 
Atmospheric  churn 


Auger.     Earth-boring. 

Aveler. 

Averuncator. 

Awner. 

Bagasse-dryer. 

Bag-fastener. 

Bag-holder. 

Bag-tie. 

Bale-tie. 

Baling-press. 

Band  for  baling. 

Band  for  Innding  grain. 

Band-cutting  machine. 

Barking-tools. 

Bailey-chumper. 

Barley-fork. 

Barley-huUer. 

Bar-.share  plow. 

Basket. 

Bean-harvester. 

Bean-mill. 

Bee-feeder. 

Bee-fumigator. 

Beehive. 

Beehive,  swarm-indicator  Cattle-pump. 

for  Cattle-stall. 

Bee-tax.  Cattle-tie. 

Belly-roll.  Caving-rake. 

Bill.  Chaff-cutter. 

Bill-hook.  Chee.se-cutter. 

Binder.  Cheese-hoo|i. 


Binding     attachment    for 

harvesters. 
Binot. 
Blade. 
Bob-sled. 
Bog-cutting  plow. 
Bott-hamraer. 
Bow.     Ox 
Braking-machine. 
Branding-tool. 
Breast-plow. 
Brier-scytl-.e. 
Broach. 

Broadcast-sower. 
Brui.sing-machine. 
Bnrsh-pullei-. 
Bugg\--culti  vator. 
Bull-nose  ring. 
Bush-harrow. 
Bush-scythe. 
Butter-mold. 
Butter-tongs. 
Butter-worker. 
Calorifier. 
Cane-harvester. 
Cane-scraper. 
Cane-stripper. 
Cattle-feeder. 
Cattle-leader. 


AGRICULTURAL   IMPLEMENTS. 


24 


AGRICULTURAL   IMPLEMENTS. 


Clieese-knife. 

Clmi'se-.slidf. 

Checsu-vat. 

Chessel. 

Chicken-raisiug  appara- 
tus. 

Chopness. 

Clioppcr. 

Churn. 

Chuni-clasher. 

Cliuru-iiower. 

Cidcr-iuill. 

Ciiler-jtress. 

Clevis. 

Clod-cnislipr  • 

Clover-harvester. 

Clover-huller. 

Clover-thrasher. 

Clutch  for  catching  ani- 
mals. 

Cock  le-separator. 

Colter. 

Corn-coverer. 

Corn-crib. 

Corn-cultivator. 

Corn-cutter. 

Corn-harp. 

Corn-harvester. 

Corn-huUer. 

Coni-lnisker. 

Coni-husk  splitter. 

Corn-knife. 

Corn-planter. 

Corn-plow. 

Corn-row  marker. 

Corn-sheller. 

Corn-shocking  machine. 

Corn-stalk  cutter. 

Corn-stripping  knife. 

Cotton-brush  chopper. 

Cotton-chopper. 

Cotton-cultivator. 

Cotton-gin. 

Cotton-picker. 

Cotton-pross. 

Cotton-scraper. 

Cotton-seed  cleaner. 

Cotton-seed  planter. 

Cotton-.seeJ  preparing. 

Cotton-topper. 

Cow-milkor. 

Cradle. 

Cranberry-gatherer. 

Cream  slice. 

C'rooni. 

Cultivator. 

Cultivator  plow. 

Curcvilio-trap. 

Curd-breaker. 

Curd-cutter. 

Cutter.     Harvester 

Cutting-box. 

Diamond  plow. 

Dibble. 

D  ibhl  ing-machine. 

Digger. 

Diggi  iig-machine. 

Ditching-machine. 

Ditching-plow. 

Ditching- tools. 

Double  j>low. 

Douljle-moUl-board  plow. 

Double  shovel  plow. 

Drag. 


Draining-plow. 

Drill.     Barrow. 

Drill.     Grain. 

Drill.     Harrow. 

Dropper. 

Dumping-reel. 

Dunji-fork. 

Dung-hook. 

Edging  shears. 

Egg-liatching  apparatus. 

E.\l>anding  plow. 

Fanuing-mill. 

Feed-bag. 

Feed-eutter. 

Feed-rack. 

Fence. 

Fence-jack. 

Fence-post. 

Fence-])ost  driver. 

Fertilizer-sower. 

Fiddle. 

Finger. 

Flail. 

Flnx-brake. 

Flax-puller. 

Flax-scutcher. 

Flax-thrasher. 

Fla.x-washer. 

Fleece-folder. 

Flower-pot. 

Fork. 

Fork.     Horse  hay- 

Fruit-dryer. 

Fruit-frame. 

Frait-gatherer. 

Fruit-ladder. 

Fruit-picker. 

Fruit-jireserviug  house. 

Fruit-])ress. 

Funiigator. 

Furrowing-plow. 

Gage  wheel. 

Gallows. 

Gang-eultivator. 

Gang-plow. 

Garden  ladder. 

Garden  shears. 

Garden  syringe. 

Garlicseparator. 

Gate. 

Gate-post. 

Gaveling  attachment    for 

harvesters. 
Grafting-chisel. 
Grain-binder. 
Grain-bruiser. 
Grain-cleaner. 
Grain-conveyer. 
Grain-cradle. 
Grain-drill. 
Grain-dryer. 
Grain-folk. 
Grain-harvester. 
Grain-rake. 
Grain-sacker. 
Grain-screen. 
Grain-separator. 
Grain-shovel. 
Grain-thrasher. 
Grain-wheel. 
Graip. 
Granary. 
Oriipery. 
Grape-trellis. 


Grass-harvester. 

Grass-seed  separator. 

Ground  auger. 

Grubber. 

Grubbing-axe. 

Grubbing-hoe. 

Guard  hnger. 

Hackling-machine. 

Hair-clipping  shears. 

Hand-cultivator. 

Hand-planter. 

Harle. 

Harrow. 

Harvester  rake. 

Harvesting-machine. 

Hasp. 

Hay-batul  machine. 

Hay-cutter. 

Hay-fork. 

Hay-knife. 

Hay-loailer. 

Hay-press. 

Hay-rack. 

Hay-rake. 

Hay-raker  and  cocker. 

Hay-spreader. 

Hay-stacker. 

Hay-tedder. 

Hay-unloader. 

Heading-machine. 

Hedge-planter. 

Hedge-clipper. 

Hedge-shears. 

Hedging  tools. 

Hemp-brake. 

Hemp-harvester. 

Hen's-nest. 

Hink. 

Hive. 

Hoe. 

Hoe.     Horse. 

Hoe-plow. 

Hog-elevator. 

Hog-hook. 

Hog-nose-tiimmer. 

Hog-ring. 

Hog-scalding  tub. 

Honey-strainer. 

Hoji-frame. 

Hopple. 

Hop-pole. 

Hop-press. 

Hor.se  hay-fork. 

Horse-hoe. 

Horse-power. 

Horse-rake. 

Horseshoe. 

Hot-bed  frame. 

Humbug. 

Hummeling  machine. 

Hurdle. 

Husker. 

Husking-peg. 

Incubator. 

Insect-exterminator. 

Insect  trap. 

Jum])er. 

Kibbling-niacliine. 

Lactometer. 

Lactoscope. 

Ladder. 

Land-paring  machine. 

Lap-ring. 

Lard-cutter. 


Laril-renderer. 

Lawn-mower. 

Layering  implements. 

Leveler. 

Lime-spreader. 

Manger. 

Manure-drag. 

Manure-drill.     Liquid 

Manure-fork. 

Manure-hook 

Manure-loader. 

JIanure-sprcader. 

Marking-jilow. 

Mattock. 

Maul. 

Milk-can. 

Milk-cooler. 

Milking  apparatus. 

Milk-rack. 

Milk-shelf. 

Milk-strainer. 

Milk-vat. 

Mole-plow. 

Mollebart. 

Moth-trap. 

Mower. 

Muck  -fork. 

Muck-rake. 

Muzzle. 

Nib. 

Osier-peeler. 

Ox-.shoe. 

Ox-yoke.     (See  Yoke.) 

Paring- plow. 

Peanut-digger. 

Pea-rake. 

Peat-macliine. 

Peeling-iron. 

Pickaxe. 

Picker.     Cotton 

Picket. 

Pitchfork. 

Planter. 

Plow  (varieties ;  see  Plow). 

Plow-cleaner. 

Poke. 

Portable  fence. 

Post-auger. 

Post-driver.    ■ 

Post-liole  borer. 

Post-hole  digger. 

Post-jack. 

Post-puller. 

Potato-digger. 

Potato-hook. 

Potato-planter. 

Potato-scoop. 

Potato-separator. 

Poultry-feeder. 

Powder-blower. 

Prairie-plow. 

Propaga  t  i  ng-box. 

Pruning-shears. 

Pruning-tools. 

Rack. 

Rake. 

Raker  and  loader. 

Rake-harvester. 

Rake.     Horse  hay. 

Reaper. 

Reaping-hook. 

Reaping-machine. 

Reel.      Harvester 

Reversible  plow, 


AGRICULTURAL  STEAM-ENGINE. 


ZO 


AIE   APPLIANCES. 


Kice-eleaner. 
Riddle. 

Ridging-plow. 
Ripple. 

Roller.     Land 
Root-bruiser. 
Root-cutter. 
Root-digger. 
Root-gi'inder. 
Root- washer. 
Rotary  cultivator. 
Rotary  digger. 
Rotary  harrow. 
Rotary  plow. 
Rotary  spader. 
Rudder. 
Sap-bucket. 
Sap-bucket  hook. 
Sap-spile. 
Scarifier. 
Scoop. 
Scraper. 
Scuffle-hoe. 
Scuffler. 
Scythe. 
Seed-drill. 
SeetHng-maeliine. 
Seeding-plow. 
Seed-planter. 
Seed-sower. 
Separator. 
Share. 

Shears.     Pruning 
Shears.     Sheep. 
Sheep-dipping  apparatus. 
Sheep-foot  trimmer. 
Sheep-holder. 
Sheep-rack. 

Sheep-shearing  machine. 
•Sheep-shearing  table. 
Sheep-shears. 
Sheep- washing  apparatus. 
Slieller.     Com 
Shovel. 
Shovel  plow. 
Sickle. 

Side-hill  plow. 
Single-shovel  plow. 
Skeleton  plow. 
Skid. 

Skim-colter  plow. 
Skinning  apparatus. 
Slaughtering  apparatus. 
Smoke-house. 
Smut-machine. 
Snath. 
Snouter. 
Snout-i-ing. 
Snow-shovel. 
Sod -cutter. 
Sod-plow. 

Sorghum-evaporator, 
oorghura-stripper. 
Sower. 
Spade. 


Spading-machine. 

Spud. 

Stable-cleaner. 

Stack-borer. 

Stacker. 

Stacking  derrick. 

Stack-stand. 

Staddle. 

Stalk-cutter. 

Stalk-puller. 

Stall. 

Steam-engine.  Agricultu- 
ral 

Stcam-jilow. 

Stock-feeder. 

Stocks  for  refractory  ani- 
mals. 

Stone-boat. 

Stone-gatherer. 

Straddle-plow. 

Straw-carrier. 

Straw-cutter. 

Stubble-turner. 

Stump-extractor. 

Subsoil  plow. 

Susar-cane  jdanter. 

Sulky  plow. 

Sward-cutter. 

Swather. 

Sweet-potato  cultivator. 

Swing-moldboard  plow. 

Swing  plow. 

Tedder. 

Tether. 

Thatching. 

Thistle-digger. 

Thi-asher. 

Tobacco-curing  apparatus. 

Tormentor. 

Track-clearer. 

Transplanter. 

Treble-shovel  plow. 

Tree-digger. 

Tree-protector. 

Tree-remover. 

Tree-scraper. 

Trellis. 

Trowel. 

Turf-cutter. 

Turnip- puller. 

Turnwrest  plow. 

Vegetable-chopper. 

Vegetablc-slicer. 

Vegetable-washer. 

AVeediug-hoe. 

Wheel- colter 

Wheel-cultivator. 

"VVheel-plow. 

Whitening-machine. 

AVillow-peelcr. 

Winnowiug-machine. 

Wool-packer. 

AVool-packing  table. 

AVool-press. 

Yoke. 


Ag'ri-cult'ur-al  Steam'-en'gine.  A  steam- 
engine  specitically  adapted  for  use  in  thrashing  and 
some  other  fai'm  operations.  Its  principal  peculiar- 
ity consists  in  compactness  and  portability.  See 
Por.T.\BLF.  Stf.am-E.vgine. 

Aich's  Met'al.  An  alloy  of  copper,  zinc,  and 
iron,  used  for  guns.     Patented  in  England,  Febru- 


ary  3,   1860,   by   Johann   Aich,   Imperial   Arsenal, 
Venice.     It  is  composed  as  follows  :  — 
Copper,      .         .     60. 
Zinc,       .         .         38.125 
Iron,  .         .       1.5 

It  resembles  the  Keir  metal,  English  patent,  De- 
cember 10,  1779,  which  ha.s,  — 

Copper,   .         .     100  )  (  100 

Zinc,    .         .  7.'i  ■    or,    •     80 

Iron,        .         .       10  )  ( .  10 

Also  the  sterro-metal  of  Rosthorn,  Austria,   1S61, 
which  ha.s,  — 

Copper,     .         .     55.04  \ 
Tin,       .         .  0.83  I 

Zinc,         .         .     42.36  ( 
Iron,     .         .  1.77  ) 

Austrian  navy  brass  has,  — 

Copper,       .  .      60. 

Zinc,       .         .         38.12 
Iron,  .         .       1.8 

Chinese  Packfong  has,  — 

Copper,       .         .     40.04 
Zinc,       .         .         25.4 
Iron,  .         .       2.6 

Nickel,  .         .         31.6 


57.63 

I    0.15 

I  40.22 

1.86 


See  Allot. 
Ai'guille. 

boring  tool 


A  needle.  Among  masons,  a  stone- 
A  priming-wire. 
Aim-front  let.  A  ]>iece  of  wood  hollowed  out  to 
tit  the  muzzle  of  a  gun,  so  as  to  make  it  level  with 
the  breech,  formerly  in  use  among  gunners.  Wood- 
en front-sights  on  a  similar  principle  are  still  used 
on  board  ship  in  ease  of  emergency,  as  when  an  acci- 
dent occurs  to  the  proper  metal  sights. 
Air    and   Steam   En'gine.    See  Aiino-STEAM 

EXGIXE. 


Air  Appliances  and 

Acetifier. 

Acoustic  instruments. 

Acoustic  telegraph. 

JEo\vlS. 

Aerator. 

Aerial  railway. 

Aero  -  hydro  -  dynamic 
wheel. 

Aerostat. 

Aero-steam-engine. 

Air  and  steam  engine. 

Air  as  a  means  of  trans- 
mitting power. 

Air  as  a  water-elevator. 

Air-bath. 

Air  bed  and  cushion. 

Air-blast. 

Air-brick. 

Air-carbureting. 

Air-casing. 

Air-chamber  for  pumps. 

Air-com  pressing  machine. 

Air-cooling  apparatus. 

Air-cushion  for  pipes. 

Air-drain. 

Air-drill. 

Air-engine. 

Air-escape. 

Air-e.xhauster. 

Air-filter. 

Air-fountain. 

Air-grating. 

Air-gun. 

Air-heater. 

Air-holder. 

Air-jacket. 


Maclainery. 

-\ir-level. 

Air-lock. 

Air-machine. 

Air-meter. 

Airohydrogen  blow-pipe. 

Airometer. 

Air-pipe. 

Air-poise. 

Air-pressure  filter. 

Air-]iump. 

Air-regulator 

Air-scuttle. 

Air-shaft. 

Air-spring. 

Air-stove. 

Air-thermometer. 

Air-trap. 

Air-trunk. 

Air-tube  for  convej'ance. 

Air-valve. 

Air-vessel.        • 

Anemogi'aph. 

Anemometer. 

Anemoscope. 

Aspirator. 

Atmospheric  alarm. 

Atmospheric  churn. 

Atmospheric  engine. 

Atmo.spheric  governor. 

Atmospheric  hanmier. 

Atmospheric  railway. 

Atmospheric  spring. 

Atomizer. 

Auricle. 

Balloon. 

Bellows. 


AIR  AS  A   POWER. 


2G 


AIR  AS  A   POWER. 


Blast. 

BliiBt-macliine. 

Blast-nozzle. 

Blower. 

Blowing-machine. 

BloHini,'-tut)e. 

Bli)W-iii|)i'. 

Caloric  engine. 

Captive  balloon. 

Carbonic-aciil  engine. 

Carbureting-niacbine. 

Car-ventilator. 

Cold-blast. 

Coni]>ress«l-air  engine. 

Cu]iiiiiig-|)um]). 

Cylinder  blower. 

Detonating  tube. 

Dispateh-tube. 

Diffn»ion-tiibe. 

Disinfecting  ap])aratus. 

Ear.     Artificial 

Ear  cornet. 

Ear  instruments. 

Ear-tnimpet. 

Eccentric  I'an-blower. 

Ejector. 

Eudiometer. 

Exhaust  fan. 

Fan. 

Fan-blower. 

Fanner. 

Fanning-machiue. 

Fanning-niill. 

Fan-ventilator. 

Fire-extinguisher. 

Flighter.  ' 

Flying-machine. 

Foot-t)el!ows. 

Fumigator. 

Graduator. 

Gunpowder  engine. 

Hydrostatic  bellows. 

Inhaler. 

Insect  exterminator. 

Insufflator. 

Leech.     Artificial 

Life-preserver. 

Magdeburg  hemispheres. 

Mulguf. 

Organ. 

Parachute. 

Pneumatic  drill. 


Pneumatic  lever. 
Pneumatic  pile. 
Pneumatic  jmmp. 
Pneumatic  railway. 
Pneumatic  spring. 
Pneumatic  trough. 
Pneumatic  tube. 
Pneumatic     tubular     dis- 
patch. 
Pneumatic  valve. 
Pneumatometer. 
Punkah. 
Respirator. 
Rotary  blower. 
Rotary  fan. 
Sand-bellows. 
Sand-blower. 
Screw  ventilator. 
Sirene. 
Smoke-jack. 
Sonifer. 
Sonometer. 
Sound-board. 
Speaking-tube. 
Speaking-trumpet. 
Spirometer. 
Stench-trap. 

Thermometric  ventilator. 
Tonometer. 
Torricellian  vacuum. 
Trompe. 
Tuyere. 

Vacuum  apparatus. 
Vacuum-filter. 
Vacuum-gage. 
Vacuum-pan. 
Vacuum-pump. 
Vane. 

Ventilating  millstones. 
Ventilator. 
Water-bellows. 
Wind-car. 
Wind-chest. 
AVind-cutter. 
Wind-furnace. 
Wind-gage. 
Windmill. 
Windmill-propeller. 
Wind-pump. 
AVind-sail. 
Wind-trunk. 
Wind-wheel. 


Air  as   a  Means   of  transmitting   Power. 

So  far  as  our  information  extends,  the  first  person 
to  use  compressed  air  as  a  means  of  transmitting 
power  was  that  ingi/nious  Frenchman,  Dr.  Pa]iin 
of  Blois,  about  A.  D.  1700.  We  shall  have  occa- 
sion to  refm-  to  him  in  the  History  of  the  Steam- 
Engine.  He  was  the  first  to  apply  a  piston  in 
the  steam-cylinder,  and  was  the  inventor  of  the 
digester,  and  the  steelyard  safety-valve,  —  the  best 
and   sini|ili'st  efiVctive  form  yet  devised. 

Pa]iin  usi'd  a  fall  of  water  to  compress  air  into  a 
cylinder,  and  led  it  thence  by  a  pipe  a  distance  of  a 
mile.  Having  reached  its  destination,  it  was  em- 
ployed to  drive  a  piston  in  a  cylinder,  the  power 
being  intended  to  work  a  pump.  The  distance,  the 
friction,  and  the  leakage  were  too  much  for  the 
Doctor,  anil  the  inversicm  of  the  process,  making  the 
primaiy  engine  exhaust  instead  of  condensing,  lia<l 
no  better  efi'ei't.  Thinking  that  it  was  the  volume 
of  air  in  the  pipe  whieli  maile  the  second  cylinder 
unresponsive  to  the  action  of  the  primary  cylinder, 


he  reduced  the  size  of  the  pipe,  but  still  the  pump- 
ing-machine  would  not  move.  In  Auvergne  and 
Westphalia  the  project  was  tried  on  an  extensive 
scale,  attempts  being  made  to  drain  mines  by  these 
means. 

About  one  hundered  years  after  the  experiment 
of  the  philosopher  of  Blois,  a  Welsh  engineer  used 
the  power  derived  from  a  heavy  fall  of  water  to 
work  a  blowing-cylinder  from  which  air  was  con- 
veyed to  a  bla.st-furnace  a  distance  of  a  mile  and  a 
half.     The  resulting  blast  was  feeble. 

Some  forty  years  since,  a  iMr.  Hague  took  out  an 
English  i)atent  for  the  appliratitui  oi  ci>uipressed 
air  to  working-cranes,  hoisting-machines,  and  other 
machinery.  The  air  was  compresseil  by  an  air-pnnip 
at  a  central  location,  and  the  air  conducted  by  pipes 
to  the  cranes  and  other  machinery  of  a  series  of 
docks  and  warehouses. 

The  same  inventor  also  applied  an  air-exhaust  to 
raising  a  tilt-hammer.  See  At.muspheiuc  H.^m- 
.MKi:. 

The  subjoined  cut  has  a  remarkably  unpromising 
look,  but  must  net  be  condemned  because  it  resem- 

Fig.  57. 


Caiies^s  Aero-hydro-dynamic  Wheel. 


bles  at  first  sight  one  attempt  at  the  chimerical  and 
impossible  "perpetual  motion." 

It  is  one  mode  of  transmitting  power  by  means 
of  condensed  air. 

Tlu'  following  is  from  the  Journal  of  the  Society 
of  (Jerman  Engineers,  and  describes  the  ajiparatus 
represented  in  the  cut,  the  invention  of  Jl.  Calles 
of  Belgium  :  — 

"It  consists  mainly  of  a  wheel  adapted  with 
buckets  similar  to  those  in  an  ordinary  water-wheel, 
and  completely  immersed  in  a  tank  filled  with 
water.  This  wheel  carries  a  toothed  inner  rim, 
which  works  a  pinion  adapted  to  the  transmission- 
shaft. 

"  Most  transient  visitors  to  the  Paris  Exposition, 
as  they  walkeil  past  this  contrivance,  liardly  gave 
it  a  look,  believing  that  it  was  the  pinion  that 
gave  motion  to  the  wheel,  and  considered  it  as  some 
.sort  of  stirring  or  washing  nuichim- ;  but  the  inverse 
was  in  reality  the  case,  as  it  was  the  immersed 
wheel  which  "gave  motion  to  the  pinion  by  the 
direct  action  of  slightly  compressed  air. 


AIR   AS   A   POWER. 


AIR  AS  A   POWER. 


"The  general  disposition  of  parts  will  be  readily 
understood  by  reference  to  the  diagram  ;  — 

"  The  diameter  of  tlie  wlieel  exhibited  was  9  feet ; 
its  breadth  4i.  It  carried  30  Imckets,  curved  in 
such  a  manner  that  13  of  them  (ligured  to  the  left) 
always  retained  a  certain  quantitj'  of  air  in  their 
upper  portion. 

"  The  air  was  introduced  under  the  bottom  of  the 
wheel,  tlivough  a  curved  pijie.  The  air  thus  blown 
into  the  buckets  had  naturally  a  tendency  to  gain 
the  surface  of  the  water  witli  a  force  equivalent  to 
the  weight  of  displaced  water,  and  tliis  u])ward  ten- 
dency caused  the  rotation  of  the  xvlieel,  and  at  the 
same  time  brought  back  tlie  discliarged  buckets 
successively  before  the  orifice  of  the  tuyere. 

"The  wheel  made  six  revolutions  jier  minute,  so 
that  three  buckets  were  fiUeil  with  air  every  second. 

"The  air  rushed  with  a  velocity  of  32  metres  per 
second  through  a  pipe  0.095  nx-tres  in  diameter. 
The  quantity  discharged  was  consequently  0.227 
cubic  metres  per  second,  equivalent  to  0.075  cubic 
metres  for  each  bucket  or  cell.  During  every  sec- 
ond of  time,  13  buckets  were  thus  partly  KUed  with 
air,  their  total  capacity  being  0.983  cubic  metres. 
The  same  bulk  of  water  being  displaced,  a  constant 
power  of  approximately  983  kilogrammes,  or  2,163 
lbs.,  per  second  was  obtained. 

"The  internal  diameter  of  the  wheel  being  2. 26 
metres,  its  annular  surface  3.05,  and  its  width  1.5, 
it  is  readily  computed  that  the  30  buckets  occupied 
a  space  of  4.585  cubic  metres,  and  that  each  cell 
cubed  0.153  cubic  metres, — a  portion  of  which 
space,  equivalent  to  one  half,  or  to  0.075,  alone 
containeil  air. 

"If  the  application  of  force  be  supposed  to  have 
been  applied  at  one  quarter  of  the  depth  of  the 
wdieel  under  water  as  an  average,  then  the  speed 
of  any  point  of  its  surface  would  have  been  2.445  x 
6  X  w  -i-  ti0  =  0.77  metres  =  30  inches. 

"Multiplying  this  speed  by  the  983  kilogramme- 
tres,  we  tind  the  power  transmitted  per  second  to 
have  amounted  to  757  kilogi-ammetres.  If  we  de- 
duct herefrom  20  per  cent  for  losses  by  friction, 
reaction  of  water,  etc.,  there  remain  606  kilogiam- 
metres,  or  260,000  foot-pounds,  as  availalile  work- 
ing-power per  minute,  —  equivalent  to  an  8-horse 
power. 

"  The  forcing  of  the  air  was  effected  by  means  of  a 
9.J-horse  steam-engine,  —  tlie  compression  of  the  air 
being  one  quarter  of  an  atmosphere.  In  the  exam- 
ple exhibited,  83  per  cent  of  tlie  power  of  tlie  engine 
was  thus  transmitted  to  the  wheel,  and  this  through 
a  ]iipe  510  feet  long  and  presenting  14  cUiows. 

*'  The  above-described  new  method  of  transmission 
of  motion  may  prove  of  very  great  value  in  many 
situations  where  tlie  application  of  belts  and  shaft- 
in^',  jiarallel  motions,  such  as  are  used  in  mines,  and 
other  similar  contrivances,  is  impracticable.  It 
might  also  be  apjilied  with  success  to  the  driving 
of  machinery  in  cities  for  the  smaller  branches  of 
industry,  —  the  compressed  air  in  such  a  case  being 
conveyed  through  mains  and  pipes  laid  below  the 
sui'face  of  the  streets  in  the  same  manner  as  is  at 
present  practised  for  our  water  and  gas  supplies." 

By  reference  to  Wrr.E  Rope,  several  instances 
may  be  found  where  jiower  is  transmitted  to  a  dis- 
tance much  lieyond  what  is  possible  witli  belting 
or  shafting,  the  ordinary  expedients.  In  one  case, 
at  Frankfort  on  the  Main,  the  power  is  thus  trans- 
mitted 3,200  feet.  In  a  second  case,  at  Schaflhausen, 
in  Switzerland,  the  power  of  a  number  of  turliines, 
amounting  in  the  aggregate  to  600-horse  i>ower.  is 
transmitted  more  than  a  mile,  crossing  tlie  river 
Rhine  to  the  place  where  the  power  is  to  be  distributed. 


Machinery  in  mines  and  tunnels  is  frec|Uently 
driven  by  the  power  of  compressed  air,  which  is 
condensed  into  a  reservoir  by  steam  or  water  power 
on  the  surface  of  the  giound,  and  conducted  by  pijics 
to  the  deep-seated  spot  where  the  drill  or  mining- 
machine  is  at  work. 

"At  Mont  Cenis  the  air-pipes  must  be  as  much 
as  five  miles  in  lengtli,  and  tlie  loss  of  pressure  is 
not  sucli  as  to  impair  the  working  of  tlie  drills  ;  hut 
I  am  without  accurate  information  as  to  its  extent. 
At  Hoosac  they  are  one  and  a  half  miles  long,  and 
the  lo.ss  is  two  pounds  to  tlie  square  inch.  At 
Nesquehoning  they  are  one  third  of  a  mile  in 
length,  and  there  is  no  apjirccialile  loss  of  pressure. 
In  this  case  the  air  is  worked  at  about  fifty  pounds 
per  square  inch  ;  and  the  difi'erence  in  jircssure  at 
the  steam-valves,  when  the  power  is  generated,  and 
the  air  after  it  is  compressed,  may  be  taken  at 
about  ten  per  cent  when  the  best  compressors  are 
used.  It  will  then  be  seen  that  the  loss  of  power 
from  the  friction  of  the  compressing  machinery,  and 
from  the  movement  of  air  in  t!ie  jiijics,  is  not  of  a 
very  serious  character,  and,  if  the  iii|ies  are  tight, 
the  pressure  is  well  maintained  while  the  machinery 
is  standing."  —  Steele. 

"  The  compression  of  the  air  by  which  the  drills  at 
the  Hoosac  Tunnel  are  driven  is  eticcted  at  tlie  east 
end  of  the  tunnel  by  water-power  ;  four  20-liorse 
turbines  being  employed,  which  operate  sixteen  air- 
pum]is,  each  of  13.i-incli  bore  and  20-incli  stroke. 

"  Tlie  air  is  compressed  to  65  pounds  to  the  square 
inch,  or  a  little  over  four  atmospheres,  and  con- 
ducted through  an  S-inch  cast-iron  pipe  to  tlie  drills 
,nt  tlie  tunnel  heading,  wliere  branch  pipes  connect 
several  drill-cylinders  witli  this  8-iiich  pipe.  With 
six  of  the  drills  at  work  and  making  250  strokes 
per  minute,  the  gage  on  the  air-jiipe  at  the  heading 
of  the  tunnel  shows  a  pressure  of  63  jiounds  against 
65  pounds  at  the  pump-rooms,  one  mile  and  a  half 
distant." 

"The  engineers  of  the  Mont  Cenis  Tunnel  have 
expressed  themselves  strongly  in  favor  of  the  view 
that  the  plan  is  truly  economical,  and  as  their 
experience  in  the  use  of  this  form  of  applying  power 
has  been  larger  than  any  which  has  been  el.sewliere 
enjoyed,  their  statements  ileserve  consideration.  At 
the  date  of  the  report  on  the  progiess  of  the  work 
in  the  tunnel  during  the  year  1803,  they  were 
engaged  at  a  distance  of  nearly  two  thousand 
metres  from  their  reservoirs  of  condensed  air, 
and  were  driving  nine  borers  with  a  force  of  2J- 
horse  power  each.  The  tube  conveying  the  air  to 
the  perfoi-atoi-s  was  two  decimetres  (nearly  eight 
inches)  in  diameter.  The  air  was  under  a  jiressure 
of  six  atmospheres,  and  its  velocity  in  the  tube  was 
nine  decimetres  (three  feet)  jier  second.  The  trans- 
mission of  the  power  to  this  distance,  and  under 
these  conditions,  was  attended  with  no  sensible  loss. 
The  pressure  was  not  perccjitilily  less  at  the  work- 
ing extremity  of  the  tulie  when  all  the  perforators- 
were  in  operation  than  when  the  machinery  was 
entirely  at  rest. 

"A  series  of  ex])eriinents  was  instituted  in  1837, 
by  order  of  the  Italian  government,  to  detcmiine 
the  resistance  of  tubes  to  the  tlow  of  air  through 
them.  These  experiments  were  made  jireviously  to 
the  commencement  of  the  work  upon  the  tunnel, 
and  while  the  feasibility  of  employing  comiiressed 
air  to  furnish  the  inotive-jiower  of  the  boring  appa- 
ratus was  considered  still  questionable.  It  was  tl  e 
aim  of  the  investigation  not  merely  to  ascertain  tlie 
absolute  loss  of  force  occurring  in  the  transmission 
of  air  through  tubes  of  certain  particular  dimen- 
sions,   but  to  determine,   if   possible  what  are  tlie 


AIR   AS  A   WATER  ELEVATOR. 


28 


AIR   AS  A   WATER  ELEVATOR. 


laws  wliioh  govern  the  variations  of  rpsista;ice, 
when  the  velocities  of  flow  and  the  dianieter.s  of 
the  tubes  ari^  varied.  From  tlie  results  of  the  e.\- 
perinients  were  deduced  tlie  three  conelusions  i'ol- 
lowing,  namely,  — 

"  1.  The  resistanee  is  directly  as  the  length  of  the 
tube. 

"II.  It  is  directly  as  the  square  of  the  velocity 
of  flow. 

"III.  It  is  inversely  as  the  diameter  of  the  tube." 
See  licpirrf'  of  iJr.  Barnard,  United  States  Coinntis- 
sioucr  at  the  Paris  Exposition. 

This    great    work    is    hajipily   completed.       See 

Tl-Xi\F.L. 

in  the  Verpilleux  puniji,  water  is  made  the  means 
of  transmitting  power.     See  FoitcK-PuMr. 

The  transmission  of  power  by  means  of  compressed 
air  has  now  become  an  established  fact,  notwith- 
standing the  clear  decision  which  was  rendered 
against  it,  from  the  sui)iiose<l  nature  of  the  case  and 
the  princi]iles  involved.  Its  use  in  the  Hoosac  and 
JMont  Cenis  Tunnels  in  driving  the  boring-ma- 
chines is  refenvd  to  under  Tii.NNEL.  Its  use  in  the 
Govan  Colliery,  Scotland,  is  referred  to  under 
Aiit-CoitriiE.ssiNG  Machine.s.  See  also  Air-En- 
GiNE,  CoMi'UE.'iSEl).  Its  usc  as  a  liquid  elevator  is 
considered  in  the  next  article. 
Air  as  a  Water  Elevator,  Compressed.  Tlie 
first  attempt  to  raiscwater 
Fig.  58.  by  the  pressure  of  a  body 

of  compres.sed  air,  so  far 
as  our  present  information 
extends,  was  that  by  Dr. 
I'apin,  of  Blois,  France, 
about  1U9.5.  His  experi- 
ments were  particularly 
directed  to  utilizing  the 
power  of  a  fall  of  water 
in  compressing  air  which 
was  conveyed  a  mile  or 
more  to  a  cylinder  at  the 
mine,  where  it  was  in- 
tended to  work  a  pump 
by  reciprocating  a  piston 
in  the  manner  of  a  steam- 
engine.  The  experiment 
failed,  as  has  been  already 
.stated  (see  Alll  AS  A 
Means  of  Tn.\NSMiTTiNG 
Power),  but  has  .since 
been  successful  in  operat- 
ing rock-drills  at  Hoosac 
Mountain,  Mont  Cenis, 
'  and  many  other  places. 
It  does  not  appear  that 
Dr.  Pajiin  tried  the  direct 
pressure  of  a  body  of  air 
upon  the  water  ;  in  a 
manner  similar  to  thepress- 
ure  of  steam  upon  the  sur- 
face of  the  water  in  the 
so-called  steam-engines  of 
Baptista  Porta,  ]  600  ;  Be 
Cans,  l()-20  ;  Marquis  of 
Worcester,  leS.")  ;  Savery, 
KiflS.  SeeSTEAM-ExoiNE. 
For  many  years  past 
— probably  a  century  or 
more  —  water-elevators  operating  by  condensed  air 
have  been  used  at  the  mines  of  Chemnitz  in  Hun- 
gary. A  high  column  of  water  is  used  to  eondensi^ 
a  column  of  air  in  a  pipe,  so  that  the  |iower  of 
the  apjiaratus  is  proportioned  to  the  vertiial  height 
of  the  fall  which  is  available.     In  the  mountainous 


Ui^miiitz   Wntir-Elfvator. 


districts  of  Central  Europe  some  remarkable  falls 
are  thus  utilized,  some  of  which  are  referred  to 
under  Turbi.ne.  In  the  Black  Forest  of  Baden 
turbines  are  running  with  i'alls  of  72  and  3.'i4  feet, 
and  having  diameters  of  from  20  to  13  imdies  re- 
spectively. 

In  the  figure,  the  rertieal  elevation  is  out  of  all 
proportion  small,  but  the  jirinciple  involved  is  not 
att'ected  thereby.  It  should  be  undeistood  that  the 
height  of  the  fall  above  the  surface  of  the  ground 
should  be  as  great  as  the  depth  below  the  surface 
of  the  grounil  of  the  water  to  be  elevated.  If  the 
fall  be  in  excess  of  the  lift,  so  much  the  better. 

a  is  the  shaft  of  the  mine,  and  c  the  surface  of  the 
earth  ;  d  is  the  penstock  of  the  water  at  the  top  of 
the  fall,  and  k  the  pipe  which  leads  the  water  to  the 
air-tiglit  box/ at  the  surface  of  the  ground.  The 
closed  box/ communicates  by  an  air-]iipe  with  the 
air-tight  box  e  which  is  submerged  in  the  sinnp-hole 
at  the  bottom  of  the  mini'.  The  eduction  water- 
pipe  /(  has  its  lower  end  submerged  in  the  water  of 
the  box  e,  and  conducts  the  water  to  the  surface  c 
when  the  apparatus  is  in  action.  A  cock  I  m  the 
fall-pipe  k  is  closed  or  opened  as  the  alternating  to 
be  described  requires.  Tlie  box  /  has  also  cocks 
at  in  and  «,  and  tlie  box  e  an  inlet  valve  y  on  its 
bottom. 

The  operation  is  as  follows  :  — 

The  cocks  I  and  m  being  closed,  the  cock  n  is 
opened  to  allow  the  air  to  escape  from  box  c  and  the 
water  to  flow  thereinto  by  the  valve-way  rj.  The 
cock  n  is  then  shut,  the  water-cock  I  opened,  when 
the  column  of  water  in  the  pipe  k  will  fill  the  chest/, 
expelling  the  air  therein  and  driving  it  down  the  pipe 
i  into  the  box  c,  expelling  the  water  therefrom  to  a 
certain  extent,  that  is,  until  the  pressure  of  the  con- 
densed air  in  the  box  c  is  eipialled  by  the  weight  of 
the  vertical  column  in  the  discharge-pipe  h  ;  which 
should  have  a  valve  at  its  lower  end  opening  upward- 
ly. The  cock  I  is  now  closed  and  the  cock  m  opened, 
allowing  the  water  to  run  out  of  the  bo.x  /  and  the 
air  from  c  to  fill  box  /,  while  water  enters  the  lower 
box  by  valve-way  ;/.  The  cock  in  lieing  closed  and 
the  cock  I  opened,  the  air  is  again  forced  from  /  into 
e,  rejieating  the  process  just  described. 

An  early  example  of  raising  water  by  the  dejec- 
tion of  a  condensed  body  of  air  is  the  patent  of  Up- 
HAM,  January  6,  1809,  of  which  the  annexed  cut  is 
an  illustration. 

Fig.  59. 


Uphant^s  Pump, 

Pressure  on  the  bellows  injects  a  body  of  air  into 
the  chamber  A  in  the  well,  and  drives  a  body  of  wa- 
ter from  thence  through  the  eduction -pipe  which 
leads' to  the  discharge  above  the  surface  of  the 
ground.     When  the  bellows  is  raised,  the  valve  at 


AIR  AS   A   WATER   ELEVATOR. 


29 


AIR  AS  A  WATER   ELEVATOR. 


the  foot  of  the  eduction-pipe  closes  and  water  enters 
the  chamber  by  the  induction-valve.  The  repeti- 
tion of  the  motion  again  ejects  water,  and  so  on. 
The  required  degree  of  pressure  in  the  air-chamber 
is  attained  by  means  of  an  air-v.alve  in  the  bellows  ; 
after  that,  if  the  level  of  the  water  remain  the  same, 
the  same  body  of  air  is  made  the  agent,  by  its  verti- 
cal pulsations,  of  ejecting  the  water. 

The  use  of  compressed  air  in  forcing  Iviuids  from 
deep  wells  or  shafts  has  received  a  great  accession 
from  the  oil  enterprises  in  Western  Pennsylvania 
and  other  places. 

Perhaps  as  many  as  fifty  patents 
have  been  granted  for  various  forms 
of  Ejectohs,  the  different  forms  of 
which  will  be  considered  under  that 
title.  These  are  founded  on  the 
same  principle  as  the  Giffard  in- 
jector ,  which  is  a  favorite  device  for 
boiler  supply.  In  the  ejectors  an 
annular  stream  of  fluid  under  com- 
pression (air  or  steam)  is  emitted 
around  an  axial  nozzle  communicat- 
ing with  the  liijuid  to  be  moved  ; 
or,  conversely,  a  central  stream  of 
compressed  Hr.id  to  propel  a  film  of 
li'iuid  through  an  annular  open- 
ing. 

In  the  deep  oil-wells,  which  con- 
sist of  a  vertical  sliaft  of  a  few  inches' 
diameter  and  several  hundred  feet 
Mowbray^s  Ejector,  depth,  it  is  advisable  to  have  all  the 
apparatus  included  witliiu  a  single 
tube  as  in  the  two  following  cases  :  — 

MowBKAY,  December  13,  1864.  The  current  of 
compressed  air  from  the  engine  above  descends  the 
middle  pipe  B,  and  is  emitted  at  the  annular  open- 
ing between  the  cup  a  and  the  bulb  b  on  the  central 
pipe.  The  area  of  the  annular  opening  is  adjust- 
able, and  the  effect  of  the  emission  of  the  stream  of 
compressed  air  is  to  draw  up  the  liquid  from-  the 

Fig.  62 


Fig.  61. 


Fig  63. 


nsi^r  and  Croch- 
er's  Ejector. 


space  C,  and  elevate  it  to  the  surface  through  the 
space  iuterveniug  between  the  tubes  B  and  A. 

AXGiEU  AXD  Crockee,  De- 
cember 13,  1S6-1,  have  a  de- 
vice for  the  same  purpose. 
Fig.  61  shows  a  section  of  the 
well  in  which  the  seed-bag  i  i 
{see  Well-ti'DE  Packing)  is 
shown.  Its  purpose  is  to  pre- 
vent the  descent  of  the  water 
from  above  to  the  bottom  of 
the  well  whence  the  supply  of 
oil  is  drawn.  The  bullions 
deflector  and  encircling  cup 
are  arranged  for  action  as  de- 
scribed in  the  preceding  case. 
B  is  the  air-descending,  A  the 
oil-ascending  space.  J''  is  a 
perforated  tubular  foot  for  the 
well-tube. 

AxdiEK  AXD  Crocker,  Oc- 
tober 11,  1864.  Fig.  62.  The 
current  of  compressed  air 
passes  down  the  tube  /  e, 
whose  lower  end  is  recurved 
ujiwardly  and  ends  in  a  small 
orifice  at  which  the  air  is 
emitted.  As  the  air  passes  McEniglifs  Waier-Raisrr. 
through  the  throat  d  into  the 

pipe  i,  it  tends  to  produce  a  partial  vacuum  in  its 
rear,     and  > 

draws  an  an-  ^'S-  64. 

nular  film  of 
water  with 
it  from  tlie 
space  A  at 
the  bottom 
of  the  well. 
The  action 
is  tlie  same 
as  in  the 
former  case, 
except  that 
in  this  the 
moving  fluid 
is  a  jet  cen- 
tral to  the 
film  of  water 
moved  by  it. 
and  in  tlie 
preceding 
cases  the  air 


An^er  and  Crock^'.'i  Ejector. 


and  oil  were  annular  adja- 
cent films.  The  double  set 
of  pipes  in  the  case  under 
consideration  and  in  the 
next  following  are  not  so 
convenient  in  shafts  of 
great  depth  and  minimum 
diameter. 

McKxiGHT,  November 
1,  1864.  Fig.  63.  This  is 
an  ejector  like  the  former, 
but  adapted  to  a  position 
where  a  lower  chamber  A  is 
not  fatal  to  its  appliciation. 
The  air  or  steam  pipe  C  B 
recurves  upwardly  and  pen- 
etrates the  throat  of  the 
eduction-pipe  D,  wlrich  the 
water  ascends. 

While  these  devices  prop- 
erly belong  to  Ejectoes, 
which    ai'e    considered    at 


Pcfase'»  Oil-Sector. 


AIR  AS  A  "WATER  ELEVATOR. 


30 


AIR-BATH. 


greiiter  length  under  that  title,  it  will  be  useful  to 
give  a  .slight  sketch  of  tlie  modes  of  utilizing  the 
compressed  air,  the  suhjei-t-njatter  of  this  article. 

The  ejectors  descriU'd  aie  direct-acting  an<l  the 
pressure  continuous.  It  remains  to  cite  one  or  two 
employing  the  pulsative  or  alternate  action  of  air. 
This  is  accomplished  by  alternate  jiressure  and 
e-vhaust,  and  is  claimed  to  be  very  eflective. 

Pe.\se,  March  23,  1865.  The  current  of  air  is 
made  to  oscillate  in  the  downcast  tube,  acting  like 
an  elastic  piston  in  its  effects  upon  the  contents  of 
the  chamber  ..•/',  which  is  i)laced  low  down  in  the 
well  ./.  Fig.  64.  The  upiicrend  of  the  jiijic  is  con- 
necteil  alternately  with  two  cylinders,  in  one  of 
which  is  a  body  of  compressed  air,  while  in  the  other 
is  a  partial  vacuum  ;  the  exhaust  and  pressure  of 
the  respective  vessels  being  etl'ected  by  an  air-pump. 
The  rock-bar  b  is  oscillated  on  its  pivot,  and  acts 
alternately  upon  the  valves,  bringing  the  j)ipe  a 
in  ciinnection  with  the  pressure  and  exhaust  in 
turn,  and  giving  the  pulsative  movement  to  the  col- 
umn of  air  in  the  pipe:  As  the  air  rises  therein, 
the  induction-valve  (/,  at  the  foot  of  the  clnimber, 
lifts  and  admits  oil  from  the  well  to  the  chamber 
yl',  and  as  the  eoluum  of  air  descends,  the  said  valve 
closes  and  the  oil  is  raised  through  the  ])ipe  m,  the 
valve  n  rising  to  allow  it  to  pass  to  the  upward 
discharge-pipe  c.  The  seed-bag  d  acts  as  a  packing 
between  the  exterior  pipe  and  the  wall  of  the  well, 
and  prevents  access  of  water  from  fissures  to  the 
water,  oil,  or  brine  at  the  bottom  of  the  well. 

WouDWAiU),     Jlay     30,     1865. 
Fig.  65.  The  piston  reciprocates  in  the  air- 

cylinder,  and  by  adjustment  of 
the  valves  b  b,  is  the  means  of 
exhausting  from  the  chamber  A  or 
of  forcing  air  into  the  said  cham- 
ber. As  the  air  is  withdrawn,  the 
chamber  is  filled  by  the  induc- 
tion-pipe, the  valve  a  opening  for 
that  purpose.  When  the  air  is 
compressed  into  the  chamber,  the 
water  is  ejected  by  the  pipe  B.  The 
action  is  not  pulsative,  as  in  the 
preceding  case,  but  is  alternate  by 
the  operation  of  the  same  cylinder 
and  jiiston,  and  iseffected  by  chang- 
ing the  position  of  the  cocks  b  b. 

A  Hydraulic  Engine,  so  called, 
patented  in  England  by  Seidler 
some  forty  years  since,  may  be 
classed  among  the  alternate-acting 
water-elevators  operated  by  com- 
pressed air.  The  construction  will 
appear  by  reciting  the  series  of 
operations  when  it  is  in  action.' 
.Supposing  the  piston  f  to  com- 
mence its  u]iward  stroke,  the  air 
in  the  cylinder  0  will  be  driven 
through  the  valve  c  in  t\w.  upper 
liead  and  by  means  of  the  pipe  h 
into  the  submerged  vessel  k,  forc- 
iTig  the  water  contained  therein 
through  the  valve-w;iy  I  and  by 
means  of  the  eduction-pipe  0  to 
the  discharge-chute  s.  Air  will  be 
sujiplied  to  the  cylinder  below  the 
piston  by  the  opening  of  the  valve  b. 

When  the  piston  descends,  the  air  will  pass  from 
the  lower  to  the  upper  side  of  it  by  means  of  the 
valve  d,  and  the  operation  will  be  continued  till 
the  water  is  driven  out  of  Ic,  when  thi'  two-way 
cock  e  will  be  turned  to  change  the  communica- 
tion ;  the  air  then  passing  by  pipe  g  to  the  tank  I. 


(hi 


WooihvitrfVs  Air- 
Ptttnp. 


Kig.  66. 


Seirtler^s  En^ne. 

The  air  which  was  forced  into  Ic  is  j'crmitted  to  re- 
enter the  cylinder  through  the  pipe  w,  as  shown 
by  the  dotted  lines  in  the  cock  c,  .so  that  no  air 
■will  be  required  to  enter  at  the  valve  b  except 
at  the  commencement  of  the  operation,  or  to  make 
up  for  any  air  lost  by  leakage  or  discharged  with 
the  water.  When  the  air  is  liberated  fiom  the 
tank  k,  it  is  again  filled  with  water  by  the  valve 
m,  the  valve  t  being  shut  by  the  pressure  of 
water  in  the  pipe  0.  While  this  is  proceeding, 
the  water  is  being  discharged  fi'om  the  tank  / 
by  the  valve-way  u  into  the  ]iipe  0,  as  before 
described  in  relation  to  the  tank  /.'.  The  cock  e 
is  turned  by  hand  or  by  machinery,  after  such  a 
number  of  strokes  as  may  be  suliicient  to  empty 
a  division  of  the  tank. 

Air'-bath.  A  therapeutic  apparatus  for  the  ap- 
I)licution  of  air  to  the  body,  in  a  jet  or  chamber, 
locally  or  generally,  refiigei-ated  or  heated. 

The  compressed-air  apparatus  is  the  reverse  of 
the  vacimm  ajipliance,  which  proposes  to  increase 
the  surface  secretion  and  local  ciiculation  by  ex- 
hausting air  ;  an  operation  analogous  to  dry  cup- 
iniifl.     See  Depukatoh. 

AVare'.s  Compressed  Air-bath  is  for  subjecting  a 
jiatient  to  an  envelojiing  atmosphere  of  air  under 
ju'cssure.  The  chamber  A  has  a  non-conducting 
outer  wall  B,  and  a  metallic  inner  wall,  the  inter- 
vening sjiace  being  occupied  by  coils  of  pipe  a,  which 
may  be  steam-heated.  A  safety-valve  in  the  floor 
limits  the  pressure.  H  is  the  door  of  entrance, 
which  shuts  air-tight.  The  patient  has  command 
of  the  air  ami  steam  valves  by  which  the  chamber 
is  charged  and  the  steam-coil  heated.  J'  is  a 
seat,  F  a  tie-rod,  I  an  eduction  water-pipe. 


AIR   BED  AND  CUSHION. 


31 


AIR-COIIPRESSING  MACHINE. 


Fig.  67 


Ware^s  Compressed  Air-Bath. 

Air-bed  and  Air-cush'ion.  These  were  known 
in  the  beginning  of  the  eighteentli  century,  and 
were  at  first  made  of  leather  and  afterward  of  air- 
tight or  Mackintosh  cloth  ;  at  present  they  are 
made  of  vulcanized  india-rubber.  The  bed  is  a  sack 
in  the  form  of  a  mattress,  diWded  into  a  number  of 

air-tight    compart- 
rig.  68.  ments,  and  having 

a  projection  at  one 
end  forming  a  bol- 
ster ;  each  com- 
partment has  a 
valve  through 
which  it  is  iuHat'd 
by  a  bellows.  Air- 
cushions  are  mere- 
ly small  sacks  filled 
with  air  through  a 
tube  at  one  corner 
or  end,  by  means 
of  an  air-condenser 
or  by  expiration 
from  the  lungs : 
escape  is  prevented 
by  a  screw-stop- 
cock. These  arti- 
cles are  useful  to 
travellers  and  in- 
valids, being  light  and  elastic,  but  are  liable  to  be 
torn  or  (lunctured,  and  thus  rendered  worthless. 

Linden,  October  7,  1862,  has  adapted  the  elastic 
beil  to  be  used  as  a  part  of  the  infantry  equipment. 
The  air-bed  has  an  outside  tlap  of  enamelled  doth 
or  leather,  cut  longer  and  wider  than  the  bed  so  as 
to  form  a  coverlid  I'or  the  pel-son  who  lies  upon  the 
inflated  bed.  When  the  bed  is  collapsed  it  can  be 
folded  in  such  a  manner  as  to  fomi  a  knapsack,  and 
is  provided  with  straps  to  enable  it  to  be  worn  as 
such  when  on  the  march. 

H.^-MILTON,  July  16,  1867,  ties  the  upjier  and 
lower  surfaces  of  the  bed,  of  air-proof  material,  by 
means  of  cords  which  are  secured  to  button-headed 
screws  and  cap-nuts,  which  clamp  the  material  and 
make  the  joint  air-tight. 

Gilbert,  February  11,  1868,  stuffs  the  beds  with 
elastic,  hollow  spheres  of  rublier.  The  same  device 
was  employed  by  a  patentee  in  England,  whose  bed 


T^-T-^ Si^&j 


Undents  Air-Bed. 


is  described  in  the  English  Cyclopaedia,  Lon- 
don, 1859.  It  was  found  to  be  too  expensive 
for  general  use.  An  inflated  air-bed  is  shown 
under  Bed  ;  copied  from  a  German  work  of 
A.D.  1.^11. 
Air'-blast.  See  Blower. 
Air-brick.  An  iron  box  made  of  the  size 
of  a  brick,  and  ha^ng  a  grated  side.  It  is 
built  into  a  wall,  and  forms  a  ventilating  open- 
ing. 

Air,  Car'bu-ret-ing.  See  C.\i:bi:reting 
Gas  and  .\ii:. 

Air'-cas'ing.  A  sheet-iron  casing  around 
the  lunnel  on  lioard  a  steam-vessel,  to  pre- 
vent the  transmission  of  hiat  to  the  deck. 

Air'-cham'ber  for  Pumps.  This  w  as  used 
by  Dr.  Papin  of  France  about  169.">,  but  had 
been  described  nearly  two  thousand  years  pre- 
viously by  Heio  in  his 
"  Siiiritalia."  It  was  at- 
tached by  Perrault,  in 
1684,  to  the  fire-engine 
{Pompe  Portative)  of  Du- 
perrier. 

It  is  intended  toequalize 
the  flow  of  water  from  a  re- 
ciprocatingpump.  The  ac- 
tion of  the pumpbeing  intermit- 
tent, the  tendency  is  pulsative 
and  the  delivery  in  jerks.  The 
body  of  air  confined  in  the  upper 
part  of  the  chamber  forms  an 
elastic  cushion  against  which 
the  water  impinges  when  lifted  ; 
when  the  pump-piston  stops 
to  commence  its  return  move- 
ment, the  air  again  expands  and 
continues  the  How  of  water  dur- 
ing the  interval  of  inaction  of 
the  piston  ;  the  valve  falls  as 
soon  as  water  ceases  to  enter 
the  chamber,  to  ]ire\cnt  return  of  the  water  by  the 
induction-]'i|ie,  when  the  air  i'X)iaiKls. 

Air'-com-press'ing  Ma-chine'.  A  machine 
adapted  to  condense  air  as  a  motor,  or  for  ventilation 
in  shafts  and  mines.  For  this  purpose  air  is  partic- 
ularly well  ada])ted,  because  its  exhaust  in  the  nune 
shaft  or  tunnel  aff'ords  a  direct  means  of  ventilation 
by  supply  of  ^ital  air  at  the  point  where  the  work 
is  under  way.  The  works  at  the  Jlont  Cenis  and 
Hoosac  Tunnels  are  notable  instances  of  the  use  of 
compressed  air  carried  to  a  great  distance.  The  air- 
comi)ressing  engine  of  Sommeilleur  at  Bardonneche 
worked  the  rock-drills  at  the  Italian  end  of  the 
Mont  Cenis  Tunnel,  and  was  operated  by  the  dis- 
placement of  air  from  a  )jipe  liy  a  heavy  column  of 
water  obtained  from  the  hills.  See  Compkessed- 
Aiii  M.^ciirNE  ;  Tunnel.  The  escape  of  steam  at 
the  point  of  work  is  not  so  desirable  as  that  of 
air  for  two  reasons  :  the  condensation  of  the  former 
prevents  its  acting  to  jiroduce  an  outflow  of  air  to- 
wards the  mouth,  as  is  produced  by  the  escaping 
and  expanding  air  ;  and  it  only  adds  to  the  damp- 
ness and  oliscurity  of  the  usually  wet  shaft  or 
drift,  instead  of  being  a  source  of  supply  for 
breathing,  from  the  healthy  region  of  the  exterior 
air. 

Many  of  the  devices  for  merely  assisting  ventila- 
tion are  no  more  than  blowers  (which  see),  but  for 
use  as  a  njotor  a  more  positive  condensation  is  re- 
quired. By  tlie  law  of  jlariotte,  the  elastic  force  of 
air  varies  in  the  ]>roportion  of  its  densit)' ;  the  great- 
er the  pressure  the  smaller  the  volume.  Assuming 
the  natural  pressure  to  be  15  pounds  to  the  square 


Air-Chamber. 


AIR-COMPRESSING  MACHrNE. 


32 


AIR-COMPRESSING  MACHINE. 


inch,  by  reduciiif;  tlie  volume  to  one  half  we  shall 
have  a  pressure  of  'M  jiounds  to  the  square  inch  ;  to 
one  quarter,  CO  pounds  ;  to  one  tenth,  150  pounds  ; 
to  one  fortieth,  COO  jiounds. 

The  stroke  of  a  ]iiston  in  its  cylinder,  therefore, 
if  it  reduce  a  bocly  of  air  to  one  twentieth  its  oi'igi- 
nal  volume,  will  subject  it  to  a  pressure  of  300 
pounds  to  the  sciuare  inch.  The  air  is  generally  al- 
lowed to  escape  by  a  valve-way  before  the  ap[iroach- 
ing  piston,  and  is  collected  in  a  reservoir,  whence  it 
])asses  to  the  machinery  where  its  expansive  force  is 
to  be  ajiplied.  The  circumstances  of  position  and 
use  are  so  very  varied  tliat  no  general  statement  of 
its  niotle  of  application  will  apply.  Sometimes  it  is 
stored  in  reservoirs  at  the  point  where  it  is  used  as  a 
motor  or  a  ventilator. 

FisK  AND  Wateu.\i.a.n,  January  17,  186.5.  The 
reservoirs  for  compressed  air  are  located  within  the 
mine,  ami  connci^ted  by  comparatively  large  induc- 
tion-pijics  with  the  air-foreing  pump  at  the  mouth 
of  the  mine.  The  object  is  to  e.xert  a  uniform 
pressure  at  the  working  point,  where  compressed  air 
is  used  as  a  motor,  ami  to  prevent  a  stopjjage  of  the 
ventilation  during  a  temporary  stoppage  of  the  com- 
pressing-eugine  at   the  mouth   of  the  mine.     The 

Fig  70. 


air  by  the  duct  Eto 
the  cylinder f.'.  The 
motion  is  repeated ; 
the  intervention  of 
the  water,  as  in 
the  last-preceding 
ease,  obviating  the 
necessity  for  an  air- 
tight packing  to 
the  piston. 

WlLHELM,  De- 
cember 26,  1SG.5. 
A  pump  C  F,  of 
ordinary  construc- 
tion, is  enclosed 
within  a  large  air- 
chamber  L,  wliich 
has  no  bottom,  but 
is  suspended  in  an 
open  vessel  of  wa- 
ter A,  so  that  the 
water  may  ri.se  high 
in  the  chamber,  and 


Pig.  72. 


Ransom^s  Air-Compressing  Pump. 


when  driven  back  by  the  force  of  the  air  may  continue 
a  pressure  thereon  and  thus  keep  u]>  a  continuous 
blast.  This  may  be  better  adai)ted 
for  a  blower,  but,  by  an'anging  for  a 
high  vertical  column  of  water,  it  may 
he  applied  to  mo7'e  positive  and  high- 
pressure  pui-poses. 

Patrio,  April  18,  1S65.  This  de- 
,j|J|vice  is  intended  to  he  placed  at  the 
j!  y|  foot  of  a  waterfall,  the  water  acting 


m 


Fish  and  Waterman^s  Compressed-Air  Reservoir. 

eduction-tubes  by  whicli  the  air  is  discharged  from 
the  reservoir  are  of  tiomparatively  small  diameter, 
and  are  provided  with  stop-valVes. 

Holly,  May  22,  1806.    Water  is  urged  by  the  pis- 
ton C  and   forced 
Fig.  71.    _  tlirough  the  curved 

piipe  into  the  res- 
ervoir L.  As  the 
piston  recedes,  the 
valve  in  the  liead 
of  the  air-cylinder 
T  is  ojiened,  to 
supply  the  cylin- 
der with  air.  Wa- 
ter collecting  in 
the  reservoir  is 
passed  by  a  pipe 
to  the  cylinder  T. 
Water  between  the 
piston  and  the  air 
permits  a  water- 
tight instead  of  air- 
tight packing  to  be 
used,  the  air  re- 
ti'eating  before  the  column  of  water  at  each  forward 
stroke  of  the  piston  and  following  it  during  its 
return  stroke. 

Ransom,  August  8,  1865.  The  two  cylinders  are 
connected  at  bottom  by  a  hollow  bed-plate  A,  and 
have  a  constant  amount  of  water,  which  is  made 
tlie  intermediate  between  the  piston  in  the  cylinder 
B  and  the  air  which  occupies  cylinder  C.  As  the 
piston  descends,  the  column  of  water  rises  in  cylin- 
der 0  and  ejects  the  air,  which  passes  through  the 
valve-way  c  into  the  dome  7>,  the  pressure  closing 
the  valve  d.  As  the  piston  is  raised,  the  water  re- 
treats, the  valve  c  closes,  valve  d  opens  and  admits 


HoUy^s  Air-Compressing  Pump. 


m  alternate  compartments  U,  E,  which 
are  separated  by  a  flexible  dia]ihragm 
connected  to  an  adjustiug-liar  /),  tliat 
operates  the  iulet  and  outlet  water- 
valves  e  a,  of  each  chamber.  When  either  com- 
partment is  emptied  of  the  water  contained  therein. 


-^^ 


Wilhelm''s  Air-Pump. 

an  air-valve  is  opened  and  the  air  rushes  in  and 
fills  the  space  vacated  by  the  water,  when,  at  the 
proper  time,  by  the  action  of  the  floats  F,  and  levers 
//',  acting  upon  the  diaphragm,  the  inlet-valve  is 
opened,  the  water  enters  by  virtue  of  its  gravity, 
and  the  air  is  compressed  and  forced  out  of  that 
compartment  to  a  suitable  reservoir,  where  it  is  re- 
served for  use  in  any  suitable  engine. 

The  etficieiit  force  depends  upon  the  height  of  the 
column  of  waUM',  and  the  consequent  force  with 
which  the  air  was  ejected  by  the  water  which  dis- 
placed it. 

Jamkson,  March  13,  1858.  The  air  is  compressed 
(or  rarefied  by  the  inversion  of  the  jirocess)  by  the 
successive  action  of  pistons  in  cylinders  connected 


AIR-COMPEESSING  MACHINE. 


33 


AIR-COMPRESSING  MACHINE. 


me-  '<■ 


Patric's  Air-Coinprcssor. 

by  pipes,  who.se  valves  govern  the  direction  of  the 
flow.  Each  piston  is  eouneeted  to  a  crank  on  the 
common  rotary-shaft  beneath.  As  the  air  passes 
from  one  to  the  other,  it  receives  an  additional  con- 
densation, and  is  eventually  stored  in  the  reservoir 
n,  at  the  end  of  tlie  series  ;  from  tlience  it  is  drawn, 
as  reijuired,  to  act  as  a  motor,  a  blast,  or  for  any 
other  purpose  for  which  it  is  adapted.  The  cylin- 
ders are  enveloped  by  passages  where  a  heater  or  re- 
Fig.  75. 


pressed  to  a  certain  tension.  The  amount  of  i'.'.erease 
in  tension  which  the  pumj)  is  recjnired  to  jnoduce 
need  not  exceed  tliat  at  which  it  will  work  ailvanta- 
geously.  In  tlie  last  reservoir  in  the  .series  the  air 
is  further  compressed  by  fo.-cing  water  into  the  low- 
er part  thereof  hy  means  of  aiiotlier  jiump.  The 
air  is  compressed  more  and  more  by  tlie  suc- 
cessive opeiations,  a  single  pump  being  required. 
The  pump  is  connected  to  such  one  of  the  reservoirs 
as  may  be  required,  and  discharges  into  another  or 
others,  tlie  power  required  to  work  tlie  pump  being 
only  the  dift'erence  between  the  pressure  in  the 
two. 

Dennison,  October  23,  1866.  The  pistons  are 
attached  to  cranks  set  at  180°  on  the  same  shaft,  and 
reciprocate  in  cylinders  of  varying  diameters,  the 
larger  having  an  air  induction-pipe,  and  discharging 
into  the  smaller,  which  has  an  eduction-i)ipe.  A 
water-jacket  keeps  the  parts  cool.  By  this  means 
tlie  air  receives  a  double  condensation  ;  tlie  differ- 
ence between  the  sectional  areas  of  the  (lylinders  is 
such  that  in  each  a  similar  amount  of  jiower  is  ex- 
erted.    The   imhictioii    and  eduction  pipes   of  the 


single-acting   cylinders 


Jameson^x  Air- Compressor. 


frigerant  may  be  placed  to  act  upon  the  air.  Air 
develops  sensible  heat  as  its  volume  is  diminished 
by  compression,  and  if  it  be  used  for  cooling  j)urposes, 
as  in  ice-making,  its  preliminary  cooling  before  it  is 
allowed  to  expand  will  make  it  more  effective  in  ab- 
sorbing sensible  heat  when  freed. 

Akthuu,  July  25,  1865.  An  air-pump  is  com- 
bined with  a  series  of  air-vessels  by  means  of  pipes 
and  stop-cocks,  or  valves,  in  such  a  manner  that  the 
air  compressed  into  one  air-vessel  may  be  used 
to  su])ply  the  pump  when  compressing  air  into  one 
or  more  other  air-vessels  to  a  higher  tension,  the  air 
entering  the  pump-barrel  being  thus  already  com- 

Fig.  76. 


Arthur^s  Air-Compressor. 
3 


are  provided  with  valves 
which  govern  the  direc- 
tion of  the  air,  opening 
and  closing  automati- 
cally. The  pi]ie  i;  con- 
ducts water  to  the  jack- 
ets around  the  cylinders, 
to  remove  the  heat 
evolved  by  the  compres- 
sion of  the  volume  of 
the  air.  The  pijie  C  re- 
moves the  water.  The 
abstraction  of  heat,  of 
course,  lessens  the  pres- 
sure. This  is  desirable 
for  some  purposes,  not 
for  others.  Hot  water 
or  steam,  acting  in  the 
reverse  direction  to  a 
^  refrigerant,  would  be 
adapted  to  increase  the 
effect  of  the  air  as  an 
expansive  motor.  Al- 
ternate expansion  and 
contraction  was  the 
whole  principle  of  the 
M.   I.   Bkunel  Gas-Engine  Patent,  England,  1804. 

Fig.  77. 


Dennison^s  Air-  Compressor 


Ain-CONE. 


34 


AIK-DRILL. 


Ili'iitcil  carljoiiU-'-ac-'id  gas  is  jiiefei-able  to  air  for 
ili'Vi'lDping  a  large  loroe  in  small  space.  See  Gas- 
KNlilNK.      See    also    AiII-F.NOINE  ;    CoMFItESSEU-AlK 

Engine  ;  Am  as  a  Wateii-elevatur. 

Air'-cone.  In  marine  engines  ;  to  receive  the 
gases  which  enter  the  hot-well  from  the  air-puni|i, 
whcne.',  after  ascemling,  they  escape  througli  a  pifie 
at  the  to]i,  —  AuMiii.M.  Smviii. 

Air'-cool'ing  Ap  pa-ra'tU3.  In  this  article  will 
be  consiilereJ  the  devices  for  cooling  a  current  of 
air,  for  purposes  of  health  and  ventilation,  and  not 
those  involved  in  producing  ansesthesia  by  cold,  the 
manufacture  of  ice,  or  the  cooling  of  fruit  and  njeat 
idiaiubers.  These  will  be  considered  under  tl\eir 
appropriate  heads.  The  purpose  of  the  former  two 
of  these  is  to  reduce  the  temperature  below  the 
freezing-point,  and  of  the  latter  to  reduce  it  nearly 
to  that  point,  v/hile  for  purposes  of  ventilation  the 
aim  is  to  reduce  to  a  moderate  degree  the  passing 
volume  of  air  which  escapes  and  gives  place  to  that 
which  is  following. 

The  ciieulation  is  not  a  necessary  incident  to  ice- 
making  or  to  the  fruit-house,  though  in  the  latter 
there  is  no  doubt  that  circulation  of  air  is  a  valu- 
ble  feature  in  retaining  the  purity  of  the  atmos- 
phere in  the  chamber. 

Another  large  class  of  inventions  in  which  an 
artiticial  blast  of  cold  air  is  employed  is  the  beer 
and  lii[uid  coolers,  which  are  of  three  kinds  :  thost; 
in  which  an  artiticial  blast  is  driven  through  the 
arms  of  the  stirrer  to  cool  the  contents  of  the  mash- 
tub  ;  tlio.se  in  which  the  liipiid  is  passed  through 
a  refrigerating  vessel  and  is  cooled  by  contact  there- 
witli ;  those  in  which  refrigerating  effects  are  im- 
parted to  a  vessel  containing  li(iuor  on  draft,  to 
reduce  its  tendency  to  fermentation  or  to  make  it 
more  palatable.  See  LiyuiD-cnoLER  ;  Ice-jianu- 
FACTUKING  ;     An.'Esthetic      Appauatus  ;      Fill' IT 

and  Meat  Cha.mueu. 

The  East  Indian  Tatta  is  a  screen  of  finely  woven 
bamboo  in  a  frame  which  tits  into  a  wiudow-o]ien- 
iug.  It  is  kept  constantly  moist  by  trickling 
water,  and  thus  cools  the  air  as  it  enters  the  apart- 
ment, while  the  screen  also  excludes  insects. 

The  same  elfect  is  produced  by  an  arrangement 
which  keeps  moist  the  mosquito-bar  around  the  bed. 
The  Alcaraza    is    a    Spanish  form  of   the   same 
device. 

SoMEs's  plan  for  ventilating  ships,  February  2'^, 
1865.  The  design  of  the  aiiparatus  is  to  expose  a 
current  of  air  to  contact  with  vessels  or  pipes  filled 
with  water  taken  from  a  distance  below  the  surface. 
The  system  of  pipes  is  arranged  at  any  convenient 
submerged  point  on  the  ship's  sides,  and  the  air  is  I 
forced  in  contact  therewith  by  the  motion  of  the 
the  action  of  the  waves.  The  cooled  air 
is  conducted  by 
Fig-  78.  jjipes   to  cool  and 

ventilate  the  va- 
rious a])artments 
in  the  vessel,  or 
the  grain  or  other 
perishable  freight 
with  which  it  may 
be  loaded. 

SeealsoTniERs's 
American  Pat- 
ent, 1871.  See 
Ship  -  ventilat- 
ing. 

In  Somes's  plan 
for  ventilating, 
cooling,  amb  heat- 
ing the  Capitol,  the 


vessel. 


air  is  introduced  into  a  vault  so  far  beneath  the 
surface  as  to  be  free  from  the  changes  of  tempera- 
ture incident  to  the  seasons.  The  air  is  conducted 
by  a  conduit,  in  which  it  is  exposed  to  pi)ies  whose 
contents  have  a  warnung  or  refrigerating  effect 
upon  the  passing  air.  rurifying  and  moistening  in- 
fluences are  also  brought  to  liear  upon  the  air. 

In  his  patent  of  October  15,  18li7,  vacuum  and 
compressing  chambers  are  used  in  combimition  with 
the  pum|is  which  create  the  current  of  air.  Atom- 
izing tubes  are  added  to  reduce  the  temjierature  and 
impart  moisture,  the  disseminated  liipiid  becoming 
vapoiized  and  absorbing  free  caloric  from  the  air. 
.\nothi'r  plan  is  to  force  a  body  of  air  through  pipes 
which  pass  to  the  cold  earth  below  the  surface,  or 
to  expose  air  to  the  contact  of  pipes  lilled  with 
water  which  has  been  conducted  to  the  said  depth. 
It  is  suggested,  in  connection  with  this,  that  the 
air  may  be  condensed  in  the  cooler  and  become 
further  cooled  as  it  exjiands. 

Siialer's  air-cooler.  May  30,  1S65.  The  case 
contains  a  series  of  cells  so  arranged  as  to  form  a 

Fig  79. 


# 


r^ 


So7nes^s  Sfiip-  Vtntilator. 


Sltaler\'i  Air-cooling  Apparttlu,^ 

tortuov.s  passage.  The  chambers  are  fillcil  with  ice, 
and  the  air  is  caused  to  circulate  through  the  pas- 
sage by  mi'ans  of  a  fan. 

In  Maine's  apjaratus  for  cooling  and  disinfecting 
air,  December  4,  1866,  a  continuous  apron  of  |iorous 
material  is  passed  through  the  tank  containing  the 
di.sinfccting  and  cooling  liipiiil,  and  thence  ]  a.sses 
over  rollers  rotated  by  clock-work,  its  surl'ace  being 
ex])osed  to  a  current  of  air,  generated  by  a  fan 
whiidi  is  driven  by  the  tame  motor  as  the  rollers. 
See  Air-FII,TEn. 

Air'-cush'ion  for  Pipes.  The  object  is  to  avoid 
the  jar  which  occtirs  v.hen  a  column  of  water  in 
motion  is  suddenly  ariested.  Various  incar.s  have 
been  tried,  prominent  among  which  are  air-cham- 
bers. Air,  however,  is  gradually  absorbed  by  the 
Wiiter,  and  as  a  means  of  imprisoning  it  and  still 
"al'owing  it  to  contract  when  the  jar  comes,  and 
afterwards  to  expand,  it  is  enclosed  in  a  ball  of 
India  -  rub- 
ber. This  is  Fig  80. 
shown  in 
Sevan's  pat- 
ent, March  ^ 
14,  1865,  and  ;i 
in  some  oth- 
ers. The  ar- 
rangemental- 
so  allows  the 
expansion  of 
the  water,  in  freezing,  wi;liout  bursting  the  pipe. 
The  sack  is  placed  in  an  eulaigement  of  the  pipe, 
and  so  caged  as  not  to  stop  the  llow.  A  continuous 
tube  of  the  same  material,  and  containing  air,  is 
arraiiL'cd  in  the  tube  also. 

Air'-drain.  (Buililin;/.)  A  cavity  aronn<l  the 
subterranean  walls  of  a  buililing,  protecterl  by  a 
wall  on  the  earth  .shle,  and  d"signcd  to  prevent 
the  absorotinu  of  moisture  by  the  wall. 

Air'-drill.    A  drill  driveii  by  the  elastic  pressure 


Brati's  Air-Ciishion  for  Pipes. 


AIR-EXGIXE. 


3£ 


AIR-ENGINE. 


of  conileiiscd  air.  Thi'  cou-struction  usually  ri'sem- 
bles  the  ivui(irocating  steiini-engine,  com]ire.«seil  air 
being  substifutud  for  the  steam  ;  the  drill-stock  is 
attached  to  the  jii.sfon-rod.  It  is  usually  termed 
the  PN'ErMATic  Ukill,  which  see. 

Air'-en'-gine.  For  nniv  ttia;i  a  century  the  at- 
tention of  uiechanicians  lias  been  directed  to  means 
for  making  air  and  gases  available  in  driving  ma- 
chinery. The  inventions  resulting  from  these  efforts 
have  led  in  different  directions,  or  to  diti'erent  sets 
of  specific  means. 

Amou TON"  (France,  1699)  had  an  atmospheric  fire- 
wheel,  or  air-engine,  in  which  a  heated  colunm  of 
air  was  mxde  to  drive  a  wheel.  A  smoke-jack  is  a 
familiar  instance  of  the  same  on  a  small  scale.  So 
are  the  toys  now  attached  to  stove-pipes  and  repre- 
senting incipient  men  (monkeys)  sawing  woo  1,  etc. 

Som-  have  attempted  to  make  available  the  ex- 
pansion of  air,  previously  mechanically  condensed 
and  stored  in  reservoirs.  It  was  not  understood, 
apparently,  t'.iat  the  valuable  effect  wo'ild  only  b? 
equal  to  the  force  employed  in  condensing  the  air, 
minus  some  friction,  leakage,  and  oth  t  incidentals. 
This  form  settled  down  into  two  classes  of  mi- 
chines  :  1.  Those  wiiich  were  loco  no'ive  in  thei.- 
character,  as  in  B(>Mr.vs'.s  air-driven  carriage  (Eng- 
lish patent,  1S2S),  uher."  air  was  con  Imsed  in  tanks 
and  admitted  to  the  alternate  en  U  of  a  cylinder, 
which  had  a  reciprocating  piston,  connsctal  in  the 
usual  manner  to  the  crank  and  drive-s'iift.  The 
same  device,  substantially,  was  used  by  Yon  Rithen 
in  1S4S,  at  Putney,  England,  whore  he  ran  an  air- 
loconotive  at  the  rate  of  ten  or  twelve  miles  an 
hour.  See  Ca.MPllBssED-.\in  Exijine.  2.  Those 
in  which  a  boly  of  air  is  condensed  into  a  reservoir, 
plac'd  at  tin  bottom  of  a  shaft,  or  in  a  situation 
where  the  prime  motor  ca;inot  be  set  up.  In  this 
case  the  en;;ine  in  the  min  '■  is  ran  by  the  air  from 
the  reservoir  during  a  lull  in  th.-  force  of  the  prime 
motor.  This  was  the  subject  of  a  patent  in  Eng- 
land, t:)  Mr.DHi'i'.ST,  1799.  H;-  condensed  air  to 
one  fifteenth  of  its  volume,  and  stored  it  for  this 
purpo33.  The  air-re.servoirs  of  FisK  (U.  S.  patent, 
1885)  have  a  similar  purpose.     See  Aiii-coMPiucss- 

INT.  M.iCIIIN-E. 

Another  farm  of  air-engine  has  consisted  of  two 
ch.V!nh?rs  filled  with  air  or  gas,  and  connectin,'  b/ 
jiipes  with  the  respective  ends  of  a  cylinder  i  i 
which  a  piston  reciprocates  as  the  bodies  of  air  in 
the  sai  1  cylinders  are  alternately  e.'ipinde<l  an  1  con- 
tracted. Stirlin'g'.s  engine  (Knglish  patent,  lSi7) 
was  of  this  character,  and  is  stated  by  Chambers  to 
have  been  unsuccessful,  owing  to  mechanical  defects 
and  to  "the  unforeseen  ajcimulation  of  heat,  — not 
fully  extracted  by  the  siev.'S  or  smdl  jiassages  in  thi 
cool  part  of  the  regenerator,  of  which  the  external 
surface  was  not  sufficiently  large  to  throw  off  the 
unrecovered  heat  when  the  engin-  -was  working  with 
highly  eo.iipressed  air."  Mr.  Stirling  was  stated,  by 
the  same  authority,  to  have  been  the  originator 
(1S13)  of  the  reg>nerator  wherein  the  heat  of  the 
exhausting  air  is  nndi  to  heat  surfives  which  cuin- 
manicatc  heat  to  the  incoming  air  for  the  next 
charge.  Tiie  distinctive  form  of  ajtparatus  was  no 
doubt  new  with  Jtr.  Stirling,  but  the  nnin  iilea  is  '■ 
muc'i  o!  ler,  as  it  is  found  in  the  f2nglis)i  patent 
of  Giizibrook,  17-17.  Stirling's  regenerator  is  de-  [ 
scribj  1  as  "consisting  of  a  chamber  or  chambers 
filled  wih  metallic  sieves  of  wire-gauze,  or  minutely 
divided  metallic  passages,  through  which  the  air  is 
ma  le  to  pass  oii'iorrd  from  the  cylinder,  after  hav- 
ing performed  its  work  on  the  working-piston  of  the 
en  -line,  leaving  a  great  part  of  its  heat  in  the  sieves 
or  uvno.v  passages,  to  be  given  out  by  them  again  [ 


to  the  returning  air,  which  is  made  to  pass  iuvmrd 
through  the  same  sieves  or  naiTow  pas.sages,  and  by 

i  a  sliglit  accession  of  new  heat  from  the  furnace,  to 
proiiuce  another  effective  stroke  of  the  piston.     By 

)  re[ieating  this  process  at  each  stroke  of  the  engine, 
it  is  evident  that  a  large  portion  of  the  lieatthat 
would   otherwise   go  to  waste  will   be    useil   many 

I  times  over,  and  thus  a  smaller  amount  of  new  heat 
will  reiiuii-e  to  be  supplied  from  the  heating  furnace 
of  the  engine,  and  a  corresponding  saving  of  fuel  be 
effected." 

Such  is  the  description,  but  the  statement  is  onen 
to  objections. 

A  further  improvement  of  Messrs.  Stirling  w;is 
patented  in  England,  in  ISiO. 

In  this  engine  two  strong  air-tight  vessels  are  con- 
nected with  the  opposite  encls  of  a  cylinder,  in  which 
a  iiiston  works  in  the  usual  manner.  About  four 
fifths  of  the  interior  sjiace  in  these  vessels  is  occupied 
by  two  similar  air-vessels,  or  ]ilunger.s,  susjuMided 
to  the  opposite  exti'eniities  of  a  lieam,  and  eapal^le 
cf  being  alternately  moved  up  and  down  to  the 
extent  of  tiic  remaining  fifth.  Ky  the  motion  of 
these  i.iterior  vessels  the  air  to  1  e  opemted  upon  is 
1  oved  from  one  end  of  the  exterior  ve.-sel  to  ihe 
other  ;  and  as  one  end  is  kept  at  a  hi;.di  temperature, 
and  the  other  as  cttld  as  possible,  wdien  the  air  is 
liTOUght  to  the  hot  end  it  becomes  heated,  and  has 
i  s  pressure  increased,  whereas  its  heat  and  pressure 
are  diminished  when  it  is  forced  to  the  cold  i  nd. 
Now,  as  the  interior  vessels  necessarily  move  in 
oi>posite  diiTCtions,  it  f<d!ows  that  the  pressure  of 
the  enclosed  air  in  the  one  vessel  is  increased,  w  bile 
tliat  of  the  other  is  diminishi'd  ;  a  ditl'erence  of 
pre.ssure  is  produced  on  opjiosite  sides  of  the  piston, 
which  is  made  to  move  from  one  end  of  the  cylinder 
to  the  other.  The  piston  is  connected  with  a  fiy- 
wheel,  and  motion  communicated  in  the  nsral  way. 
In  this  engine  the  air  received  heat  at  the  teni- 
pei-atui-c  of  650°  Fab.,  and  discliargcd  the  lost  heat 
at  that  of  150'  Fah.  The  etiiciency  of  a  theoreti- 
cally perfect  engine  with  those  linuts  of  temperature 
would  be  0.4^,  and  its  consumption  of  coal  0.73  of 
a  lb.  ]ier  horse-]'ower  per  hour.  The  actual  con- 
sump!  ion  of  coal  per  hoi-se-]iower  per  hour  was  about 
2.2  lbs.,  being  three  times  the  con.sumption  of  a 
tlieoretically  jierfcet  engine,  and  cori'esjmndii'g  to 
a-i  actual  efficiency  of  0.15,  or  one  third  of  the  maxi- 
mum theoretical  efficiency.  Stirling's  air-engir,e  \  as 
th<'refore  more  ecoi.omical  than  any  existing  doi;b  e- 
action  steam-engine.  The  following  is  a  coin|«ni- 
.son  of  the  can.suni|i;ion  of  bituminous  loal  of  :]  cci- 
fied  quality  per  hor.se-power  per  hour  :  — 

1 .  For  a  theoretically  perfect  engine,  working    "'■'' 

between  .such  limits  of  teniiierdti;re  as 

is  usual  in  a  steam-engine   .  .  .    1.E6 

2.  Foradouble-actingsteani-en^ine,  impelled 

to  the  utmost  probable  extent      .  .2.50 

3.  For    a    well-constructed    and     p.operly 

woi'ked   ordinary  stean. -engine,   on  an 
aveiT.ge 4.00 

One  enuine  constnieted  in  this  manner  hail  a 
cylinder  12  inches  in  diameter.  2  feet  .stroke,  and 
is  stilted  to  have  worketl  to  20  liorse-]'OWer  ;  ai. other 
engine  with  a  cylinder  16  inches  in  diameter,  4  feet 
stro!:e,  worked  up  to  40  horse-jiover.  The  latter, 
we  are  infonned,  ditl  all  the  work  of  the  Dundee 
Foundry  Company  for  three  years  ;  using  only  one 
fo  rdi  the  amount  of  fuel  previously  consumed  t  y 
its  predecessor,  the  steam-engine.  It  was  thi-n 
laid  a.side,  owing  to  some  difficulty  in  renewing  the 
heater.  Piu-liaps  it  incurred  a  heavy  expense  iu  wear, 
tear,  and  the  borniu"  c"t  of  'larts. 


AIR-ENGINE. 


36 


AIR-ENGINE. 


The  construction  of  tlie  engine  seems  to  have 
been  essentially  a  clu|jlication  of  the  invention  of 
PAliKlN.sox  AND  Cuo.si.EY,  English  patent,  1827. 

In  this  engine  the  air-chamber  is  partly  exposed, 
by  submergence  in  cold  water,  to  external  cold,  anil 
its  ujjper  portion  is  heated  by  steam.  An  internal 
vessel  movi's  up  and  down  in  this  chamber,  and  in  so 
doing  displaces  the  air,  alternately  exposing  it  to  the 
hot  and  cold  intluences  of  the  cold  water  ami  the  hot 
steam,  changing  its  ti'm]«'rature  and  expansive  con- 
dition. Till'  Ihii'tuations  cause  the  reripmcMtion  of 
a  piston  in  a  cylinder  to  whose  ends  the  air-chamber 
is  alternately  conuei'ted. 

While  treating  of  that  fonn  of  air-engine  which 
depends  upon  tlie  variation  in  the  tliernionu-tric 
contlition  of  a  body  or  bodies  of  air,  which  connect 
v.'ith  the  opposite  sides  of  the  piston  alteniatidy,  it 
may  be  well  to  mention  the  engine  of  Bi;u.\r.i,,  in 
which  carbonic  acid  gas  is  stored  in  two  clianibers, 
communicating  with  the  respective  ends  of  the  cyl- 
inder and  operating  the  piston  therein  by  their 
thermonii'tric  tluctuations.     See  Gas-emgink. 

A  tliiril  form  of  tlie  apparatus  embraces  but  few 
features,  liut  tliese  have  been  Tnodilieil  according  to 
the  convictions  of  independent  inventors  to  such  an 
e.xtent  that  they  are  represented  by  eighty  patents 
now  before  the  writer. 

These  features  may  be  described  as  found  in 
Gi,.\zf,bkook's  English  patent,  1797  ;  a  conden.sed 
statement  of  which  is  as  follows  :  1.  A  force-pump 
to  compress  the  cool  air  ;  2.  a  chamber  in  wliich 
the  fluid  is  saturated  with  moisture  (this  is 
not  retained  by  all  tlie  modern  forms,  but  is  by 
some) ;  3.  A  heati^r  where  its  expansive  force  is  in- 
creased ;  4.  A  cylinder  in  which  its  expansive  force 
is  utilized  against  a  piston  ;  a.  A  mode  of  utilizing 
the  heat  of  the  outgoing  air,  to  heat  the  new  chai-ge 
of  compressed  cool  air  for  another  stroke.  Of  this 
latter  feature,  more  hereafter. 

In  Glazebrook's,  the  piston  of  the  working-cylin- 
der and  that  of  the  pmnii-cylinder  connect  witli  the 
opposite  ends  of  the  working-beam.  This  inventor's 
statements  of  the  principles  of  the  operation  of  his  ma- 
chine are  worthy  of  being  cpaoted  at  length,  but  must 
be  condensed  fcu-o'ir  purpose  and  limits.  His  engine 
was  of  the  differeiitial  nnler,  and  he  states  the  measure 
of  power  to  be  the  dillerence  of  force  exerted  in  the 
working  and  air-com])res.sing cylinders,  of  which  the 
latter  is  much  the  smaller,  and  the  extra  force  in 
the  former  is  dae  to  the  accession  of  heat  derived  from 
the  furnace  wherein  the  air  is  heated  al'ter  coniiu-es- 
sion  in  the  smaller  cylinder,  and  before  it  is  admit- 
ted to  and  allowed  to  expand  ag.iinst  the  piston  in 
the  larger  cylinder.  Viewing  tlie  history  of  the  air- 
engine  for  the  seventy  years  succeeding  Glazebrook, 
we  may  at  least  say  that  he  is  a  great  anticipator. 

Glazebrook's  second  patent,  1801,  has  a  refriger- 
atory, whose  use  is  not,  as  in  Randoi.ph'.s  (Scotland, 
1856),  to  cool  tlie  pump  wherein  the  air  is  con- 
densed (see  CoMPKKssED-Aiii  Exgine),  but  is  used 
for  depriving  the  escaping  gas  of  its  heat,  in  case  a 
gas  be  used  of  so  expensive  a  character  as  to  juc- 
clude  its  being  ejected  into  the  atmosphere  after 
using.  This  is  probably  the  commencement  of 
using  the  same  air  over  and  over  again.  He  cites 
carbonic  acid  and  other  gases  ami  comjiounds.  He 
only  antedated  by  three  years  the  engine  of  Brunei, 
which  was  intended  to  be  used  witliout  any  escaiie 
of  carbonic  acid  ;  two  volumes  of  which  were  niadi' 
to  tluctuate  in  tem|icrature  alti-rnately,  and  produce 
a  ]iulsation  in  the  chamber  ]ilaced  between  them, 
and  in  which  the  piston  worked. 

Ljlley's  air-engine,  English  patent,  1819,  may 
be  simply  noticed  as  in  the  same  line  of  invention. 


The  air  is  compressed  by  mechanical  force  ;  passed 
through  heated  tubes,  expanded  against  a  piston, 
and  tlieu  esca[ies  into  the  open  air. 

The  first  workiug-cylmdi'is  of  the  EmcssoN  were 
168  imdies  in  diameter,  ami  tlie  piston  had  a  stroke 
of  8  feet,  the  air  being  introduced  at  natural  press- 
ure into  the  heater.  The  inadequacy  of  the  jiower 
developed,  and  ditliculties  incident  to  the  scale  of 
tlie  machinery  induced  him  to  make  it  more  com- 
pact by  condensing  the  air  mechanically,  and  redu- 
cing the  size  of  the  working-cylinders  to  72  inches 
diameter,  and  6  feet  stroke.  This  condensation  he 
did  not  claim  as  liis  own  invention,  as  we  under- 
stand ;  but  it  is  claimed  for  Stirling  at  the  date  of 
his  second  patent,  1827.  This,  however,  is  not  cor- 
rect, for  it  is  found  in  the  specification  of  Lilley, 
English  latent,  1819,  and  in  Glazebrook's,  1797. 
This  patent  of  Glazebrook,  in  connection  with  his 
improvement  of  1801,  may  be  considered  the  most 
remarkable  one  of  the  series,  and  has  just  been  men- 
tioned. The  action  of  Ericsson  gave  a  great  impe- 
tus to  the  invention  and  building  of  air-engines  ; 
examples  will  be  cited  presently.  Air-engines  on  a 
small  scale  are  extensively  used  in  driving  printing- 
presses  and  such  like  work.  It  is  believed  that 
they  are  especially  snitalih^  for  ]iositions  where  wa- 
ter is  scarce,  and  suggestions  have  been  made  for 
their  use  in  prairie  farming,  without  anything  defi- 
nite being  reached  iu  that  ilii'ection. 

The  claims  put  forward  lor  the  Ericsson  engine 
indicate  that  he  expected  to  use  the  .siime  portion  of 
heat  in  producing  mechanical  jiower  over  and  over 
again.  One  who  advocated  the  cause  stated  that 
"  the  basis  of  the  caloric  engine  is  that  of  returning 
the  heat  at  each  stroke  of  tlie  ])iston,  and  using  it 
over  and  over  again."  "This  result,"  he  remarks, 
"Captain  Ericsson  has  attained  by  means  of  an  apjia- 
ratus  which  he  styles  a  regenerator,  and  so  pi'rfcctly 
does  it  o])erate  that  the  heat  emjiloyed  in  first  set- 
ting the  engine  in  motion  continues  to  sustain  it  in 
full  working-force,  with  no  other  rene\\'al  or  addi- 
tion than  may  be  reipiisite  to  sujiply  the  inconsider- 
able loss  by  radiation." 

This  would  be  the  legitimate  conclusion  of  the 
premises  stated,  and  the  rcducHo  ad  absitrduni,  one 
would  have  thought,  would  have  opened  the  eyes  of 
the  claimant.  If  the  statement  were  true,  the  en- 
gine would  become  hotter  and  hotter,  unless  the  lire 
was  almost  put  out  when  the  engine  commenced 
running,  and  the  power  would  be  used  over  again  to 
an  extent  which  would  put  to  the  blush  the  me- 
chanical eipiivalent  of  a  unit  of  lieat  in  a  theoreti- 
cally perfect  engine  ;  a  consummation  unexpected, 
to  say  the  least. 

The  effect  of  the  claim  is,  that  the  heat  of  the 
outgoing  air  is  perfectly  withdrawn  by  the  regenera- 
tor and  transferred  to  tlie  charge  of  incoming  air 
on  its  way  to  the  engine,  and  this  without  the  expen- 
diture of  power.  The  fallacy  of  the  statement,  fof 
which  Jlr.  Ericsson  may  not  be  responsible,  is  in 
su]iposing  that  the  air  could  be  passed  into  and 
through  the  regenerator  in  the  manner  proposed, 
wuthout  the  exertion  of  Jiower.  The  air,  as  it  enters 
the  regenerator,  would  expand  with  the  increment  of 
heat  ac'juired  therein,  and  a  given  volume  would  re- 
quire the  expenditure  of  a  force  to  drive  or  ilraw  it 
through  e(pial  to  that  which  the  heat  thus  absorbed, 
and  expansive  condition  acquired,  would  be  capable 
of  exerting. 

If  110  power  were  exerted  to  induct  the  air,  under 
these  circumstances  of  expansion,  only  a  part  of 
the  charge  required  would  pass  into  the  chamber, 
ami  that  which  reached  the  furnace  would  be  al- 
ready attenuated  by  expansion.     Expansion  presup- 


AIR-ENGINE. 


61 


AIR-ENGINE. 


poses  tlie  ('xi)eiiditure  of  power,  and  is  produced  by 
heat  ill  tliis  case  ;  the  relation  of  lieat  to  power,  and 
conversely,  must  not  be  ignored.  The  interposition 
of  the  air-pump  does  not  affect  the  problem,  for  the 
attenuation  of  tiie  air  by  heat  will  necessitate  a 
greatei  power  to  condense  a  liody  of  air,  of  given 
normal  volume,  into  the  space  where  its  expansive 
powers  are  to  be  exerted 

The  regenerator  was  used  by  Stirling,  1816,  and 
Glazebrook,  171*7,  in  air-engines.  The  forms  of  the 
regenerators,  however,  differ  considerably.  Stirling's 
IS  described  in  this  article,  and  Glazebrook's  appears 
to  have  been  like  a  modern  air-heater  in  which  the  hot 
current  heated  pipes  filled  with  the  incoming  air. 

Mr.  Ewbank,  speaking  of  the  Ericsson  regenerator, 
says  :  "  The  principle  on  w  hich  tliis  invention  rests 
is  the  repeated  use  of  the  same  caloiic.  In  this  en- 
gine, as  in  the  steam-engine,  heat  is  the  animating 
principle  ;  and  in  using  over  and  over  again  the 
same  heat,  he  virtually  uses  over  and  over  again  the 
same  power.  He  claims  to  have  succeeded  in  sav- 
ing ujiwards  of  90  per  cent  of  the  heat  expemled  in 
raising  a  loaded  piston,  and  in  retaining  and  com- 
pelling it  to  do  the  same  work  over  again."  P.iiXE 
in  his  L'nited  States  patent,  November  30,  1858, 
moistens  ami  refrigerates  the  incoming  air  so  as  to 
reduce  its  bulk,  for  tlie  sake  of  getting  a  partially 
condensed  volume  for  the  su]iply  of  tlie  air-pump. 

A  writer  in  the  English  Encyclopaedia  states  the 
Ericsson  experiments  as  follows  :  — 

"  In  the  summer  of  1852  two  of  Ericsson's  caloric 
engines  were  at  work  in  a  factory  at  New  York  ; 
and  as  newspaper  paragraplis  frerpiently  appeared, 
presenting  most  favorable  accounts  of  the  working 
of  these  engines,  arrangements  were  planned  for 
building  a  sliij)  of  lOOO  tons'  burden,  to  be  pro- 
pelled by  hot  air  instead  of  steam.  It  was  antici- 
pated that  the  Atlantic  might  be  crossed  by  such  a 
ship  in  fifteen  days,  at  a  vastly  cheajier  rate  than 
by  the  superb  but  costly  Cunard  steamers,  theieby 
more  than  conipeiisating  for  the  ijuicker  ]ia.ssage 
of  the  latter.  The  ship  was  2.30  feet  long,  and  had 
paddle-wheels  32  feet  in  diunieter.  On  its  first  trial- 
trip,  .January  i,  1SJ3,  the  sliiii  made  twelve  knots 
an  hoar  with  the  wind,  and  answered  her  helm  well ; 
she  only  used  six  tons  of  fuel  per  day,  and  was  pro- 
nounced a  success  by  her  friends. 

"  On  the  second  trial,  the  maximum  speed  attained 
was  nine  knots,  —  obtained,  as  asserted,  at  a  cost  only 
one  sixth  of  that  of  steam.  After  this,  unfavorable 
circumstances,  one  by  one,  caine  to  light ;  and  the 
ship  named  the  '  Ericsson,'  in  honor  of  the  inventor, 
failed  to  establish  the  validity  of  the  principle  in- 
volveil.  Influenced  by  the  results  of  further  ex- 
periments made  in  lSo4,  the  indefatigable  inventor 
took  oat  another  patent  in  185o  for  certain  novel- 
ties in  the  apparatus.  In  this  new  caloric  engine, 
the  heated  air,  after  perfoi'ining  its  duty  by  raising 
the  piston  in  the  working-cylinder,  is  made  to  cir 
culate  through  a  vessel  containing  a  series  of  tubes  ; 
and  the  current  of  heated  air,  in  passsing  tlirough 
this  vessel  or  regenerator,  is  met  by  a  current  of 
cold  air,  circulating  in  an  opposite  direction  through 
the  series  of  tubes  on  its  way  to  the  working-cylinder. 

"Thus  there  is  cold  air  within  the  tubes  and  hot 
air  without,  an  interchange  takes  place,  or  rather  an 
eipialization,  by  a  transference  of  caloric  from  one 
to  the  other. 

"  The  current  of  cold  air,  on  its  way  to  the  working- 
cylinder,  after  thus  having  been  partially  heated  by 
the  transference  of  caloric,  is  made  to  jiass  through 
a  series  of  tubes  or  vessels  exposed  to  the  tire  of  a 
furnace. 

' '  Tlie  action  of  the  engine  itself  is  what  is  called 


'  diflerential,'  the  motive  energy  depending  on  the 
ditterence  of  areas  in  the  working  and  supii'y  cyl- 
iiiiiers.  [And  the  superior  energy  of  the  charge  in 
the  former  due  to  its  increment  of  heat  derived  from 
the  furnace.  —  En.] 

"The  heater  and  regenerator  are  supplied  with 
fresh  compressed  atmospheric  air  at  each  stroke  of 
the  engine. 

"  In  the  year  now  under  notice  [1855],  the  ohi 
caloric  engine  was  taken  out  of  the  '  Ericsson,' 
and  steam-engines  substituted.  Captain  Eries.soii 
would  not  admit,  however,  that  this  wa-s  an  evi- 
dence of  failure  in  his  jilaiis  ;  he  still  a-sserteil  the 
soundness  of  the  principle,  and  the  economy  in  fuel. 

"  The  first  engine  made  was,  he  said,  too  cumbrous 
for  the  available  amount  of  power  in  the  shi|i,  and 
the  losses  by  leakage  and  friction  were  gieater  than 
hail  been  anticipated.  A  second  was  made  ;  but  the 
joints  of  the  pipes  of  the  heaters  were  not  good,  and 
could  not  bear  a  greater  pressure  than  such  a-s  would 
produce  a  speed  of  seven  knots  an  hour.  Surcharged 
or  overheated  steam  was  used,  because  the  hot  air 
escaped,  and  then  occurred  a  dislocation  of  the 
whole  machinery  by  an  explosion. 

"  This  action  led  to  the  substitution  of  steam- 
boilers  ;  but  even  then  Ericsson  would  not  admit 
that  the  principle  of  his  caloric  engine  was  proved 
to  be  unsound  ;  seeing  that  the  accident  had  arisen 
from  mechanical  defects,  and  that  the  change  con- 
.sisted  only  in  the  use  of  steam-boilers  instead  of 
air-heaters."  The  English  writer  is  here  incorrect, 
as  she  was  supplied  with  steam-boilers  find  engines. 

The  "  Ericsson  "  made  a  trip  from  New  York  to 
AVashington,  and  is  said  to  have  used  an  enonnous 
quantity  of  tallow  in  lubricating  her  machinery. 
This  difficulty  is  avoided  in  some  of  the  smaller 
machines  now  built,  by  saturating  the  air  with 
steam.     See  Aeiio-stk.\m  Engine. 

In  a  paper  read  by  llr.  Rankine  before  the  15liti^h 
Association  in  Liver|iool,  September,  1S54,  is  a  suc- 
cinct .statement  of  the  principles  underlying  this 
subject  of  invention  ;  from  it  we  derive  the  follow- 
ing :  — 

"  Heat  acts  as  a  source  of  mechanical  power  by 
expanding  bodies,  and  conversely,  when  mechanical 
power  is  expended  in  comjiressing  Ixidies,  or  in 
producing  friction,  heat  is  evolved.  This  mutual 
convertiliility  of  heat  and  mechanical  power  is  ex- 
pressed in  the  following  law  :  'That  when  mechani- 
cal power  is  pioduied  by  the  expenditure  of  heat, 
a  i|uai)tity  of  heat  disajijiears,  bearing  a  fixed  jiro- 
portion  to  the  power  produced  ;  and  conversely,  that 
when  heat  is  produced  by  the  expenditure  of  me- 
chanical power,  the  i|uantity  of  heat  produced  bears 
a  fixed  proportion  to  the  jiower  expended.  This 
law  has  lieen  established  chieHy  by  the  exprrimeiits 
of  Mr.  JcMle  on  the  production  of  heat  by  tlu'  fric- 
tion of  the  particles  of  various  substances,  solid, 
liipiid,  and  gaseous,  and  he  has  a.scertained  the 
fixed  ]n-oportion  wliich  heat  and  mechanical  jiowcr 
bear  to  each  other  in  ca.ses  of  mutual  conversion. 

"The  vnit  of  heat  —  or  so  much  heat  as  is  sndi- 
cient  to  raise  the  temperature  of  one  pound  of  water 
at  ordinary  temperatures  by  one  degi'ct  of  Eahren- 
heit's  thermometer — reiiiiires  for  its  production, 
and  ]iroduces  by  its  dLsappcarance,  or,  in  other 
words,  is  eipiivalent  to,  772  llis.  of  mechanical 
power  ;  that  is,  so  much  mechanical  power  as  is 
sufiicient  to  lift  a  weight  of  1  lb.  to  a  height  of  772 
feet.  This  quantity  is  known  as  Joule's  e'/iiiidlc/it, 
or  the  dynamical  s]ieciftc  heat  of  water  at  ordi- 
nary temperatures.  The  dynamical  specific  heats 
of  other  sulistanees  may  be  determined  by  tlirect 
experiment,  or  by  ascertaining  the  ratios  to  l.iat  of 


AIR-ENGINE. 


38 


AIR-ENGINE. 


wati-v.  Thus,  to  heat  1  Ih.  of  atniosjOieric  air,  u.ain- 
taiiii-il  at  u  io:;st:;nt  volume,  by  V  Fahiviihi-lt, 
l•e(llli^l■^>  the  e.xijeiKlituie  cf  130.5  foot  lbs.  of 
merliaiiieal  power.  This  is  the  real  ilynainieal 
Slieiilie  heat  of  air.  The  appiimit  ilynainieal  s|.e- 
eilii-  heat  of  1  11>.  of  air,  under  eons. ant  )  le^suic', 
is,  for  1°  I*'ah.,  183.7  foot  lbs.  ;  the  diti'erenei',  or 
53.2  foot  lbs.,  being  the  nieehanieal  i:o\ver  exerted 
by  the  air  in  e.xi.aniling,  so  as  to  preserve  the  s:!ine 
pressure  notwithstanding  the  increase  of  its  teni- 
perature  by  1'.  The  a]iparent  sjiecific  heat  of  air 
at  constant  pivssure  e.\ceeds  the  real  specific  lh.it 
in  the  ratio  of  1.41  :  1.  All  r[','antities  of  heat  nuiy 
l!ius  be  expressed  by  eijuivaleiit  ij  umtities  of  me- 
chanical power.  The  heat  recjuired  to  rai.se  1  lb. 
of  water  from  the  freezing  to  thc^  boiling  ])oint, 
and  to  evaporate  it  at  the  latter  temperature,  is 
l,H7.r)'' X  ' '2  =  S8.i,870  foot  lbs.:  of  which 
ISir  X  77-J  =  138,91)0  foot  lbs.  is  sensible  heat,  or 
that  ciiiploved  in  rai.siug  the  temperature  of  the  wa- 
ter ;  while  "thi-  reminder,  907. .j  X  ''''-  = ''i'J.i'l" 
foot  lbs.,  is  the  latent  heat  of  evaporation  of  1  lb. 
water  at  2\2°  Fah.,  or  the  heat  that  disajipears  in 
overcon.iug  the  mutual  attraction  of  the  ]iai-tieles 
of  water,  and  the  external  pressure  under  which  it 
evaporates.  The  niechanieal  equivalent  of  the  avail- 
able heat  produced  by  1  lb.  of  ordinary  steam  coal 
may  be  taken  on  an  average  of  that  of  the  heat 
required  to  raise  7  lbs.  of  water  fi'om  50°  to  '21::° 
Fah.,  and  to  evaporate  it  at  the  latter  teniperaturi', 
that  is  to  say,  in  round  numbere,  6,000,000  foot 
lbs.  The  total  lieat  is  much  greater,  but  tlieie  is 
a  lass  in  the  gases  which  ascend  the  chinine.-. 

"Heat,  being  conveitible  with  niechsiTii_al  power, 
is  convertible  also  with  the  ris  nhy  of  a  boily  in 
motion.  The  British  unit  of  heat,  1"  Fah.  in 
1  lb.  of  water,  is  eijuivaliMit  to  the  vis  vivii.  of  a 
mass  weighing  1  lb.  moving  with  a  velocity  of  223 
feet  per  second,  liciiig  the  velocity  accpiired  in  fall- 
ing through  a  height  of  772  feet.  A  mass  of  water, 
of  wldch  each  partic'.e  is  in  motion  with  thi>  ve- 
locity, has  its  temperature  elevated  by  1°  of  Fah. 
ujion  the  extinction  of  the  motion,  by  the  mutual 
frii'tioii  of  the  iiarticlc's.  Heat  communicated  to  a 
substance  ])roduces  in  general  three  kinds  of  effects 
(omitting  the  chemical  and  electrical  phenomena): 
1.  An  increase  of  temperature  and  expansive  press- 
ure. 2.  A  change  of  volume,  nearly  always  an  in- 
crease. 3.  A  molecul.u'  change,  as  from  the  solid 
to  the  licpiid,  or  from  the  lii|uid  or  solid  to  the 
gaseous  state.  The  heat  which  ]iroduces  the  first 
kind  of  effects  is  known  as  sensible  heat,  and  makes 
the  body  hotter.  In  the  second  and  third  kinds  of 
ell'ects  heat  disappears  and  becomes  latent. :  but  may 
lie  irproduced  by  reversing  the  change  which  caused 
it  to  disappear.  In  evaporating  1  lb.  of  water  at 
212°  a  ipiantity  of  heat  disappears  equivalent  to 
711), 910  foot  lbs.  The  i'res.sure  of  the  steam  ]iro- 
dueed  is  2,116.4  lbs.  on  the  square  foot.  The  vol- 
ume is  probably  about  26;V  cubic  feet  more  than 
that  of  the  liiiuid  water.  JIuItiplying  these  two 
quantities  together,  it  appears  that  the  heat  ex- 
pended in  overc(jming  external  pressure  is  equiva- 
lent to  only  r>B,08:'i  foot  lbs.,  leaWng  690,825  foot 
lbs.  for  the  mechanical  eipiivalent  of  the  heat  which 
disappears  in  overcoming  the  mutual  attraction  of  the 
partiides  of  the  water.  Whereas  the  latent  heat  of 
expansion  of  a  perm:inent  gas  consists  almost  entirely 
cf  heat  which  ilisappears  in  overcoming  the  external 
pr--ssure.  Thus  the  )iroduct  of  the  volume  in  cubic 
feet  of  1  lb,  of  air,  .at  ():J0°  Fah,,  by  itsjiressure  in  llis. 
per  square  foot,  is  :j9,074  foot  lbs.  If  that  1  lb.  of 
air  be  I'xiianiled  under  pressure  to  1  i  times  its  origi- 
nal volume,  and  still  be  maintainedat  the  constant 


temperature  of  650°  by  being  su|q)!iid  wiih  heat 
ft'om  an  exteinal  source,  the  work  performed  by  it 
in  exjianding  will  be  59,074  X  hyperbou'  logarithm 
of  1 '  =  23,!>.i3  foot  lbs,,  and  this  quantity  will  also 
I  e  .'■iMisibly  equal  to  the  mechanical  equivalent  to 
the  hi'at  supplied,  and  which  disapiiears  iluring 
the  exjiansion.  It  is  this  heat  which  ilisa]qienrs  in 
liroducing  increase  of  volume  under  )>re.s.snie,  which 
is  the  leal  (oiirce  of  jiower  in  the  peiformunce  of  a 
then:  o-dyiianiic  engine  ;  as  it  i.s  a  portion  of  this 
heat  \  liii  h  is  actually  converted  into  mechanical 
work,  V,  Idle  the  heat  expended  in  producing  eleva- 
liuii  of  ti  ni]ii'rature  produces  merely  a  ti-mh  iiey  to 
the  developn.ent  of  power.  When  an  elastic  .svdi- 
stance  has  to  perform  niechanieal  woi'k  through  the 
agency  of  her.t,  it  goes  through  a  cycle  of  I'our  pro- 
cesses, which,  taken  together,  constitute  a  single 
stroke  of  the  engine. 

"  Prncess  A.  —  The  su1  stance  is  raised  to  an  ele- 
vated tem]ierature.  This  ]irocess  may  or  may  not 
involve  an  alteiation  of  volume. 

"  Process  B.  —  The  substance,  being  maintained  at 
the  elevated  temperature,  increases  in  vohiUie  ai.d 
propels  a  piston.  During  this  juocess  heat  disap- 
jiears,  Ii'.t  an  equivalent  quantity  is  su])]ilied  from 
without,  .so  that  the  temperature  does  not  fall. 

"  I'meiss  C.  —  The  subst;iiicc  is  eouled  down  to  its 
orig'nal  low  temperature,  with  or  without  a  change 
of  volume. 

"  I niccss  D.  —  The  substance,  being  maintained  at 
its  di  )iressed  tem]ierature,  is  eompres.seil,  by  the 
return  of  ihe  ]iiston,  to  its  original  volume.  Iluring 
this  ]  rocess  heat  is  jiroduced  ;  and  in  order  that  it 
n.ay  not  e'evate  the  temperaturi'  of  the  suh^lanee, 
and  give  rise  to  an  increased  pressure,  ini]ieding 
the  iTtuni  of  Ihe  piston,  it  must  be  abstracted  as 
i|iiickly  as  produced,  by  some  external  means  of 
lefrigeration.  The  substance,  being  now  brought 
back  to  its  original  volume  and  temperature,  is 
ready  to  undergo  the  cycle  of  jjrocesses  again  ;  or  it 
may  be  rejected,  and  a  fresh  portion  of  the  sub- 
stance employed  ibr  the  next  stroke.  In  the  latter 
case  the  operation  of  expelling  the  substance  may 
take  the  jilace  of  process  D.  In  some  cases  the  pro- 
cesses B,  C,  or  D  may  be  first  in  the  order  of  time. 
During  the  cycle  of  jirocesses  the  wotking  substance 
alternately  increa.ses  and  diminishes  in  volume  in 
contact  with  a  moving  jiiston.  During  the  increase 
of  volume  the  pressure ^f  the  substance  against  the 
pi.ston  exiiends  mechanical  power  in  compiessing  the 
woiking  substance.  The  increase  of  volunie  takes 
place  at  a  higher  teu.jieratuie,  and  therefore  at  a 
higher  pivssure  .than  the  diminution  of  volume; 
consequently,  the  mechanical  power  communicated 
to  the  piston  exceeds  that  taken  away  from  it.  The 
sur]ilus  is  the  ]>o\ver  of  the  engine,  available  for  per- 
forming mechanical  work.  The  cHicieiiey  of  the 
thermo-dynamic  engine  is  the  ratio  which  the 
available  power  bears  to  the  mechanical  e(iuivalent 
of  the  wiiole  heat  expended.  If  the  heat  com- 
municated to  the  woiking  substance  entirely  dis- 
a]ipeared,  the  power  jiroduced  by  that  engine 
wou'd  be  the  e.xact  equivalent  of  the  heat  ex- 
pended, or  772  foot  lbs  for  each  unit  of  heat,  and 
its  cHicieney  would  be  rejiresented  by  unity.  A 
perfect  engine  would  jiroduce  jiower  to  the  amount 
of  6,000,000  foot  lbs.,  for  each  pound  of  coal  con- 
sumed ;  and  as  a  hoi-se-power  is  1,980,000  foot  lbs. 
per  hour,  the  consumption  of  coal  would  be  0.33  lb. 
per  horse-])Ower  ]ier  hour.  But  of  course  there  is  a 
waste  of  beat  and  (lOwer  to  be  allowed  Ibr  in  every 
engine  before  we  e;in  arrive  at  its  actual  efficiency*." 

The  elliciency  of  a  theoretically  jierfect  engine, 
working  between  the  same  temperatures  as  Ei'icsson's, 


AIR-ENGINE. 


39 


AIR-ENGINE. 


would  be  0.404,  coiresfondiiig  to  a  coiibUi:;[ition  of 
0.82  lb.  of  coal  [icr  borsL'-power  per  liuur.  The  ac- 
tual coiisuinptiuii  was  1.S7  His.  of  aiithva- 
cito,  or  2.3  Iij.s.  of  bitiiniinous  coal.  Tiiis  is 
about  .3.4  tiuifs  tbe  coiLsuiiiptioii  of  a  tla-o- 
retically  perfect  en^^ine,  and  corresponds  to 
an  actual  elHcieiicy  of  0.118,  being  less 
than  the  maxiuiuni  theoretical  etticieiiey  in 
the  ratio  0.2y5  to  1.  'I'he  wast*  of  heat  and 
power,  therefore,  in  Eiics-son's  engine  must 
have  been  very  great,  though  it  was  economi- 
cal of  fuel  as  compared  with  steam-engines. 

Many  ot  the  nioilern  forms  of  air-engines 
conduct  the  incoming  charge  of  air  tu  the 
furnace  and  make  it  the  means  of  mnintain- 
ingcombustion.  The  volatileresults, abound-.'' 
ing  in  carbon  and  deprived  more  or  less 
perfectly  of  the  o.\ygen,  i-eijuire  washing  to 
remove  the  dust  and  soot  which  would  oth- 
erwise pass  to  the  cylinder.  Combustion  is 
thus  maintained  under  pressure,  a  condition 
considered  by  many  to  be  very  favorable  to 
the  economical  use  of  the  fuel. 

Some  of  the  air-engines  of  late  construction 
use  a  larger  or  smaller  ]iro]iortion  of  steam, 
partly  as  a  motor  and  partly  as  a  lubricator 

Fig.  81. 


[  su]>porting  combustion  in  the  furnace,  the  volatile 
I  portions  pass  off  by  the  pipe  D  to  the  wash-box  E, 

Fig.  82. 


Waslibuni'a  Air- Hfater  and  Steam- Generator. 


of  the 


Bennett's  Air-Heatrr  anil  Strani-  Generator. 

parts  which  are  apt  to  gi'intl,  working  in  the  hot, 
dry  air.     See  Ai';iio-STE.\.\i  Engine. 

Br.NNKTT,  .\ugust  3,  1S3S.  Thi.*  is  a  combined 
air-heater  and  steam-generator,  the  eomliustion  being 
maintained  umler  pressTU'c.  The  air  is  forced  in  by  a 
jiump,  and  enters  above  and  below  the  grates  in  quan- 
tities regulated  by  the  dampers  n,  o,  in  the  branches 
of  the  pipe  B.  Coal  is  introduceil  through  the  charger 
C  above,  without  allowing  any  notable  amount  of  air 
to  escape.  Tlie  upper  valve  c  being  withdrawn,  a 
charge  of  coal  is  dropped  on  to  the  lower  valve,  when 
the  upper  valve  is  shut,  ami  the  witlulrawal  of  the 
lower  one  allows  the  coal  to  fall  into  the  furnace  A. 
The  volatile  products  of  combustion  pass  through 
the  water-tiap  />,  and  mingle  with  the  steam  gener- 
ated in  the  jacket  E.  The  caloric  current  is  purged 
of  its  grit  and  soot  by  the  water  in  the  trap  Z),  and 
the  combined  heated  air,  gases,  and  steam  pass  by 
the  pipe  F'  to  the  engine.  An  equal  pressure  is 
maintained  iu  the  furnace  and  in  the  steam-geuerat- 
Ing  chamber. 

Washburn,  Septembers,  1865.  The  water  pass- 
es by  pipe  G  to  the  coil  B,  where  it  is  converted  into 
steam  which  [lasses  off  by  pipe  C     -Air  from  a  force- 


pump  enters  the  ash-pit  A  by  the  pipe  H,  and  after  |  tion  heat  does  no  enter 


where  tlie  gril  a. id  soot  are  arrested,  i^  is  a  water- 
supply  pipe  and  /  a  hand-hole  for  with- 
drawing accumulated  matter  ari'esti'd  in 
the  batli.  After  being  deprived  of  iuj- 
purities,  the  air  passes  by  the  pipe  A',  and 
joins  the  steam,  the  two  passing  by  pipe 
L  to  the  engine.  The  pressure  througli- 
out  the  apparatus  is  equal,  the  air  and 
water  being  forced  into  it  at  a  pressure 
equal  to  that  of  the  outgoing  steam  and 
air.  The  steam-generating  tube  B,  being 
exposed  to  equal  pressure  within  and 
without,  may  be  of  light  material,  and 
the  hot-air  c:urrent  may  vaporize  a  por- 
tion of  the  water  in  the  cleanser  E, 
which  is  also  supjilied  under  pressure. 
The  strength  is  in  the  outer  walls. 

Stillm.vn,  Augu.st  9,  1864.  The  air- 
heating  chamber  is  surrounded  by  a  steam- 
generator,  the  steam  from  which  is  made 
the  means,  by  injectors,  of  introducing 
the  supply  of  air  below  the  grate  of  tbe 
furnace,  and  also  at  a  higher  point,  where 
it  acts  to  assist  the  draft.  For  this  pur- 
pose the  steam  in  the  generator  is  maintained  at  a 
higher  temperature  than  the  air  in  the  furnace, 
and  acts  as  a  substitute  for  the  air-pump  in  atloid- 
ing  a  supply  of  air  for 
combustion  of  the  fuel 
under  pressure. 

After  the  foregoing 
treatise  on  the  early 
history  of  the  air-en- 
gine and  the  considera- 
tion of  the  princi]iles 
involved,  the  remain- 
der of  this  article  will 
be  devoted  to  examples 
of  the  air-engines  which 
have  been  introduced 
dui-ing  the  last  twenty 
years.  They  are  about 
eighty  in  number,  and 
may  lie  diviiled  into 
live  cla.sses,  in  all  of 
which  the  air  is  ex- 
pamled  by  heat.  (Air- 
ngines  into  whose   ac 


StiUman\^  Hol-Air  and 
Strain-  Gt  ni  rntor. 


AIR-ENGINE. 


40 


AIR-ENGINE. 


as  an  effective  agent  are  oonsidered  under  CoM- 
FKESSED-AIR  Enoinu,  which  see.) 

1st.  Those  in  which  the  air  is  compressed  into  a  res- 
ervoir, emitted  in  graduated  amounts,  lieated,  Uocd 
ell'ectively  aifainst  a  jiistou  in  a  cylinder,  and  then 
discliarged.  This  is  the  most  numerous  oUiss.  Some 
ot  tliem  pass  their  iiir-supidy  tlirongh  tlie  furnace, 
and  in  otliei's  it  is  only  heated  by  the  furnace.  In 
thc!  former  the  discharge  of  tlc^  air  is  a  necessity, 
not  so  in  the  latti'i' ;  this  brings  us  to  the 

'2d.  Those  in  wliich  the  air  or  gas  is  not  expended, 
but  the  same  air  is  lauseil  to  return  to  tln^  heater 
and  be  again  expanded  and  utilized.  This  is  the 
subject  of  the  Englisli  patent  of  (JlazebruoU,  1801, 
an  I  Laubereau,  18.59  ;  and  tlie  United  States  patent 
of  the  latter  dated  184U. 

ad.  Those  engines  in  which  the  air  or  gas  is  not 
expi^niled,  but  occupies  two  reservoii-s  communicat- 
ing with  the  cylinder  on  the  respective  sides  of  the 
piston  ;  the  air  in  said  reservoir  being  alternately 
heated  and  cooled  to  change  its  expansive  force  and 
thus  reciprocate  the  piston.  This  was  the  form  of 
Brunei's  engine,  British,  1804  ;  and  Stirling's, 
British,  1827  ;  imd  Peters's,  18«2. 

4th.  Those  engines  in  which  water  or  steam  is  min- 
gled with  the  air  to  moisten  it  and  keep  thc  worl.- 
ing  parts  from  abrasion  ;  in  some  ca.ses  being  intro- 
duced in  quantity  to  be  positively  co-operative. 
These  are  Aiiiio-sTKAM  ENriiNEs,  which  see. 

5th.  Tho.^e  engines  in  which  the  power  derived  is 
transferred  to  a  Ixxly  of  water,  to  prevent  burning 
the  working  parts  and  to  obviate  the  necessity  for 
air-tight  joints. 

It  will  be  appai-ent  that  only  a  few  I'cpresenta- 
tive  e.xtunples  can  be  shown  within  the  limits  assign- 
able to  this  subject,  in  which,  as  is  commonly  the 
case,  some  inventors  have  lunncrous  patents  embra- 
cing ilctails  of  construction,  ius  the  working  of  their 
engines  deveiopei.1  defects  and  elicited  remedies. 

The  lirst  class  is  after  the  similitude  of  the  Glaze- 
brook,  1797,  and  LiUey,  1811). 

Eiicsson  patented  improvements  in  air-engines 
in  1851,  185.5,  18,5(i,  1858,  and  1860.  Tlie  following 
alt'ords  iui  ex.imple  of  one  of  his  engines. 

Eiuc.ssuN,  sp  ^c  ill  jation  patent  of  July  31,  1855,  de- 
Fig.  84. 


iyics3on*s  AtT-En^'nr  (ISQj). 


scribes  the  invention  substantially  as  follows  (the 
illustration  is  reduced,  from  the  official  drawing,  for 
this  work )  :  — 

b  is  the  working-piston  ;  c,  the  supi)ly-pistoii  ;  /, 
the  exhaust-port  ;  c,  the  induction-port.  The  re- 
generator consists  of  tubes  k  ;  vi  are  the  heater- 
tubes.  By  means  of  a  hand  air-pump,  applied  to 
some  part  of  tin'  regencr.ator,  a  supply  of  atmospher- 
ic air  is  introduceil  at  aliout  the  piessure  of  the  at- 
mosphere, and  then  the  engine  is  in  a  condition  to 
begin  its  ojieration.  Starting  with  the  pistons  of 
one  engine  in  the  position  rejiresented  in  thc  lov\'er 
view.  Fig.  84,  at  the  extremity  of  their  outward 
stroke,  as  the  crank  s,  moving  in  an  ujnvard  direction 
is  making  that  part  of  its  circuit  near  the  outer 
dead-point,  and  therefore  imparting  but  little  mo- 
tion to  the  working-piston  I),  the  supply-jiiston  c  is 
carried  from  the  working-piston  and  towards  the  head 
of  the  cylinder  with  a  lujiid  motion  by  the  action  of 
the  cam  on  the  roller  of  the  arm  g,  the  cam  rotat- 
ing in  the  direction  aforesaid,  and  its  acting  face 
being  formed  as  represented,  that  the  piston  may 
be  gradually  started,  rapidly  accelerated,  and,  near 
the  end,  gradually  arrested,  and  there  retained  in  a 
.state  of  rest  as  the  extremity  of  the  cam  passes  thc 
roller.  During  this  inward  motion  of  the  supply- 
piston,  the  working-piston  will  be  opened  by  the 
pressure  of  the  atmosphere,  to  permit  cold  air  to 
enter  and  till  that  part  of  the  cylinder  between  the 
two  pistons.  So  soon  as  the  supply-]iiston  stojis, 
the  exhaust-])ort  closes,  and  the  continued  inward 
motion  of  the  \vorkiiig-]iiston  begins  to  comjuess 
the  cold  air  thus  suiijilied,  wliich  of  course  closes 
the  self-acting  valve  d,  through  which  the  supply 
was  admitted  by  atmos]iheric  pressure.  Thus  sup- 
p'.ii'd,  cold  air  continues  to  be  compressed  by  the 
«oi'kiiig-)iiston,  until  the  end  of  its  inward  stroke  ; 
and,  as  the  (lower  for  effecting  this  compression  is 
derived  for  the  time  being  from  the  other  engine,  it 
is  important  to  observe  the  condition  (if  the  connec- 
tions. At  the  time  the  sniijily-piston  of  one  engine 
is  started,  and  the  air  is  entering  by  atmosidieric 
pressure,  and  when  the  arm  o,  on  rock -shaft  ;>,  with 
which  the  working-piston  is  connected  hy  the  rod 
rt,  is  at  its  greatest  leverage,  the  corresponding  arm 
of  the  rock-shaft  of 
the  o]iposite  engine 
is  at  its  shorti'st  lev- 
erage, but  is  moved 
inwards,  and  the  sup- 
ply-air, by  reason  of 
being  gradually  com- 
pressed, increases  the 
resistance,  the  arm  o 
gradually  shortens  in 
lei'erage,  and  the 
same  arm  of  the  op- 
posite engine  gradu- 
ally, and  in  nearly  the 
same  ratio,  increases 
in  levciiige,  (m  the 
jirineiple  of  the  bent 
lever  ;  thus  aji|ilyiiig 
the  jiower  reijuired  to 
compi'css  the  sujiply. 
air  to  th(!  best  ad- 
vantage. It  shouhl 
be  borne  in  mind, 
however,  that  the 
powei-  thus  applied 
to  coni|riess  the  sup- 
ply-air  is  not  actually 
expended,  but  merely 
borrowed  ;  for  it  ia  so 


AIR-ENGINE. 


41 


AIR-ENGINE. 


much  acUled  to  the  elastic  force  of  the  air  by  which, 
when  heated,  the  engine  is  impelled. 

Just  before  the  supply-piston  begins  the  inward 
stroke,  just  described,  the  eduction-valve  y  is 
opened,  the  induction-valve  h  having  beeii  previ- 
ously closed  so  that  the  charge  of  the  heated  air,  by 
which  the  previous  stroke  of  the  engine  was  effect- 
ed, is  permitted  to  escape  freely  into  the  atmos- 
phere, so  that  the  power  recpiired  to  move  the 
supi)ly-piston  inward  is  very  slight,  the  air  escap- 
ing lively  to  the  atmosphere  on  one  side,  and  enter- 
ing by  atmospheric  pressure  on  the  other,  through 
the  valve  d  ;  but  as  the  heated  air  exhausts  or  es- 
capes from  the  cylinder,  it  passes  around  and  among 
the  series  of  small  tubes  t,  of  the  regenerator,  thus 
imparting  its  heat  through  the  metal  of  the  tubes  to 
the  cold  air  contained  inside  of  the  tubes,  which  air 
is  thus  partially  heated  preparatory  to  being  finally 
heated  in  passing  through  the  heater-tubes.  In  tliis 
way  much  of  the  heat  which  wo\ild  be  otherwise 
wasted  is  saved.  The  supply  of  cold  air  liaving  been 
introduced  and  compressed,  the  engine  is  prepared 
to  be  impelled  by  the  expansive  force  of  the  heated 
air.  The  eduction-valve  ;/,  having  been  closed  dur- 
ing the  greater  part  of  the  inward  motion  of  the 
working-piston,  the  induction-valve  !i  is  now 
opened,  which  admits  the  heated  air  from  the  heat- 
er of  the  cylinder  by  which  tire  supply-pisto  i  U 
forced  outwards  towards  the  working-piston.  The 
form  of  the  fall  of  the  cam  I  is  such  as  to  cause 
the  piston  to  be  carried  back  with  a  rapid  acceler- 
ated motion,  until  it  eomes  nearly  in  contact  with 
the  working-piston  ;  and,  at  first,  in  this  outward 
motion  of  the  suiiply-piston,  the  already  com- 
pressed supply-air  between  the  two  pistons  is 
still  further  compresSLjd,  not  by  the  powei-  of 
the  engine,  but  by  the  elastic  force  of  the  heated 
air,  the  supply-piston  being  as  it  were  suspended 
between  the  heated  air  from  the  heater  on  one  .side 
and  the  cold  air  of  the  other,  with  the  self-acting 
valve  r  (in  the  side  of  the  cylinder)  interposed  be- 
tween the  two  ;  for  it  must  be  ren\"inbered  that,  as 
the  lleater  and  regenerator  are  in  communication, 
the  air,  which  is  a  perfectly  elastic  Huid,  will  be  un- 
der equal  pressure  in  both,  notwithstanding  a  por- 
tion is  more  highly  heateil  than  the  other  ;  and,  as 
the  supply-air  in  the  cylinder  is  .simply  separated 
from  the  air  in  the  regenerator  by  the  interposed 
valve  i;  in  the  side  of  the  cylinder,  the  s  ipply-|)is- 
ton  will  be  moved  outwanls  by  the  heated  air,  until 
the  supply-air  is  compressed  to  an  equal  tension, 
and  then  the  further  motion  of  the  supply-piston, 
effected  by  the  cam  /,  as  it  approaches  the  working- 
piston,  will  transfer  the  supply-air  from  the  cylin- 
d.T  to  the  regenerator,  through  valve  r.  The  "only 
power  expended  by  the  engine  in  this  transfer  will 
be  the  siiiall  amount  recpiired  to  move  the  supply- 
Jiiston,  between  two  equal  pressures,  to  give  the 
slight  preponderanc ;  to  the  one  necessary  to  open 
the  valve  ;-,  through  which  the  transfer  is  made. 
The  moment  the  supply-piston  passes  this  v.ilve  and 
overtakes  the  working-jiiston,  the  preponderance  of 
pressure  ceases,  and  th"  valve  closes  by  gravity. 

Th;  specification  states  :  "I  cto/m.  the  method  of 
sui)plying  fresh  air  to  the  engine,  compressing  and 
transferring  it  to  the  regenerator  and  heater,  or 
either,  by  the  action  of  the  supply  and  working 
(li^tons  within  the  one  cylinder,  operating  on  the 
principle  ami  in  the  manner  substantially  as  de- 
scribed, whereby  the  air  is  admitted,  under  atmos- 
pheric pressure,  as  the  supply-piston  is  moving  from 
the  working-pi-ston,  as  the  previous  charge  of  heated 
air  is  exhausting  ;  so  that  the  said  supply-piston 
moves  in   equilibrio,    or   lu^arly  so,  and  by   which 


also  the  supply-air  is  finally  compressed  and  then 
transferred  to  the  regenerator  and  heater,  or  either, 
as  the  supply-piston  moves  between  the  supply -air 
and  heated  air,  duiing  the  periods  of  the  nearly  sta- 
tionary position  of  the  working-piston. 

"1  also  claim,  in  combination  with  the  double- 
piston  movement  of  each  cylinder,  the  methods  of 
connecting  the  working-pistons  of  two  single-acting 
engines  to  constitute  a  double-acting  engine,  by 
means  of  two  .sets  of  vibratory  arms  attached  to  each 
other,  and  vibrating  on  a  common  center  connected 
with  the  two  working-pistons,  and  with  the  two 
cranks  on  opposite  sides  of  the  crank-.shaft,  the  two 
sets  of  arms  acting  on  the  principle  of  the  bent- 
lever,  and  the  craiik-.sliaft  being  so  located  relatively 
to  the  cylinders  and  the  centers  of  vibration  of  the 
arms,  substantially  as  described,  that  the  working- 
piston  shall  be  at  the  end  of  its  inward  stroke  at  the 
time  the  crank  is  passing  the  dead  point  farthest 
from  the  jioint  of  connection  of  the  connecting-rods 
with  the  \ibrating-arm,  as  described,  by  which  the 
power  of  that  working-piston  which  is  being  im- 
pelh'il  by  the  heated  air  is  applied  to  the  best  ad- 
vantage to  operate  the  other  working-])iston  during 
its  return-stroke,  and  by  which  also  the  workiug- 
(liston  remains  nearly  at  rest  during  the  time  the 
sup]ily-piston  is  making  that  part  of  its  outward 
stroke,  during  which  the  partially  compressed  air  is 
finally  and  fully  comiuessed  and  transferred  to  the 
regenerator  and  heater,  or  either,  as  described." 

Since  the  exjieriments  on  a  large  scale,  a  smaller 
size  of  the  Ericsson  engine  has  been  made  efficient. 

An  Englishman,  who  was  deputed  to  examine  the 
engine,  made  a  pnl.ilished  report  in  which  the  fol- 
lowing is  found  :  — 

"  They  all  gave  complete  satisfaction  and  appar- 
ently ample  power  for  the  purposes  to  which  they 
were  applied  ;  but  without  experiment  it  is  impossi- 
ble to  say  what  ciuantity  of  power  they  actually 
furnish  respectively,  liuf,  judging  by  the  aj^peaiance 
of  things,  they  all  worked  well  and  with  sui-])ris- 
ing  regularity,  evidently  develoiiing  a  much  larger 
amount  of  power  from  a  given  i[nantity  of  coal  than 
could  be  obtained  from  steam-engines,  as  at  present 
constructed,  of  corresponding  ]iowers.  And  being 
sni'h  that  they  may  be  placed  in  any  location  from 
which  a  chimney  may  be  reached,  and  not  requiring 
^vatl•l■  or  skilled  attendance,  they  are  particularly 
desirable  as  a  driving  jiower  for  small  manufac- 
turers, who  are  thereby  enabled  to  conduct  their 
o]  erations  in  the  business  parts  of  the  cities,  by 
oi-eupying  upper  lofts. 

"  No  attention  is  required  for  them  while  run- 
ning, beyond  what  is  necessary  to  throw  in  a  few 
coals  occasionally,  which  is  all  that  is  required  to 
keep  up  a  constant  and  unilbrm  motion, — which 
considerations  become  of  impoitance  to  those  who 
require  a  small  power  only. 

"As  to  the  apjireciation  of  this  machine  by  the 
public,  it  may  w(dl  be  said  that  whereas  it  was  a  few 
years  ago  looked  upon  as  a  mere  mechanical  curi- 
osity, it  is  now  regariled  and  acknowledged  as  a 
reliable  motive  power." 

The  "London  Engineer"  adds  :  "That  it  is  po.s- 
sible  to  construct  an  air-engine  which  will  burn 
less  coal  than  an  average  steam-engine  has  been 
almost  jJi'oved,  but  it  is  wrong  to  argue  from  this 
that  the  steam-engine  is  'used  up.'  Something 
more  is  wanted  than  economy  of  fuel.  We  need 
liermanence,  absence  of  wear  and  tear,  compactness, 
sinqilicity,  and  safety.  In  every  one  of  these  points, 
except  perhaps  the  last,  hot-air  engines  cannot  bear 
a  moment's  comparison  with  the  steam-engine.  No 
large  hot-air  engines  have  ever  been  constructed  and 


AIR-ENGINE. 


42 


AIR-ENGINE. 


worked  with  success.  Tin-  vubMng  surfaces  must 
bi;  liuge,  ami  au  cliicicht  Uil)ri>;alioii  Ijc-ouics  an 
imiJos-siUlity,  lu'iic:  tVicliuii  Is  enormous.  The  di- 
mensions ot  tlic  working  iiarts  must  be  very  great, 
or  thi!  temperatii.c  ol'  llie  air  very  higli.  .Surlaees 
nearly  nd  liut  cut  into  each  otlier,  and  tVii'tiou  runs 
away  with  tlie  power  of  the  macliine,  tile  destruc- 
tion" of  which  is  imminent  each  day.  Considerable 
inij.rovements  may  be  cll'ected  in  lubrii-ation,  but 
e.^Ljierience  with  the  steam-engine  conclusively 
jiroves  that  the  limit  of  temperature  consi.stent  wiiu 
practical  working  is  very  soon  passed.  It  is  not 
safe  to  use  suiH'rheited  steam  much  hotter  tlian 
■260  degrees,  tlu^  east-iron  of  the  cylinders  and 
valve  faces  becoming  disintegrated  and  sjioiled  at 
higher  temperatures.  If  air  of  no  greater  tempera- 
ture is  used,  we  have  an  ell'eclive  pressure  of  not  more 
than  7  lbs.,  or  thereabouts,  per  sipiare  inch.    Marine 

Fig.  86. 


StH'.maii'.i  Air-Engine. 

engines  with  cylinders  of  IflD  inches  in  diameter  in'ist 
be  replaced  under  such  a  eo  idilion  with  oth-rs  of  M 
feet  or  16  feet  in  diam.'ter.  Then  would  com,'  huge 
air-pumps  and  regeneratois.  Tile  machinery  would 
take  up  as  much  space  a<  lioil- 
ers  and  steam-engines  togeth- 
er ;  and  all  this  to  save  per- 
haps a  quarter  of  a  ]ioaiid  of 
coal  per  horse  per  hour." 

Stili.m.vx,  June  26,  1860. 
The  air  is  compressed  and 
worked  in  a  single  cylinder 
by  a  single  piston.  The  air 
is  compressed  in  the  space 
below  the  piston  B,  passes 
by  pipe  E  to  the  heater,  and 
thence  by  valve  F  to  the  ef- 
fective space  .-/  above  (he  pis- 
ton. As  the  piston  rises,  air 
is  drawn  in  between  the  hol- 
low piston-rod  7/  and  the 
plunger  0,  cooling  the  for- 
mer, and  is  ejerteil  again  as 
the  jiistnii  descends.  The  in- 
duct ion -air  enters  at  pi)  lesfrf, 
as  the  piston  li.ses,  the  an- 
n-Lilar  valve  It  being  raised  by 


the  friction  of  its  stufiing-bo.x  upon  the  hollow  piston- 
rod  11'.  The  cylindrical  chamber  X  is  attached  to 
the  pi.^toii-rod  i^,  and  rises  and  falls  theivwitli  .'-■o 
as  to  alternately  draw  and  c;;;iei.  air  th.ou^h  the 
annular  space  be- 
tween it  and  the 
cylinder,  for  the 
jdirpo.se  of  cooling 
the  latter. 

KuFKii,  June  0, 
1^6--;.  Tlie  f.a-nace 
is  lined  with  tire- 
brick  on  all  sii'.es 
except  the  bottom. 
The  air  is  con- 
densed in  the  pump 
above  and  jiasses 
ilown  by  the  pipe 
Z,  being  admitted 
above  or  lielow  the 
grate  in  quantities 
proi'orlioned  to  the 
requirements  of  the 
fuel.  The  air  passes 
from  the  furnace  ••/ 
by  an  opening  d, 
and  is  a  Iniitted,  on 
the  ri.-ing  of  valve 
1,  to  tl.e  .'ipace  H, 
when  it  is  ren- 
dered effective 
■against  the  piston 
U.  The  e.xhaust- 
valve  b  is  rai.sed 
to  allow  the  de- 
scent of  the  piston, 
the  valves  being 
automatically  worked  by  the  usual  means,  and  the 
cut-olf  being  adju.stable  as  required. 

B-\LD\viN,  February  14,  IbUo.  In  this  engine 
the  air  is  driven  out  of  the  force-]niin]i  A  by  tlic 
descent  of  the  piston  B,  which  is  connected  by  pit- 
man C  with  the  crank  D.  The  air  from  the  pv.inp 
A  passes,  by  passages  //,  to  the  tuyc'i'es  /  around  the 
furnace  J,  into  which  it  issues  by  a  series  of  0]ien- 
ings  on  the  inner  faces  of  the  annular  tuyeres. 
Tliese  air-passage  rings  are  interchangealile  with 
the  movable  rings  which  form  the  lining  of  the 
furnace.  The  air  pastes  from  the  luimary  to  a 
sei-ondary  furnace,  and  thence  by  [lassages  and 
valve-ways    to    the    working-cylinder  il,  wheie  it 

Fig.  87. 


Roper's  Air-En^ne. 


SalfJwin's  Air-En^tiie. 


Ain-EXGIXE. 


43 


auti  upoji  thij  piston  F  to  raise  the  walking-beam 
I^,  a.id  tliL-  latt.-r  connects  by  pitman  0  \iHii  t;.e 
cr;ini<  IJ. 

Tiie  ilisk-valvcs  are  made  of  ilexiUe  material,  a:  d 
ara  guided  by  mar^nal,   veiticai   pins,  wliieli  Ibrm 
a  cage  to  resti-.iin  tli.-  di>'.;s  IVoni  la.eral  movement,  ■ 
but    pei!iut  flee,  \eitical  p  ay.      'J'lie  air,   after  ex-  [ 
paiidi:ig  in  tlie  worUing-cyimder,  beionies  sendbly 
colder  and  is  e;ihaasted  i.ito   tlie   atinos]ihere.     A  ' 
eo:inejting-rod  ecc^-ntri  a.ly  jojrnalej  to  the  main- 
shaft  operates  toe.;  wlileli  trip  the  inlet  and  exhaust- 
valv.-.s  (if  the  wurking-'-ylinder. 

Slcssint,  M.ireh  7,  1S6j.  The  cylinder  .-/,  air- 
piini  11  /',  and  furnace  C  are  on  a  plane,  and  the  feed- 
bux  l)  over  the  hitler.  The  packed  Jioition  of  the 
jiisto.i  works  in  the  upper  part  of  the  cylimler, 
^.nieh  is  cooled  by  air  in  the  pii-ssage /i,  leading  fioui 
the  air-p.ii:ip  to  tlic  farnace.  A  checn-valve  in  iliu 
passage  prevents  ihi-  re.iux  of  air.  The  loumlaiion- 
jdiite  of  the  engine  has  high  .sides  in,  and  forms  a 
water-rcscrvjir  in  which  steam  is  generated  by  ra- 
diation from  the  furnace-walh.  A  toi'-plateii  lorms 
tlie  top  of  the  reservoir,  and  the  cylinder  is  pro- 
tected by  a  doubL'  wall  which  jirevents  imnioder- 
a;e  sniitraction  of  heat  therefrom.  Air  fioiii  the 
puniM  circulate^  through  the  liollow  grate-bars.     A 


AIR-ENGINE. 
Fig.  89. 


in  rojr's  Atr-Engiiie. 


va've-ehest  /.     The  raising  of  the  'T.lve  ad::n's 

lo  the  elfective  sp.ace  below  th"  J  i.ston,  and  i!^ 

by  the  tripping  of   tl:e  adjustable  cut-off  arraji, 

jmrnp  IS  provided  for  injecdng  combu.,tiblc  tiuid,  to  I  inent ;  this  is  "effected  late  or  early  in  the  strol 

as  may  be  required. 
J      -"  _.      .  .     . 


Air-Eil^me. 


mix  with  the  solid  fuel  in  the  furnace,  and  all  th  ; 
volatile  products  of  combustion  ai-e  jiassed  ti:ro'.lgh 
the  working-cylinder,  the  iiEuuction  and  eduction 
Talves  being  worked  in  tlie  usual  manner. 

Wilcox,  May  Itf,  18(1=;.  This  engine  is  sub- 
stantially on  the  principle  of  tlie  engine  of  Sir 
George  Cayleys  (about  l^KO).  The  fire  is  fed  with 
air,  under  pressure  of  a  puniji,  and  the  volatile  ]n'o- 
ducts  of  combustion  are  passed  tlirough  the  work- 
ing-<'ylinder 

AVith  each  desci-iit  of  the  piston  air  is  drawn 
through  the  inhaling  valve  F,  and  tills  the  space 
above  the  piston,  tin  the  ascent  uf  the  valve  the 
ail'  is  driven  through  the  regenerator,  and  becomes 
jiartiaily  heated  by  contact  with  the  ducts  carrying 
out  heated  exhaust-air.  It  thence  passes  by  pipe  H 
to  the  furnace,  a  part  entering  above  and  a  part 
below  the  gi-ate  as  regulated  by  the  faucet-valve. 
This  valve  is  worked  automatically  by  a  ihermostatio 
arrangement,  so  that  when  the  tire  bei'omes  unduly 
hea*''d  the  supply  driven  throuyh  tlie  fuel  is  de- 
checked.      The  compressed 


cre.asdand  combu.stion  checked.     Tlie  comjuei 

and  heated  air   theiice  passes,   by  pipe  B,  to   the  |  communicates  motion  to  the  crank -shaft,  and  toward 


The  doors  of  the  furnace  and  a!>h-]iit  arR 
secured  by  cramps  and  hollow  bolts  to  the 
walls,  and  are  removable  to  replenish  the 
fuel,  or  for  grinding  or  packing  lo  make  an 
air-tight  joint. 

2.  The  second  class  is  as  the  principle  of 
the  English  patents  of  Glazebrook,  1797 ;  and 
Parkinson  and  Ci'osley,  1827. 

L.\rBEitK.\u,  April  10,  1S49  ;  patented  in 
England,  1&47.  This  engine  is  the  first  which 
emlmdies  the  jieculiar  features  of  a  furnace  in 
the  air-heating  chamber,  and  a  hollow  plunger 
of  corresponding  form. 

The  air  is  alternately  dilated  and  contracted 
by  alisorbing  and  giving  out  caloric,  the  air 
when  separated  by  heat  forcing  up  a  piston 
in  a  cylinder,  which  is  in  turn  forced  down 
by  the  jiressure  of  the  atmosphere  when  the 
air  is  condensed  by  the  ab.stiaction  of  heat, 
th"  .lir  tor  the  alternate  dilatation  and  con- 
traction being  carried  over  a  heating  and 
cooling  surface  by  the  motion  of  a  iilunger  in 
a  cyliniler  that  comnnmicates  with  the  cylin- 
der of  the  enaine.  The  plunger  is  made  hollow,  with 
its  ex"er7ial  and  internal  surfaces  made  of  some  good 
comliu'tor  of  caloric  separated  by  a  non-concluctor, 
the  said  jilunger  being  adapted  to  move  witliin  a 
surroniuling  cooling- vessel  and  to  coniliined  with  a 
heatiiig-\"cssel  made  of  some  good  conductor  of 
caloric,  and  heated  bj'  the  application  of  lieat  inter- 
nally, that  the  said  hollow  ]ilunger  shall  alternately 
cover  and  uncover  it,  and  thus  cause  the  contained 
air  altei-nately  to  pass  over  the  heated  surfaces  to 
dilate  it,  and  then  over  the  cold  surfaces  to  con- 
tract it,  the  said  surrounding  vessel  being  in  con- 
nection with  a  cylinder  to  which  is  adajited  a 
workimr-piston.  The  operation  is  as  follows  : 
before  heat  is  applied,  air  is  admitted,  under  the 
liressure  of  the  atmosphere,  through  one  of  the 
valves  or  cocks  ;  fire  is  then  made  in  the  furnace 
until  the  contained  air  is  dilated;  a  portion  of 
which  is  then  permitted  to  escape  through  one  of 
the  valves  or  cocks,  which  is  then  closed.  The 
heat  is  then  continued  until  the  air  has  aequiied 
sufficient   elasticity   to  force   up  the   piston.     This 


AIR-ENGINE. 


44 


AIR-KNGIXE. 


the  end  of  the  upnanl  motion  of  tlie  piston,  tlie 
cam  on  the  nuiin  shiift  iiiovis  tlie  plunger  until  it 
covers  the  heatiT,  and  this  motion  of  the  plunLjer 

"~  fie  00. 


Laitberemt's  Air-Engine  (1847). 

causes  the  air  contained  between  it  to  pass  be- 
tween its  outer  surlace  and  the  inner  surface  of  the 
surrounding  vessel,  and  to  aceumulate  at  the  back 
end  of  the  plunger,  so  that,  the  heat  being  en- 
tirely shut  in,  tlie  .air  is  cooled  by  contact  with 
the  cold  surface  of  tin-  surrounding  ease  ami  outer 
surface  of  the  plunger,  the  air  thus  contracted  pro- 
ducing a  partial  vacuum  which  peiinits  the  piston 
to  he  forced  down  by  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere 
above.  As  the  piston  approaches  the  end  of  its 
downward  stroke,  the  cam  moves  back  the  plunger, 
which  transfers  the  cold  air  from  the  outside  to  the 
inside,  thus  causing  it  to  pass  in  a  thin  film  over 
the  surfai'e  of  the  heater  and  the  inner  and  heated 
surface  of  the  plunger.  It  is  thus  iigain  dilated,  that 
by  its  elasticity  it  may  again  force  up  the  piston. 

Fig.  91. 


Laub'Ttau's  Air-Engine  (1859). 


Ill  this  way  eaili  stroke  of  the  plunger  causes  the  air 
to  pass  over  the  heated  surlaces  to  dilute  it,  and  then 
over  the  cold  surfaces  to  condense  it.      The  plunger 

also  has  the  elleet  to 
shut  in  the  heat  of 
the  heater,  receiving 
lieat  therefrom  in 
the  mean  time  while 
its  external  surface 
is  kept  iidd  by  the 
surrounding  ease, 
the  non-conductor 
interposed  between 
them  ]>reventiiigtlie 
heat  of  the  ii.tci  lu.l 
surface  iVom  beirg 
transmitted  to  the 
external  suiface. 

This  engine  has 
been  since  modilied 
(patent  in  Enjilaiid, 
July  22,  l^.V.i)  by 
the  introduction  of 
a  valve  in  the  pas- 
sage between  tlie 
heater  and  work- 
ing-cylinder, and  at 
the  eduction  from 
thence  into  tlie 
pipes  which  conduct 
the  air  lack  fiom 
the  working- cylin- 
der to  the  cool  end 
nt  I  he  chamber. 

This  air-engine  is 
said  to  be  coming 
into  great  favor  on 
the  continent  of  Eu- 
rope, and  in  the  later 
form  is  very  eompact.  The  operation  of  the  engine 
is  so  similar  to  the  preceding  that  it  does  not  call 
for  a  lengthy  description.  The  jacket  around  the 
cool  end  of  tlic  air-chamber  lias  a  current  of  water, 
or  some  other  means  of  lefrigeration,  so  as  to  lender 
it  nioi  !■  proni]it  and  c  fl'ectivc  in  its  action  cm  the  air. 
The  wovhing-eylinder  is  connected  altciiiately  to 
the  respective  ends  of  the  chamber  below,  by  p;is- 
sages  whose  ■(•alvcs  ojieii  and  close,  according  to  the 
direction  of  the  current. 

ScHWAUTZ,   December  20,  1S(34.     This  invention 
is  thus    described  officially  :     "  The    object  of   this 
invention  is  to  produce  an  air-engine  to  work  u]ion 
the  recu]ierative   system,  and  thus  to  use  the  same 
air   OA'er   and   over.      Its   novelty  consists,  first,  in 
the  generator,  which  is  composed  of  a  strong  flat- 
sided  vesscd,  with  rounded  neck  at  the 
to]i,  which  is  suspended  over  the  tire  in 
the  funiace.     From  the  bottom  of  this 
generator    jirotrude   downwards    several 
bottlc'-shaped  tubes  which  arc  ojicn  to- 
vu'ds  the  inside  space  of  the  generator. 
Tills  geiic-ratcir  is  filled  with   a   licpiid 
wliose    boiling-point   is  very   high,  say 
ficiiu  .'■jOO°  to  7(10".     The  air  heated  in 
the  generator  passes  through  a  ]iipe  to 
the  cylinder,  wliicdi  constitutes  the  sec- 
ond novel   t'eature  of  the  engine,  and  is 
composed   of   three    distinct    iiarts,    the 
central  one  of  which   is   the  working- 
cylinder,  the  end  ones  being  filled  with 
__ — ^     small  tubes,  into  which  rods  are  fastened 
2^^^     to  the  piston-neck    for  the  pni'liose   of 
**■    agitating  the  entire  body  of  air  during 
the  process   of  expansion.     The  third 


AIR-EXGINE. 


45 


AIR-ENGIXE. 


feature  of  novelty  consists  in  passing  tlie  gas,  after 
it  lias  expended  its  force  upon  the  piston,  through 
the  generator,  which  is  constructed  rectangularly, 
and  has  a  dividing  ]ilate  in  its  center.  This  vessel 
is  tilled  n-ith  horizunt;d  tulies,  which  are  closed  at 
both  ends,  and  are  j^artialiy  tilled  with  a  fluid  which 
is  designed  to  extract  the  heat  from  the  air  cr  gas 
as  it  passes  from  the  engine,  and  transmits  it  to  the 
air  which  is  passing  to  the  opposite  side  of  the 
piston." 

3.  The  third  class  is  on  the  princijile  of  the  Stir- 
ling engine,  descril>ed  in  a  preceding  portion  of 
this  article. 

Peteus,  November  18,  1862.     The  air  is  lieated 


Feuns  Air  £.,., 

in  two  vessels  connecteil  with  two  opposite  ends  of 
the  working-cylinder,  and  the  invention  consists  in 
so  operating  the  two  plungei-s  that 
the  one  in  cither  heating-vessel  is 
stationary  in  its  uppemiost  ])osi- 
tion,  with  the  sjiace  below  it  fuU 
of  heated  air,  while  the  working- 
piston  is  making  the  stroke  from 
the  end  of  the  cylind>r  in  con- 
nection with  that  vessel,  the  plun- 
ger in  the  other  heating  vessel  m.ik- 
ing  both  its  upwani  and  downward 
stroke  in  the  mean  time,  and  cius- 
ing  th>'  latter  vesscd  to  lie  filled 
with  heated  air  to  pro  l-ice  the 
return  stroke  of  the  working-pis- 
ton. Tlie  gland  which  is  used  to 
compress  the  packing  in  the  stuf-  ^ 
fing-box  is  made  witli  a  deep  cup  " 
in  its  upper  part  for  the  reception 
of  oil.  and  around  the  upper  edge 
of  this  cup  is  secured  a  leather 
collar  in  close  contact  with  the 
plunger-rod,  so  as  to  prevent  the 
escape  of  air. 


Fig.  93. 


See 


Bickfor<r.*  Air-Eni^ine. 

before  reaching  the  compressed-air  rescn-oir  J 
Aiiuo-STEAM  Engine. 

5.  Of  the  fifth  class  is  the  patent  of  Shearer, 
September  3,  1861  ;  in  which  two  cylinders  are 
used  with  two  pistons,  the  faces  of  which  are  in 
contact  with  water,  which  is  caused  to  pulsate  by 
the  action  of  bodies  of  air.  The  air  is  acted  upon 
alternately  by  heating  and  refrigerating  means. 

Kkitzer,  July  2it,  1S62.  This  invention  also 
belongs  to  the  fifth  cla.ss. 

The  working-cylinder,  shown  in  longitudinal  sec- 
tion in  Fig.  94,  is  filled  with  water,  which  also  extends 
into  the  lower  portion  of  each  of  the  vertical  cylin- 
dei-s  above.  The  lower  portion  of  each  upper  cyl- 
inder forms  an  air-condensing  sj'ace.  The  s]iaces 
D,  above  the  pistons  J,  are  the  air-heating  sjiaces 
where  it  is  made  effective.  To  the  bottom  of  each 
piston  is  attached  a  sjirinkling-trough  of  light  metal, 
with  perforated  sides,  so  that  at  each  descent  of  the 


Kritzer's  Air-En^tne. 


The  engine  of  Napier  axd  R.\xkin'F.  patented  in  '  ]  istnn   it  will  be  filled  with  water,  and  as  it  rises 


the  United  States,  Septendwr  19,  1854,  and  in  Eu] 
land  .Tune  9,  1853,  is  of  this  class. 

4.  The  fourth  class  includes  those  which  use  steam 
to  lubricate  the  j)arts  ;  an  example  will  be  given, 
but  it  is  not  to  be  inferred  that  it  is  confined  to 
one.  The  immense  expenditure  of  grease  has  in- 
duced the  use,  in  many  or  perhaps  most  of  the  air- 
engines,  of  moistened  air  as  suggested  by  Glaze- 
brook  1797,  Oliver  Evans  about  the  same  time,  and 
by  Benuct  1838. 

"Bkkfokd,  .Tune  6,  186.5.     The  air 
in  the  reservoir  by  an  annular  jiistoii 


will  distribute  the  same  upon  tlu'  inside  of  the  cyl- 
inJer. 

Air'-en-gine.  Corn-pressed'.   Under  the  head- 
ings Air  as   a  JIean.s  uf  transmitting  Power, 
Compressed-air  Engine,  Air  as  a  Water-ele- 
vator, reference  has  been  made  to  the  use  of  com- 
]m'S.sed  air  as  a  motor.     The  devices  incident  to  the 
application  of  the  air  to  ilrive  machinery  have  usu- 
ally been  of  a  character  similar  to  those  of  a  .steani- 
;  engine.     A  piston  recijiroiating  in  a  cylinder  by  the 
compressed    impact  of  the  air  admitted  to  the  sides  alternately, 
entering  at    the   induction   and    eduction    being    govci-ned   by 


the  valve  D  during  the  down   stroke,  and  passing  I  valves. 

through  the   piston   during  the   u]i   stroke.     It   is  i      In  the  Govan  Colliery,  Scotland,  the  compressed 

moistened  by  passing  through   a  body  of  water  5  |  air  is  made  to  di'ive  a  high-pressure  engine  at  the 


AIll-ESCAPE. 


46 


AIR-FII.TER. 


bottom  of  til-  shaft.  See  C()Mri:r.ssi;i)  All;  Em:ini:. 
.-it  til'  lloos.ij  T'.inu'l  til.-  drills  arc  iliivun  liy  I'oiii- 
]ir;'ssc.l  air,  and  the  same  is  true  of  the  tmiujliiig- 
inai'hine  used  at  Mont  L'enis  Tunu/1,  lately  coiu- 
[ileted.      See  TuNNEL. 

Air'-es-capa'.  An  air-trap  whijli  allows  air  to 
escip.'  IVi):n  tli-  upper  bend  of  a  wvter-pipe.  It 
consists  of  a  ball-eaeU,  which,  in  falling  a  certain 
extent,  opens  the  air-v:dve,  and  (doses  when  the 
water  ris  ■<  to  tlie  levid  for  whicli  it  is  set. 

Air'-ex-haust'er.  An  air-trap,  by  which  c-o11ect- 
ed  air  may  escape  fro'n  water-nniins,  etc. 

An  air-pump,  or  vacuum-fan,  by  whicli  effete  air 
is  reuuivcd  frpm  a  sliaft,  mine,  room,  or  other  place. 

A  I'lioiuni  ventilator  in  contradistiiudion  to  a 
p'niiun  vi'utilator,  whiidi  operates  by  fn-ciug  in  air. 

Air'-fil'ter.  Dn.  Stknuousk's  air-tilters  were  set 
up  at  thi-  .Mansion  lloasr,    London,  in  1S54. 

The  moL'  of  lilterin:;  air  is  by  a  wire  screen, 
w'liidi  arrests  Uoiting  a:i  I  Hying  bodies  of  any  niag- 
lutade,  and  then  exposes  the  current  of  air  to  the 
contact  of  water. 

The  most  coni'Tion  exemplifications  of  the  devices 
are  to  be  foanj  in  the  railroad-car  ventilators.     In 


ZZ3 


Rufnn's  Cn--  Ven'.iUiti 

IvUT tan's  patent,  January  0,  1SG6,  the  air  is  caught 
by  Iioo.ls  above  the  car-roof,  and  led  into  a  chamb  'r 
w'lM"  the  plashing  wit'r  absorbs  tlu  du.st  and  al.so 
coaf-TS  upon  t'.u  air  a  wholesom;  moi.sture.  In 
winter,  in  .addition  to 
this  purification,  the  air 
is  conducted  througli 
th"  heating -chambers 
I  of  a  stove  before  being 
Llisseminated  inside  the 
'  car. 

Medcalfe's  appara- 
tus  for  ventilating  rail- 
road-cars, .January  22, 
1851).  The  current  of 
air  is  received  by  a  self 
regulating  bonnet  on 
the  roif,  and  conducted 
by  several  passages  to  a 
water-chamber,  wheni'e 
it  passes  through  a  num- 
ber of  fixed  wire  .screens  brfor'  r -aching  the  intcrioi- 
of  th<'  car.  Tlie  air  is  carried  into  the  car  through  reg- 
isters or  by  pipi's  around  the  stov.'.  From  the  ear  it 
Jiasi.'s  through  a  siuiilar  appar.itus.  devoid  of  water. 

Hai'sman,  A]iril  0,  1801.  In  th"  upjier  jinrt  of 
eith  'r  end  of  and  extending  across  the  car  is  |)laced 
a  trunk  or  box,  having  near  its  oviiice  a  depression 
whiidi  forms  a  water-chaudrT,  in  which  are  mounted 
a  series  of  fans,  so  avra.y  hI  as  to  be  set  in  motion 


fig- 


Mrlm're-s  Air-Fi": 


Eausmnns  Car-  VnUilator. 

by  the  resistance  of  the  air  as  the  car  moves  alun'". 
Above  the  fans  is  a  water-chamber,  the  bottom  cf 
Avhich  is  peiforated  to  allow  the  vatei-  to  dro]i  on 
th"  fans.  In  tbe  rear  of  the  trunk  is  a  I'cgister  lor 
ailmitting  air  to  (he  car,  the  air  being  divested  of 
dust  in  passing  through  the  spray  caused  by  the 
ojicration  of  the  fans. 

1''i'i;nis,  .September  17,  1861.    Arranged  within  the 
tia'ing  mouth  of  a  case  is  a  wind-wheel  connected 
with  a  shaft.      Upon  the  sliaft  arc  secured  a  series 
of  radiating  arms  and  a  jierforated  disk,  which  re- 
Fig  93 


volvcs  in  a  water-cliainber  as  the  car  moves  aloii", 
so  that  the  ]«rticlcs  of  du.st  coming  in  coii1ac-t  wiih 
the  arms  will  adhere  to  (he  same,  and  the  air  enter 
the  car  in  a  cool  and  jairc  stati'. 

Bkakdsi.ev,  October  2!i,  ISfil.  A  galvanized 
iron  case  i  ontains  a  r"S"rvoir  and  a  perforated  plate, 
and  is  ]irovided  with  a  funnel-shaped  tube,  which 
p.asses  into  the  v  ntilator  a  little  below  said  perfo- 
rated ]date.  Another  tube  jiasscs  through  the  car 
and  enters  the  top  of  the  ventilator.     The  f  -i:nel- 


Eiarfjfitry' \  ^ar-  V  ntilator. 


AIR-FLUE. 


47 


AIR-nUX. 


sliap"ii  tulic  by  which  the  air  enters  the  veiiti'.utor 
is  adj  ;sted  by  means  of  a  rod  passing  through  the 
top  of  the  ear,  the  open  end  being  turned  in  tlie 
direction  in  wlii'h  the  car  is  moving  ;  the  otljer 
tube  receives  the  foul  air  from  the  car,  wlielice  it 
p.is<!Pn  tlirough  the  ventilator,  liy  reversing  the 
funnel-shaped  tube  the  air  is  ejected  from  the  car. 
Cinders  and  dust  are  prevented  from  entering  the 
cnr  by  coining  in  contact  with  the  tube,  whi^li  is 
surround-'d  with  water. 

In  WmxrLEY  Ayn  STor.Eu's  apjiaratus  for  remov- 
ing dust  and  gases  from  air,  March  6,  1866,  the 
spray-wheel  and  the  draft-wheel  are  placed  in  sepa- 
nte  and  conununicating  chambers.  Tlie  object  is 
to  remove  the  dust  and  gases  from  air  which  issaes 
Iiom  the  pulverizers  and  the  chinmeys  of  furnaces  for 

Fig-  too. 


ItTif/-! 


I  T7i'f  V'nr*:^'.^  Drnf^  nn'f  Spray  ^Mtfel. 


reducing  ni'tal.  The  air  is  admitted  by  the  trunk 
into  the  chamber,  where  it  is  e.xposed  to  a  da.sh  oi' 
spray  from  the  wheel,  and  thence  passing  to  the  fan- 
chamb'-r  is  subje  -ted  to  jets  of  linuid,  chem'  -all  • 
pr.-'pared  to  act  upon  the  gases  present.  Tli  ■  jet ; 
proi'eed  from  the  hollow  shaft,  which  is  pierced  with 
holes  for  that  purpose. 

Hekuox,  January  12,  185S,  attaches  to  th''  p'll- 
pit  or  rostrum   an 
Fig.  101.  air-pipe    by  which 

a  supji'y  of  fri'sh, 
pure  ai-  isaftbrdel 
to  the  speake:-. 
The  air  in  it  i 
course  is  passed 
through  a  trough 
and  beneath  a  plat  ■ 
which  I'oruis  a  trap. 
Waterinth  'trough 
imparts  moisture 
to  the  air,  and  at 
the  same  time  ar- 
rests dust  anil  such 
extraneous  matters 
or  vapors  as  are 
soluble  in  water. 
The  latter  may  be 
medicated  to  impart  the  desired  quality  to  the  reader 
or  speak -r,  and  the  valve  is  adjustable  toiiermit  the 
free  exit  or  turn  the  current  through  the  water- 
tro-iah  as  may  be  reipiired. 

Air'-flue.     A  tube  by  which  heated  air  is  con- 
veyed into  an  a|>artment. 

Air '-foun  tain.     A  contrivance  for  producing  n 
jet  ef  water  l.iy  means  of  compressed  air. 

Air'-fuaue!.     A  cai  ity  Ibr.ned  by  the  r mission 
of  a  timber  i.i  the  uppe.  works  of  a  vessel,  :o  lo.-  -. 


Herron's  P  itpil-  Ventilator. 


a  duct  for  the  admissioQ  of  pure  air  and  i.ie  escape 
of  foul. 

Air  -far  nac8.     A  term  used  to  signify  a  furnace 
!i  ivi  I     a  n  It  uil  d.Lii't,  no  blast. 

Air'-gratiuj;.     \n   iron   grating   in    a  wall,  to 
allo.v  veii:i.at;iuu. 

Air'-gun.  The  air-gun  is  a  pneumatic  engine 
for  tiring  bullets  or  otluT  projectiles  liy  force  of 
compiessed  air.  The  child's  popgun  illustrates  the 
principle  of  the  air-giiu  :  a  iiellet  is  forced  through  a 
tube  or  ipiill  bv  a  ranuner  from  the  laigcr  to  the 
snnller  end,  where  it  sticks  fast,  and  another  pidlet 
i.i  jnit  in  and  pressed  forward  in  the  same  manner, 
conil. using  the  air  between  them,  when  the  jiressure 
on  the  lirst  pellet  overcomes  its  Irictional  ailherence 
to  the  sides  of  the  tube,  the  pellet  is  releiued,  and 
IS  piojected  by  the  force  of  the  ex]iar.ding  air.  The 
MUcicnts  were  ari|uainted  with  some  kind  of  an 
ajijiaratus  by  which  air  was  made  to  act  upon  the 
sliortei-  ai-m  of  a  lever,  while  the  longer  arm  imiielled 
a  piojcctile  ;  and  it  is  said  that  I'ti'-siphus  of  Alex- 
andria, a  celebrated  mathematical  philoso]iher,  who 
lived  l>.  C.  120,  constructed  an  instnnm-nt  in 
which  the  air,  by  its  elastic  force,  discharged  an 
arrow  from  a  tube.  (Montucla,  "  Histoire  dcs 
Mathematiques,"  Vol.  1.  p.  267.)  The  first  ac- 
count of  an  air-gun  is  found  in  Da^^ll  Rivault's 
"  Elemens  d'Artillerie."  He  was  jireceptor  to  Louis 
XIII.  of  France,  and  ascribes  the  invention  to  a 
certain  JIarin  of  Lisieux,  who  presented  one  to 
HeniT  IV.  of  France,  about  A.  1).  1600.  An 
instrument  of  this  kind  was  invented  by  Guter 
of  Nuremberg  al  out  A.  D.  1656.  Various  .shapes 
have  been  adopted,  from  that  cf  the  ordinary  nuis- 
ket  to  a  gun  lesenil  ling  a  couiinon,  stout  walking- 
stick.  It  consists  ot  a  lock,  stock,  bantl,  and  lam- 
rod  ;  and  is  jm -■viiled  with  proper  cocks  h.r  filing 
it  with  comjin-.-sed  air  ly  means  of  a  foicc-jamp. 
Th»  lock  is  only  a  valve  which  lets  into  the  1  arvel 
a  portion  of  the  ;,ir  com]  ressed  in  a  ch::nil  er  in  the 
stock  when  the  trigger  is  pulled.  The  gun  is  load  d 
with  wadding  and  Kill  in  the  oidinary  way,  ai.il 
when  fired  there  is  but  little  ncise,  and  none  of 
the  oth.er  concomitants  of  /T.npov  der,  sn'.oke  and 
:  odor.  The  v.s-..al  range  to  which  the  air-gun  ]  loj  els 
a  bnllit  is  Item  si.xty  to  eighty  yards.  In  tl.ose 
,  guns  having  a  sliding  trigger,  two  or  three  bv.llets 
'  arcsuccessivelyand  separately  intniduced,  and  may  be 
I  exp'dled  by  one  mass  of  condensed  air.  Air-guns  have 
also  1  een  constnuted  upon  the  j  rinciple  of  levolv- 
ing  pistols,  ailmitting  the  expulsion  of  several  1  ullets 
after  once  charging  with  comjiressed  air.  i^cme 
varieties  have  an  air-pump  attached  by  means  of 
which  a  mole  jowerl'ul  compression  of  air  may  be 
produced.  One  air-gi;n  in  the  I'onn  of  a  cane  Las 
two  baiTcls,  —  one  small  one  fir  the  recejition  of 
bullets,  anil  one  large  lore  for  the  re.sen'oir  of 
( onipressed  air.  ?;iastie  springs  have  also  been 
used  in  conneition  with  ciim]ires;ed  air,  but  the 
latest  imiirovi  meuts  arc  those  of  Cornelius  Bor<la. 
The  reservoirs  of  the  gun  are  filed  wi'h  a  mixture 
of  oxygen  and  hydrogen  in  ilue  ]iioporlioii  for 
producing  water.  The  gun  is  provid_-d  with  a  small 
electric  battery  connecting  with  the  trigger.  The 
moniint  a  jiortion  of  the  gas  is  let  out,  an  electric 
sjiark  is  produced,  occasioning  the  iii.st.mtaneo'is 
eomb-istion  of  the  mixture,  and  a  liirh  i  ressure  in 
con..ei|uence  of  thi-  exc-'S-ive  jicat  resnitiae-  from  th" 
chemical  transfomiation.  Tliis  gun  is  .said  to  prop  -1 
a  bullet  as  fai-  a-S  an  ordinary  musket.  The  !:oise- 
lessucss  of  ordinary  air-guns  is  accomp.-.nied  ly 
slight  projectile  force,  and  the  gun  of  Borda  in 
exploding  a  body  of  gases  in  confinement  would 
probably  cause  as  much  sound  as  the  couibustion  of 


AIE-GUN. 


48 


AIR-GUN. 


gimpon'iU'i'  in  quantity  suffieipnt  to  generate  tlie 
same  in-ojeetive  force.  .Sn.wv's  air-gun,  jiateiiteil  in 
1841),  combines  an  endless  bund  of  vulcanized  india- 

FiK.  102 


Air-Gii/J. 

rubber  with  an  air-exliausting  apparatus  ;  the  elec- 
tricity is  so  a]iplieil  as  to  eiiiii[iress  the  air  at  a  single 
stroke  of  the  air-pump  the  moment  before  it  is  dis- 
charged. The  steain-gun,  exhibited  in  Loudon  a 
few  years  ago,  exeniplilied  a  much  more  forcible 
agent  than  air  for  the  propulsion  of  bullets. 

In  Fig.  102  the  upper  eliamber  is  the  reservoir 
of  air,  which  is  condensed  therein  by  means  of  the 
piston  and  valve  in  the  stock.  The  lower  tulie  is 
the  barrel,  and  the  ball  is  raunned  down  to  its  lower 
end  as  usual.  The  gun  being  sighted,  the  motion 
of  the  trigger  moves  the  valve,  which  admits  a  body 
of  air  to  the  rear  of  the  ball  and  expels  it  from  the 
barrel. 

LiNDNEii,  December  16,  1862.  The  level-  con- 
forms in  shape  to  the  stock  of  the  gun,  and  is  the 

Kg.  103 


Lirjrfiier's  Air-  Gun. 


means  of  retracting  the  piston.  The  piston,  when 
released  by  the  trig'jer,  is  driven  forward  by  the 
elastic  force  of  the  condensed  spring,  projecting  the 
bullet  from  tlie  barrel  by  furtlier  compiession  of  the 
air.  The  spring  is  a  helical  ribbon,  and  condenses 
into  a  simple  coil  when  the  pressure  of  the  lever  is 
applied.  The  barrel  is  breech-loading,  tilting  on  a 
pivot  so  as  to  expose  the  rear  for  the  reception  of 
the  ball,  and  being  locked  shut  by  a  catch.  A  pro- 
jecting india-rubber  ring  at  the  joint  of  the  barrel 
makes  an  air-tight  joint  when  the  barrel  is  closed. 
The  projectiles  have  an  expanding  portion,  which 
enters  the  rifle-grooves  of  the  barrel  to  increase  the 
accuracy  of  the  flight. 

Gedney,  Septeudier  24,  1S61.     The  hollow  han- 
dle is  fonned  of  inilia-rubber  or  other  Hexibje  air- 

tiglit    material, 
^'S-  IM-  and    communi- 

cates with  a 
short  tube 
placed  beneath 
the  barrel  and 
connected  therewith  by  means  of  a 


Gednnt'x  Air 
P'slcil. 


passage.  A  \'alve  of  I'oi'k  closes  the 
passage  between  the  hollow  handle 
and  the  tube,  and  is  pressed  into  its 
seat  by  a  rod.  To  discdiarge  tlie  pis- 
tol, the  rubber  handle  is  compressed 
until  the  [ire.ssure  of  the  air  over- 
comes the  adhesion  of  the  valve  to 
its  seat,  when  it  is  driven  back  ;  the 
air  then  escajies  into  the  tube  and 


thence  into  the    barrel,  driving  cut  the   Jirojectile. 

This  :,nd  the  preceding  are  on  y  toy-gun.s. 

GiFFuKD,  February  9,  I66i.  Tiie  band  is  in 
counnuiiication  with 
the  inside  of  tl  e 
trigger-box,  in  tie 
interior  of  which  is 
a  valve-jiisfon,  con- 
sisting oi'  a  steel  rod 
carrying  a  ringfitted 
with  a  caoutchouc 
di.Jc  for  closing  com- 
munication. Air  en- 
ters the  barrel  by  a 

hell-shajK'd  chamber.     By  pressing  strongly  on  the 

extremity  of  the  rod,  the  disk  is   conijjressed  and 


Fig   105. 


GiffoTd\'i  Air-Gun. 

closes  the  reservoir  orifice.  Bjf  suddenly  releas- 
ing the  piston-valve  the  elasticity  of  the  caoutchouc', 
combined  with  the  pressure  of  the  compressed  air, 
causes  the  sudden  opening  of  the  reservoir  orifice 
and  emits  a  blast  of  air  to  the  rear  of  the  i  I'o- 
jectile.  The  air  is  comi)ressed  into  a  reservoir  be- 
neath the  barrel,  by  means  of  a  piston  working  lon- 
gitudinally in  a  valved  interior  tube,  and  the  valvu- 
lar arrangement  is  to  give  an  instantaneous  emis.sion 
of  air  and  an  immediate  closure,  so  as  not  to  waste 
tlie  air  by  a  protracted  ojiening  of  the  valve-way. 

The  South  American  Indians  of  the  Amazon 
and  Orinoco  use  a  species  of  air-gun  or  blow-pipe 
for  propelling  poisoned  arrows.  It  consists  of  a 
long,  straight  tube  in  which  an  arrow  is  plai'cd  and 
expelled  by  the  breath.  Near  Para,  it  is  very  in- 
geniously made  of  two  stems  of  a  palm,  of  different 
diameters,  one  fitted  within  the  other  to  secure  per- 
fect straightness  ;  a  siglit  is  fitted  to  it,  near  the 
end.  The  arrows  used  are  fifteen  to  eighteen  inches 
long,  having  a  little  ball  of  down,  from  the  silk 
cotton-tree,  twisted  round  the  smalk-r  end  so  as  to 
make  it  fit  closely  in  the  tube.  In  the  hands  of  a 
practised  Indian  this  is  a  very  deadly  weapon,  and 
as  it  makes  no  noise  he  frc^quciitly  empties  his 
quiver  belbre  he  gathers  up  liis  game. 

Wai-burton,  the  eminent  naturalist  who  wandered 
in  these  countries,  gives  a  good  account  of  their  modes 
of  hunting.  See  also  Humboldt,  and  the  Kesearchcs 
of  Sir  Kobert  H.  Schomljiugk  in  British  (tuiana. 

A  similar  weapon  is  Ibund  nmoiig  some  of  the 
Jlalay  tribes,  and  is  called  liy  them  the  sumpitan. 

Aristotle  was  acquainted  with  the  fact  that  the 
air  has  weight,  stating  that  a  bladder  inflated  with 
air  will  weigh  more  than  an  empty  one  ;  as  he  was 
not  acquainted  with  glass  globes,  whicdi  can  be 
exhausted  of  air  without  losing  their  shape,  we  may 
infer  that  his  statement  with  regard  to  the  bhidder 
was  intended  to  apply  to  a  hypothetical  one  ivlii.'h 
[lossessed  the  stiffness  of  glass,  or  else  that-  the  air 
\v;is  considerably  compressed  in  the  inflateil  bladder. 
Hero  of  Alexandria,  in  his  "Spiritalia,"  .shows  his 
knowledge  of  the  elasticity  of  air,  and  how  it  could 
be  used  to  produce  many  efl'ects.  He  shows  the  air- 
pump. 

Ctesibus    developed   the  pump   into   an   air-gun. 


ikl.f  '  vlAl  i,iL^JL>i.i±^": 


fiaii 


Plate  II. 


PIER  AND  CAISSON. 

ILLINOIS   AND    ST.    LOUIS    BRIDGE. 


.See  page  49. 


AIR-HEATER. 


49 


AIROMETER. 


He  was  probably  tbe  tutor  of  Hero  and  tin-  LOiilem- 
porary  of  Archimedes.  Otto  Guerieke  reinvented 
and  applied  the  air-pump  ;  Boy.c  made  it  a  \aluable 
instrument. 

Air'-heaf  er.  A  stove  or  furnace  so  arranged  as 
to  heat  a  current  of  passinj;  air,  for  warmih  or  ven- 
tilating purposes,  bee  HEAriNti  Fl'ilnace  ;  Heat- 
ing Stuve  ;  Heating  Ai'i'A.,Arfs,  etc. 


Fig.  106. 


Air-Holder. 


Air'-hold'er.  A  vessel  generally  of  a  cylindrical 
form,  with  its  open  end  plunged  in  a  tank  of  water, 
and  intended  to  contain  air  or  gas.  Its  use  is  com- 
mon in  a  varieU'  of  machines  and  apparatus  where  a 
steady  and  nioiftrate  current  of  air  is  required,  as  in 
machines  lor  carbureting  air  and  gas,  aspirators, 
etc.  Also  in  michinery  on  a  larger  scak",  such  as 
blowers,  ventilating-machines,  etc. 

The  air  is  introduced  by  a  bent  pipe  turned  up- 
ward inside  the  tank  and  hoMi'r,  and  is  educed  in  a 
similar  manner.  On  a  small  scale  the  vessel  may 
be  charged  with  air  by  raising  the  upper  valve 
and  lifting  the  holder,  and  the  air  may  be  with- 
drawn by  a  fli'.';ible  pipe  attached  to  the  holder.    See 

AsPIRAnill  ;    C'ARBUi'.ETING  AlR;    Bl.OWEl!,  etc. 

Air'-hole.  {Foimdhuj.)  A  hole  or  cavity  in  a 
casting  pruduc^d  by  bubbles  of  air  in  the  liijuid 
metal.     A  vent-hole  in  a  mold  for  casting. 

{Furi)(ic\)  A  draft-hole  in  a  furnace.  It  is  some- 
times guarded  liy  a  register  ;  sometimes  stopped  by 
a  luting  (ir  plug  of  clay. 

Air'ing-stage.  A  platform  on  which  powder, 
etc.,  is  dried  I>y  exposure  to  sun  and  air. 

Air'-jack'et.  An  air-tight  swinuning-jacket  ca- 
pable of  intlation. 

A  garment  with  indatable  lining  or  pockets  to 
serve  as  a  life-preserver. 

Air'-lev'el.  {Siirvci/ing.)  A  goedetic  instrument 
invented  by  M.  Thevenot.  The  level  is  determined 
by  means  of  an  air-fnibble  in  a  glass  tube  nearly 
filled  with  colored  spirit.  Generally  termed  a  spirit- 
level  ;  though  the  air-bubble  is  the  dominant  feature. 
See  Level. 

Air'-lock.  (Hijd.  Eng.)  A  pneumatic  contrivance 
in  a  hollow  caisson  whose  lower  chamber  is  filled  with 
compressed  air  to  exclude  the  water.  A  trunk  con- 
nects the  submerged  chamber  with  the  external  air, 
and  has  two  valves.  The  descending  workman  en- 
ters a  chamber  in  the  tube  at  the  atmospheric  press- 
ure ;  the  upper  valve  is  clos"d,  and  his  a]xirtment 
is  charged  with  air  from  the  lower  chamber  ;  the 


lower  valve  is  then  0])ened  to  admit  him  to  the 
working-chamber. 

The  cut  on  the  page  opposite  is  a  sectional  view 
of  the  East  Pier  and  Caisson  of  the  Illinois  and  St. 
Louis  Bridge,  in  course  of  construction  by  Captain 
James  B.  Eads,  across  the  Mississippi.  The  view 
shows  the  interior  of  the  main  entiance-shaft  and 
air-chamber,  and  the  working  of  one  of  the  pumps. 
The  caisson  is  represented  as  having  descended 
through  60  feet  of  sand,  silt,  and  gravel  which  form 
the  sand-bed  of  the  river  ;  20  feet  of  excavation  re- 
maining belbre  the  bed-rock  is  reached. 

The  pier  of  masonry  is  built  on  a  strong  bulk- 
head of  timber  and  iron,  supported  on  a  curb  which 
rests  on  the  sand-bed,  and  is  strengthened  and  sus- 
tained by  timber  girders  which  divide  the  working 
space  beneath  into  several  chaniliers  which  comnni- 
nicate  through  holes  in  the  partitions.  The  pier  is 
enclo.sed  by  an  iron  envelojie  II,  which  is  watei-tight, 
and  prevents  access  of  water  to  the  pier  and  the 
workmen.  Until  the  curb  of  the  caisson  reached 
the  sand-bed  it  was  sustained  in  erect  position  by 
screws  from  the  trusses  of  the  guide-piles,  but  was 
afterwards  preserved  erect  by  digging  away  the  sand 
eijually  at  all  the  points  upon  which  it  rested. 
/  /  are  timber  luaces  which  support  the  shell  H. 
K  K  are  pontons  alongside,  which  support  the 
steam-engine,  air-pumji,  ndxing  and  hoisting  ma- 
chinery, and  the  oliices  and  quarters  lor  the 
stair  and  hands.  .S'  is  the  steam-engine  which 
drives  the  air-pump  R,  and  the  air  is  conducted  by 
the  hose  U  down  to  the  chambers  B  B,  where  the 
excavating  is  proceeding.  The  sand  is  loosened  by 
water  and  the  pick,  and  is  driven  liy  condensed  air 
up  through  the  sand-]ium)is  E  E,  which  discharge  at 
D.  The  air-locks^/  A  are  chambers  intervening  be- 
tween the  main  entrance-shaft  F,  where  the  air  is  at 
the  natural  jiressmv,  and  the  chamlx-rs  B  B,  w  here  it 
is  in  a  much  condensed  comlition.  The  visitor  steps 
from  the  shaft  F  into  the  air-lock  A,  the  door  of  in- 
gress is  clo.sed,  and  coi.den.sed  air  is  then  admitted. 
When  an  eiiuilibrium  is  established  between  the 
chaniliers  A  and  B,  the  door  between  is  ojiened,  and 
the  visitor  finds  himself  on  the  scene  of  action.  As 
the  caisson  de.scciiilv,  ^uccessive  courses  of  stone  are 
laid  on  the  ]  iers  by  means  of  traveling-purchases  0, 
which  move  on  the  Wire  ropes  M  M  by  means  of  hoist- 
ing-ropes X  N.  G  G  are  side  shafts  ;  /J  cabins  for 
operatorsof  purchases  ;  LL  hydraulic  jacks  forlifting 
materials  ;  V  pipe  for  water  to  sand-piinip  ;  V  V 
trusses  for  guiile-piles  ;  Z  inixiiig-room  ;  A'  office. 
See  Caisshn. 

Air'-ma-chine'.  A  machine  forventilatingmines. 

Air'-met'er.  An  apparatus  for  measuring  the 
quantity  of  air  passing  along  a  pipe,  or  passing 
into  or  from  a  chamber. 

There  are  various  forms :  the  fan,  rotating  spiral 
vane,  expanding  bag,  cylinder  and  piston,  revolv- 
ing partially  submerged  meter-wheel,  etc.  As  their 
principal  adaptation  is  to  measuring  gas,  to  avoid 
unnecessary  repetition  they  are  assembled  under 
Gas-meteh,  which  see. 

Air'o-hy'dro-gen  Blow'pipe.  An  apparatus 
invented  by  Dr.  Hare,  in  wliicli  the  Lssuing  air  is 
assisted  by  "a  jet  of  hydrogen  to  intensify  the  llaine. 
See  Blowpipe. 

It  is  especially  used  in  autogenous  soldering. 

Air-om'e-ter.  The  term  is  applied  to  a  hollow 
cylinder,  closed  above  and  open  below,  with  its 
lower  edge  plunged  in  a  tank,  and  used  to  con- 
tain air.  The  tenn  has  been  derived  from  its  sim- 
ilarity in  shape  to  a  gasometer,  the  change  in 
the  lirst  sj'llable  indicating  the  different  contents. 
Its  use  as   a   meter  is   unfiequent,  and  it  is  prop- 


AIR-riPE. 


50 


AIR-PUMP. 


LTiy  called  an  air-holder  among  experts.     See  AlR- 

HOLDF.U. 

Air'-pipe.  {Slenm-cnginc.)  1.  A  small  copper 
pipe  k-ailini;  tVmii  the  top  of  the  hot-well  througli 
the  ship's  side,  for  the  discharge  of  the  air  and 
uncoiidensed  vapor  removed  by  the  air-pump  from 
the  condenser. 

2.  A  pipe  used  to  withdraw  foul  air  from  or  force 
pure  air  into  close  places. 

Air'-poise.  An  instrument  to  measure  the  weight 
of  ai  r. 

Air'-port.  An  opening  in  a  ship's  side  for  air  ; 
closalde  by  a  shutter,  side-light,  or  dead-light,  ac- 
I'orilins  to  circumstances. 

Air'-press'-ure  Pil'ter.  A  filter  in  which  the 
percolation  of  tlie  liipiid  is  assisted  by  atmosiiheric 
pressure,  induced  by  a  partial  vacuum  in  the  lower 
chamber. 

Spencer's  air-pressure  filter,  June  4,  1867,  is 
particularly  ad.ipted  for  the  use  of  pharmaceutists. 
C  is  the  air-pump,  secured  by  a  clamp  to  the  edge 

Fig,  107. 


Spencer's  Filter. 

of  the  table.  Tlic  filter  A  rests  on  a  packing  on 
the  lip  of  the  bottle  B.  The  air  is  withdrawn 
from  tills  latter  to  increase  the  rate  of  filtering. 

Claim. —  First,  in  an  atmospheric  filter  composed 
of  the  tunnel  A,  bottle  or  jar  B,  and  air-pump  C, 
the  employment  of  a  packing  h  for  the  purpose  of 
producing  an  air-tight  joint  between  the  tunnel  and 

Fig  108. 


Crruber's  Filler 


bottle,  the  whole  combined  and  operating  as  hereic 
set  forth. 

Sei'ond,  the  arrangement  of  the  filtering  medium 
d  d  with  the  removable  perforated  diaphragm/, 
when  operating  in  connection  with  the  shoulders 
c  c,  as  herein  set  forth. 

I)  is  the  air-eduction  pipe.  The  vessel  A  stands 
in  the  collar-piece/,  the  latter  on  the  bottle,  whose 
lip  has  a  packing-gasket. 

In  Ghuuer's  air-jiressure  filter,  April  3,  1866, 
the  filtration  is  assisted  by  an  air-forcing  and  air- 
exhausting  pump,  connecting  by  pipes  with  the  two 
chambers  separated  by  the  filtering  substance,  j 
and  k  are  the  openings  of  the  plenum  and  vacuum 
pipes  into  the  chambers  E  and  F.  The  lid  is  fas- 
teneil  on,  and  has  an  air-tight  packing.  The  pump 
G  draws  air  from  chamber  F,  and  impels  it  into 
chanilHT  E.      For  Water  -  pressure   Filter  see 

riil'.ssl-p.K-FlLTER. 

Air'-pump.  Invented  by  Ctesibus  of  Alexaii- 
dria,  or  previous  to  his  time.  Hero,  of  the  same 
city,  the  author  of  the  "  Spiritalia,"  shows  it  in 
connection  with  several  of  his  pneumatic  contriv- 
ances. He  also  shows  a  fire-engine  with  a  ]iair  of 
single-ai'ting  pistons  attached  to  a  walking-beam  and 
operating  alternately  in  their  respective  cyliudei's. 

February  15,  1665,  Mr.  Samuel  Pepys,  the  gos- 
siping author  of  the  famous  Diary,  was  admitted  a 
member  of  the  Koyal  Society,  the  meetings  of  which 
were  held  at  Gresham  College.     He  says  :  — 

"  It  is  a  most  acceptable  thing  to  hear  their  dis- 
course, and  see  their  experiments  ;  which  were  this 
day  on  fire,  and  how  it  goes  out  in  a  place  where 
the  ayre  is  not  free,  and  sooner  out  when  the  ayre  is 
exhausted,  whii-li  they  showed  by  an  engine  on  pur- 
pose  Atiove  all  Mr.  Boyle  was  at  the  meet- 
ing, and  above  him  Mr.  Hooke,  who  is  the  most, 
and  promises  the  least,  of  any  mam  in  the  world 
that  1  ever  saw." 

The  air-]nin',p  was  reinvented  by 
Guericke  of  Magdeburg,  about  A.  D. 
1650.  Since  then  this  instrument 
has  been  much  improved  by  Hooke, 
Papin,  Hawksbee,  and  Boyle.  Many 
varieties  of  structure  have  been  de- 
vised, the  priueiijle  of  all  being  the 
same.  The  basis  or  essential  part  in 
the  air-pump  is  a  metallic  or  glass 
tube  answering  to  the  barrel  of  a 
conmion  pump  or  syringe,  having  a 
valve  at  the  bottom  opening  upwards: ' 
and  a  movable  piston  or  embolus, 
answering  to  the  .sucker  of  a  prmip, 
the  piston  or  cylinder  being 
furnished  likewise  with  a  valve 
opening  outward.  The  pump 
must  be  closely  fitted  by  a  i 
metallic  connecting-tube  open- 1 
ing  into  or  under  the  vessel 
which  is  to  be  exhausted,  which 
is  usually  formed  by  placing  a 
bell-glass,  called  the  receiver,  with  the  edges 
ground  smooth,  and  smeared  with  lard  or 
wax,  on  a  lat,  smooth  plate  or  table.  When 
the  jiiston  is  at  the  bottom  of  the  barrel,  and 
is  then  drawn  up,  it  lifts  out  the  air  from 
the  barrel  ;  and  a  portion  of  the  air  from  the 
receiver  by  its  own  expansive  force  passes 
through  the  connecting-tube,  and  occupies  the 
jilace  below  the  piston  which  would  other- 
wise be  a  vacuum.  The  air  in  the  receiver 
and  barrel  is  thus  rarefied  ;  the  jiiston  is  now 
forced  down,  closing  the  valve  jilaced  at  the 
mouth   of  the  connecting-tube,   and  causing 


Otto     von 
Fig.  109. 


AIR-PUMP. 


51 


AIR-PUMP. 


the  air  in  the  barrel  to  escajie  througl  the  valve  in 
the  piston.  This  op  ration  is  again  anil  again  re- 
peated until  the  receiver  is  so  nearly  exliausteil  that 
the  elastic  force  of  the  remaining  air  is  no  longer 
sufficient  to  open  the  valves.  The  fonu  of  the  pump 
may  consist  of  two  hansels  (each  having  a  piston) 
having  a  junction  mtli  each  other  at  the  point  where 
the  connecting-tulie  is  attached,  and  ofierated  alter- 
nately by  a  lever  attached  to  each  piston  and  sujv 
ported  at  a  point  midway  lietween  them,  or  by  means 
of  teeth  or  cogs  cut  in  the  piston-rod,  and  operated  1>y 
a  cog-wheel,  as  shown  in  the  accompanying  figure. 
The  valves  may  be  made  of  bladder,  oiled  silk,  or 
gntta-pereha,  the  Ijest  form  of  which  is  a  .small  hollow 
cone  \vith  a  slight  cut  at  the  top  ;  stop-cocks  must 
be  attached  so  as  to  control  the  admission  of  air. 
The  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  being  about  fifteen 
pounds  to  eveiy  sijuare  inch  of  surface,  care  must 
be  taken  that  the  receiver  and  banels  of  the  pmup 


Fig.  no. 


Bawksbee''s  Air-Pump. 

be  so  constructed  as  to  bear  this  weight  without 
accident.  A  gage  to  ascertain  the  point  of  rare- 
faction can  be  made  by  introducing  the  lower  end 
of  a  graduated  glass  tube,  connecting  with  the  iv- 
ceiver,  into  a  cup  containing  mercury  ;  as  the  air  in  th  e 
receiver  is  exhausted,  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere 
on  the  surface  of  the  mercury  will  force  it  up  into 
the  graduated  tube,  so  that  its  rise  and  fall  will 
indicate  the  rarefaction.  A  per- 
Fig.  111.  feet  vacuum  can  never  be  made, 

for  it  is  evident  that  the  exhaus- 
tion caTi  never  be  complete  ;  even 
\}i  theoretically,  there  must  always 
be  a  portion  of  air  left,  though 
that  portion  may  be  less  than  any 
f'lf'j)^'"''" 'r^  ^  assignable  quantity.  Many  use- 
ful and  interesting  experiments 
can  be  performed  mth  the  air- 
pump,  illustrating  the  effects  of 
atnin-p'ieric  pressure  and  other 
mechanical  properties  of  gases. 

In  Sie.men'.s  air-pump  the  two 
cylinders  or  barrels  diH'er  in  size 
and  arrangement.  The  smaller 
barrel  is  applied  either  to  the 
bottom  or  toji  of  the  larger,  while 
the  valved  pistons  belonging  to 
each  are  attached  to  one  and  the 
same  piston-rod.  The  air  with- 
drawn from  the  receiver  is  con- 
Sicmen^s  Air-Pump    densed  in  the  lower  cylinder  to 


one  fourth  of  its  original  volume,  and  thus  has  suffi- 
cient elasticity  to  pass  through  the  dischai-ging  val  ve 
and  es<-a]ie,  the  opjjosing  pressure  of  the  atmosphere 
on  that  valve  being  thus  counteracted  from  within. 

In  the  illu.stration,  A  is  the  exhausting-cylinder, 
B  the  second  cylinder,  equal  in  length  to  the  first, 
and  fixed  to  its  lower  [art,  but  having  only  one 
third  or  one  fourth  of  its  sectional  area,  and  conse- 
quently one  third  or  one  foiuth  of  its  cubical  con- 
tents. The  cylindei's  are  separated  by  a  plate  fonning 
at  once  the  bottom  of  the  upper  and  top  of  the  lower 
cylinder,  the  only  passage  between  them  being  a  silk 
valve  if.  In  eacli  cylinder  works  a  valved  )iiston, 
F  and  ;),  attached  to  a  piston-rod  common  to  Uilli, 
and  passing  through  a  stufling-liox  in  the  jilate. 
The  distance  l>etween  the  pistons  is  such,  that  ^\l;cn 
P  is  in  contact  with  the  top  of  the  upper  or  exhaust- 
ing cylinder  A,  p  is  in  contact  with  the  top  of  the 
smaller  or  lower  cylinder  ;  and  when  P  is  in  contact 
with  the  lx)ttoni  of  the  large  cylinder,  p  is  in  con- 
tact w  ith  that  of  the  small  cylinder.  The  table  or 
pump-plate  E,  placed  above  the  large  cylinder  A, 
supiKirts  the  receiver  Fi,  or  other  vessel  to  be  ex- 
hausted, from  which  the  air  flows  through  tl;e 
valve  r,  during  t'.ie  descent  of  the  piston.  The 
motion  of  the  pistons  is  eiTected  by  means  of  a  short 
crank  with  a  jointed  connecling-i'od,  converting  the 
circular  motion  given  by  the  lever-handle  into  a 
vertical  one,  which  is  maintained  by  means  of  a 
cross-head,  with  rollei's  working  between  guides. 
The  action  of  the  ]ium]i  is  as  follows  :  The  de- 
scent of  the  piston  P  tends  to  produce  a  vacuum  in 
the  exhausting-cylinder  A,  by  causing  a  difl'erence 
of  pressure  above  and  below  the  fii-st  valve  c,  in  the 
top  of  A,  so  that  the  ela.sticity  of  the  air  in  the 
receiver  causes  it  to  pass  through  the  va've  v.  At 
the  same  time  the  air  below  P  is  pressed  l!iro\igh 
the  valve  v',  in  the  plate  which  sejiarates  the  cylin- 
ders, and  enters  B,  in  which  a  vacancy  is  sinud- 
taneously  made  for  it  liy  the  descent  of  the  piston 
;) ;  and  in  consequence  of  the  difference  of  cai>acity 
of  the  two  cylinders  it  becomes  reduced  to  one 
fourth  of  its  original  bulk,  its  elasticity  being  p;o- 
portionally  increased.  The  air  contained  in  the 
small  cylinder  below  the  piston  ;)  will  in  like  man- 
ner be  pressed  through  the  valves  v"  v"'  into  the 
external  atmosphere.  During  the  ascent  of  the 
pistons  the  vahes  r  r'  will  be  closed  and  ic  iif 
oiiened  b}-  the  downward  pressure  of  the  air  in  the 
cj'linders,  and  v"  v'"  will  be  closed  by  the  atmos- 
phere, thus  allowing  the  air  in  each  cylinder  to  pass 
through  the  pistons  as  they  rise,  in  order  that  in 
the  follo%ving  downward  movement  the  air,  which 
during  the  previous  stroke  of  the  pump  issued  from 
the  receiver  into  the  exhausting-cylinder,  may  be 
withdrawn  from  that  into  the  lower  cylinder,  while 
the  air  condensed  in  the  latter  may  be  finally  ex- 
pelled into  the  atmosphere.  See  AlR-C03irREssiNG 
Machine. 

The  air-pump  of  Boyle  was  inconvenient,  as  it 
demanded  alternate  opening  and  shutting  of  the 
stop-cock  and  vdve,  and  difficulty  was  also  experi- 
enced in  making  the  piston  descend  when  the  air 
within  the  pump  was  greatly  rarefied. 

H.^^vKSBEE's  air-pump,  previously  cited,  had  the 
dujilicate  cylinders,  with  pistons  which  were  moved 
by  means  of  a  crank  and  jiiuion.  The  piston-rods 
were  toothed  racks,  which  were  engaged  by  the 
pinion,  to  which  a  reciprocating  rotary  motion  was 
imparted.  The  1  ottom  of  each  cylinder  comnumi- 
cated  by  a  pipe  with  the  receiver  on  the  platfonn. 

Sme.a.ton's  air-pump  was  an  improvement  on 
Hawksbee's  in  two  respects.  Hawksbee  had  found 
considerable  difficulty  in  opening  the  valves  and  ex- 


AlE-PUMP. 


52 


AIE-PUMP. 


Fig-  112.  hausting    tlie 

air  at  the  bot- 
tom of  the  liar- 
rels,  owing  to 
the  fact  that 
thejjistonsdid 
not  shut  down 
close  on  to  the 
bottom.  The 
first  defect 
arose  from  the 
snialhicss  of 
the  orifice  in 
the  bottom 
of  the  cylin- 
der through 
which  the  air 
entered  ;  the 
bladder  being 
kept  moist 
with  oil  ad- 
hered to  the 
metal  and  re- 
sisted the  up- 
ward pressure 
at  so  small  an 
opening.  This 
defect  Smea- 
ton  cured  by 
exposing  a 
greater  sur- 
face of  bladder 
to  the  u})ward 
action  of  the 
air.  He  used 
a  congeries  of 
holes  consist- 
ing of  six  hex- 
agonal open- 
ings surround- 
ing a  central 
one.  The  parti- 
tions between 
these  holes 
were  filed  near- 
ly to  an  edge, 
and  the  whole 
formed  a  grat- 
ing on  which 
Snifaion')  Air-Pump.  the      bladder- 

Talve  lay,  of- 
fering lint  .slight  cohesive  opposition  to  the  raising 
of  the  valve  as  the  piston  ascended  and  the  air 
from  the  receiver  pressed  upward  against  it. 

Fig    11.3. 


Rotary  Air  Pump. 


To  prevent  lodgment  of  the  air  in  the  lower  part 
of  the  barrel,  he  removed  the  external  pressure  from 
the  j)iston-valve,  by  making  the  piston  move 
through  a  collar  of  leather,  and  forced  the  air  out 
by  a  valve  applied  to  the  plate  at  the  top  of  the  bar- 
rel, which  opened  outwardly. 

Cuthbertson  of  Amsterdam  introduced  the  im- 
provement of  mechanically  opening  an  escape  for 
the  air  without  depending  upon  its  elastic  force  to 
open  the  valve  leading  to  the  cylinders. 

Air  force-pumps  are  used  for  the  supply  of  air- 
carbureting  machines.  A  conunon  form  of  these 
consists  of  what  is  called  a  meter-wheel,  from  its 
resemblance  to  the  measuring-wheel  of  a  gas-meter. 
Fig.  113.  In  the  illustration  the  buckets  M  are 
curved,  and  gather  in  the  air  of  the  chamber  A.  As 
the  wheel  rotates  the  air  is  discharged,  near  the  axis, 
into  chamber  0,  and  is  conducted  by  a  pipe  to  the 
hollow  trunnion  through  which  it  is  discharged. 

Another  i'orin  of  air-pump  used  in  carbureting- 
machines  is  on  the  jwinciple  of  the  gravitating  air- 
holder,  which  consists  of  a  weighted  inverted  cylin- 
der whose  lower  edge  is  submerged  in  a  tank.  See 
Air-holder. 

A  conversely  acting  device  on  a  larger  scale  is 
used  for  pumping  air  from  mines. 

In  the  Annalcs  dcs  Fonts  ct  Chaiissies,  an  air-pump 

Fig.  114. 


Ventilating  Air-Piiwp 


is  described,  used  to  ventilate  a  shaft  5  feet  in 
diameter  and  220  feet  deep.  The  work  had  been 
several  times  suspended,  owing  to  the  accumulation 
of  carbonic  acid  gas,  and  the  ordinary  bellows  had 
been  found  inefi'ectual. 

A  large  tub  (Fig.  114)  was  firmly  placed  on  balks 
on  a  level  with  the  top  of  the  shaft,  and  filled  with 
water  nearly  to  the  brim. 

An  air-tight  jiipe  from  the  bottom  of  the  shaft 
was  brought  through  the  tub,  and  had  its  upper 
edge  a  very  few  inches  above  the  water  ;  it  had  a 
valve  on  the  top. 

A  smaller  tub,  reversed,  was  suspended  ■within 
the  lower  tub  by  cords,  which  were  made  fast  to 
the  ends  of  the  levers. 

The  upper  tub  had  a  very  short  pipe  at  top,  with 
a  valve  opening  upward. 

The  upper  tub  lieing  allowed  to  descend  Tiy  its  own 
weight,  the  air  within  it  was  exjielled  through  the 
upper   %'alve  ;    when   again   raised,   by  pulling  the 


AIR-REGULATOR. 


53 


AIR-THERMOMETER. 


handles  attached  to  the  ropes,  the  air  was  drawn 
up  through  the  valve-way  at  the  upper  end  of  the  de- 
scending tube,  and  by  continuing  this  reciprocating 
action,  a  circulation  was  created  at  the  ver)-  bottom 
of  the  shaft. 

Bunseu's  air-pump  is  a  means  of  withdrawing  air 
by  entaugling  and  carrying  it  with  a  falling  body  of 
water.  It  is  sjiccifically  known  as  an  asjirator  in 
its  uses  to  obtain  atmospheric  pressure  in  filtering, 
in  removing  etfete  or  poisonous  air  fioni  apartments 
or  the  vicinity  of  gangienous  wounds.  See  Aspira- 
tor. Tlie  same  principle  is  involved  in  the  "  water- 
pumps,"  so  culled,  which  withdraw  the  air  and  steam 
from  the  evapomting  and  vacuum  pans  of  sugar-re- 
finerie.s  the  injection-chamber  of  the  condensing 
steam-engine,  etc.  Air-pumps  are  also  constructed, 
to  act  on  the  principle  of  the  Giffard  Injector,  the' 
active  column  being  a  body  of  water  or  steam.  See 
Steam-jet  ;  Ejector. 

Apparatus  for  compressing  air  as  a  motor,  as  a 
water-elevator,  etc.,  are  considered  under  several 
heads.  See  Air  as  a  Water-elevator  ;  AiR- 
cojm>res,sing  JI.\chixe  ;  Air  as  a  Means  of 
tpa.nsmitting  Power  ;  Air-engixe,  etc. 

2.  {SIcnm-; 
Fig  115.  engine.)       A' 

pum]i  used  in 
condensing 
St  earn  -  e  n- 
gines  to  re- 
move the  air 
and  uncon- 
densed  steam 
from  the  con- 
denser in  or- 
der to  perfect 
the  vacuum 
therein,  and 
in  tlie  cylin- 
der to  which 
it  is  period- 
ically con- 
Air-Pump.  nected. 

£  is  the  in- 
jection-chamber, which  is  submei'ged  in  the  cistern 
C.  The  uncondensed  gases  and  water  escape  by  the 
valve-way  G,  called  the  foot-valve,  and  ascend 
through  the  valve  of  the  pump-1  ucket  p  as  the  lat- 
ter descends.  The  next  ascent  of  the  bucket  drives 
them  out  at  the  vave-way  Q  into  the  hot-well. 

Air-reg'u-la'tor.  A  "contrivance  for  detennin- 
ing  the  (piantity  of  air  admitted  in  a  given  time. 

Registei-s  and  danijiers  are  the  usual  devices  ;  the 
former  has  usually  a  sliding  and  the  other  an  oscil- 
lating motion.  Furnaces,  stoves,  ovens,  etc.,  are 
usually  furnished  with  some  means  for  regulating 
the  supply  of  air  ;  when  the  heat  of  the  stove  is 
made  to  regulate  the  register  the  device  is  called  a 
Thermostat  (which  see).  I 

Air-i-egulatoi-s  may  be  made  to  act  on  the  principle 
of  the  gas-regulator,  thedegreeof  pressuredetermining 
the  area  of  the  oiiening,  so  that  a  given  quantity  may 
pass  in  a  given  time  ii'respective  of  the  pressure. 

Air -scuttle.  {Ship-buUduiri.)  An  opening  in 
a  ship's  side  for  the  admission  of  air,  closed  in 
stormy  weather  by  a  shutter. 

Air'-sheift.  A  shaft  in  a  mine,  usually  vertical, 
or  nearly  so,  by  which  the  mine  is  ventilated. 

Air'-spring.  An  elasric  device  dejiemling  for  its 
action  upon  the  tension  of  an  imprisoned  body  of 
compressed  air. 

Air-springs  have  been  made  to  act  as  brakes,  to 
receive  recoil  of  guns,  as  buffers,  and  for  other  pur 
poses.     See  Pxeumatic  Spring. 


Fig.  116. 


Air'-stove.  A  heating  stove  which  is  eni|>loye<l 
to  heat  a  stre.im  of  air  directed  against  its  surface. 
Of  this  class  are  Heating  Furnaces,  and  some  kinds 
of  Heating  Stoves. 

There  are  two  common  forms,  with  a  great  variety 
of  each  :  — 

1.  The  furnace  such  as  is  used  in  churches,  large 
lialls,  and  some  dwel'ings  ;  consisting  of  a  stove 
surrounded  by  a  casing  of  metal  or  brickwork, 
into  which  the  air  is  led,  and  from  which,  after  beiii"' 
heated,  it  passes  by  air-ducts  to  the  apaitmeut.  See 
Heating  Fvknace. 

2.  A  stove,  a  part  of  whose  interior  is  occupied 
by  passages  in  which  air  circulates  against  the  fire- 
chamber  and  back,  after  which  it  is  discharged  into 
the  room.     See  He.\ting  Stove. 

Air'-ther-mom'e-ter.  An  instrument  in  which 
the  contraction  and  expansion  of  air  is  made  the 
measure  of  temperature.  It  differs  from  the  ordi- 
narj'  thermometer,  which  depends  on  the  contraction 
and  expansion  of  liquid  in  an  hennetically  sealed 
tube.  The  air-thenuometer  is  the  older  form,  and 
its  invention  is  variouslv  ascribed  to  Drelibel  of 
Holland,  about  A.  D.  ifiOO^-  to  Galileo;  and  to 
Santorio  of  Padua  (1551—1636).  The  instrument 
Avas  constructed  as  follows  :  The  air  in  a  tulje  being 
]  slightly  rarefied  J\y  heat,  the  lower  end  was  pluuged 
into  a  colored  liquid,  which,  as  the  air  cooled,  was 
drawn  into  the  tube.  The  expansion  and  contraction 
of  the  air,  by  changes  of  temperature,  varied  the 
ieight  of  the  liquid  in  tlie  graduated  tube.  It  was 
a  faulty  arrangement,  as  changes  in  tlie  atmospheric 
pressure  would  vary  the  result,  and  the  truth  could 
only  be  ascertjiined  by 
coiTection  with  reference 
to  a  barometer. 

In  the  "  Sfiiritalia"  of 
Hej-o,  B.  C.  150,  an  in- 
strument is  descrilied 
wherein  water  is  made 
to  rise  and  fall  by  the 
■changi-s  of  temperature. 
The  Spanish  Saraceni 
used  a  lonn  of  hydrome- 
ter to  detect  variations  in 
temperature.   See  .\reo- 

MET£R  ;    HyBROMETER^ 

Ther.mo.meter. 

Heat  expands  the  air, 
forcing  down  the  liquid, 
and  cold  has  tlie  con- 
trary effect.  The  tem- 
jierature  is  thus  indi- 
cated by  tlie  height  of 
the  liquid  in  the  tube. 

Stuilmii's's  differen- 
tial air- theiraometer  con- 
sists of  two  bulbs  united 
by  a  tube  which  is  bent 
to  form  two  legs,  against 
one  of  which  is  attached 
a  gi-aJuated  scale.  X 
quantity    of    sulphuric 

acid  colored  witt  carmine  is  introduced  into  the 
tube  so  thSt  its  ujqier  suifaee  corresjiouds  with 
zero  Oil  the  scale.  The  ball  above  the  £cale  is  termed 
the  focal  ball. 

The  amounts  of  air  in  the  respective  ends  are  so 
adjusted  that  when  the  bulbs  are  both  exjiosed  to 
the  .same  tenilx»rature  the  liqv.id  will  fill  one  leg 
and  the  horizontal  {ortioii  of  the  tube,  the  level  of 
the  graduated  tube  standing  at  zero.  M'hen  both 
the  bulbs  are  exposed  to  the  same  temperature  no 
change  takes  place   in  the  position  of  the  liquid ; 


Air-  Thermometer  of  Santorio. 


AIR-TRAP. 


54 


AIR-TRAP. 


Fig.  117.  but  when  the  focal  ball  is  exposed  I 
to  heating  or  cooling  causes,  the  air 
-J  will  e.xpanil  or  contract,  and  the 
column  of  liijuid  in  the  gi'iuluated  leg 
will  ascend  or  descend  as  the  ca»e 
may  be.  This  themiometer  is  jmr- 
ticulai'ly  adapted  for  ascertaining  the 
particulai'  degi'ee  of  heat  aecuimi- 
lated  at  a  particular  point,  while 
the  surrounding  atmosphere  is  but 
little  affected,  as  in  the  focus  of  a 
reflecting  mirror,  etc. 

Leslie,  in  his  experiments  on  heat, 
made  great  use  of  this  differential 
thennometer.  By  coloring  the  focal 
ball  and  leaving  the  other  white, 
silvering  or  gilding  one  of  the  Kdls, 
covering  one  with  a  moistened  en- 
velope, etc.,  he  constituted  the  instrmnent  a  pho- 
tometer, jethrioscope,  hygrometer,  etc. 

Air  is  more  equable  in  its  expansion  than  mer- 
cury with  equal  increments  of  temperature. 

The  following  shows  the  indications  on  the  two 
scales  at  the  same  temperatures  ;  correction  being 
made  for  the  expansion  of  the  glass. 


Differential  Air- 
Tltfrmomtter, 


'benuometel 

.     Mcrtniial  Theimometer. 

Difierence 

212.00 

212 

0.00 

299.68 

302 

2.33 

386.69 

392 

5.31 

473.09 

482 

8.91 

558.  as 

572 

13.U 

66i00 

680 

18.00 

In  effect,  howevrr,  the  expansion  of  the  glass  is 
about  eipial  to  the  inci-ease  of  the  rate  of  the  expan- 
sion of  the  mercury,  so  that  the  mcrcui'ial  glass 
thermometer  is  accurate  as  high  as  662°. 

For  temperatures  above  the  boiling-r>oint  of 
mercury,  air-themioraeters  are  used.  Dit  air,  when 
conftueil,  increases  in  volume  g  for  every  180°,  and 
is  believed  to  be  perfectly  etjuable  in  its  rate  of 
expansion. 

A  bulb  or  cylinder  with  a  tube  of  platinum  is 
connected  to  a  glass  tube  at  right  angles  therewith. 
The  glass  tube  is  of  uuifonn  bore,  is  filled  with 
mercury,  and  terminates  below  in  a  recmn'ed  bulb. 
The  glass  tube  is  dividetl  into  a  number  of  spaces, 
each  e«iuiralent  to  f  of  the  total  volume  of  the 
platinum  bulb  or  cylinder,  with  %  of  its  stem.  The 
other  J  is  supposeil  to  be  beyond  the  immediate 
influence  of  heat.  The  platinum  bulb  and  §  of  its 
stem  are  plunged  in  the  furnace,  and  the  depression 
of  the  mercury  by  the  heatetl  and  expanded  air 
within  the  instrument  pressing  on  it  more  powerfully 
than  the  external  air,  will  indicate  the  degree  of 
temperature.  Each  degree  of  the  glass  stem  is  equal 
to  ISO'  Fah. 

Air'-trap.  Sometimes  called  deaeh-trap.  It 
is  an  adjunct  to  a  vessel  of  any  kind,  such  as  a 
washbowl,  water-closet  howl,  urinal,  or  sink,  which 
discharges  by  pipes  or  sewers  up  which  a  current  of 
foul  air  is  liable  to  pass.  , 

Some  of  them  are  veiy  simple  in  their  character, 
and  consist  of  a  water-pan  in  which  is  subiiierged 
the  end  of  the  dischai-ge-pipe  of  the  bowl  above. 
This  shuts  off  the  pas.sage  of  air,  and  an  overflow 
is  affortled  to  the  water  as  it  reaches  a  certain 
height. 

Craigie's  sink,  July  2,  1867,  is  of  this  charac- 
ter, and  its  essential  feature  has  been  familiar  to 
builders  and  housekeepers  for  many  years.  In  the 
illustration  the  novel  feature  is  found  in  the  mode 


of      attaching  Fig- 118. 

the   trap  -  cup 

to     the     bowl 

and    the    <Us- 

chiU'ge-pipe  to 

tile     bend    of 

the  cup. 

(.'AMI,  De- 
cember 6, 
ISGl.  Aspout, 
contimious  from  the  bottom  of  the  basin,  descends 
into  the  water  held  in  a  depressed  part  of  the 
receptacle.    The  flow  of  water  into  the  upper  part  of 

Fig.  119. 


Oftn^t^s  Sin^. 


Cnrr's  Urinal. 


the  basin  is  regulated  by  a  valve  controlled  by  a  cam 

movement.     The  drip  from  this  flow,  falling  upon 

the  top  of  this  receptacle,  is  conducted  by  flanges  to 

a  descending  tube,  wliich  is  turned  upward  within 

the  receptacle,  so  as  to  form  an  inverted  siphon,  and 

thus  deliver  its  _.    ,„ 

,  FiK.  120. 

water  into  the 

receptacle  with- 1 
out    permitting f 
the  gas  to   as- 
cend. 

Cakson,  Sep- 
tember       25, 


isgi 


Carsvn's  Sink. 


1860.  A  perforated  plate  opposes  the  passage  of 
matter  likely  to  choke  the  pipe,  which  enters  a  cham- 
ber beneath  the  sink.  The  water  passes  to  the  cham- 
ber beneath  a  plate  whose  edge  is  submerged  in 
li([uid  and  forms  a  trap. 

Maiiqvis,  September  4,  1866.     A  double  traji  is 


Fig.  121. 


Jlfrtrf/f/jVs  Slop-Hipper. 


AIE-TRUNK. 


55 


ALARM. 


formed  by  compelling  the  water  to  ])ivss  by  a  sinu- 
ous course  througli  a  circular  pan  and  tlien  through 
an  annular  pan,  oa  its  way  to  tlie  discharge-pipe. 

Air'-trunk.  A  pipe  or  conduit  for  conducting 
foul  or  he  ited  air  from  a  room,  theatre,  or  ward. 

Air'-tube  A  small,  wrought-irou  tube  hung  in 
a  coal-bo.K  from  the  deck,  and  tilled  with  water,  for 
the  purpose  of  ascertaining  the  temperature  of  the 
coals  by  a  thermometer,  as  a  precaution  against 
spontaneous  combustion. 

Air'-tube  for  conveying  Letters,  Goods, 
and  Passengers.  This  idea  suggesteil  by  Ur. 
Papiu  about  Ititfo,  patented  by  Jleilhurst  in  England 
1810,  on  the  air-compression  principle,  and  by  Val- 
lauc"  in  182-1  on  the  exhaust  principle,  has  come 
into  operation  to  some  extent,  and  is  considered 
under  the  h"ad  of  P.VEUM.iTic  Tube  (which  see).        j 

Air'-valve.  {Slai'ii-Enijinc.)  A  valve  in  a  .steam- 
boiler,  which  opens  inwardly  to  allow  air  to  enter 
when  the  internal  press.ire  is  below  the  atmospheric. 
This  may  be  produced  by  the  condensation  of  steam 
when  tlie  fire  is  drawn,  and  the  device  is  to  prevent 
collapse  of  the  boiler. 

Air'-ves'sel.  An  air-reservoir  ;  it  is  applied  to 
those  air-chamb?rs  from  which  the  air  is  to  be 
drawn  for  use,  as  in  carbureters,  and  one  form  of  air- 
pump.      See  .\llt-HOLDER. 

A  chamber  on  the  ej\'ction-pip3  of  a  pump,  to 
ren  ler  the  stream  continuo  is.     S  'e  .\ik-0H-\-MBER. 

Aisle.  (.-/;■(•/(.)  A  sidi^-divisioii  of  a  church,  par- 
tially separate  I  from  the  n.ive  and  choir  by  columns. 

Aitch'-piece.  {Mininj.)  The  part  of  a  plunger- 
lift  in  whicii  the  clacks  are  fixed. 

A-jambe'.  A  French  window  with  four  casement 
windows,  separately  hinged  and  fastened. 

Aj'u-tage.     1.    Tlie  spout  or  nozzle  of  a  funnel. 

2.  A  tube  applied  to  tlie  sides  of  a  discharging 
orifice  in  a  vessel,  in  order  to  obviate  the  resistance 
to  the  discharge  incident  to  the  contraction  of  the 
fluid  vein.  This  resistance  may  amount  to  0.45  of 
the  wdiole  theoretical  delivery. 

The  addition  of  a  cylindrical  tube  to  the  opening 
will  cause  a  greater  discharge,  the  head  and  sec- 
tional area  remaining  the  same. 

If  the  ajutage  be  cylindrical,  and  the  water  fill 
it  entirely,  the  increase  in  the  discharge,  when  the 
length  of  the  ajutage  does  not  exceed  four  times  its 
diameter,  is  in  the  proportion  of  1.33  to  1.00. 


Fig.  122. 


through  an  ajutage  of  this  description  is  generally 
stated  to  be  in  the  proportion  of  3  to  2  of  that  which 
would  take  place  through  an  orifice  in  a  thin  plate. 
Venturi  gives  the  following  data  :  — 

0.0338  TO. 
0.O406  TO. 
5  6° 


Orifice  of  deliveiy . 

Orifice  of  entry  . 

Angle  of  sides  of  external  tube 


Ajutage. 


The  effective  discharge  may  be  still  further  in- 
creased by  making  the  ajutage  of  the  form  repre- 
sented by  the  accompanying  figure,  provided  the 
liquid  fiU  it  entirely.  This  ajutage  is  composed  of 
two  portions  of  cones  upon  the  same  horizontal  axis ; 
the  first  has  the  form  of  the  contracted  vein,  the  length 
of  the  second  is  three  times  that  of  the  firet,  and  the 
opening  into  the  tube  from  the  chamber  is  J  of  the 
size  of  the  deliver)'  opening.    The  effective  discharge 


The  length  nine  times  the  diameter  of  the  effec- 
tive opening. 

He  found  the  dischai^e  to  be  increased  to  1.46 
times  the  theoretical  discharge,  and  2.4  times  the 
discharge  that  would  have  taken  place  had  the  ori- 
fice been  in  a  thin  plate. 

Al'a-bas'ter.  1.  A  species  of  marble,  white  or 
colored.  .Sometimes  called  Oriental  alabaster,  to 
distinguish  it  from 

2.  A  granular,  compact,  semi-pellucid  gypsum 
which  is  foinl  in  masses,  white  or  colored,  and  is 
readilv  turiie  1  into  vases  and  ornaments. 

A-larm.'  An  audible  warning,  .alarms,  mechani- 
cally con.sidered,  are  of  many  khids  ;  the  purpose  or 
construction  of  each  is  usually  indicated  liy  its 
name.  They  are  placed  in  such  positions  or  under 
such  circumstances  as  to  give  warning  of  danger  or 
to  call  attention. 

Marine  Alarms  are  fog-bells,  whistles,  and  trum- 
pets, operated  by  the  tide,  the  waves,  the  current, 
the  wind,  or  by  clock-work. 

Shoal  Alarms  are  similarly  actuated,  being  situ- 
ated on  spits  or  banks,  anchored,  moored,  or  at- 
tached to  piles. 

Nautical  Alarms,  on  shipboard,  are  to  indicate 
a  leak  or  the  accumulation  of  bilge-water. 

Burglar  Alarms  are  attached  to  doors  or  windows 
to  give  notice  of  surreptitious  entrance  liy  thieves. 

Fire  Alarms  are  actuated  automatically  by  ther- 
mostatic arrangements,  and  give  notice  of  fire,  as 
their  name  indicates. 

Clock  Alarms  are  attached  to  timepieces  to  strike 
an  alarm  at  a  given  hour. 

Gas  Alarms  indicate  an  escape  of  gas,  either  in  a 
room,  or  from  the  fis.surcs  in  a  coal-mine. 

High-pressure  Alarms  are  for  indicating  a  danger- 
ous pressure  of  steam  in  the  boiler. 

Lou'-water  Alarms  are  for  indicating  the  subsi- 
dence of  the  water-level  in  the  boiler  below  the 
point  of  safety. 

A  Packet  Alarm  is  to  notify  a  person  of  the 
abstraction  of  a  book,  etc.  from  the  iwcket. 

Telcijraphic  Alarms  are  to  call  the  attention  of 
the  operator  to  his  instrument. 

Till,  Trunk,  Safe,  Lock,  and  Door  Alarms  are  to 
call  attention  to  the  opening  of  the  objects  to  which 
they  are  attached. 

The  Watchman's  Alarm  may  be  a  rattle  u.sed  by 
the  iwlice,  or  a  systematic  mode  of  communicating 
a  signal  of  danger. 

Funnel  and  Barrel-filling  Alarms  are  to  indicate 
that  the  vessel  is  nearly  full. 

A  Mill-hopper  Ala-rm  is  to  indicate  that  the  grist 
is  about  exhausted,  and  thus  notify  the  miller  that 
more  grain  is  needed. 

There  are  over  two  hundred  jiatents  in  the 
United  States  for  various  forms  of  alarms. 

See  under  the  respective  heads  :  — 


Alarm  check-valve. 

Alarm-clock. 

Alanu- funnel. 

Alarm-lock. 

Alann -watch. 

Annunciator. 

Atmospheric  alarm-whistle. 


Bank  alarm-telegraph. 
Bilge-water  alarm. 
Burglar  alarm. 
Clack. 

Clack-mill  alarm. 
Clock  alarm. 
Door  alaim. 


ALARM   CHECK- VALVE. 


56 


ALAEM-FUNNEL. 


Earthquake  alarm. 
Electric:  alarm. 
Electric  aimunciator. 
Fire  alarm. 
Fire-ilanip  alai-m. 
Fog  alarm. 
Gas  alarm. 

High-pressure  alarm. 
Iceberg  alarm. 
Leak  alarm. 
Low-water  alarm. 
Marine  alarm. 
Mill-liopper  alarm. 
Jluney-jrawer  alai-m. 


Nautical  alarm. 
Pocket  alarm. 
Sale  alarm. 
Shoal  alarm. 
Steam-boiler  alarm. 
Steam-whistle  alarm. 
Telegraphic  alarm. 
Temperature  alarm. 
Thermometric  alarm. 
Tiile  alarm. 
Till  alarui. 
Trunk  alarm. 
Watch.     Alarm 
Watchman's  alarm. 


Fig.  123. 


Atamt  Cifrk  -  Vnive, 

A-Iarm'  Check-valve.  ^Seller's  improved.) 
(Steam. }  A  valve  to  notify  the  engineer  whenever 
the  injector  ceases  to  operate  or  fails  to  start. 

If  the  injector  is  not  working  into  the  boiler 
when  the  escape-valve  is  closed,  the  steam  will 
back  up  in  C\  and  tend  to  pass  out  into  the  water 
supply  and  tank.  As  soon,  however,  as  any  press- 
ure occurs  in  the  upp.'r  jiart  of  the  supply-pipe,  the 
check-valve  B  will  close,  and  the  stemn  then  e.xerts 
its  pressure  on  the  small  check  in  the  lateral  jjijie 
C  E,  which  leads  to  the  waste-pipe.  This  small 
valve,  which  is  kept  in  its  seat  liy  a  spiral  spring, 
as  shown  in  the  drawing,  will  then  be  raised,  and 
allow  the  steam  to  escape  into  the  waste-pipe  in  a 
way  that  cannot  fail  to  secure  notice. 

A-larm'-clock.  From  a  work  pub'islied  in 
1661,  we  find  that  "Andii-w  Alciat  of  Finance  had 
a  kind  of  clock  in  his  chiunljer  that  should  awaken 
him  at  any  hour  of  the  night  that  he  determined, 
and  when  it  strack  the  detennined 
hour,  it  struclv  tire  likewise  out  of  a 
flint,  which  fidl  among  tinder,  to  light 
him  a  candle ;  it  was  the  invention  of 
oneC'aravagioof  Sienna  in  Italy."  The 
Marijuis  of  Worcester,  1655,  suggests 
that  the  tinder-bo.x  may  form  a  service- 
able pistol.  This  is  anticpating  some 
of  the  burglar  alarms  of  our  own  time. 

The  clock  alarm  consists  of  a  bell 
or  wire  coil  and  a  hammer  which 
is  .set  in  motion  by  an  arr.angement 
sulistantially  similar  to  the  recoil 
escapement  in  the  attached  cut.  A 
weighted  cord  or  spring,  being  wound 
on  the  axis  of  the  scape-wheel,  ro- 
tates it  as  soon  as  it  is  free  to  move. 
If  we  suppose  a  short  hammer  in- 
stead of  a  long  pendulmn  attached  to 


the  a.xis  of  the  pal-  Fig.  124. 

lets,  and  the  wheel  to 
be  driven  with  suf- 
ficient force,  it  will 
oscillate  the  hammer 
and  cause  the  head 
to  strike  on  alternate 
sidesof  the  bell  inside 
whicli  it  vibrates. 

If  the  alarm  were 
always  to  be  let  off 
at  the  same  time  it 
wouhl  only  be  neces- 
sary to  set  a  pin  in 
the  proper  place  in 
the  twelve -hour 
wheel  to  raise  the 
lifting-piece      which 

lets  oil  the  alann  at  that  time.  To  make  it  capa- 
ble of  adjustment,  the  discharging  pin  is  set  in 
another  wheel  (without  teeth),  wlucli  rides  with 
a  friction  spring  \ipon  the  socket  of  the  twelve- 
hour  \\lieel,  and  has  a  small  movable  dial  attached 
to  it,  with  figures  so  arranged  in  reference  to  the 
pin,  that,  whatever  figure  is  made  to  come  to  a 
small  jiointer  set  as  a  tail  to  the  hour-hand,  the 
alarm  shall  be  let  oH'  at  that  hour.  The  letting  off 
docs  not  require  the  same  apparatus  as  the  ttiiking 
movement,  because  it  is  not  to  strike  a  definite 
number  of  blows,  but  to  go  till  it  is  run  down. 

The  lifting-jiiece  is  nothing  but  a  lever   wi.h  a 
stopor  hook  upon 


Recoil  Escapement. 


which,  when 
is    drojiped, 


Fig.  125. 


takes  hold  of  the 
alarm-wheel,  and 
disengages  it 
when    I'nised. 

A-larm'-fun- 
neL  A  funnel 
which  indicates 
that  li(pud  in  the 
barrel  has  risen 
to  a  ceitain 
point.  The  fun- 
nel being  jilaced 
over  the  bung- 
hole  of  the  bar- 
rel, the  rising 
liquid  raises  the 
float,  which  de- 
taches the  but- 
ton from  its  stop 
and  rings  the 
alajin-bell. 


Alarm  FurmeL 


Fig.  126. 


tSf? 


Eutentur's  Lock-A'.arrn. 


ALARM  LOCK. 


57 


ALBOLITE  CEMENT. 


A-larm'-lock.  In  the  Marquis  of  AVorcester's 
"  Century  of  Inventions,"  No.  72,  A.D.  165.5,  a  lock 
is  refk-rreJ  to  which,  if  tampered  with  by  a  stranger, 
will  start  an  alarm  beyond  the  control  of  the  intrud- 
er. As  usual,  the  thing  is  merely  hinted  at,  the 
pui'pose  of  that  Digest  of  Inventions  being  more  to 
act  as  a  reminder  to  the  inventor  than  as  a  specifi- 
cation for  another  reader. 

EuTENFATii,  September  19, 1865,  (Fig.  126,)  has  an 
arr.angement  of  devices  by  means  of  which  any  move- 
ment of  the  latch-bolt  causes  two  hammers  to  strike 
a  bell.  A  plate  covei-s  the  key-hole  to  prevent  the 
admission  of  a  key  from  the  outside  ;  the  plate  is 
held  closed  by  a  bar  attached  thereto  and  jirojecting 
through  the  case.  The  two  hammers  are  so  jiivoted 
as  to  be  tripped  by  the  motion  of  the  latch-bolt, 
striking  the  bell  on  the  recoil. 

Decuiiw,   December  12,   1865.     The  device  con- 
sists of  a  bell,  hammer,  escapement,  and  a  spring. 
The  bolt  is  so  arranged  as  to  trip  the  escape-wheel, 
when  moved  in  either  a  vertical  or  a  horizontal  direc- 
tion, and    release    the  ham- 
Fig-  127-  mer,     which     is     oscillated 
rapidly  to  give  a  quick  suc- 
cession of  strokes  upon  the 
bell. 

A  padlock  with  an  alann 

attachment     is     shown     in 

Fig.    128.     The   shackle   £ 

is  fastened  by  screws  Z  Z, 

r~|  I  '/  cja^i  whose    heads    are    exposed. 

'—^' ''"-^     ^^-rt^l  Xhey  are  connected  by  chains 

to  the  ami  if  of  a  trigger  /. 
The  barrel  X  is  moved  by 
the  spring  P,  a  cap  is 
exploded,  a  ball  projected, 
and  fire  communicated 
througii  the  opening  S 
into  the  magazine  S.  D 
is  a  cover  for  the  screw-heads  Z.  T  is  the  fallen 
face-plat.e  of  the  lock-case. 

Fig.  12S. 


Decrowns  Alarm. 


Andrrtc's  Alarm-Lock. 

A-larm'-lock  for  Tills.  Alarm-locks  are  at- 
tached to  tills  so  as  to  ring  when  the  drawer  is 
pulled  open.  The  devices  are  numerous.  In  Fig. 
129  is  shown  one  in  which  the  contact  of  the  head 
a  with  a  detent  beneath  the  counter  causes  the  said 
head  to  vibrate  and  swing  the  hammer-rod  which 


Fig.  129. 


:^>,>»mmwm\ 


Tucker's  Alarm-  Tilt. 

sounds  the  gong.  By  raising  the  trigger  E  the 
drawer  may  be  opened  silently. 

A-laxm'-Twatch.  An  instrument,  not  necessarily 
a  timepiece,  with  going  works,  and  adapted  to  run 
down  and  si-md  an  alarm  after  a  specific  interval  of 
time.     See  W.^tch  .Al.^rm. 

Al-ba'ta.  (jerman  silver,  comjwsed  of  nickel, 
cojiper,  and  zinc  ;  with  the  addition  of  small  quan- 
tities of  lead  or  iron  in  some  formulas. 

It  is  a  white  alloy,  used  for  taWe-ware,  etc.,  and 
resembles  the  Chinese  Packfong,  or  white  copper. 

The  following  are  some  of  the  foi-mulas  :  — 

Common,  Nickel,  4  ;  Copper,  20  ;  Zinc,  16. 


Better,           "        6 ; 

"      20; 

"      10. 

For  rolling,  "     25  ; 

"      20; 

"      60. 

For  casting,  "     20  ; 

"      20; 

"     60  ;  Lead,  20. 

Packfong,      "  31.6  ; 

"  40.4; 

"25.4;  Iron,  2.6. 

See  .\l.I.OY. 

AVber-type.  (P/iotoyr.)  The  process  is  as  fol- 
lows :  "A  plate  of  glass  is  covered  with  a  solution 
of  albumen,  gelatine,  and  bichromate  of  potash, 
dried  and  exposed  to  light  until  haidened.  It  is 
then  again  covered  with  a  solution  of  gelatine  and 
bichromate  of  potash,  and  when  diy  exposed  under 
the  negative,  and  the  film  is  then  found  to  possess 
(jualitics  analogous  to  a  drawing  made  with  fatty 
ink  upon  lithograph  stone.  All  those  jiortions  of 
the  film  that  were  acted  upon  by  the  light  will  le- 
luse  water  and  take  printing-ink,  while  those  por- 
tions which  were  protected  from  liglit  by  the  nega- 
tive will  take  water  and  refuse  ink.  The  ink  and 
water  will  be  absorbed  liy  the  lihn  just  in  accordance 
with  the  gi'adations  of  light  and  shade  in  the  nega- 
tive. To  produce  a  jiicture,  wet  the  sniface  of  the 
film,  then  apply  ink,  lay  on  pa]ier,  and  pass  through 
a  press  ;  the  oj.eration  being  substantially  the  same 
as  lithograjihy.  The  process  is  said  to  be  rapid,  and 
excellent  pictures  of  all  sizes  may  be  printed  in 
aihnirable  .style." — r/ir/injr,  jiliic  Sews. 

Al  bo-lite  Cement.  Invented  by  Riemann. 
Mix  calcined  and  finely  inUverized  magnesite  (na- 
tive carbonate  of  magnesia)  with  infusorial  earth, 
and  stir  in  chloride  of  magnesium.  Among  the 
projierties  of  the  cement,  as  envmerated  by  the 
inventor,  are  a  high  degi-ee  of  jilasticity,  and  of 
hardness  after  it  has  become  fixed,  and  a  spontane- 
ous develo]  nient  of  heat  as  scon  as  it  is  solidified  to 
the  consistency  of  wax,  this  increasing  in  propor- 
tion to  the  size  of  the  mass  into  which  it  has  been 
molded.  It  is  extremely  haid,  a  peculiarity  in- 
creased by  its  elasticity,  and  adlieres  very  well  to 
stone,  wood,  and  drj'  oiled  surfaces,  but  cannot  be 
used  under  water.  It  is  now  largely  employed  in 
the  preparation  of  ornamental  moldings,  for  which, 
however,  in  consequence  of  the  above-mentioned 
development  of  heat,  gelatine  molds  must  be  cau- 
tiously used.  By  coating  oinaments  of  gypsum 
with  this  cement  it  imparts  to  them  a  great  degree 


ALBUM. 


58 


ALCOHOL  ENGINE. 


of  h.inlness.  It  is  also  used  for  rciiairiiig  woiii- 
doH'u  sandstone  stepsj  for  facing  stone  ami  wooden 
steps,  for  lire-proof  coating  to  boards  in  tlie  interior 
of  houses,  and  also  for  preserving  railroad-ties,  eti. 

Al'bum.  A  book  arranged  to  lioiil  pliotogiaphs, 
autographs,  or  memorial  addresses  of  a  private  char- 
acter. 

The  principal  concern  of  the  mechanic  arts  with 
ihe  album  is  with  devices  for  sewing  the  leaves  in 
the  book,  making  the  slip-pockets  for  the  recep- 
tion of  cards,  clasps,  and  securing  devices  for  the 
leaves  of  the  cover. 

The  utham  was  originally  the  tablet  on  which  the 
Roman  prastor's  edi(^t  was  written.  It  was  white, 
and  hung  up  as  a  bulletin-board  in  a  public  place. 

It  is  now  a  book  of  triendly  memorials  :  signa- 
tures, prose  or  poetic  effusions,  or  photographs.  It 
dates  back  to  the  church  blank-book,  or  wAite-page 
book,  in  which  were  inscribed  the  names  of  bene- 
factoi-s  of  the  church,  in  order  that  the  appointed 
prayers  might  be  made  as  the  feast-days  of  their 
chosen  saints  recurred. 

The  Venerable  Hede,  in  his  preface  to  the  Life  of 
St.  Cuthbert,  A.  D.  7"21,  speaks  of  the  record  of  the 
saint's  name  in  the  albu»i  at  Lindisfarne.  The  name 
frequently  occurs  in  ecclesiastical  and  other  writings. 

Al'bu-men  Process  in  Photography.  This 
process  antedated  the  collodion,  which  is  much 
more  sensitive.  It  was  invented  by  Niepce  de  St. 
Martin.  The  g'.ass  receives  a  coating  from  a  solu- 
tion of  albumen  to  which  bromide  and  iodide  of 
potassium  and  a  drop  of  caustic  potash  have  been 
added,  and  after  drying  is  exposed  to  the  fumes  of 
iodine.  It  is  then  silvered  in  a  bath  of  nitro- 
acetate  of  silver,  and  dried.  After  passing  again 
over  the  vapor  of  iodine  it  is  ready  for  the  camera. 
The  image  is  developed  by  a  solution  of  gallic 
acid,  and  fixed  by  a  solution  of  fajTiosulphite  of 
soda.  —  Maijnll. 

Al'oar-ra'za.  A  vessel  of  jiorous  earthenware  used 
for  cooling   the   contained   liquids   by   evaporation 


from  the  e.xterior  surface.  See  Ice-m.\chine.  The 
word  is  Arabic,  and  the  device  was  introduced  into 
Europe  by  the  Spanish  Saracens. 

Alcan'azas  are  made  of  a  sandy  marl  made  up  into 
paste  with  saline  water  and  lightly  tired. 

"  In  niches  where  the  current  of  air  could  be 
artificially  directed  hung  dripping  alcanazas." — 
Dcscn'pfwn  of  titc  Alhuiiibra. 

Al'co-hol  L.n'gine.  An  engine  in  which  the 
vapor  of  alcohol  is  used  as  a  motive-power. 

The  first  suggestion  of  the  machine  was  by  Rev. 
Edmund  Cartwright  at  the  latter  end  of  the  last 
century.  The  reason  why  the  elastic  vapor  of 
alcohol  was  supposed  to  be  preferable  to  that  pro- 
duced from  water  is  that  it  boils  at  a  tcni]ierature 
considerably  below  that  of  water.  It  must  be  recol- 
lected, however,  that  all  leakage  and  escape  of  alco- 
hol is  not  alone  an  absolute  loss  of  a  valuable 
material,  but  that  such  leakage  is  verj'  ilangerous, 
owing  to  the  inllammability  of  the  material. 

How.\rd's  alcohol  engine,  English  patent,  1825, 
was  in  use  at  the  Rothcrhithe  Iron-Works  for  some 
time,  but  appears  to  have  wearied  out  the  patience  or 
means  of  the  inventor,  no  engine  of  that  description 
being  now  usefully  employed  so  far  as  we  aie  aware. 
The  engine  referred  to  was  intended  to  woik  up  to 
24  horse-power. 

The  engine  had  two  vertical  cylinders  A  B,  of  eijual 
capacity,  connected  by  a  pipe  C,  at  the  lower  part 
of  each.  A  quantity  of  mercury  or  oil,  whiih  will 
not  vaporize  at  the  heat  to  be  applied,  is  placed  in 
each  cylinder,  so  as  to  fill  the  base  of  one  and 
nearly  the  whole  of  the  other. 

Within  the  cylinder  J?  is  a  jiiston,  exposed  above 
to  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere,  and  packed  in 
the  cylinder  in  the  usual  manner.  In  the  other 
cyliniier  A  is  a  thin  metallic  dish  D,  floating  freely 
upon  the  surface  of  the  oil.  A  tube  E,  terminating 
in  a  nozzle  pierced  with  small  holes,  passes  through 
a  stufting-box  in  the  cover  of  the  cylinder  A,  in 
whii:h  also  is  a  flap-valve  G  opened  by  a  rod  H  as 


Fig.  130. 


Y  V  V  Ti 


Hownr/Ts  Alcohol  Ert^ne. 


ALCOHOLMETER. 


59 


ALCOHOLMETEK. 


occasion  requires.  The  valve  is  other\vise  kept  to 
its  seat  by  a  spring.  /  is  the  stiilfing-box  of  the 
valve-rod  ;  K  the  safety-valve.  The  jiiston  has  a 
plug  by  which  a  certain  quantity  of  the  fluid  is 
admitted  above  its  upper  surface,  there  to  remain. 
N  is  a  discharge-cock,  n  o  are  argand-burners, 
which  heat  the  cylinders  -/  B  by  ilirect  action 
upon  their  lower  surface.*,  the  hot-air  C.ui'  extending 
around  them  aud  terminating  in  tlu^  cliimney  P, 
which  has  a  register-cap  a  by  which  the  draft  is 
regii'.ated. 

By  means  of  a  force-pump  ]?,  worked  by  the 
en,Tn  •,  a  small  quanti'y  of  alcohol  is  drawn  from  the 
coiulen.ser  and  injcc-ted  through  the  pijie  E  into  the 
dish  />.  which  floats  upon  the  hot  oil  iu  the  cylinder 
A,  and  is  thereby  Hashed  into  steam.  The  e::|ian- 
sion  of  the  alcohol  depresses  the  column  of  oil  in 
the  cylinder  A,  driving  it  through  the  passage  C  into 
the  cylinder  B,  where  it  i-aises  the  piston. 

Wlien  the  piston  has  attained  its  highest  eleva- 
tion, the  valve  G  is  opened  aud  the  vapor  escapes 
by  pipe  S  to  the  condenser,  which  consists  of  an 
upper  and  lower  chamber  connected  by  pipes  V  V. 
These  jiipes  are  surrounded  by  flannel  constantly 
wetted  by  water  dripping  from  the  trough  A',  and 
the  evaporation  is  expedited  by  a  continued  draft 
of  air  from  the  rotating  fly  Z,  which  is  driven  by  the 
engine.  F  is  the  lower  ti'ough,  which  receives  the 
superfluous  water,  and  /('  is  the  bottom  chamber, 
which  contains  the  condensed  vapor  and  from  which 
it  is  drawn  by  pump  E  to  produce  each  upward 
movement  of  the  piston.  A  cork  or  wooden  pack- 
ing in  the  connecting-pipe  S  prevents  the  conduc- 
tion of  heat  from  one  p.art  of  the  apparatus  to  the 
other.  The  condensation  of  the  alcoholic  vapor 
causes  the  return  of  the  oil  into  the  cylinder  A,  aud 
the  atmospheric  pressure  causes  the  piston  to  de- 
scend, c,  b,  are  the  pipe  and  stop-cock  by  which 
the  atmospheric  contents  of  the  condenser  are  with- 
drawn, preWous  to  starting  the  engine,     d  is  the 

discharge-jiipe 
Fig.  131.  __rVi^-~\     by  which  the 

condensermay 
be  drawn  from 
the  chamber 
»'.  /  is  the 
pijie  at  which 
the  chamber 
W  is  charged 
with  alcohol. 
It  is  closed  by 
a  screw  -  pipe 
when  the  ma- 
chine is  in  ac- 
tion. 

Al'co-hol'- 
me-ter.  A 
modification  of 
the  hydrome- 
ter, for  the 
purpose  of  as- 
certaining the 
comparative 
specific  gravi- 
ty and  conse- 
quent amount 
of  alcohol  in 
spirituous  liq- 
uors, etc.  This 
instrument 
may  either  be 
so  constructed 
as  to  be  sunk, 
by  weights,  to 


OutlCs  Atcofiolmetn. 


a  uniform  depth  in  the  liquor  testrd,  or  it  r-.r.y  indi- 
cate the  gravity  by  the  amount  of  its  sulimergencc,  r.3 
shown  on  a  giaduated  stem,  taking  either  pv.rc 
alcohol  or  "  proof"  as  a  standard  ;  the  latter  mode  of 
construction  is  more  convenient  in  practice,  and  more 
generally  adopted.  The  absolute  percentage  of  alco- 
hol, or  the  degree  above  or  below  proof,  is  deduced 
from  tables  constructed  for  that  purpose  and  corre- 
sjiouding  to  various  temperatures  of  the  lic|uid. 

GuTH,  June  28,  1859.  In  this  alcoholmeter  tlie 
evaporation  of  a  fixed  quantity  of  alcoholic  fluid  is 
m?.de  to  exhibit  the  exact  percentage  of  alcohol  con- 
tained in  the  said  liquid.  While  the  tube  E  is  yet 
detached  from  the  apparatus,  it  is  partially  filled 
with  mercury,  and  then  receives  a  definite  amount 
of  the  alcoholic  liquid  to  be  tested.  AVhen  in- 
verted and  placed  in  position  in  tlte  instrament  the 
liquid  and  mercury  change  places,  the  foimer  occu- 
j'ying  the  upper  part  of  chanil  er  E.  Heat  being 
applied,  by  means  of  the  spirit-lamp  B,  to  the  water 
in  chaml  er  C,  the  vapor  rising  therefiom,  fiUin;; 
chamber  D,  heats  the  mercury  and  the  alcoholic 
liqrid,  the  temperature  being  indicated  by  the 
thcimcmeter  A.  As  alcoholic  vapor  is  elinunated 
from  the  liquid  it  presses  upon  the  coh.um  of  mer- 
cun-,  causing  it  to  rise  in  the  stem  O,  :.nd  the  height 
of  il'.e  column  against  the  graduated  scale  indicates 
the  amount  of  spirit. 

The  ebullition  alcoholmeter  of  ViP.M.  is  founded 
upon   his   discovery  j,.    jjg 

that  the  boiling  tem- 
perature of  alcoholic 
liquors  is  propor- 
tional to  the  quan- 
tity of  alcohol  con- 
tained in  them.  It 
consists  of  a  spirit- 
lamp,  beneath  a 
sn.all  boiler,  into 
which  a  large  cylin- 
drical glass  bulb  is 
plunged,  having  an. 
upiight  stem  of  such 
caliber  that  the 
quicksilver  con- 
tained i:i  them  may, 
by  its  expansion  and 
a-scent  when  heated, 
raise  before  it  a  little 
glass  f.oat  in  the 
stem,  which  is  con- 
nected by  a  thread 
with  a  similar  glass 
bead  that  hangs  in 
the  air.  The  thread 
passes  round  a  pul- 
ley, which,  turning 
with  the  motion  of 
the  beads,  causes  the 
\  index  to  move  along 
the  gi-aduated  circu- 
lar scale. 

The  numbers  on 
this  scale  represent 
percentages  of  abso- 
lute alcohol  ;  so  the  number  opposite  to  which 
the  index  stops,  when  the  liquor  in  the  cylinder 
over  the  lamp  boils  briskly,  denotes  the  percentage 
of  alcohol  in  it. 

Sieme.n's  alcoholmeter,  Berlin,  1869,  is  thus 
described:  "As  the  spirit  —  no  matter  of  what 
strength  —  leaves  the  still,  it  passes  into  a  cylin- 
drical vessel,  and  from  this,  through  a  drum  some- 
thing like  that  of  an  ordinary  gas-meter,  into  the 


EbuUiticm  Alcoholmeter. 


ALCOVE. 


60 


ALKALIMETER. 


cask  which  is  to  contain  it.  On  its  way  through 
the  apparatus  it  is  measured,  gaged,  and  regis- 
tered witli  the  greatest  possible  e.xactness.  First, 
its  bulk  or  volume  is  measured  and  indicated  in 
gallons  and  di«ijnal  parts  ;  and,  second,  the  (puin- 
tity  of  either  absolute  alcohol  or  of  proof-spirit 
which  it  contains  is  measured  and  indicated  inde- 
pendently. The  measurement  and  registration  of 
the  total  bulk  or  quantity  of  spirit  which  passes 
over  is  obviously  done  directly  by  the  rotation  of 
the  drum,  each  of  the  tliree  divisions  of  which  holds 
exactly  five  gallons.  The  indication  of  the  strength 
of  tlie  spirit  is  done  by  a  swimmer  in  the  cylin- 
drical vessel  into  which  th''  alcohol  first  enters  as  it 
leaves  the  still.  This  swimmer  is  attached  to  a 
Jiointei',  which,  in  being  elevateil  and  depressed  by 
the  loweiing  or  rising  of  the  swimmer,  according  to 
the  varying  specific  gravity  of  the  liipud,  Ihnits  the 
rcciprojating  movem,Mits  of  a  graduateil  tongue  in 
connection  with  the  counter-work.  Thus,  not  only 
do  the  distiller  and  the  exciseman  know  at  a  glance 
ho.v  nuieh  spirit  in  total  has  been  distilled  within 
a  given  time,  but  likewise  ho.v  much  proof-spirit 
it  is  eip.iivalent  to.  — Eiuiiiicer. 

See  also  Liquid-.meteu. 

Al'cove.  (Architecttire.^  A  recess  separated  from 
a  main  chamber  by  columns,  anta;,  and  balusters. 

A  recess  in  a  room  for  a  bed  or  for  seats. 

A-lem'bic.  The  hcail  or  cap  which  is  placed 
upon  the  cucurbit,  and  which  discharges  by  its  beak 
into  the  receiver.  The  cucurbit  contains  the  liquid 
to  be  distilled,  and  the  alembic  is  luted  thereto  to 

Fig.  133. 


prevent  the  escape  of  vapor  which  is  raised  by  the 
heat  of  the  fire,  and  is  conducted  to  the  receiver  to 
he  condensed.  Some  alembics  have  an  aperture  in 
the  head  to  admit  material  to  the  retort  when  the 
.stopper  is  temporarily  removed. 

We  are  indebted  to  the  Arabs  for  this  apparatus 
and  its  name.  Zozimus,  who  flourished  aliout  A.  D. 
400,  described  the  operation  of  purifying  water  by 
distillation. 

Djafar,  the  great  Arabian  chemist,  about  A.  D. 
875  discovered  nitric  acid,  which  he  obtained  by 
the  distillation  in  a  retort  of  Cyjirus  vitriol,  alum, 
and  saltpeter.  He  obtained  aqua-regia  by  the  ad- 
dition of  sal-ammoniac,  and  no  doubt  felt  that  in 
obtaining  a  solvent  of  gold  he  had  discovered  the 
long-dcMred  aurain  potabilc. 

Rhazes,  the  Arabian,  born  860,  obtained  absolute 
alcohol  by  distilling  spirits  of  wine  with  (]uicklinie, 

Achild  Bechil,   of  the  same  people,  distilled  to- 


gether an  extract  of  urine,  clay,  lime,  and  powdered 
charcoal,  and  oljtained  phosphorus. 

A  blind-iihmbic  is  one  having  a  capital  with  no 
rostrum. 

A-len'<5on  Lace.  Also  called  blonde.  A  variety 
of  lace  funiiiil  uf  two  threads,  twisted  and  woikcd 
to  11.  hexagonal  mesh. 

Alcni;un  jioiiil  is  formed  of  two  threads  to  a  pillar, 
with  octagoiKi'  and  srjuare  meshes  altern.ately. 

Al'eu-rom'e-ter.  The  name  given  to  an  instru- 
ment invented  about  1849,  by  M.  Boland,  a  Parisian 
bakiM-,  for  detennining  the  quality  of  the  gluten  ir. 
different  specimens  of  wheaten  flour,  and  their 
consequent  adaptation  for  bread-making.  A  tube 
of  about  six  inches  in  length  is  divided  into  two 
parts,  of  which  the  smaller  one,  about  two  inches  in 
length  and  holding  a  given  amount  of  gluten,  is 
screwed  on  to  the  longer  tube,  wdiich  is  fitted  with 
a  piston  having  a  graduated  stem.  The  apparatus  is 
then  exposed  to  a  moderate  degree  of  heat,  when  the 
gluten  expands,  forcing  up  the  piston,  tlie  amount 
of  exjiansion  being  inilicated  by  the  distance  the 
stem  protrudes  from  tile  tube.  It  was  found  that 
gluten  obtained  from  flour  of  good  quality  would 
expand  to  four  or  five  times  its  original  bulk,  and 
had  the  smell  of  warm  bread,  while  that  of  bad  flour 
became  viscid,  with  a  tendency  to  adhere  to  the  tube, 
and  in  some  instances  emitting  an  unpleasant  odor. 

Al'i-dade.  (Optical  Instr. )  The  movable  arm  of 
a  graduated  instrument  carrying  sights  or  a  telescope, 
by  which  an  angle  is  measured  from  a  base  line  ob- 
ser\'ed  thiovgh  the  stationary  or  level  line  of  sights. 

Used  in  theodolites,  astrolabes,  demicircles,  and 
numerous  other  angulonieters. 

A-lign'ment.  {Engineering.)  The  ground  plan 
of  a  mad  or  earthwork. 

Al'ka-lim'e-ter.  The  object  of  this  instrument  is 
to  ascertain  the  value  of  the  alkalies  of  eonunerce.  It 
was  invented  by  Dr.  lire,  about  1816,  or  by  Mr. 
Descroizelles,  and  consists  essentially  of  a  graduated 
tube  closed  at  one  end,  each  graduation  correspond- 
ing to  a  sufficient  quantity  of  sulphuric  or  other 
acid  to  neutralize  a  given  cmount  of  pure  soda  or 
potash  dissolved  in  water.  The  strength  of  the 
alkali  is  inferred  from  the  amount  of  acid  required 
to  neutralize  it. 

The   instrument   recommended   by   Dr.    Faraday 
consists   of  a   burette   supported   upon  a  foot  and 
graduated  into  one  liundred  equal  parts,      j..^  -g. 
the  space  between  each  two  of  the  divis-         " 
ions   being   capable   of   containing   ten 
grains   of   distilled   water.     The   upper 
part   of  the   instrument   is   shaped,   as 
shown  in  the  figure,  for  the  convenient 
introduction   of  the   test  acid   and   its 
subsequent  delivery  in  drops. 

To  employ  it  for  estimating  the  amount 
of  carbonate  of  potash  in  any  sample  of 
pearlash,  weigh  out  100  grains  of  the 
ash,  dissolve  them  in  boiling  water,  so 
that,  when  cool,  the  mixture  has  a  spe- 
ciiic  gravity  of  1.1268.  Filter  if  neces- 
sary, and  tinge  blue  with  infusion  of 
litmus  ;  thi'n  fill  the  alkalimeter  to  65 
with  the  test  acid,  diluting  with  water 
to  <>',  and  add  the  diluted  acid  grad- 
ually and  cautiously  until  the  reddening 
efl'eet  is  ]U-oduced  upon  the  dissolved 
sample.  The  number  of  measures  of 
acid  required  represents  the  percentage 
of  carbonate  of  jiotash  in  the  sample.       ^ 

To  estimate  the  amount  of  potash  con-   jinaiimeler. 
tained  in  the  sample,  either  as  caustic 
potash  or  carbonate  of  potash,  fill  the  alkalimeter  to 


f-^ 


'^ 

0 

;  E 

— ; 

10 

= 

20 

- 

30 

i 

40 
SO 

J 

00 

i  ^ 

70 

;  = 

1  - 
1  r 

dO 

I  -' 

!  ^ 

90 

'M 

1 

ALI^ALONG. 


61 


ALLOY. 


49  «-ith  the  test  acid,  the  100  measures  being  again 
made  up  with  water.  The  number  of  divisions  of 
this  dilute  acid  required  to  neutralize  100  grains 
of  the  sample  will  correspond  to  the  proportion  of 
pure  potash  in  the  sample. 

For  the  detemiination  of  carbonate  of  soda,  the 
alkalimeter  must  be  filled  to  54.6  witli  the  test  acid, 
which  must  then  be  used  as  before.  For  the  esti- 
mation of  caustic  soda,  the  operator  will  require  to 
fill  the  instrument  to  23.4.  .  The  nvmiber  of  meas- 
ures required  to  change  the  blue  of  the  solution  to 
red  will  in  both  cases  correspond  to  tlie  percentages 
of  caustic  or  carbonated  alkali  required. 

All-a-long'.  A  bookbinder's  te:m  to  denote  that 
the  sewing-thiead  pas.ses from  end  to  end  of  the  fold, 
or  directly  between  the  distant  points  of  punctura- 
tion. 

Allege.     (/")•.)     A  balla.=t-boat. 

Al-lette'.  {Archilcchire.)  A  wing  of  a  building  ; 
a  bu'tress  or  pilaster. 

Alley.  (.Printing.)  The  compositor's  standing- 
plai-e  lietween  two  opposite  frames. 

Al-loy'.  An  alloy  is  a  combination  by  fusion  of 
two  or  more  metals,  as  brass  and  zinc,  tin  and  lead, 
silver  and  copper,  etc. 

Many  alloys  are   composed  of  definite   chemical  ' 
proportions  of  their   component   metals,    whilst  in 
others  the  metals  unite  in  any  proportions. 

The  best-kno^vn  and  perhaps  the  most  generally 
useful  alloy  is  brass,  which  is  formed  bj-  the  fusion 
together  of  copper  and  zinc. 

The  Colossus  at  Rhodes  was  said  to  have  been 
constructed  of  brass  B.  C.  288.  Bronze  is  a  much 
more  ancient  alloy  than  brass,  and  has  been  known 
from  a  verj*  remote  anti(|uity.  See  Brass  and 
BiiONZE.  All  alloys  are  opaque,  have  a  metallic 
luster,  are  more  or  less  elastic,  ductile,  and  malleable, 
and  are  good  conductors  of  heat  and  electricity. 
Those  consisting  of  metals  of  very  ditTerent  degrees 
of  fusibility  are  usually  malleable  when  cold  and 
brittle  when  hot.  Metallic  compounds  containing 
mercury  are  amalgams.  Metals  do  not  imite  indif- 
f'r.'Utly  with  each  other,  but  have  certain  affinities  ; 
thus  silver,  which  will  hardly  unite  with  iron,  com- 
bines readily  with  gold,  copper,  or  lead.  Alloys  are 
generally  harder  and  less  ductile  than  the  mean  ol' 
their  constituents,  and  their  specific  gravity  is  usu- 
ally either  greater  or  less  than  this  mean.  (See  Ta- 
ble. )  The  melting-point  of  alloys  is  usually  below 
that  of  either  of  the  simjile  metals  composing  them  ; 
thus,  an  alloy  of  8  parts  bismuth,  5  lead,  and 
3  tin,  fuses  at  the  heat  of  boiling  water,  or  212°. 
See  Fusible  Alloys. 

They  very  frequently  possess  more  tenacity  than 
their  constituents  would  seem  to  indicate  ;  thus 
an  alloy  of  12  parts  lead  and  1  part  zinc  has 
double  the  tenacity  of  the  latter  metal,  or  about  six 
times  that  of  lead. 

They  are,  in  general,  more  easily  oxidized  than 
their  component  metals.  An  alloy  of  tin  and  lead 
unites  with  oxygen  so  readily  as  to  take  fire  and 
bum  when  heated  to  redness. 

A  very  slight  modiSation  of  the  components  of- 
ten produces  a  great  change  in  the  mechanical  prop- 
erties ;  brass,  containing  two  or  three  per  cent  of 
lead,  is  most  readily  turned,  but  works  badly  under 
the  hammer,  while  that  of  the  best  quality  for  ham- 
mering is  not  turned  with  facility,  owing  to  its 
toughness. 

The  precious  metals,  when  employed  for  coin  or 
jewelry,  are  invariably  alloyed  to  increase  their 
hardness  ;  the  degree  nf  finenes.s,  or  proportion  of 
pure  metal,  being  usually  estimated  in  carats  or 
twenty-fourths.       In  this  case  the  term  ' '  aUoj  "  >s 


often  understood  to  apply  merely  to  the  baser  metal 
with  which  the  gold  or  silver  is  combined.  Thus 
the  British  standard  for  gold  is  22  parts  pure  gold 
and  2  parts  alloy,  or  22  carats  fine  ;  for  silver,  222 
parts  pure  silver  and  18  parts  alloy. 

The  alloy  for  gold  is  an  indefinite  proportion  of 
silver  and  copper  ;  that  for  silver  is  ahvaj's  copper. 
The  standard  for  silver  plate  is  the  same  as  foi'  coin  ; 
that  for  jeweler's  gold  is  18  carats,  but  I'or  some  pur- 
poses the  fineness  is  reduced  to  12  and  even  9 
carats  ;  silver  is  used  for  the  alloy,  and  copper  may 
be  added  to  heighten  the  color. 

Silver  and  palladium  unite  in  any  proportions,  and 
it  has  been  found  that  this  alloy  is  not  so  readily 
tarnished  as  silver  ;  it  has  been  used  for  the  gi'adu- 
ated  scales  of  mathematical  instruments.  Platinum 
has  been  used  with  silver  for  similar  purposes,  but 
requires  greater  care  in  fusion  to  make  the  combina- 
tion. 

Steel  is  much  improved  for  cutlery  by  being  al- 
loyed with  about  jj^  part  of  silver  ;  it  is  a'so  im- 
proved by  5^  part  of  platinum. 

From  one  to  two  per  cent  of  rhodium  has  also 
been  combined  ^^ith  steel,  with  excellent  results. 

BRASSES  AXD   BRONZES   WITH    THE   ADDITION"   OF 
IKON. 


1 

u 

o 

c 

•6 

"3 

1 

J_ 

1 

J 

.a 

55 

Ancient  Bronze  Sword, 

Ireland 

83  JO 

515 

3.0 

S.35 

Ancient  Kronze  Sword, 

Thames,  England     . 

89.69 

9.58 

0.33 

Ancient    Bronze    Ase- 

head,  Ireland   . 

89.33 

9.19 

0.33 

Ancient  Bronze  Wedge, 

Ireland 

94. 

5.9 

0.1 

Ancient  Bronze  Knife, 

Amaro,  South  Amer- 

ica    .... 

9.5.66 

3.96 

0.37 

Coin  of  Hadrian 

8.5.67 

1.14 

10.85 

.74 

1.73 

*'      "  Tacitus    . 

91.46 

2. .31 

"     *'  Probus 

90.68 

2.00 

1.39 

.61 

2.33 

2  29 

94.65 

.45 

.80 

.45 

3  22 

"     "  Pompey 

74.17 

8.47 

.29 

16.65 

ChiQe.«e  Whit*  Copper 

( Packfong) 

40.4 

25.4 

2.6 

31.6 

Keirs    Metal,    English 
Patent,  Dec.  10,1779100. 

78. 

10. 

1 

Keirs    Metal,    English 

o 

Patent  (another  for- 



mula) 

100. 

80. 

10. 

40. 

Tractable  Yellow  Metal 

(old  formula)    . 

55.33 

41.8 

4.06 

Font;tinemore-iu*p  Eng- 

lish Patent,  18:38      . 

8. 

90. 

1. 

Cutler's   EngU.-^h   Pat- 

ent, IPS'* 

16. 

5. 

3. 

.5 

Sorei's    White    Bra.'^s, 

\m). 

10. 

,80. 

10. 

Parke's    English    Pa^ 

ent,  1S44 

91. 

21. 

45.5 

45.5 

Parke's    Enjrli>=h    Pat- 

1 

ent     (anotner     for- 

1 

mula) 

45 

128.     67. 

2.5 

Parke's    English    Pat- 

1 

ent      (another     for- 

1 

mula) 

3. 

48. 

50. 

1. 

Stirling's  Gun -Metal, 

bb 

English  Patent,  1846 

50. 

25. 

1-8 

p 

e9 

Stirling's         "  British 

s 

Gold,"  English  Pat- 

ent, 1846 

400. 

93. 

7. 

6. 

Bell-Metal  (Overman) . 

71. 

26. 

2. 

1. 

Aich's  Metal,  English 

Patent,  Feb.  .3.  I860 

60. 

38.125 

1.5 

Rosthom's  Gun-Metal, 

Austria,  1861    . 

55.04 

083 

42.36 

1.77 

Rosthom's    Gun-Metal 

(another  analysis)    . 

57.63 

0.15 

40  22 

1.86 

Xavy  Brass,  Au.*;tria 

60. 

38.12 

1.8 

Parisian  Clock  Bells    . 

72. 

26.6 

1.5 

Birkholz  Metal,  United 

States   Patent,  Mar. 

11,1862    . 

60. 

38. 

2. 

ALLOY. 


62 


ALLOY. 


An  English  work  of  1853  cites  tlip  aJilition  of 
one  to  two  per  cent  of  iron  to  brass  to  give  strength 
arcl  sonorousness;  and  furtlier  slates  th:it  "large 
guns,  large  screws,  propeller-vanes,  niill-hiTisses, 
raihv:iy-bearings,  bells,  and  other  articles  are  made 
of  a  metal  in  which  copper,  zinc,  tin,  and  iron,  all 
tal<e  part." 

(Brasf.)  The  alloys  of  copp<'r  and  zinc  retain 
their  malleability  and  ductility  when  the  zinc  is 
not  above  thirty-three  to  forty  Jier  cent  of  the  alloy. 
When  the  zinc  is  in  excess  of  this  a  crystalline 
character  begins  to  prevail.  An  alloy  of  1  copper, 
2  zinc,  may  hi^  crumbled  in  a  mortar  when  cold. 

Yellow  brass,  that  tiles  and  tuins  well,  may  con- 
sist of  copper  3'2,  zinc  9  to  18.  A  greater  propor- 
tion of  zinc  makes  it  harder  and  less  tractable  ;  with 
less  zinc,  it  is  more  tenacious  and  hangs  to  the  file 
like  copper. 

Yellow  brass  (copper  2,  zinc  1)  is  hardened  by 
the  addition  of  two  to  three  per  cent  of  tin,  or  made 
more  malleable  by' the  same  proportion  of  lead.  The 
tin  whitens  it ;  the  l"ad  reddens  it.     See  Bl!A.s.s. 

{-Bronze.)  A  compound  of  copper  and  tin.  The 
addition  of  tin  increases  the  fusibility  of  copper. 
Tlie  red  color  is  not  materially  atl'eeted  by  the 
addition  of  5  parts  tin  to  32  copper,  which  makes 
engineer's  brasses  ;  it. is  considerably  wliitened  when 
32  cop])er  is  alloyed  with  12  tin,  this  being  the  limit 
of  bell-metal  ;  and  is  quite  white  when  32  copper, 
16  tin,  is  reached,  this  being  speculum  metal.  When 
it  has  ceased  to  serve  for  producing  sound  it  is 
used  for  reflecting  light. 

A  small  addition  of  zinc  to  a  bronze  alloy  assists 
in  the  mi.xing,  and  increase's  the  malleability  without 
materially  affecting  the  haidness.  Lead  increases 
the  ductility  of  gun-metal,  at  the  expense  of  its 
hardness  and  color.  Jlr.  Donl.in  jiroposes  the 
addition  of  nickel.  Dr.  L're  suggests  antimony. 
The  addition  of  from  two  to  four  per  cent  of  iron  to 
■  the  gun-metal  is  claimed  to  make  an  extremely 
tough  alloy.     See  Gux-met.\l  ;  Bronze. 

Sir  J.  Gardiner  AVilkinson  mentions  finding  a 
bronze  chisel  among  the  chippir.gs  of  the  limestone 
rocks  in  the  neighborhood  of  Thebes,  where  it  had 
been  accidentally  left  by  tlie  workmen  in  ancient 
times.  It  is  9J  inches  in  length,  diameter  at  the 
summit  1  inch,  and  weigh.^  1  lb.  12  oz. 

FUSIBLE  ALLOYS  {Ctimpositimi  of). 


1 

1 

i 

i 

Melting- 

t 

'S 

c 

.1 

■s 

point. 

H 

1 

1 

2 

.   Q 

Roise's 

201°  F. 

Newton's 

6 

3 

8 

212 

Newton's  (anotlier  for- 

mnla)  . 

3 

2 

b 

199 

French 

1 

fi 

4 

H 

Woods    . 

1 

3 

1 

210 

Wood's 

6 

i 

1 

180 

Wood's    Patent  (March 

20, 1S60) 

4 

2 

■|'-8 

1-2   150-160 

Wood's  Patent  for  filling 

1 

teeth  (Sept.  4, 1864) 

1-2 

2-3 

3-4 

I-2I 

KUPFFERS  TABLE  OF  FUSIBLE   ALLOTS, - 
PROPOBTXONS. 


Lead. 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 


Tin. 
5 
4 
3 
% 
1 


Melting-point. 
381  °  F. 
372 
3G7 
385 
466 
552 


Holtzapff'el's  list  is  as  follows  :  — 

Tin.         Lead.       Bismuth.      Mercury.    Melting-point 

553 'F. 
541 
511 
482 
441 
370 
334 
340 
3tG 
365 
tli 
381 
3-iO 
310 
•292 
254 
236 
202 
3  122 

According  to  a  table  arranged  by  Professor  P.  H. 
Vaniler  Weyde,  the  fusion  points  of  the  under- 
mi  ntioned  alloys  are  as  follows  :  — 

Bismuth.        Tin.        Lead.        Mercury.     Melting-point. 


1 

25 

1 

10 

1 

0 

1 

3 

1 

2 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

4 

1 

3 

3 

1 

2 

2 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

2 

2 

5 

3 

3 

5 

3 

3 

1 


Pure  tin     . 
Pure  bismuth 
Pure  lead 


167° 

185 

203 

257 

284 

329 

338 

4'28 

500 

617 


A  more  extended  table  of  the  fusible  points  of 
the  ordinary  triple  a'.loys  is  given  in  the  Bulletin 
de  In  Societe  Chiinjquc  :  — 


Lead 

Tin. 

ri  muth. 

Point  of 
Fusion. 

Point  of 
Solidification 

icn 

140 

120 

130  °  C. 

112°  C 

145 

145 

100 

140 

129 

1.50 

150 

75 

150 

135 

150 

150 

50 

160 

150 

170 

ISO 

35 

170 

163 

210 

190 

30 

180 

165 

140 

155 

30 

190 

180 

200 

185 

30 

200 

180 

200 

180 

30 

210 

180 

240 

150 

30 

220 

180 

207 

194 

30 

180 

180 

The  Egyptians  soldered  with  lead  as  long  ago  as 
the  time  of  Thothmes,  B.  C.  1490,  the  time  oi 
Moses.  Pliny  lefers  to  the  art,  and  says  it  re(piires 
the  addition  of  tin  for  use  as  a  solder.  The  tin 
came  mainly  from  the  C'assiterides  (Cornwall). 


Gold  Allots. 

Gold. 
18-carat  gold  of  yellow  tint  .  360 
18-cai-at  gold  of  red  tint         .  360 

16-caratgold  ....  36 
16-cai-at  gold  nearly  (yellow  tint)  20 
16-carat  gold  nearly  (red  tint)  20 

11-camt  gold  nearly  .         .       20 

Gold  solders  are  made  from  gold  of  the  qiuility  of 
the  article,  say  18  or  16  carats,  to  which  is  added 


Silver. 
66 
42 


11 


Copper. 
54 
78 
12 

5 

8 
11 


ALLOY. 


63 


ALLOY. 


JL  of  silver  and  one  ^  of  copper  ;  or  a  larger 
proportion  of  silver  and  copjier  for  ware  of  inferior 
fineness. 

jeweler's  alloys. 


. 


Blanched  Copper  (Mock  Silver) 

Imitation  Gold  (Hemistadt's) ; 
i,t'iis  resiembles  gold  in  color 
and  specific  gravity)  . 

SeUiilor       .... 

MLinheim  Gold 

or     ...        . 

Mo'iaic  Gold  (Hamilton  and 
Parker's  Patent)    . 

Piitclibeck     .... 

3Io«  k  Platinum 

b.itii  Metal     .... 

Very  hard  Bronze  (Chanttey's) 

Speculum  Metal    . 


Martin's  Patent,  Aug.  23, 185» 

Or  Molu 

Touibac  (Malay,  tambaga,  cop- 
per)      

Red  Tomhac 

Mock  Silver  (Toucas's  Patent, 
1856,  England) 


16 


5'  1 


16 


16 


1:^ 
ll    1     4 


S    B 

0,     '^ 


a 


Mock  Gold  (Hackert's,  patented  June  11, 1867),  cream  of  tartar, 
8  oz.  :  saltpeter,  loz  ;  melt,  and  add  melted  copper,  8  oz.  ; 
borax,  1  oz. ;  zinc,  1  oz. ;  tutty,  1  oz. 


SOLDERS  {Composition  of). 


its,  compensates  for  the  contraction,  causing  the 
alloy  to  retain  the  full  size  of  the  mold,  making  the 
letters  sharp. 

Sometimes,  from  motives  of  economy,  the  neigh- 
boring parts  of  machinery  are  not  wrought  ac- 
curately to  correspond  one  with  the  other,  but  metal 
is  jioured  in  to  fill  up  the  intermediate  space  and 
make  contact.  Antimony  is  an  essential  addition 
in  such  cases  to  prevent  the  contraction  the  lead 
alone  would  sustain,  and  which  would  defeat  the  in- 
tended object,  as  the  metal  would  otherwise  become 
smaller  than  the  space  to  be  filled. 

WHITE    MET.iL    ALLOYS. 


1. 

X 

1            1 
1  ii  . 

2 

|Sc 

1 

b 

I  ii 

C5 

M    O    t.    N 

1 

- 

a    E  =• 

Pewterer's        .... 

2 

360° 

Penterer's,  soft     . 

3 
2 

4 

1 

2 
1 

; 

Tinman's       .... 

1 

1 

393 

Coarpe 

1 

3 

500 

Plumbers'     .... 

1 

2 

475 

Hard  Spelter     .... 

16 

12 

18(.9 

Gold* 

la 

•i    4 

For  Brazing  Steel     . 

1»    I 

2 

H  irdest  Silver 

4    1 

Hard  Si'ver       .... 

3 

I 

Soft  Silver 

•i 

1 

For  Aluminium  (Starr's,  Mar.  10, 

l»i8)  .... 

2 

2    1 

2 

*  Various  proportions  are  employed,  according  to  the  fine- 
ness of  the  article,  so  a=  not  to  risk  the  test  of  assay. 

TYPE-MKTAL  {Composition  of). 


,For  the  smallest  and  most  brittle 

i     types 

For  tho?e  a  grade  softer     . 

medium  sized  types 

large  types  .... 

largest  and  softest  types 

stereotype  plates 

"             "      new  recipe  . 
Besley's  patent  type-metal  (1855, 
England) 


100 


3oo: 

2018 


5'i 
.11 


226 


From  four  to  six  per  cent  of  tin  is  used  in  the 
smaller  tj'pes,  and  sometimes  a  small  amount  of 
*;opper. 

In  this  alloy  the  antimony  fulfils  another  service 
besides  imparting  hardness.  Antimony  expands 
somewhat  in  cooling,  whereas  lead  contracts  consid- 
erably ;  the  antimony  therefore,  within  certain  lim- 


Speculum  Metal 

Pewter 

Hard  Pewter 

Best  Pewter 

Pewterer's  "  Temper 

Pot  Metal  (used  also  for 
faucets) 

Shot  Metal 

Cowper's  alloy  for  turn 
ing  in  the  rose  em^ine 
for  subsequent  print- 
ing as  letterpress  . 

Biddery  ^Vare 

Britannia  Metal 

Britannia  Metal  (an- 
iit'.icr  formula)       .     I 

Britannia  Metal  (Lard-j 
ner's)     ,         .         . 

Britannia  Metal  (Over- 
man)    .        ■        . 

German  Tutinia  .        | 

Spanish        "  .     i 

Queen's  Metal 

Queen's  Metal  (anoth-| 
er  formula )         .         I 

Parisian  White  Metal 

Common  Albata  or  (Jer^ 
man  Silver    .         .     ] 

Best  Albata  or  German 
Silver 

White  Copper  or  Tute- 
nag        .         .         . 

Packfong  (Chinese! 

Packfong  ( m<  re  mallea- 
ble) 

Packfong 

German  Silver  (finest 
quality) 

German  Silver  (for  roll- 
ing)    . 

German  Silver  (for  cast- 
ing)   ... 

German  Silver  (original  | 
formula)     .        .         | 

German  White  Copper 


t 

6 

a 

i 

a 

o 

-H 

'c 

V. 

6 
4 

1 

1 

2 

4 

112 

4 

192 

100 

2 

3 

2 

IG 
1 

1 

16 

17 

1 

10 

6-8 
66 

1 

16 

1 

2 
2 
1 

4 

128 

4 

2 

4 

8 

392 

28 

J 

3 
1 

88 
48 
24 

1 

1 

7 
4 
2 

1 

1 

4 
69.8 

100 

• 

6.5 

S 

^ 

16 

£0 

8-10 

2.6 

50 
40.4 

31 
25.4 

5 
53.39 

7 
13 

1 

2 

20 

60 

j20 

60 

20 

25 
88 

40 

i 

3 

1 

3  1 

z     a 


! 


117.48 
1 

I" 
20 

32 


Special  Formulas. 

A  metal  that  expands  in  cooling  ;  useful  in  filling 
defects  in  iron  castings  :  — 

Lead  .  .  .9 
Antimony  .  .  2 
Bismuth  .         .    1 


Babbitt  metal  :  — 

Copper  .         .         1 

Eegulus  of  Antimony     1 
Tin  ...    10 


Melt  the  copper  first,  then  the  antimony,  then  the 
tin,  strewing  charcoal-powder  over  the  crucible  to 


ALLOY. 


64 


ALLOY. 


prevent  it  from  burning  away.  Last  it  in  b.ns.  It 
should  not  be  kept  hot  on  the  fire  any  longer  than 
is  absolutely  essential.  Wash  the  box  to  be  tinned 
with  .'diohol,  and  then  sprinkle  jiowdered  sal-annno- 
liiiiL'  on  it  ;  hold  it  over  the  Hre  until  the  same  fuses, 
then  plunge  it  in  melted  tin.  All  jiarts  not  to  be 
tinned  nuist  be  washed  with  clay.  Muriate  of  zinc, 
that  is,  zinc  cut  with  muriatic  acid,  may  be  em- 
ployed instead  of  the  ammoniac,  where  it  can  ba 
obtained.  AVhen  the  bo.K  is  tinned  it  will  take  the 
Babbitt,  but  it  must  be  pretty  hot  before  the  liab- 
bitt  is  poured  in. 

Babbitt's  English  Patent  gives  the  proportions  :  — 

Tin        ...     50 

Antimony  .         .  5 

Copper  ...       1 


BiRKHOLz's  metal  :  — 

Cast-iron  .         .     2  lbs. 

Charcoal       .         .  2  oz. 

are  heated  in  a  crucible  to  a  white  heat  ;  add  thereto 

Copper     .         .         .60  lbs. 
Heat  till  both  are  melted  together,  then  add 

Borax     .  .         .     4  oz. 

Zinc      ...       38  lbs. 
making  100  pounds  of  the  composition. 

These  are  the  materials  and  almost  exactly  the 
proportions  of  the  Austrian  Navy  gun-metal.  See 
Bronzes  and  Brasses  with  the  Addition  of 
Iron  (p.  61).  

Dinsman'.s  metal  for  journal-boxes,  patented  Feb- 
ruaiy  27,  1866  :  — 

Copper       .         .         .  1  lb. 

Glass      .         .         .  4  oz. 

Borax         .         .         .  1  oz. 

PrussiSte  of  Potash  A  oz. 

Lead .         .         .         .  8  oz. 

In  his  patent  of  October  15,  1867,  1  oz.  of  tin  is 
substituted  for  the  8  oz.  of  lead. 


An  alloy  of 

Silver      ...     80 

Platinum      .         .         20 

resists  the  tarnishing  action  of  sulphur. 


Barox  Wetterstedt's  alloy   for  sheathing  for 
ships : — 

Lead       .         .         .100 
Antimony  .         .  3 


Kennelly's  patent,  March  31,  1863.     For  horse- 
shoes :  — 

American  Charcoal  Iron      30  lbs. 
Bone-dust         .  .  .     4  oz. 

Manganese  .  .  .  2  " 
Feirocyanide  of  Potash  .  1  " 
Hematite  .  .  .  1  " 
Wolfram  .         .         .     7    " 

melted  and  cast  in  molds  of  the  required  shape. 


Alloy  for  organ-pipes  :  - 
Lead 
Tin     . 


50 
25 


Bi-rton's  patent,  February  12,  1867.      For  plow- 
shares :  — 

Copper  .  .  .14 
Tin  ...  14 
Zinc  ...  77 
Antimony  .        .  3 

Lead      ...       1 


JoHN.STOx's  patent,  November  26,  1867.  Foi 
dental  uses  :  — 

Sodium  or  potassium,  or  an  amalgam  of  either, 
is  added  to  mercury  to  facilitate  its  union  with  sil- 
ver, tin,  cadmium,  platinum,  etc. 


Brander's    patent,    February    12,    1867.        For 
roofing  :  — 

Lead       ...     75 

Zinc  .          .         .         25 
are  made  into  an  in^ot,  coated  with  pure  tin,  and 
rolled.  

Brayton's  patent,    August   6,    1867.      For  eye- 
lets : — 

Tin.         .         .         .4 
Zinc      ...         1 


Taylor's  patent,  January  8,  1867.      For  sabots 
of  projectiles  :  — 

Lead         .         .         .4 

Tin       ...         1 
for   moderate    charges.     The    tin    is    increased   for 
heavier  charges  and  projectiles  to  the  extent  of 

Lead     .         .         .     120 

Tin  .         .         .  78 

With  projectiles  of  300  lbs.  and  o\'er,   3  lbs.  of 
cupper  are  added  to  the  alloy  for  a  sabot. 


Two  new  alloys  of  tin  and  lead  are  described  in 
a  recent  French  publication.  While  containing  less 
tin  than  is  used  in  common  pewter,  they  are  said 
to  possess  most  of  its  advantages.  They  are  not 
acted  \-pun  by  vinegar,  sour  wine,  or  salt-water.  The 
first  is  made  by  melting  1  part  of  tin  with  2.4  parts 
of  lead.  The  lead  is  lirst  melted  and  skimmed,  then 
the  tin  is  added,  and  the  mixture  is  stiired  continu- 
ally with  a  wooden  stick  until  it  begins  to  cool,  to 
pn'vent  the  lead  from  settling  to  the  bottom. 
This  mixture  has  the  density  of  9.64,  end  its 
melting-point  is  320°  Fab.  It  may  be  rolled 
cold,  and  the  jdates  do  not  crackle  when  bent.  It 
takes  a  very  good  polish,  and  tarnishes  Init  little  on 
exposure.  It  will  mark  ])a]>er  like  lead,  and  is  so 
soft  that  it  may  be  scratched  with  the  nail,  but  it 
will  not  foul  a  saw  or  file. 

The  second  alloy  is  made  by  melting  together  in 
the  same  way  1  ]iart  of  tin  with  1.25  ]iarts  of  lead. 
This  alloy  is  less  clastic  and  harder  than  the  fore- 
going. It  is  rather  brittle,  less  malleable  than  the 
former,  and  fills  up  a  file.  Neither  of  these  alloys 
was  acted  on  by  boiling  with  acetic  acid  lor  half  an 
hour,  and  standing  in  tlie  acid  for  twcnty-lour  hours 
longer,  nor  had  salt-water  any  action  upon  them  : 
hence  they  may  be  useful  for  some  kinds  of 
utensils. 


VIGOUROUX  S   ALLOY    FOR    EEER-TArS. 


For  the  body  . 
"     •'    key 
Or  . 


Tin. 


785 
807 
715 


Antimony.        Nickel. 


195 
176 
216 


20 

18         I 
70 i 


Cock-metal  is  an  alloy  of  copper  and  of  lead  for 
faucets.  

Metallic  injection  for  anatomical  preparations  :  — 
Bisnmth   .         .         .1 
Lead     ...  1 

Tin  ...      1 

with  the  addition  of  a  small  amount  of  mercury. 


ALLOY. 


GS 


ALLOY. 


H.i.CKBitT's  patent,    May   17 
ind  hardware  :  — 

Copper 
Arsenic 
Cream  of  Tartar 


lS6i.     For   knobs 

.     3 

3 

.     2 


Pfeiffer's  patent,  August  14,  1S66  :  — 
Lead  ...     98 

Copper     ...  1 

-Tii  .         .         .       S 

Antimony         .         .  J 

Bismuth      .         .         .       i 


Hood's  alloy  for  ship's  bolts  (England,  1844)  :-■ 
(Topper        .         .         .40.4 
Zinc       ...  3.8 

Lead  .         .         -    16.5 

Antimony       .         .  5.1 


STRrBiXG's  box  metal  for  bearings  (Engl.,  1849) : 
Zinc  .         .         .75 

Tin         .         .         .         18 
Lead  .         .         .       4i 

Antimony       .         .  24 


(Oreide.)     An  analysis  of  this  new  compound  by 
a  German  chemist  gives  the  following  :  — 
Copper      .         .         .     79.7 
Zinc      .         .         .         13.5 
Nickel      .         .         .6.09 
Iron      .         .         .  0.28 

Tin  .         .         .         .       0.09 

The  two  latter  he  regarded  as  mere  accidental 
ingiedients. 

According  to  another  formula  oreide  consists  of 
Pure  Copper      .         .     100 
Zinc  or  (preferably)  Tin   17 
Magnesia  .         .         6 

Sal-ammoniac  .  .3.6 
Quicklime  .  .  1.8 
Tartar  of  Commerce     .     9 

See  Or-eide. 


An  alloy  for  silver  com,  etc.,  upon  wliicli  experi- 
ments have  been  made  iu  France,  and  which  is  said  to 
render  the  metal  more  homogeneous  than  the  com- 
mon alloy  of  pure  copper,  less  liable  to  be  tarnished 
by  sulphureted  hydrogen,  and  wliich,  when  tough- 
ened by  continued  rolling,  may  be  restored  by  sim- 
ple heating,  is  as  follows  :  — 

Copper  ...     93 

Zinc  ...         72 

To  be  added  to  Silver     .    835 


Magee's  allov  for  moldboards  of  plows.    Septem- 
ber 9,  1871. 

Copper  ....  85 
Tin  .  .  .  .  12 
Zinc       ....     3 


Aluminium  bronze,  consisting  of  copper  90,  alumin- 
ium 10  per  cent  (Ijy  weight,  we  suppose),  lia-s  been 
stated  to  have  the  strength  of  cast-steel ;  a  state- 
ment apparently  confirmed  by  Mr.  Anderson  of  the 
Royal  Gun  Factory'  in  England,  and  by  the  experi- 
ments of  Mr.  Morin,  Xanterre,  whei-e  it  was  found 
that  the  tensile  strength  of  this  metal  is  of  5,323 
kilogrammes  to  the  square  centimeter.  At  the  same 
time  a  very  important  point  was  determined,  —  the 
transverse  strength  or  resistance  to  being  bent. 
Tliis  was  found  to  be  for  bi-ass,  2.22;  gnn-nictal, 
0.15  ;  .aluminium  bronze,  0.05.  Tli.-vt  is  to  say,  tliree 
eijual  bars  of  these  lUtferent  metals  were  fastened  at 
one  end  so  as  to  l>e  perfectly  horizontal,  a  ceitain 
5 


equal  weight  was  placed  at  the  free  end  of  each  bar, 
and  the  result  measured  by  an  instrument  for  that 
purpose.  Brass  bent  at  2.22  degrees  of  the  instru- 
ment, the  other  metals  a.s  indicated  above,  thus 
showing  the  resistance  of  aluminium  bronze  to  be  44 
times  greater  than  brass.  The  transverse  strength, 
the  resistance  to  permanent  flexion,  resistance  to 
friction,  and  the  superior  resistance  to  oxidation  dis- 
played by  this  metal,  although  the  latter  quality 
lias"  not  yet  been  accurately  detennined,  admirably 
qualify  it  for  delicate  mechanism  anil  also  for  pur- 
])0ses  Where  hardened  steel  wa.s  entirely  employed. 
The  tenacity  of  this  alloy  is  astonishing,  and  is 
hardly  equalled  by  any  other  metal  ;  it  is  more 
diflicult  to  cut  than  gold  or  brass,  but  the  cut  is 
veiy  clean  and  smooth. 

The  alloy  of  iridium  and  osmium,  called  iridos- 
minc,  is  the  hardest  of  all  alloys,  and  is  used  for 
pointing  the  Hawkins  "  Everlasting  Pen  "  (English). 

Miclon,  of  Paris,  proposes  a  new  alloy  for  the 
manufacture  of  all  metallic  articles,  —  bells,  hammers, 
anrils,  rails,  and  non-cutting  tools.  The  alloy  con- 
sists of  twenty  parts  of  iron  turnings  or  tin  waste, 
eighty  pai-ts  of  steel,  four  parts  of  manganese,  and 
four  parts  of  borax ;  but  these  proportions  may  be 
varied. 

When  it  is  desired  to  increase  the  tenacity  of  the 
alloy,  two  or  three  parts  of  wolfram  are  added. 
When  the  cupola  is  ready,  the  iron  and  steel  are 
poured  in,  then  the  manganese  and  borax,  and  the 
vessel  is  tilled  up  with  coke. 

A  nimiber  of  other  alloys  are  known  and  used, 
including  some  of  E:istcrn  origin.  The  latter  are 
generally  of  little  practical  inqiortance.    Such  are — • 

Aumm  Musivum,  same  as  Mo.saic  gold. 

Clinquant,  same  as  yellow  copper  ;  Dutch  gold. 

Caracoly,  composed  of  gold,  silver,  and  copper. 

Calin,  a  Chinese  alloy  composed  of  lead  and  tin. 

Electrum,  an  ancient  alloy  of  gold  and  silver. 

The  following  table  ati'ords  a  ready  means  for  the 
conversion  of  decimal  proportion  into  divisions  of  the 
pound  avoirdujTiois.  The  proportions  of  metals  in 
formulas  for  alloys  are  sometimes  stated  in  one  way 
and  sometimes  in  the  other. 


Dec. 
of  lb. 

02 

dr. 

Dec. 
of  lb. 

.nn.^<t 

1 

.1289 

.flIlTK 

•1 

.1328 

.0117 

3 

.1367 

.(iir)fi 

4 

.1406 

ciiai 

S 

.1446 

.n2,S4 

6 

.1484 

n?.7« 

7 

.1.523 

n.si.s 

K 

.15'32 

()Xfl. 

9 

.1601 

.0391 

10 

.1641 

04.'!n 

11 

.1680 

0469 

IX 

.1719 

n.=inR 

13 

.1758 

.0.>t7 

14 

.1797 

(KH« 

15 

.1836 

ntB.5 

0 

.1875 

()(>« 

1 

.1914 

.0703 

2 

.1953 

.0742 

a 

.1993 

n7Sl 

4 

.2(]31 

0R2() 

5 

.2070 

OiiiSt 

K 

.2109 

0898 

t 

.2148 

eft's 

« 

.2188 

.0977 

9 

.W7 

.mifi 

10 

.2266 

105.5 

11 

.2305 

109+ 

12 

.2SH 

li:« 

13 

.2.3=3 

^M•>. 

14 

.2422 

.1211 

15 

.2461 

1250 

2 

0 

.2500 

Dec. 
of  lb. 


.2539 

.2678 
.2617 
.2656 
.2695 
.2734 
.2773 
.2813 
.2862 
.2891 
.2930 
.2969 
.3(X)8 
.31147 
.3086 
.312.5 
.3164 
.3203 
.3242 
.3281 
.&320 
AS59 
.3398 
.3437 
.3476 
A516 
.3.555 

x,n 

.3633 
.3672 
.3711 
.3750 


Oi.  dr. 


Dec. 
of  lb. 


.3867 
.3906 
.3945 
384 
.4023 
.4062 
.4102 
.4141 
.41.80 
.4219 
.4258 
.4297 
.4036 
.4376 
.4414 
.4463 
.4492 
.4531 
.4570 
.4609 
.4648 
.4687 
.4727 
.4766 
.4805 
.4844 
4883 
.4922 
.4961 
.5000 


7  10 

7  11 

7  12 

7  13 

7  15 

I  8  0 


ALLOY. 


C6 


ALLOY. 


It  is  lielieved  that  alloys  are  more  perfect  when 
oompounileil  aecordin;,'  to  atomic  yvoportions,  or  by 
multiples  of  their  elieniieal  eipiivnluiits,  instead  oi' 
by  yiiliiiiies.  Tlie  eheiiiie.il  eip.iivaleiits  of  tlie  metals 
upon  the  hydrogen  .scah-,  now  mo.it  iisiially  adopted, 
are  appended  to  the  Ibllowing  list  of  metals  ;  — 


Aluminiuin(about) 

Antimony 

Arsenic 

Biiiiiiuth 

Cadmium  . 

Uohalt    . 

Copper 

Gold       . 

Iron  (wrought) 

Iron  (cast)    . 

Lead 

Manganc-5e    . 

Mercury  (boils  at) 

Nickel    . 

Palhulium 

Platinum 

Rhodium  . 

Silver     . 

Tin    . 

Zinc 


Melting- 
poiut. 


70U°I 
800 

500 

442 
25(10 
21100 
2016 
3280 
2786 

612 
2700 

670 
2500 
hardly  fusible 


Speeitic 
Gravity. 


1873' 
442 
77^ 


2.5fi 

6.712 

5.8 

9.822 

8.011 

8.03 

«.SU 

10.3 

17.6 
7.807 

11.44 
6.85 

13.5 
8.27 

113 

21,5 

11.0 

10.4 
7.28 
68 


Chemical 
Equivalents. 


(cast) 


(cast) 


13.75 

64 .6 

87  7 

71,0 

55.8 

29.5 

31.6 

199.2 
28. 
28. 

1036 
27  7 

202.0 
29.5 
53,3 
98.8 
62.2 

108.0 
57.9 
32.3 


For  a  more  comidete  list  see  Ato.mic  Weights  of 
IIetals  ;  Mei-als. 

Alloys  of  greater  Specific 


Gold  aiiTl  Zine. 
Gold  and  Tin. 
Gold  and  liismuth. 
Gold  and  Antimony. 
Gold  and  Cobalt. 
Silver  and  Zinc. 
Silver  and  Lead. 
Silver  and  Tin. 
Silver  and  P.ismuth. 
Silver  and  Antimony. 

Alloys  hariii^  a  Specific 

Gohl  and  Silver. 
GoM  and  Iron. 
Gold  and  Lead. 
Gold  anil  ('o]iper. 
Gold  and  Iridivnn. 
Gold  and  Niekel. 
Silver  and  (.'i)pper. 
Copper  and  Lead. 


Grnvit'f  than  tlie  Mtnii  of  llieir  Com- 
ponents. 

Popper  and  Zinc. 
Copper  and  Tin. 
Copper  and  Palladimn. 
Copper  ami  Hismuth. 
Copper  and  Antimany. 
Lead  .and  Bisnuitli. 
Lead  and  Antimony. 
Platinnmand  Molybdennm. 
Palladium  and  Bismtith. 

(rrm-ity  uiftrior  to  the  Mean  of  llieir 
ConMituents. 

Iron  and  Bisnnith. 
Iron  and  Antimony. 
L'on  and  Lead. 
Tin  and  Lead. 
Tin  and  Palladium. 
Tin  anil  Antiinmiy. 
Nickel  and  Arsenic. 
Zinc  and  Antimony. 


(Remarks.)  Tlie  various  propi>rtions  and  relative 
qualities  a-s  to  melting-point  and  gravity  are  col- 
lected from  a  multitude  of  sowrci.'S,  the  Ij'est  attain- 
abl(\  The  authorities,  however,  dill'er  somewhat 
widely,  and  tliis  can  only  be  acconnti'd  for  from  the 
fact  that  so  few  metals  can  be  obtained  pure.  Tlie 
dillerenccs  in  the  metals  obtained  IVom  ditferent 
localities  arc  often  unsuspected,  and  are  fully 
proven  in  the  variable  statements  of  the  cohesion  in 
the  tables  compiled  by  Muschenbrcek,  Tredgold, 
Barlow,  Bi-own,  Rumford,  Hennie,  Telford,  Bramah, 
anil  othei-s. 

Tlie  dilticulty  that  has  thus  arisen  has  caused  \Mri- 
able  statements  in  tlie  formulas  for  bell  and  ordnance 
easting,  and  has  very  c:onsiderably  alfectcd  the  e.vactt- 
ne.ss  of  statement  in  all  the  alloys,  csiiecially  the  more 
fusible  ones,  where  tile  various  combinations  of  lead, 
tin,  and  bismuth  give  such  variable  resijts. 

It  appears  to   be   scarcely  possible  to  give   any 


sufficiently  general  niles,  hy  whicli  the  properties 
of  alloys  may  be  safely  inferred  fi'om  those  of  their 
constituents  ;  for  although,  in  many  cases,  the 
woiking  cpialities  and  appearance  of  an  alloy  may 
be  nearly  a  mean  proportional  between  the  nature 
and  (jnalities  of  the  metals  composing  it,  yet  in  other 
and  fretpient  instances  the  deviations  arc  excessive,  as 
will  be  seen  by  several  of  the  examples  following. 

Thus,   when   lead,   a  soft  and  malleable  metal,  is 
combined  witli  antimony,  which  is  hard,  brittle,  and 
crystalline,   in    the  proportions   of  i'rom   twelve  to 
fifty  parts  of  Jead   to  one  of  antimony,    a   ilexible 
alloy   is   obtained,    resembling  lead,  but   somewhat 
harder,  and  which  is  rolled  into  sheets  for  slieath- 
ing  shi])s.     Six  parts  of  lead  and  one  of  antimony 
are  used  for  the   large,   soft  ininters'  types,    which 
will  bend  slightly,  but  are  considerably  liardcr  than 
the  Ibregoing  ;   and  three  jiarts  of  lead  and  one  of 
antimony  are  employed  for  the  smallest  types,  that 
are  very  hard  and  brittle,  and  will  not  bend  at  all  ; 
antimony  being  the  more  expensive  metal,  is  used 
in    the   smallest   quantity  that   will   suflice.      The 
diH'erence    in     specific     gravity    between     lead    and 
antimony  constantly  interferes,  and  unless  the  type- 
metal  is  frequently  stirred,  the  lead,  fioni  being  the 
heavier  metal,   sinks  to  the  bottom,  and   the  anti- 
mony is  disprojiortionally  used  from  the  surface.     In 
the   above   examples,    the   ditl'erences   aiising   from 
the  proportions  appear  intelligible  enough,  as,  when 
the  soft  lead  ]U'evails,  the  mixture  is  much  lilce  the 
lead  ;  and  as  the  hard,  luittle  antimony  is  increased, 
the  alloy  becomes  hardened  and  more  brittle  ;  with 
the  proportion  of  four  to  one,  the  fracture  is  neither 
reluctant  like   that  of  lead,  nor  foliated  like  anti- 
mony, but  assumes  very  nearly  the  grain  and  color 
of  some  kinds  of  steel  and  cast-iron.     In  like  man- 
ner, wlien  the  tin  and  lead  are  alloyed,  the  former 
metal  imparts  to  the  mixture  some  of  its  hardness, 
whiteness,  and  fusibility,  in  proportion  to  its  quan- 
tity, as  seen  in  the  various  rpialities  of  pcHter,  in 
which,  however,  copper  and  sometimes  zinc  or  anti- 
mony are  found.     The  same  agreement  is  not  always 
met  with  ;  as  nine  jiarts  of  copper,  which  is  red,  and 
one  part  of  tin,  which  is  white,  both  very  .malleable 
and   ductile  metals,   make   the  tough,    rigid   metal 
used  in  brass    ordnance,   from  which  it  oljtains  its 
modern  name  of  gun-metal,  but  which  neitlier  admits 
of  rolling  nor  drawing  into  wire  ;  the  same  alloy  is 
described  by  Pliny  as  the  soft  bronze  of  his  day. 
The  continual  addition  of  the  tin,  the  softer  wc/i'i/, 
]ii'oduccs  a  gradual  increase  of  hardness  in  the  mix- 
ture ;  with  about  one  sixth  of  tin  the  alloy  assumes 
its  maximum  hardness  consistent  with  its  application 
to  mechanical  uses  ;  with  one  fourth  to  one  third  tin 
it  becomes  highly  elastic  and  sonorous,  and  its  brit- 
tleness  rather  than  its  hardness  is  greatly  increased. 
When  the  cojiper  becomes  two  ]iarts,  and  the  tin 
one  jiart,  the  alloy  is  so  hard  as  not  to  admit  of  be- 
ing cut  with  steel  tools,  but  crumbles  under  their  ac- 
tion ;  when  struck  with  a  hammer,  or  even  suddenly 
warmed,  it    Hies    in    pieces    like    glass,    and    clearly 
shows  a  structure  highly  crystalline,  instead  of  mal- 
leable.    The  alloy  has  no  trace  of  the  red  color  of 
the  cop])er,  but  it  is  quite  white,  suscejitible  of  an 
exquisite  polish,  and,  being  little  disposed  to  tarnish, 
it  is  most  perfectly  adapted  to  the  reflecting  specu- 
lums  of  telescopes  and  other  instruments,  for  which 
purpose  it  is  alone  used. 

Copper,  when  coniliined  in  the  same  proportions 
with  a  tlill'erent  metal,  also  light-colored  and  fusi- 
ble, namely,  two  parts  of  cop]ier  with  one  of  zinc 
(which  latter  metal  is  of  a  bluish-white,  and  crys- 
talline, wliereas  tin  is  very  ductile),  makes  an  alloy 
of    entirely    oiiposite    character    to    the    speculum 


ALLOY. 


67 


ALLOY. 


metal ;  name!)-,  the  soft  j-ellow  brass,  which  be- 
comes by  hammei-ing  very  elastic  and  ductile,  aud 
is  very  easily  cut  and  tiled. 

Again,  the  same  proportions  —  namelj',  two  parts 
of  copper  and  one  of  lead  —  make  a  connnon  infeiior 
metal,  called  jiot-metal,  or  cock -metal,  from  its 
employment  in  those  respective  articles.  This  alloy 
is  much  softer  than  brass,  and  hardly  possesses 
malleability ;  when,  for  example,  the  beer-tap  is 
driven  into  the  cask,  immediately  after  it  has  been 
scalded,  the  blow  occasionally  breaks  it  in  pieces, 
fiom  its  reduced  cohesion. 

Another  proof  of  tlie  inferior  attachment  of  the 
copper  and  lead  exists  in  the  fact  that,  if  the  molds 
are  opened  before  the  castings  are  almcst  cold 
enough  to  be  handled,  the  lead  will  ooze  out,  and 
appear  on  the  surliice  in  globules.  This  also  occure 
to  a  less  extent  in  gun-metal,  which  shouhl  not  on 
that  account  be  too  rapidly  exposed  to  tlie  air  ;  or 
the  tin  strikes  to  the  surface,  as  it  is  called,  and 
makes  it  particularly  hard  at  those  parts,  from  the 
proportional  increase  of  the  tin.  In  casting  large 
masses  of  gun-metal,  it  frequently  happens  that 
little  hard  lumps,  consisting  of  nearly  half  tin,  work 
up  to  the  surface  of  the  runners,  or  pouring-places, 
during  tlie  time  the  metal  is  cooling. 

In  brass  this  separation  scarcely  happens,  and 
these  molds  may  be  opened  whilst  the  castings  are 
red-hot  without  such  occurrence  ;  from  which  it 
appears  that  the  copper  and  zinc  are  in  more  per- 
fect chemical  union  than  the  alloys  of  copper  with 
tin  and  with  lead. 

The  malleability  and  ductility  of  alloys  are  in  a 
gi-eat  measure  referable  to  the  degrees  in  which  the 
metals  of  which  they  are  respectively  composed 
possess  these  characters. 

Lead  and  tin  are  malleable,  flexible,  ductile,  and 
inelastic  whilst  cold,  but  when  tlieir  temperatures 
much  exceed  about  half-way  toward  their  melting- 
heats,  they  are  exceedingly  brittle  and  tender, 
owing  to  their  reduced  cohesion. 

The  alloys  of  lead  and  tin  partake  of  the  general 
nature  of  these  two  metals  ;  they  are  flexible  when 
they  are  cold,  even  with  certain  additions  of  the 
brittle  metals,  antimony  and  bismuth,  or  of  the 
fluid  metal,  mercury  ;  but  they  crumble  with  a  small 
elevation  of  temperature,  as  these  alloys  melt  at  a 
lower  degree  than  either  of  their  components,  to  wljich 
circumstance  we  are  indebted  for  the  tin  solders. 

Zinc,  when  cast  in  thin  cakes,  is  somewhat  brittle 
when  cold,  but  its  toughness  is  so  far  increased 
when  it  is  raised  to  about  300°  Fah.  that  its  manu- 
facture into  sheets  by  means  of  rollers  is  then 
admissible  ;  it  becomes  the  malleable  zinc,  and  ' 
retains  the  malleable  and  ductile  character  in  a 
moderate  degree,  even  when  cold,  but  in  bending 
rather  thick  plates  it  is  advisable  to  w-arm  them  to 
avoid  fracture.  When  zinc  is  remelted,  it  resumes 
its  original  crystalline  condition. 

Zinc  and  lead  will  not  combine  without  the 
assistance  of  arsenic,  unless  the  lead  is  in  very 
small  quantity  ;  the  arsenic  makes  this  and  other 
alloys  very  brittle,  and  it  is,  besides,  dangerous  to 
use.  Zinc  and  tin  make,  as  may  be  sup]K)sed, 
somewhat  liard  and  brittle  alloys,  but  none  of  the 
zinc  alloys,  except  that  with  copper  to  constitute 
brass,  are  much  used. 

Gold,  silver,  and  copper,  which  are  greatly  supe- 
rior in  strength  to  the  fusible  metals  above  named, 
may  be  forged,  either  when  red-hot  or  cold,  as  soon 
as  they  have  been  purified  from  their  eartliy  mat- 
ters and  fused  into  ingots ;  and  the  alloys  of 
gold,  silver,  and  copper  are  also  malleable,  either 
red-hot   or   cold.      Fine   or   pure    gold   and   silver 


are  but  little  used  alone  ;  the  alloy  is,  in  many  cases, 
introduced  less  with  the  view  of  depreciating  their 
value,  than  of  adding  to  their  hardness,  tenacity, 
and  ductility.  The  processes  which  the  most  severely 
test  these  qualities,  namely,  drawing  the  finest 
wires,  and  beating  gold  and  silver  leaf,  are  not  per- 
formed with  the  pure  metals,  but  gold  is  alloyed 
with  copper  for  the  red  tint,  with  silver  for  the 
green,  and  with  both  for  intennediate  shades. 
Silver  is  alloyed  with  copper  only,  and  when  the 
quantity  is  small  its  color  suH'ers  but  slightly 
from  the  addition,  although  all  its  working  qualities 
are  greatly  improved,  pure  silver  being  little  used. 

The  alloys  of  siuiilar  metals  having  been  consid- 
ered, it  only  remains  to  observe  that  when  dissimi- 
lar metals  are  combined,  as  those  of  the  two  oppo- 
site gi'oups,  namely,  the  fusible  lead,  tin,  or  zinc, 
with  the  less  fusible  copper,  gold,  or  silver,  the 
malleability  of  the  alloys,  when  cold,  is  less  than 
that  of  the  superior  metal,  and  when  heated  barely 
to  redness  they  fly  in  pieces  under  the  hannner ; 
and  therefore  brass,  gun-metal,  etc.,  when  red-hot, 
nmst  be  tieated  with  precaution  and  tenderness. 
JIuntz's  patent  metal,  wliich  is  a  species  of  brass 
and  is  rolled  red-hot,  apjiears  rather  a  contradiction 
to  this  ;  but  in  all  probability  this  alloy,  like  the 
ingots  of  cast-steel,  recjuires  at  first  a  very  nice 
attention  to'  the  force  ajqdied.  It  will  be  also 
remembi  red  the  action  of  rollers  is  more  regular  than 
that  of  the  hammer,  and  soon  gives  rise  to  the 
fibrous  character,  which,  so  far  as  it  exists  in  njetals,  » 
is  the  very  element  ol'  strength,  when  it  is  uniformly 
distributed  throughout  their  substance. 

The  strength  or  cohesion  of  the  alloys  is  in  general 
greatly  superior  to  tlnit  of  any  of  tlie  metals  of 
which  they  are  composed.  For  example,  the  relative 
weights  which  tear  asunder  a  bar  of  one  inch 
square  of  the  several  substances  stand  as  follows,  — 
all  the  numbers  being  selected  from  JIuschenbrcek's 
valuable  investigations,  so  that  it  may  be  presumed 
the  same  metahs,  and  also  the  same  means  of  trial, 
were  used  in  every  case  :  — 


AUoys. 

Cast  Metals. 

lbs. 
lOCoppcr,  lTin,32,0;i3 
8      "        1    "     3';,li.S8 
6      "        1   "     44,071 
4      "        1    "     a5,739 
2      "        1    "       1,017 
1      '•        1    "         725 

lbs. 
Barhary  Copper,     22,.'j70 
.lapHu          "            20,272 
Eiifrlish  Block  Tin,  6,l»0 
"       ••      6.322 
Banca  Tin,                3,H79 
Malacca  Tin,             3,211 

The  inspection  of  these  numbers  is  highly  con- 
clusive, and  it  shows  that  the  engineer  agrees  with 
the  theory  and  experiment  in  selecting  the  propor- 
tion six  to  one  as  the  strongest  alloy ;  and  that  the 
optician,  in  choosing  the  most  reflective  mixture, 
employs  the  weakest  but  one,  its  strength  being 
only  one  tliird  to  one  sixth  that  of  the  tin,  or  one 
twentieth  that  of  the  copper,  which  latter  constitutes 
two  thirds  its  amount. 

See  HoltzapllVl's  "  Turning  and  Mechanical 
Manipulation,"  Art.  "Alloys." 

It  is  much  to  be  regretted  that  the  valuable  labors 
of  Muschenbrrek  have  not  been  followed  up  by  other 
experiments  upon  the  alloys  in  more  general  use. 

One  curious  circumstance  will  be  observed,  how- 
ever, in  those  which  are  given,  namely,  that  in  the 
following  alloys,  which  are  the  strongest  of  their  re- 
spective groups,  the  tin  is  always  four  times  the 
quantity  of  the  other  metal  ;  aud  they  all  confirm 
the  circumstance  of  the  alloys  having  mostly  a 
greater  degree  of  cohesion  than  the  stronger  of  tlieir 
comixinent  metals. 


ALMADY. 


68 


ALTISCOPE. 


Alloys. 

Cast  Metals. 

lbs. 
4  English  Tin,  1  Load,              10,fi07 
4  Itiiiica  Tin ,     1  Antimony,    13,48IJ 
4     "        ■■        1  liisniutli,      li;,illl2 
4  Knglish  Tin,  1  Hoslar  Zinc,  111,268 
4        "        "     1  Antimony,    11,3^3 

lbs. 
Lead,                  885 
Antimony,        l,llf)0 
Zinc,                  ■2,IJS'J 
liismuth,           3,IW8 
Tin,     3,:ill  to  «,i)!;0 

For  otlirr  matter  in  i-pgai-il  to  metals,  see  Metals. 
The  varii-tie.s  of  alloys  afe  considered  under  their 
specihod  heads  as  follows  :  — 

Aich's  metal.  Oieide. 

AUiata.  Patklbiig. 

Aluniiiiinm  bronze.  Parisian    gold-colored   al- 
Argeutum  nio.saicum.  loy. 

Artiiiiourantico.  Parisian  white  metal. 

Auruin  niosaicum.  Petong. 

Babliilt  metal.  Pewter. 

Bath  metal.  Pewterer's  solder. 

Bell-metal.  Pewterer's  temper. 

Biddery  ware.  Plumber's  solder. 

Billon.  Pot-metal. 

Blanched  copper.  Queen's  metal. 

Brass.  Red  brass. 

Britannia  metal.  Red  tombac. 

Bronze.  Kosthorn's  gun-metal. 

Calin.  Sabot  metal. 

Caracoli.  Semilor. 

Climiuant.  Sheathing-metal. 

Electrum.  Shot-metal. 

•     Expanding  alloys.  Silver-solder. 

Fusible  alloys.  Soft  solder. 

German  metal.  Solder. 

German  silver.  Spanish  tutania. 

German  stei'l.  S|ieculum  metal. 

German  tutania.  Spelter  solder. 
German  white  copper.        Statuary  brass. 

Gold-solder.  Stereotype  metal. 

Gun-metal.  Tinman's  solder. 

Hard  solder.  Tonitiae. 

Imitation  gold.  Tula  metal. 

Journal-box  metal.  Tutenag. 

Manheim  gold.  Tvpe-metal. 

Minargent,  White  brass. 

Mock  gold.  White  malleable  alloy. 

Mock  platinum.  White  metals. 

Mo(dc  silvei-.  AVootz. 

Mosaic  gold.  Yellow  metal. 
Muntz's  metal. 

Al'ma-dy.    ( Vessel. )    An  African  canoe  made  of 
the  bark  of  trees. 

APman.    (Mrlitllnreiit.)    A  furnace  used  by  refin- 
ers for  .M']iaratiiig  metals.      See  Aljiond-furnace. 
Al'mond-fur'nace.     The  word  is  pi-obably  cor- 
rupted     from 
Jig- 135-  Alman    (Allc- 

viandy  Ger- 
man) furnace. 
A  furnace 
used  by  refin- 
ersfor  separat- 
ing all  kinds 
of  metals  from 
cinders,  etc. 

Al'-niond- 
peel'er.  A 
small  machine 
used  by  con- 
fectioners and 
cooks. 

Wathew's 
almond  -  peel- 
er, UctobcrSU, 


l"v     ■  N 


Wathew^s  Almond-Peeler. 


1SC6.  The  thin  peel  is  removed  from  the  scalded 
almond  kernels  by  passing  them  between  tw-o  elastic 
bands  of  India-iubber,  traversing  side  by  side  in  the 
same  direction,  at  dillerent  velocities. 

Alnmnds  came  from  Persia,  and  were  introduced 
into  England,  1570. 

Al'mu-can'ter  Staff.  An  instrument  haying  an 
arc  of  15',  fuinierly  used  to  obtain  observations  of 
the  sun's  aiM|ilitude  at  the  time  of  its  rising  and 
setting,  to  lind  the  variation  of  the  compass. 

Al-pac'a.  (Fabric.)  a.  A  cloth  in  which  the, 
wool  of  the  alpaca  (a  .s|)eeies  of  the  llama,  inhabit- 
ing Peru)  is  combined  with  wool,  silk,  or  cotton. 

b.  A  soft  dress-goods,  an  imitation  of  the  former  ; 
having  a  cotton  chain  and  woolen  filling,  plain 
color  and  highly  finished  surface. 

Al'pha-bet  Tel'e-graph.  An  apparatus  which 
marks  symljols  on  imper  by  pressure,  as  Morse's  ; 
or  by  chemical  action,  as  Bain's  ;  or  impresses  type 
on  paper,  as  House's  or  Hughes's  ;  in  contradistinc- 
tion to  one  whose  indications  are  observed  by  the 
fluctuating  position  of  a  needle  or  needles,  as  Cooke 
anil  Wheatstone's,  or  the  bell-telegraph  of  Bright. 
See  Kk.ciiudini:  Telegraph. 

Al-phon'siii.     (.S'«)v//ccfi.)      A   kind   of  bullet- 
forceiis.     Named  from  Alphonsus  Ferrier  of  Naples. 
Al'tar.     1.    The  low  ridge  which  intervenes  be- 
tween the  puddling-hearth  and  the  stack. 

2.  One  of  the  steps  at  the  side  of  a  graving-dock. 
The  steps  are  from  nine  to  sixteen  inches  in  hight, 
and  from  nine  to  fifteen  inches  wide,  except  the 
bnmil  nltiir,  wliirh  is  eighteen  inches  wide. 
Alt-az'i-muths.  See  Theodolite  ;  Tuansit. 
Al-tim'e-ter.  An  instrument  for  taking  altitudes 
geometrically,  or  for  measuring  vertical  angles,  as 
the  quadrant,  sextaat,  etp.,  or  the  vertical  limb  of 
the  theodolite. 

One  of  the  first  references  to  means  for  measuring 
height  is  in  connection  with  the  most  worthy  arti- 
ficial object  in  the  world,  then  or  now.  Thales  is 
said,  by  Plutarch,  to  have  been  in  Egypt  in  the 
reign  of  Amasis,  and  to  have  taught  the  Egj'ptians 
how  to  measure  the  height  of  the  pyramid  by  its 
shadow.  This  is  interesting  from  its  association  of 
names  and  places,  but  is  absurd  in  itself.  Thales 
went  to  Egypt  to  learn,  not  to  teach.  During  the 
reign  of  the  same  king,  Egypt  was  visited  by  Py- 
thagoras and  Anacreon,  the  friends  of  Polycrates  of 
Samos  ;  I'ythagoias,  among  other  things,  learned  to 
abominate  beans,  the  peculiar  aversion  of  the  Egyp- 
tian priests.  Egyjit  was  also  visited  about  this 
time  by  Solon  (Herodotus,  I.  30),  who  came  as  a 
student,  and  aiterwarils  introduced  some  of  the 
Egy)itian  laws  into  his  Athenian  code. 

Al-tin'car.  [.McUiJIurriii.)  A  factitious  kind  of 
salt  used  in  separating  metals. 

Al'ti-scope.  Olauk,  March  13,  1866.  This 
iin'ention  consists  of  an  arrangement  of  lenses  and 
mirrors  in  a  vertical  telescopic  tube,  by  means  of 
which  a  jierson  is  able  to  overlook  objects  inter- 
vening between  himself  and  the  object  he  desires  to 
see.  When  the  sections  of  the  tube  are  extended, 
the  view  is  received  upon  an  upper  mirror  jdaced 
at  an  angle  of  4,5°  and  reflected  thence  down  the 
tube  to  a  lower  mirror,  where  it  is  seen  by  the  ob- 
sei'ver.  The  image  is  magnified  by  lenses  inter- 
vening between  the  mirrors.  The  telescopic  tubes 
are  so  connei'ted  that  each  in  turn  acts  upon  the 
next  in  series,  as  it  conies  to  the  end  of  its  own 
range,  and  thus  the  desired  elevation  is  arrived  at. 
Tin'  means  of  extension  is  a  winch  and  cords. 

Stevens,  Jamtary  6,  1863.     This  affords  a  means - 
for  training  guns  to  a  given  angle  with  the  axis  of 
the  vessel,  or  on   an  object,   while  the  gunner  re- 


ALTITUDE  INSTRUMENTS. 


69 


ALUMINIUM. 


mains  beneath  the  gun-deck.  There  is  attached 
beneatli  the  deck  to  the  pintle  ol'  the  jiivoted  gun 
a  graduati'd  inde.x-plate,  by  which  its  huiizontal 
bearing  may  be  read.  A  telescopic  tube,  with  two 
rectangular  bends  and  witli  reflecting  mirrors  at  the 
angles,  is  so  placed  as  to  be  used  from  beneath  the 

Fig.  136. 


Sleven^s  AUiscope. 

deck  ;  two  of  these  may  be  so  situated  as  to  form  a 
base  of  sufficient  length  to  obtain,  by  simultaneous 
ob-servation,  the  distance  hy  triangulation.  Two 
screw-propellers,  working  in  contrary  directions, 
rotate  the  vessel  so  as  to  bring  the  guns  to  bear  on 
the  required  jioiut. 

The  ujiper  and  lower  limbs  of  the  telescopic  tube 
are  parallel  ;  the  one  above  deck  is  presented  towards 
the  object,  the  other  to  the  eye.  The  image  of  the 
oljject,  after  being  twice  reflected,  reaches  the  ej'e 
of  the  observer,  whose  person  is  not  exposed. 

A  portable  altiscope,  adapted  to  enable  a  person 
to  look  over  the  heads  of  a  crowd,  is  formed  of  a 
hollow  cane  with  perforations  near  its  respective 
ends,  opposite  two  reflectors  arranged  at  angles  of 
45'  in  the  cane.  The  cane  being  held  vertically,  and 
the  upper  orifice  presented  towards  the  object  to  be 
viewed,  —  a  speaker,  for  instance,  —  the  image  is  re- 
ceived upon  one  mirror  and  passes  down  the  cane  to 
the  other,  where  it  is  observed  by  the  jjerson.  Slides 
cover  the  openings  when  not  used  for  observations, 
and  the  c-.ww  lias  thi'ii  iiii  ordinary  appearance. 

Al'ti-tudelu'stru-meats.  Theodolites,  sextants, 
transit  instruments,  ami  many  othiTs  having  spe- 
cific names,  are  used  for  taking  altitudes,  while  some 

TABLE   OF   T)1E   VISIIiLE   D1ST.\XCE   OF   OBJECTS    IX 
ST.\TUTE    MILES. 


>.583 


1. 

11 

1.31 

12 

i     1-S.5 

13 

14 

2  1)2 

1.') 

2.9.3 

IG 

8.21 

17 

3  47 

IS 

1    37 

la 

1    3.93 

20 

'■    4.13 

25 

.30 

a5 

40 
45 
.50 
.55 

m 

70 
RO 
90 
100 


s 

Is 

.3-^ 

V 

a 

" 

7.1S 

1.50 

7-7G 

200 

8,3 

.300 

8.S 

400 

9  37 

.5110 

9  72 

1000 

10.14 

2000 

11,97 

.300fl 

1172 

4000 

12  43 

5000 

131 

1  mile. 

lfi.05 

1S.54 

22.7 

26^2 

29.3 

41.45 

.5Sfil 

71.79 

82  9 

92.68 

95.23 


*  For  a  statute  mile  the  curvature  =  6.99  inches. 


of  them  have  also  adju.straents  in  azimuth.  These 
are  treated  specially  imder  the  above  and  other 
titles,  and  are  also  referred  to  under  Astkono.mi- 
CAL   iNSTra'.MENT.s. 

The  uUitiide  and  azimvth  circle  is  used  for  meas- 
uring the   altitudes   and   azimuths  of  stars,  as  its 

name  implies, 
and  is  com- 
posed of  two 
gi'aduated  cir- 
cles, one  verti- 
cal and  the  oth- 
er horizontal. 

It  is  thus  of 
genei-al  appli- 
cation. 

Jean  Picard, 
the         great 
■5  French  astron- 
omer,  16  20  - 
1684,  is  said  to 
have  been   the 
fir.st    to    apply 
the  telescope  in 
the      measure- 
ments of  angles. 
Al-tom'e- 
ter.      A  name 
for  tlie  theodo- 
lite, which  see. 
AI'to-ri'H-e'vo.     The  high  relief  of  a  sculptured 
object  from  the  plane  surface  to  which  it  is  attached. 
The   degrees   of    prominence   of    the    object    are 
indicated  by  the  terms  :  — 

Alio,  or  hiqh-rclief,  when  the  object  projects 
more  than  half  its  thickness,  frecpiently  being 
attached  at  a  few  places  to  the  jilane  surface. 

Mezzo,  or  dcmi-rclirf,  less  jn'ominent,  say  one 
half  the  thickness  or  a  little  less  than  half. 

Basso,  or  low-relief,  a  slight  prominence,  as  in 
medals  and  coins. 

Al'u-del.  A  pear-shaped  receiver,  used  in  the 
Spanish  furnaces  for  suliliming  mercury. 

The  aludels  are  fitted  together  longitudinally  in  a 
row,  the  neck  of  one  fitting  into  the  bulb  of  another, 
being   luted   together   at   the  joints  with  softened 

Fig.  137. 


Mudel. 

loam.  The  mercury  condenses  in  the  aludels,  and 
gradually  works  its  way  to  the  lower  one  of  the 
series,  which  is  tapped  to  allow  the  metal  to  flow  ofl'. 

The  aludcl  funiaee  has  a  vaulted  chamber  above 
the  fuel  chamber,  aiid  in  the  former  the  blocks  of 
cinnabar  are  built  up.  The  fumes  of  the  metal 
pass  into  a  number  of  strings  of  aluekls,  and,  being 
condensed,  are  received  in  a  common  duct  which 
leads  to  a  reservoir. 

Al'u-min'i-uin.  Equivalent,  13.7  ;  symbol,  Al. ; 
specific  gravity,  2.56  cast,  2.67  hammered;  fus- 
ing-point,  1250°  Fah. 

Next  to  silica,  the  o.xide  of  aluminium  (alumina) 
forms,  in  combination,  the  most  abundant  constitu- 
ent of  the  crust  of  the  earth  (hydrated  silicate  of 
alumina,  clay). 

Common  alum  is  sulphate  of  alumina  combined 
with  another  sulphate,  as  potash,  soda,  etc.     It  is 
much  used  as  a  mordant  in  dyeing  and  calico-print- 
ing, also  in  tanning. 
I      Aluminium  is  a  shining,  white,   sonorous  metal, 


ALUlllMUM. 


70 


ALUMIKIUM. 


having  a  shade  between  silver  and  ])latininii.  It  is 
a  very  lif,'lit  metal,  being  lighter  than  glass,  and 
only  one  fonitli  as  heavy  as  silver  nf  the  same 
bulk.  It  is  veiy  malleable  and  dui'tile  ;  does  not 
oxidize  wlieii  exjio.-ed  to  njoist  or  dry  air,  is  not 
elieniieally  alleeted  by  hot  or  eold  water.  Suliihu- 
reted  liydrogen  gas,  wliieh  so  leudily  tarnishes  silver, 
forming  a  blaek  lilni  on  the  surl'aee,  has  no  aetion 
upon  tliis  metal. 

AUmiiniuin  is  of  great  value  in  niecdianieal  den- 
tistiy,  a.s,  in  addition  to  its  lightness  and  strength, 
it  is  not  all'ecfed  Ijy  the  presence  of  sulphur  in  the 
food,  —  as  by  eggs,  for  instanee. 

I)r.  Fowler,  of  Yarniouthport,  Mass.,  obtained 
patents  for  its  combination  with  vuleanite  as  ap- 
I)lied  to  dentistry  anil  other  uses,  Februaiy  7  and  14, 
IStio.  It  resists  sulphur  in  the  ]irocess  of  vulcani- 
zation in  a  manner  whieh  rendiMs  it  an  elKeient  and 
econciuiiral  substitute  for  platinum  or  g(dd. 

Aluminium  is  derived  iio)n  the  oxide,  alumina, 
whieh  is  tlu^  principal  constituent  of  common  clay. 
Lavoisier,  a  celebrated  French  chemist,  iirst  sug- 
gested the  existence  of  the  metallic  bases  of  the 
earths  and  alkalies,  which  fart  was  demonstrated 
twenty  years  thereafter  by  Sir  Humphry  Davy, 
by  elinunating  jiotassium  ami  sodium  from  their 
combinations  ;  and  afterwards  by  the  discovery  of 
the  metallic  bases  of  barytes,  strontium,  and  lime. 
The  earth  alunnna  resisting  the  aetion  of  the  vol- 
taic jiile,  and  the  other  agents  then  used  to  induce 
decomposition,  twenty  years  more  ])assed  before  the 
chluriclc  was  obtained  by  Oerstadt  by  subjecting 
alumina  to  the  action  of  jiotassium  in  a  crucible 
heated  over  a  spirit-lamp.  The  discovery  of  alumin- 
ium was  at  last  made  by  Wbhler  in  1827,  who 
succeeded  in  1S46  in  obtaining  nunute  globules  or 
beads  of  tliis  metal  by  heating  a  mixture  of  chloride 
of  aluiiiina  and  sodium.  Deville  afterwards  con- 
ducted some  experiments  in  obtaiinng  this  metal  at 
the  expense  of  Napoleon  111.,  who  subscribed 
£1,500,  and  was  rewarded  by  the  presentation  of 
two  bars  of  aluminium.  The  ]u'ocess  of  manufacture 
w^as  afterwards  so  simplilied  that  in  1857  its  piice 
at  I'aris  was  about  two  dollars  an  ounce.  It  was  at 
first  manufactured  from  common  clay,  which  contains 
about  one  fourth  its  weight  of  aluminium,  but  in  1855 
I5o.se  announced  to  the  seientilic  world  tliat  it  could 
be  obtained  from  a  material  called  "cryolite,"  found 
in  Greenland  in  large  quantitii's,  imported  into  Ger- 
many under  the  name  of  "mineral  .soda,"  and  used 
as  a  washing-soda,  and  in  the  maiuifai'ture  of  soap. 
It  consists  of  a  double  lluoride  of  alumiiuum  and 
sodium,  and  only  requires  to  be  mixed  with  an 
excess  of  sodium,  ami  heated,  when  the  7nineral 
aluminium  at  once  separates.  Its'  cost  of  manufac- 
ture is  given  in  the  following  estimate :  for  one 
ptjund  of  metal, 

16  llis.  of  cryolite  at  8  cts  per  pound  .  .  .?  1.28 
'2\  lbs.  metallic  sodium  at  about  20  cts  per  lb.  .70 
Flux  and  cost  of  reduction  .  .  .         2.02 

$4.00 

Aluminium  is  n.sed  largely  in  the  manufacture  of 
cheap  jewelry,  by  making  a  liard,  gold-colored 
alloy  with  copper,  called  aliiminiuin  bronze,  con- 
sisting of  00  per  cent  of  cojiper  and  10  Jier  cent  of 
abmnniuin.  Like  iron,  it  does  not  amalgamate 
directly  with  mi'rcury,  nor  is  it  readily  alloyed  with 
lead,  but  many  alloys  with  other  metals,  as  co]iper, 
iron,  gidd,  etc.,  have  been  maile  witli  it  and  found 
to  be  valuable  eondiinations.  One  ]iart  of  it  to  one 
hundred  parts  of  gold  gives  a  hard  malleable  alloy 
of  a  greenish-gold  color,  and  an  alloy  of  J  iron  and 


J  aluminium  does  not  oxidize  when  exposed  to  a 
moist  atmosidiere.  It  has  al.so  been  used  to  fonn  a 
nu'tallic  coating  upon  other  metals,  as  copper,  luass, 
ami  German  silver,  by  the  electro-galvanic  jiroeess. 
Copper  has  also  been  deposited,  by  the  same  jirocess, 
upon  aluminium  plates  to  facilitate  their  being 
rolled  very  thin  ;  for  unless  the  metal  be  pure,  it 
requires  to  be  annealed  at  each  passage  through  the 
rolls,  and  it  is  found  that  its  llexibility  is  greatly 
increased  by  rolling.  To  avoid  the  bluish-white 
ap]iearance.  like  zinc.  Dr.  Steven.son  JlcAdam  rcc- 
onnuends  inuuersing  the  article  nia<le  from  alumin- 
ium in  a  heated  solution  of  potash,  which  will  give  a 
beautiful  white  frosted  appearance,  like  that  of 
frosted  silver. 

F.  W.  Gerhard  obtained  a  patent  in  1856,  in 
England,  for  an  "improved  means  of  obtaining 
aluminium  metal,  and  the  adaptation  thereof  to  the 
manufacture  of  certain  useful  articles."  Powdered 
lluoride  of  aluminium  is  placed  alone  or  in  condiina- 
tion  with  other  fluorides  in  a  closed  furnace,  heated 
to  a  red  heat,  anil  exposed  to  the  action  of  hydrogen 
gas,  which  is  used  as  a  rciigent  in  the  place  of 
sodium.  A  reverberatory  furnace  is  used  by  prefer- 
ence. The  fluoride  of  aluminium  is  placed  in  shal- 
low trays  or  dishes,  each  dish  being  surroumled 
by  clean, iron  iilings  placed  in  suitable  receptacles  ; 
diy  hyilrogen  gas  is  forced  in,  and  suitable  entry 
and  exit  pijics  and  stop-cocks  are  provided.  The 
liyilrogen  gas,  combining  with  the  fluoride,  "forms 
hydro-lluoric  acid,  which  is  taken  up  by  the  iron 
and  is  thereby  converted  into  fluoride  of  iron." 
The  resulting  alunnnium  "remains  in  a  metallic 
.state  in  the  bottom  of  the  trays  containing  the 
fluoride,"  and  may  be  used  for  a  variety  of  manu- 
facturing antl  ornamental  ]nirposes. 

The  most  inqjortant  alloy  of  alunnnium  is  com- 
posed of 

Aluminium         .         .         10 
Copper  .         .         .         .00 

It  possesses  a  pale  gold  color,  a  hardness  surjmss- 
ing  that  oi'  bronze,  and  is  susceptible  of  taking  a  line 
polish.  This  alloy  has  found  a  ready  market,  and, 
if  le.ss  costly,  would  replace  red  and  yellow  brass. 
Its  liardness  and  tenacity  render  it  iieculiarly 
ada]iteil  for  jouiiuils  and  bearings.  Its  tensile 
strength  is  100,000  lbs.,  and  when  drawn  into  wire 
128,000  lbs.,  and  its  elasticity  one  half  that  of 
wrought-iron. 

tieneral  Jlorin  believes  this  alloy  to  be  a  per- 
fect chemical  combination,  as  it  exhibits,  unlike  tlie 
gun-metal,  a  most  conqdete  homogeneonsness,  its 
preiiaration  being  also  attended  by  a  great  develo])- 
ment  of  heat,  not  seen  in  the  manufacture  of  most 
other  alloys.  The  specific  gravity  of  this  bronze  is 
7.7.  It  is  malleable  and  ductile,  may  be  forged 
cold  as  well  as  hot,  but  is  not  susceptible  to  roll- 
ing ;  it  may,  however,  be  drawn  into  tubes.  It  is 
extremely  tough  and  fibrous. 

Aluminium  bronze,  when  exposed  to  the  air,  tar- 
nishes less  quickly  than  either  silver,  brass,  or  com- 
mon bronze  ;  and  less,  of  course,  than  iron  or  steel. 
The  contact  of  fatty  matters  or  the  juice  of  fruits  does 
not  result  in  the  production  of  any  soluble  metallic 
salt,  an  inuuunify  which  highly  recommends  it  for 
various  articles  for  table  use. 

The  uses  to  which  aluminium  bronze  is  applicable 
are  various.  .Sjioons,  forks,  kni\-es,  candlesticks, 
locks,  knob.s,  door  -  handles,  window  -  I'astenings, 
harness-trinnuings,  ami  pistols  arc  made  from  it ; 
also  objects  of  art,  such  as  busts,  statuettes,  vases, 
and  gi-oujis.  In  France,  aluminium  bronze  is  used 
for  the  eagles  on  military  standards,  for  armor,  for  the 


ALUMINIUM. 


71 


AMALGAMS. 


.works  of  watches,  as  also  watch-chains  and  onia- 
nients.  For  certain  parts,  sucli  as  journals  of  en- 
gines, lathe-head  boxes,  pinions,  and  running  gear, 
it  has  jiroved  itself  superior  to  all  other  metals. 

Hulot,  director  of  the  Inijierial  jostafre-stanip 
manufactory  in  Paris,  uses  it  in  the  construction  of 
a  punching-maehine.  It  is  well  known  that  the 
best  edges  of  tempered  steel  lu'come  very  ijuickly 
blunted  by  paper.  This  is  even  more  the  ease  when 
the  paper  is  coated  with  a  solution  of  gum-arabic 
and  then  dried,  as  in  the  instance  of  post.age-stamp 
sheets.  The  sheets  are  punched  by  a  machine  the 
upper  part  (head)  of  which  moves  vertically  and  is 
armed  with  300  needles  of  tempered  steel,  sharp- 
ened in  a  right  angle.  At  every  blow  of  the 
machine,  they  pass  through  holes  in  the  lower,  fi.\ed 
piece  which  correspond  with  the  needles,  and  per- 
forate five  sheets  at  every  blow.  Hulot  now  sub- 
stitutes this  piece  bv  aluminium  bronze.  Each 
machine  makes  daily  120,000  blows  or  180,000,000 
perforations,  and  it  has  Ijeen  found  that  a  cushion 
of  the  aluminium  alloy  was  unall'eeted  after  some 
months'  use,  while  one  of  brass  is  useless  after  one 
day's  work. 

ALrjIIXirM   ALLOYS. 


B 



a 

a 

3 

1 

a 

5 

o 

S 

'Z 

K 

Gold-colored  malleable 

Alloy    . 

1 

10 

Pari-iin  gold -colored 

Allov 

10.5 

89  ..3 

White  malleable  Alloy 

2 

10 

[lard  Rronze    . 

10 

90 

Non-o-\idl7,ib!e  .\llov 

25 

To 

Il.ira,  bright  (like  .sil- 

. 

ver)  .\Ilov 

100 

5 

Baiirs  Patent,  Oct.  27, 

Tung- 

18-»     . 

il  to  3 

14    15 

Nickel. 

sten. 

10 

Minargeut     . 

10 

1000 

700 
White 

"^50^ 
M,-tal 

Zinc. 

9l|l 

Farmer's  Patent,  Sept. 
6, 1S84  . 

65-80 

■  Steel. 

AL 

6A     \ 

20-35 

llo 

Farmer's  aluminium  alloys,  patent  April  28, 
1863.  Copper  is  the  first  element,  aluminium  the 
second  ;  the  other  light-colored  metals  are  added 
singly  or  collectively,  as  by  the  following  formulas, 
in  which  the  proportions  of  atoms  are  stated.  (.See 
article  Metals,  for  table  of  the  chemical  equivalents 
of  the  metals. 

-Ag.,  Argcntum, — Silver.      Al,  Aluminium. 
Cu.,  Cuprum, — Copper.       "Si.,  Nickel. 
Fe.,   Ferrum, — Iron.  Z\i.,  Zinc. 

The  four  following  formulas  produce  alloys  which, 
from  their  color  and  fineness  of  te.xture,  nearly  re- 
semble gold,  whence  they  are  termed  clnysoid,  being 
adapted  for  use  in  the  manufacture  of  watch-cases, 
chains,  and  ornamental  jewelrv  :  — 

Cu.  Al.  Ag. 

Ag. -(-24  (A1,,-fCu.„)  =  .9180-|-.0l>16-(-.0203 
Ag. -^24  (Al.,-l-Cu.,)  =  . 9241-1-. 0570 -I-. 01 88 
Ag. -1-24  (A'.,-|-Cu.,>  =. 9-330 -F.0.=)n4-F. 0166 
Ag.-h24  (Al.j-i-Cu.,)^  .9400 -(-.0450-1-. 0150 

The  three  following  formulas  produce  alloys  for 
journal-boxes,  etc.  for  machinery  :  — 

Cu.  Al.  Zn. 

Zn. -F2  (Al.,-!-Cu.„^  =  . 8643 -F. 0622 -(-.0734 
Zn. -(-2  (Al. , -I- Cu.j>  =  . 9053 -(-. 0435 -f  .0512 
Zn.  -i-  2  (Al.,  +  Cu.,.)  =  .9273  -(-  .0333  -(-  .0394 


These  alloys  are  hard  and  tenacious,  but  are  ehar- 
acteiized  by  considerable  shrinkage  in  cooling  hom 
a  molten  state,  the  last-mentioned  alloy  ha\-ing 
considerably  more  shrinkage  than  either  of  the  oth- 
ers preceding  it.  The  said  alloys  have,  when  dra«Ti 
into  wires  of  about  one  thirtieth  of  an  inch  in 
diameter,  a  tensile  strength  to  the  square  inch  of 
section  in  the  preceding  order  of  about  90,000, 
103.000,  and  84,000  lbs. 

The  following   alloys  are  adapted  for  gun-metal, 
being  hard,  tenacious,  laminable,  and  ductile. 
Cu.  Al.  Fe. 

Fe.,  -I-  (Al.,  -I-  Cu.,5)  =  .9203  -I-  .0267  -1-  .0530 
Fe.,  -(-  ( Al.,  -(-  Cu.„  )  =  .9399  -(-  .0446  -(-  .0149 

Cu.  Al.  Zn.         Fe. 

Fe.,  +  Zn.,  +  (.U.,  +  Cu.,.)  =  .SS^R  -f-  .0.W2  -f  .0712  +  .0(500 
Fe.,  -f  Zq.,  +  (Al ,  +  Cu.,:)  =  .8B61;  +  .024y  +  .0588  +  .0490 

The  tensile  strength  of  the  above  alloys  when 
reduced  to'  wire,  as  above  referred  to,  is  for  the 
srpiare  inch  of  section  about  82,000  lbs.  for  the  first 
of  the  last  series  of  formulas,  84,500  lbs.  for  the  sec- 
ond, and  107,700  lbs.  for  the  last. 

Where  zinc  or  tin,  or  botli,  enter  into  the  alloys 
in  place  of  silver,  the  color  of  the  resultant  alloys  is 
somewhat  atlected,  and  the  luster  is  diminished. 

In  the  following  alloys  nickel  fonns  the  third 
element  of  the  combination  of  the  first  formula  and 
platinum  the  third  element  of  the  combination  of 
the  second  formula. 

Cu.  Al.  Xi. 

Ni.  1-1-6    (Al.,-(-Cu„)  =  .9129 -(-.0634 -(-.0237. 

Cu.  Al.  PL 

PI.  H-21  (Al.,-(-Cu.„>  =  .9117-1-. 0656 -I-. 0225. 

Those  alloys  into  which  jilatinum  is  introduced  are 
less  aflected  by  acids  than  tho.se  in  which  silver 
takes  the  place  of  I'latinum  ;  either  the  platinum  or 
the  silver  gives  a  high  luster  to  the  alloy,  platinum 
producing  this  result  in  a  gicater  degree  than  silver. 

In  those  .alloys  in  which  are  introduced  iron  or 
other  light-colored  metals,  which  are  difficult  of 
f-i.sion,  it  is  preferable  to  bring  the  easily  fused 
metals  into  a  molten  state,  and  then  to  mix  those 
less  fusible  with  them  in  the  foim  of  shreds,  parti- 
cles, fine  wire,  or  thin  plates. 

Aluminium  and  its  alloys  are  combined  with  vul- 
canite in  the  patents  of  Fowler,  Febniary  7  and 
11,  1865. 

According  to  some  analyses,  wootz  (East  Indian 
steel)  is  alloyed  with  aluminium. 

LAXC.isTER's  (1S58,  England)  gim-metal :  copper, 
90  :  aluminium,  100. 

Al'um  Leath'er.  Leather  tanned  by  a  compo- 
sition of  alum  and  salt.  Three  pounds  ol  salt  and 
four  of  alum  are  used  to  one  hundred  and  twenty 
middle-sized  skins,  which  are  placed  in  a  tumbling- 
box  with  a  sufficient  quantity  of  water.  The  pi-oces.s 
with  the  succeeding  operations,  is  described  under 
Tawing,  which  see. 

Alum  was  used  as  a  tanning  agent  bj-  the  Sara- 
cens. 

Al've-o-lar  Por'ceps.  A  cutting-forceps  or  nip- 
pers for  gnawing  away  inotriuling  portions  of  the  al- 
veolar ridge,  to  get  a  better  base  for  a  denture,  or  to 
remove  points  which  prevent  the  healing  of  the  gums. 

Am'a  a'sa.     Pieces  of  glass  used  in  enameling. 

A-mal'gams.  An  amalgam  is  a  compound  of 
mercury  with  another  metal  or  metals.  It  dift'ers 
from  an  alloy  in  posses.sing  mercuiT  as  a  constitu- 
ent. Compounils  of  other  metals,  with  no  mercury 
included,  are  alloys,  whatever  may  be  their  com- 
parative quantities  or  complications.  Mercury  does 
not  combine  with  all  otlier  metals,  but  unites  with 
notable  readiness  with  gold,  silver,  copper,  zinc,  tin, 
lead,  palladium,  and  bismuth.    It  is  the  gieat  means 


AMALGAMS. 


i'A 


AMALGAMS. 


of  selecting  ami  aggregating  by  absorption  particles 
of  gold  anil  silver  wliieb  are  set  free  by  the  eom- 
luinutioii  of  their  niatri.\,  but  are  so  distributeil  in 
the  powder  as  to  recpiire  a  congregating  agent.  The 
quart/  rock  having  been  jiounded  or  ground  so  as 
to  reduce  it  to  powder,  loo.sening  the  limi  bond  of 
the  rock  upon  the  particles  of  metal  distributed 
through  it,  the  mercury  is  well  mixed  with  the  dust, 
water  being  added  to  form  a  pulp.  The  nu'rcury 
insinuates  itself  througliout  tin-  mass,  and  absorbs 
the  precious  metals  therein.  Being  removed  from 
the  saiul  and  dust  of  the  rock,  the  quicksilver  is  set 
free  by  sublimation,  leaving  the  non-vajiorizable 
metals  in  the  retort.  The  (juicksilver  fumes  are 
gathered  and  condensed  for  re-use. 

Pliny  says,  "  The  most  convenient  mode  of  gilding 
copiier  is  to  emiiloy  mercury,  which  is  applied  in  the 
form  of  an  amalgam  to  the  copper,  to  enable  it  to 
retain  the  gold  leaf  when  laid  thereon."  They  also 
understood  the  art  of  obtaining  mercury  by  subli- 
mation of  cinnabar,  or  by  stamiiing  and  application 
of  vinegar.  In  the  process  by  destructive  distilla- 
tion, the  cinnabar  was  placed  in  a  Hat  earthen  pan 
covered  with  a  lid  and  tlien  enclosed  in  an  iron  pot 
luted  with  clay.  Heat  being  applieil,  the  fumes  were 
conden.sed  and  collected  in  globules  on  the  lid. 

In  some  cases  the  (piicksilver  is  ]nesented  in  the 
form  of  vapors  which  condense  and  unite  with  the 
metals  to  form  an  amalgam. 

Auriferous  sands  are  subjected  to  the  same  pro- 
cess of  amalgamation  by  bringing  them  in  contact 
with  a  body  of  mercury.  The  mechanical  processes 
are  deserilvd  under  AM.\l,ii.\M.VTni:.s,  which  see. 

The  aiqilication  of  an  aunUgam  of  .sodium  and 
mercury  in  extracting  precious  metals  was  invented 
by  Wurtz  of  New  York,  and  patented  in  the  United 
States,  June  '27,  1SG5.  Crookes,  of  England,  subse- 
quently to  the  date  of  Wurtz's  application  for 
Uniteil  States  patent,  maile  apiilication  for  a  patent 
in  England  for  the  sauv  invention. 

The  extraction  of  the  ]irecious  metals  by  amal- 
gamation has  hitherto  been  much  impeded  and  its 
cost  increased  by  the  presence  in  the  ores  of  com- 
pounds of  suliiluir,  arsenic,  antimony,  bisnuith,  or 
tellurium,  which,  by  covering  the  gold  with  a  thin 
film  of  tarnish,  prevent  its  entering  into  combina- 
tion with  the  mercury.  The  use  of  .sodium  amal- 
gam, under  these  circumstances,  ii  to  prevent  the 
"sickening"  and  "flouring"  of  mercury  which  the 
presence  of  these  compounds,  and  especially  of  sul- 
phate of  iron,  is  so  apt  to  jn'oduce. 

The  olii'ial  statement  of  Wurtz's  invention  is  as 
follows  :  This  invention  consists  in  adding  to  quick- 
silver, to  be  used  in  the  amalgamation  of  gold,  silver, 
etc.,  a  small  cpiantity  of  an  amalgam  of  mercury 
and  sodium,  or  other  equivalent  metal,  as  potas- 
sium ;  by  this  addition  the  mercury  nmre  readily 
attacks  the  precious  metals.  Menaiiy  treated  in 
this  way  will  also  form  a  mercurial  film  or  coat- 
ing on  iron  or  steel,  so  as  to  form  amalganuited 
surfaces,  to  take  the  place  of  the  usual  ciq)per  plates. 
The  mercury  so  treated  is  less  liable  to  "  fiour." 

Claim.  —  First,  the  combination  with  (piick- 
silver, when  used  tor  the  extraction  by  amalgama- 
tion of  metals  from  their  ores  or  their  mixtures  with 
other  materials,  of  metallic  sodium  or  metallic,  potas- 
sium, or  any  other  highly  electro-positive  metal 
.  eipiivalent  in  its  action  thereto,  as  above  set  forth. 

Second,  in  those  amalgamations  in  which  amalga- 
mate.1  plates  of  co])per  or  other  metal  are  used,  the 
suUstitution  for  the  plates  of  cop]ier  or  other  metal  of 
iron  coated  witli  quicksilver  combined  with  sodium  or 
othi'r  highly  electro- positive  metal,  as  abovc^  set  forth. 

Third,  the  coating  of  iron,  steel,  or  other  metallic 


surfaces  between  or  under  which  ores  or  other  mate- 
rials are  crushed,  with  ([uicksilver  combined  with 
sodium  or  other  highly  electro-positive  metal,  as 
above  set  forth. 

Fourth,  the  prevention  of  the  granulation  or 
flouring  of  ([uicksilver  when  used  in  any  method  of 
amalgamating  ores  or  other  materials  by  addition 
thereto  of  sodium  or  other  highly  electro-positive 
metal,  as  abo\'e  set  forth. 

The  valuable  woik  of  Phillips  on  mining  gives 
the  com]ii'ndium  following  :  A  ([uantity  of  sodium 
amalgam  dissolved  in  a  hundred  times  or  more  its 
weiglit  of  (juicksilver  is  saiil  to  comnmnicate  to  the 
wdiole  a  gi'eatly  enhanced  power  of  adhering  to 
metals,  and  jiarticularly  to  those  which,  like  gold 
and  silver,  are  situated  toward  the  negative  extrem- 
ity of  the  electro-chemical  scale.  This  power  of 
adhesion  in  the  case  of  the  two  metals  is  so  great 
that  the  resistance  which  their  snrfaces,  when  in 
their  native  state,  often  oppose  to  amalgann^tion  (a 
resistance  much  greater,  and  nmre  general  than  has 
been  hitherto  recognized,  and  due  to  causes  as  yet 
uninvestigated)  is  in.stantly  overcome,  whether  their 
particles  be  coarse  or  inqialpable.  Even  an  arti- 
ficial coating  of  oil  or  giease,  which  is  usually  such 
an  enemy  to  the  combination  of  mercury  with  other 
metals,  t'oiins  no  obstacle  to  innncdiate  amalgama- 
tion by  this  prepared  ipiicksilver.  The  atoms  of 
quicksilver  are,  as  it  is  described,  put  into  a  sort  of 
polaric  coiulition  by  a  minute  addition  of  one  of 
the  metals  which  range  themselves  toward  the 
electio-]iositive  end  of  the  .scale  ;  so  that  its  aflinity 
for  the  more  electro-negative  metals  is  stated  to  be 
so  greatly  exalted  that  it  seizes  upon  and  is  instan- 
taneously absorbed  by  their  surfaces,  just  as  water 
is  absorbed  by  a  lump  of  sugar,  or  other  porous  sub- 
stance .soluble  in  it. 

Such  quicksilver  even  adheres  strongly  to  snrfaces 
of  iron,  steel,  ])Iatinum,  aluminium,  and  antinmny  ; 
an  adhesion  which,  however,  in  the  case  of  these 
metals,  is  not  a  true  amalgamation,  there  being  no 
])enetiation  into  the  substance  of  the  metal ;  so  that 
the  snperlieially  adherent  quicksilver  may  be  readily 
wiped  oil',  just  as  water  may  be  renmved  from  glass. 
The  only  metal  as  yet  experimented  on,  which  can- 
not be  enfilmed  by  the  use  of  sodium  amalgam, 
appears  to  be  magnesium. 

Application  of  Sndium  Amah/am  to  IVorking  Ores 
of  the  Precious  Metals. 

This  consists  in  adding  from  time  to  time,  to  the 
quicksilver  used  in  amalganuition,  about  one  hun- 
dredth jiart  of  its  weight  of  sodium  amalgam.  The 
frequency  with  which  the  amalgam  is  to  lie  added 
cannot  be  exactly  specified,  as  it  will  be  found  to 
depend  on  a  multitude  of  circumstances,  —  such,  for 
instance,  ;\s  the  temjieratui'e,  the  purity  ami  quan- 
tity of  the  water  used,  the  ratio  borne  by  the  sur- 
face of  the  quicksilver  to  its  mass,  the  amount  and 
mode  of  agitation  of  the  quicksilver,  the  nature  of 
the  process  and  apjiaratus  used,  the  character  of  the 
ore;  strength  of  the  amalgam,  etc.  ;  so  that  this 
important  point  can  only  be  determined  in  each 
case  by  experience  Some  general  indications  may, 
however,  be  derived  from  the  experiments  which 
have  been  made.  It  is  said  that  less  sodium  is 
reipiisite  in  eases  in  which  nuich  water  is  enqdoyed, 
and  whim  the  water  is  IVeqiUMitly  renewed,  — as,  for 
instance,  in  the  riffles  of  a  sluice,  and  in  all  forms 
of  amalgamators  through  which  a  continual  current 
of  water  is  kejit  running,  —  since  mercurial  solutions 
of  sodium  are  but  little  affected  by  water  free  from 
acid,  alkaline,  or  saline  imjnirities. 

In   cases,   however,   in    which  but  little  water  is 


AMALGAJI8. 


AMALGAMS. 


employed,  and  especially  where  the  ore  and  quick- 
silver are  ground  togetiier  into  a  slime,  the  water 
soon  becomes  alkaline,  and  oxidation  of  the  sodium 
sets  in,  necessitating  its  frequent  renewal. 

In  such  cases  the  following  manipulation  is  rec- 
ommended. The  whole  amount  of  quicksilver  to 
he  used  for  working  up  a  batch  of  slimes,  say  fifty 
pounds,  is  prepared  by  dissolving  in  it  one  per  cent 
of  amalgam  No.  2,  or  better,  two  per  cent  of  the 
soft  amalgam  No.  1,  which  dissolves  more  readily  ; 
one  half,  or  twenty-tive  jiounds,  is  then  thrown  into 
the  mill  with  the  ore,  and,  as  the  incorjioration  pro- 
ceeds, certain  fractional  parts  of  the  other  lialf  are 
added  at  intervals,  varpng  according  to  circum- 
stances, until  the  whole  has  been  introduced.  If, 
as  is  usual,  the  quicksilver  has  been  separated  from 
the  slimes  of  a  previous  operation,  it  will  retain  a 
certain  amount  of  sodium,  and  therefore  require 
fresh  amalgam  in  proportionately  smaller  quantities. 

No.  1  amalgam  contains  two  per  cent  and  No. 
2  four  per  cent  of  sodium  ;  the  latter  is  a  hard, 
brittle  solid,  remarkably  infusible,  reiiuiring  a  tem- 
perature nearly  as  high  as  the  fusing-point  of  type- 
metal  to  melt  it,  and  may  be  cast  into  ingots,  and 
packed  either  under  petroleum,  or  in  air-tight  iron 
cans  filled  with  dry  lime. 

In  sluicing  operations,  the  soft  amalgam  No.  1  is, 
on  account  of  its  ready  solubility  in  mercury,  most 
recommended  ;  and  in  these  cases  it  is  practicable 
to  test  the  quicksilver  in  the  riffles,  and  ascertain 
when  the  magnetic  quality  reciuires  restoration,  by 
throwing  in  a  few  grains  of  gold-dust.  Similar 
tests  are  easily  applied  to  slimes,  and  in  amalga- 
mating generally,  a  slip  of  tarnished  sheet-eopper 
is  a  suitable  agent  for  such  testings.  It  may  be 
remarked  that  the  amalgam  No.  1  is  at  any  time 
easily  prepared  from  No.  2,  b\'  melting  it  in  an 
iron  ladle  with  its  own  weight  of  quicksilver.  In 
copper-plate  amalgamation  —  that  is,  in  cases  in 
which  auriferous  materials  are  brought  into  contact 
with  amalgamated  metallic  surfaces  —  it  is  recom- 
mended to  substitute  for  quicksilver  itself  the  pasty 
amalgam  No.  2. 

In  these  modes  of  amalgamation  gi-eat  economy 
in  wear  and  tear  of  apparatus,  as  well  as  in  first 
cost,  is  said  to  be  etfected  by  using  jilates  or  sur- 
faces of  iron  instead  of  copper.  The  power  of  coat- 
ing or  enfilming  iron  is  stated  to  render  these  amal- 
gams peculiarly  valuable  in  every  form  of  apparatus 
for  amalgamation  which  has  internal  surfaces  of 
iron  ;  for  these,  becoming  coated  with  quicksilver, 
immensely  extend  its  chances  of  contact  with  parti- 
cles of  gold,  so  fine  as  to  remain  suspended  in  the 
water.  Otlier  important  services  are  ex])eeted  by 
the  inventoi-s  to  arise  out  of  this  power  of  enfilming 
iron,  such  as  keeping  the  surfaces  of  stamps  and 
of  other  apparatus  used  in  crushing  ores  continu- 
ally coated.  In  like  manner,  as  the  power  of  adhe- 
sion of  quicksilver  to  other  metals  is  exalted  by  the 
presence  of  the  alkali-metals,  so  also  is  its  own 
cohesion  stated  to  be  greatly  increased.  It  is 
rendered  more  difficult  to  mechanically  divide,  afid 
when  thus  di«ded  again  runs  instantly  together 
upon  contact.  Hence  new  results  of  great  value 
are  said  to  have  been  obtained.  For  instance,  the 
so-called  "flouring"  or  granulation  of  iiuicksilver, 
which  in  the  amalgamation  of  ores  always  occasions 
losses  both  of  the  (juicksilver  itself  and  of  its  amal- 
gams with  the  pirecious  metals,  is  stated  to  be 
reduced  to  a  minimum,  or  altogether  ]irevented. 

The  recovery  of  "floured"  rjuiiksilver  and  amal- 
gams from  slimes  and  similar  mixtures  is  also  said  to 
be  greatly  facilitated  and  accelerated  thereby.  For 
this  purpose  some  sodimu  amalgam  is  thrown  into  ^ 


the  separator,  and  collects  and  incorporates  all  the 
scattered  globules  of  auriferous  amalgam.  It  is 
here  necessary  to  call  attention  to  a  method  of 
manipulation  generally  applicable  when  sodium 
amalgams  are  used,  and  particularly  so  in  all  cases 
in  which  the  ore  is  ground  or  agitated  with  quick- 
silver in  contact  with  metallic  iron.  This  arises 
from  the  liability  of  abraded  particles  of  iron  to 
adhere  to  the  amalgam. 

The  following  plan  is,  therefore,  in  such  cases 
recommended.  The  amalgam,  after  separation  from 
excess  of  quicksilver,  and  before  retorting,  is  fused 
in  an  earthen  dish  or  ii'on  ladle,  with,  if  necessary, 
the  addition  of  a  little  quicksilver  to  make  it  more 
liquid  ;  and  the  iron,  which  forms  a  scum  on  the 
suiface,  is  skimmed  ofl'.  The  excess  of  quicksilver 
may,  after  cooling,  be  again  separated  from  the 
amalgam  in  the  usual  way.  Any  amalgam  which 
adheres  to  the  iron  scum  is  readily  detached  by 
boiling  in  water  to  remove  the  sodium.  This  pro- 
cess depends  on  the  fact  that  adhesion  to  the  iron 
totally  disappears  with  the  extraction  of  the  last 
traces  of  sodium  from  the  quicksilver.  It  is,  in 
fact,  possible  to  remove  all  iron  from  the  amalgam 
by  boiling  in  water  without  any  j)revious  fusion, 
jiarticularly  if  the  water  be  made  somewhat  acid  or 
alkaline.  The  presence  of  iron  can  be  readily  de- 
tected by  the  magnet,  which  may  also  be  sometimes 
used  with  advantage  in  separating  iron  from  amal- 
gam after  all  the  sodium  has  been  extracted.  There 
are  still  other  substances  which  may  be  found  adhe- 
rent to  the  amalgam  when  sodium  has  been  used, 
such  as  platinum,  or  osmiridium,  or  both,  with  iron, 
and  these  may  be  freed  from  the  latter  by  tlie  magnet. 

The  sodium  amalgams  prepared  in  accordance 
with  the  recipes  of  Mr.  Crookes  are  known  respec- 
tively as  A,  B,  and  C  amalgams. 

Each  of  these  contains  three  per  cent  of  sodium, 
in  addition  to  which  B  has  a  small  quantity  of  zinc 
in  its  composition,  and  C  a  little  tin.  An  amalgam 
(A),  of  seven  times  the  strength  of  the  above,  is 
prepared  in  solid  bars  for  shiimient  when  the  ex- 
pense of  freight  or  land  caniage  is  great.  Amal- 
gams />  and  C  cannot  be  prejiared  in  the  concen- 
trated form.  It  is  recommended  that  one  part  by 
weight  of  amalgam  B  or  C  be  dis.solved  in  thirty  • 
parts  of  the  mercuiy  which  is  to  be  used  in  the 
amalgamating,  triturating,  or  giindjng  machines, 
and  the  efl'ect  which  it  produces  on  the  mercury 
noted  from  time  to  time  during  the  operation.  If 
it  retain  its  fluidity  and  brightness  to  the  end  of 
the  operation,  it  is  a  .sign  either  that  a  sufficient 
amount  or  too  much  has  been  added,  and  a  second 
experiment  shoxdd  be  trieil  with  a  less  quantity  of 
amalgam.  But  if  it  be  "floured,"  or  "sickened," 
or  any  loss  occur,  more  amalgam  may  be  added 
until  the  best  proportion  is  arrived  at. 

Mr.  Crookes  states  that  amalgam  B  will  generally 
be  found  etfective,  but  if  the  ore  contain  an  excess 
of  any  mineral  which  has  a  deleterious  action  on  mer- 
cury, more  especially  if  it  contain  bismuth,  it  will  be 
advantageous  to  employ  amalgam  (.'  instead  of  B. 

When  the  best  proportion  of  amalgam  B  or  C  is 
determined,  small  quantities  of  amalgam  A  should 
be  introduced  into  the  mercury,  already  containing 
amalgam  B  or  C,  in  the  proportion  of  one  part  of 
amalgam  A  to  one  thousand  of  mercury.  This 
quantity  of  amalgam  A  can  be  added  every  few 
hours,  according  to  circumstances,  but  one  charge 
of  amalgam  B  or  C  will,  it  is  stated,  u.sually  be  suf- 
ficient for  several  days.  Under  some  circumstances 
it  will  be  found  advisable  to  add  amalgam  B  or  C 
every  few  days,  but  a  little  experience  and  com- 
parison with  the  results  obtained  by  the  old    :.Ian 


AMALGAMATING   ZINC   PLATES. 


74 


AMALGAMATOR. 


will  soon  show  how  these  several  agents  are  best 
utilized. 

The  process  of  extraction  of  the  precious  metals 
by  the  leml-bath  will  be  found  under  Le.\I)-1!ATII 

FOR  THE  EXTKACTION  OF  Ool.I)  AND  SlLVKIl. 

Other  processes  for  gathering  gold  (excepting 
A.MAi.cAMATOus,  wlucli  See)  lire  included  under  tlie 
general  title  Gold-wash Kii. 

The  ore-crushers  are  described  under  Ore-stamps, 
etc.;  Ore-ckixdi.sc.  Mills;  Arrastk.\s. 

An  amalgam  of  mercury  and  tin  is  used  to  coat 
the  liack  of  looking-glasses  and  glass  mirrors. 

This  amalgam  consists  of  mercury,  3  ;  tin,  1.  It 
is  foi'uied  by  laying  a  sheet  of  tin-foil  on  a  table, 
covm'iug  it  with  mercury,  and  then,  by  a  sliding 
movement,  placing  the  sheet  of  glass  over  it. 

An  amalgam  of  gold  is  also  used  by  jewelers  to 
overlay  other  metals  by  a  fine  tilm  of  gold,  after 
which  the  mercury  is  driven  olf  by  heat. 

In  Mallet's  ]irocess  (English)  for  preserving  iron 
from  rust  and  ship's  sheatliing  from  fouling,  the 
iron  is  dipped  in  an  amalgam  of  zinc,  sodium,  and 
mercury. 

The  process  is  as  follows  :  — 

The  jdates  are  cleansed  in  a  warm  solution  of 
equal  [larts  of  acid  (sulphuric  or  hydrochloric)  and 
water.  The  scale  anil  o.\ide  are  removed  from  the 
metal  by  scouring.  The  plate  is  then  placeil  in  a 
prcpnriiifi-hiith  consisting  of  a  saturated  solution  of 
hydroehlorate  of  zinc  anil  sulphate  of  auuuuuia.  It 
is  then  immersed  in  a  bath  formed  of 


Mercury  . 
Zinc    . 


20-2 
1,292 


To  each  2,240  jiounds  of  which  amalgam  1  pound 
of  potassium  or  sodium  is  added. 

■The  iron  is  sjieedily  heated,  and  is  withdrawn 
before  it  reaches  fit<0'  Fall.,  at  which  temperature 
it  would  be  soon  dissolved  by  the  alloy. 

A  similar  process,  so  far  as  the  manipulation  is 
concerned,  is  |ia.s.sed  through  in  the  palladiumizing 
jn'ocess,  in  which,  after  cleansing,  the  plates  are 
inmiersed  iu  a  fused  amalgam  of  palladium  and 
mercury. 

Amalgam  for  the  electrical  machine  :  — 

Zinc 2 

Tin 1 

Mercury     .....        4 

Melted  in  tlie  oi-der  named,  in  an  iron  spoon. 
Shake  the  fused  amalgam  till  cold,  triturate  in  a 
mortar;  sift;  rub  up  the  powder  witli  lard,  and 
ajiply  with  a  palctti--knife  to  the  rubber  of  the 
macliine. 

Amalgam  for  silvering  the  iusides  of  hollow  glass 
spheres  :  — 

Mercury 3 

Lead 1 

Bismuth 1 

A-mal'ga-mi'ting  Zinc  Plates.  Zinc  plates 
for  th  ■  vultait'  battery  are  amalgamated  with  mercury, 
so  tliat  no  action  of  tlie  .snipiiuric  acid  takes  place 
Oil  the  zinc  when  the  circuit  is  not  closed. 

To  amalgamate  the  plates,  tlievare  first  pickled  in 
ddute  .vulplmiic  acid  (acid  1,  watc'r  S)  in  a  stone- 
ware pan.  A  little  mercury,  heiiii;  juiured  into  the 
pan,  is  rubbed  on  both  sides  of  the  jilate  by  means 
of  a  swal).  The  plate  is  wa.slicd  in  clean'  water, 
Jilaeeil  on  its  edge  to  drain,  again  rulihed  with, 
mercury  and  drained. 

Another  ;ni'tliod  is  to  cli.;iu  the  plates  with  emery, 
pickle,  and  wa.sh.  Then  dip  the  clean  plates  iu'a 
im.\ture  of  ecjual  parts  by  weight  of  bichloride  of 


'  mercury  (corrosive  sublimate)  and  acetate  of  lead. 
I  Hull  with  a  (doth,  and  they  are  ready  for  use. 

A-malga-ma'tor.     It  appears  from  Pliny,  A.D. 
79,  that  tie'    ancients  were  acquainted   with  amal- 
i  gams,  in  their  uses  for  separating  gold  and  silver 
from  earthy  particles,  and  iu  gilding. 

Pliny  .says  :  "Mercury  is  an  excellent  refiner  of 
gold,  for  on  being  shaken  in  an  earthen  vessel  with 
gold,  it  rejects  all  the  impurities  that  are  mixed 
with  it.  When  once  it  has  thus  expelled  these 
iin]nirities,  there  is  nothing  to  do  but  to  separate  it 
from  the  gold  ;  to  effect  which  it  is  poured  u]ion 
leather,  and  exudes  through  it  in  a  sort  of  perspira- 
tion, leaving  the  jiure  gold  behind." 

Vitruvius  (B.  C.  27)  describes  the  manner  of 
recovering  gold  from  cloth  in  which  it  has  been 
interwoven.  The  cloth,  he  says,  is  to  be  ]nit  in  an 
earthen  vessel,  and  ]ilaced  over  the  fire  in  order  that 
it  may  be  burnt.  The  ashes  are  thrown  into  water, 
and  quick-silver  added  to  them.  The  latter  unites 
with  the  particles  of  gold,  the  water  is  poured  off, 
and  the  residue  put  into  a  cloth,  which  being 
sciueezed  with  .the  hands,  the  quicksilver,  on  ac- 
count of  its  Ihiidity,  oozes  through  the  pores,  and 
the  gold  is  left  pure  in  a  compressed  mass.  It  is 
commonly  stated  that  the  ancients  did  not  under- 
stand the  art  of  recovering  mercury  by  retort  and 
receiver,  but  a  description  of  the  apparatus  by 
Pliny  (see  Amalgams)  contradicts  this.  It  does 
not,  however,  seem  to  have  been  much  practised. 

In  the  year  1582,  Herberer  described  the  washing 
of  gold  as  he  saw  it  practised  at  Selz,  not  far  from 
Strasburg,  and  at  that  time  quicksilver  had  long 
been  used  for  that  purjiose. 

The  cinnabar  mines  of  Pera  were  discovered 
about  15tJ6  by  Garees,  wlio  observed  the  Indians 
using  a  native  red  earth  for  paint.  It  does  not 
a|ipcar  to  have  come  into  general  u.se  in  the  silver- 
mines  of  Peru,  as  a  means  of  e.xtracting  the  silver 
from  the  earthy  particles,  till  1571,  when  Pero 
Fernandas  de  Velasco  came  to  Pern  and  offered  to 
refine  the  silver  by  mercury,  as  he  had  seen  in  the 
.smeltingdionses  in  Mexico.  His  pro]iosals  were  ae- 
cepteil,  the  old  methods  abandoned,  and  that  of  amal- 
gamation pursued  as  it  is  juactised  at  jnesent. 

In  1572,  Hawks  writes  that  "an  owner  of  a  mine 
must  have  much  quicksilver,  anil  as  for  this  charge 
of  ([uicksilvcr,  it  is  a  new  invention,  which  they  find 
more  profitable  than  to  fine  their  ore  with  Icad."- 
Ilidhiyt's  1  'mjaijcs. 

The  number  of  patents  granted  in  the  United 
States  for  amalgamators  cannot  be  readily  .stated,  as 
so  many  of  the  cru.shers,  grinders,  and  arrastras 
become  amalgamators  by  the  addition  of  mercury. 
To  state  the  whole  nnniber  would  give  an  exag- 
gerated view,  as  many  of  them  are  merely  mechanical 
grinders  without  any  specific  adaptation  to  the  re- 
quirements of  theniercurial  process.  The  number  of 
patents  for  amalgamators  in  the  Uniteil  States  may 
be  ai)]iroxiniately  stated  at  two  hundred  and  sixty, 
January,  1872. 

'\\  ith  the  exception  of  the  aKrentiferous  galena, 
.silver  is  generally  found  in  the  form  of  brittle  sul- 
jihides  disseminated  through  the  gangue  or  veip. 
.stone.  The.se  particles,  in  the  o)ieiatiou  of  grinding 
or  stam)iing,  are  reduced  to  a  fine  jiowder,  which 
lloats  olf  in  water  in  the  jiroce.ss  of  concentration.  It 
becomes  necessarv,  therefore,  to  a]iply  a  gathering 
agent  which  will  collect  them,  and  the  notable 
activity  of  ipiicksilver  in  entering  into  combination 
with  the  precious  metals  has  cau.sed  its  selection  as 
the  desired  agent.  The  subject  is  .-ipecially  treated 
under  Amalgams,  and  the  mechanical  processes  and 
manipulation  are  the  subject  of  this  article. 


AMALGAMATOR. 


7.5 


AMALGAMATOR. 


The  processes  and  macliines  for  the  amalgamation 
of  silver  are  various,  and  arc  :  — 

The  Patio  process.  The  BaiTel  process. 

The  Hot  process.  The  Fan  process. 

The  Estula  process. 
These  will  be  separately  considered. 

Siicceedinc;  the  description  <if  the  pan  process,  a 
number  of  examples  of  Gold  Amalganiatorsare  inserted 
which  cannot  readily  be  classed  :  acting  by  giiTiding, 
stirring,  heat,  lixiviation,  panning,  sluices,  centrif- 
ugal action,  electric  action,  and  by  mercurial  fumes 
acting  on  a  falling  column  of  pulverized  ore. 

The  Patio  Pi:ocess  has  long  been  in  use  in 
South  America,  and  is  now  employed  in  Mexico,  and 
now  or  lately  in  Nevada.  It  was  invented  by 
Jledina  in  1557.  The  materials  necessary  for  the  ■ 
reduction  of  silver  by  tliis  process  are,  magistral, 
common  salt,  and  mercury.  The  magistral  is  made 
from  copper  pyrites  reduced  by  stamps  and  arrastras 
to  a  fine  jiowder.  This  is  exposed  to  the  air  for  some 
months  and  calcined  in  a  furnace,  a  little  sjilt  being 
added.  The  effect  is  the  production  of  a  soluble 
sulphate  of  copper. 

Tlie  silver  ore  is  reduced  by  stamps  and  arrastras, 
or  by  the  more  modern  forms  of  ore-giinders,  to  a 
line  powder  which  becomes  a  mud  by  the  addition 
of  water.  The  mud  or  "slimes"  is  then  removed 
from  the  aiTastra  and  deposited  in  walled  receivers 
called  "lameros,"  where  it  parts  with  a  portion  of 
its  water  and  accumulates  till  it  becomes  sufficient 
to  form  a  "torta."  It  is  then  spread  to  the  thick- 
ness of  about  a  foot,  and  after  drying  to  a  suitable 
consistence  receives  from  three  to  hve  per  cent  of 
salt,  which  is  tramped  in  by  animals.  The  day 
after  the  incorporation  of  the  salt,  the  magistral  and 
mercury  are  added,  being  evenly  s])read  over  the 
"torta,"  as  it  is  called,  to  the  extent  of  one  per 
cent  of  the  matter  in  the  heap.  The  proportion 
varies  according  to  the  richness  of  the  magistral  in 
the  sulphate  of  copper.  This  is  tramped  in,  and 
mercury  is  added  ;  three  and  one  half  to  four  pounds 
for  every  mark  of  silver  supposed  to  be  in  the  heap. 
(The  mark  is  eight  Spanish  ounces  of  443.8  gr.  each.) 
This  is  trodden  for  four  hours.  Chemical  action 
now  conmiences,  and  the  mass  is  carefully  sampled 
from  time  to  time  to  ascertain  its  condition  and  test 
the  sufficiency  of  the  proportion  of  magistral.  If 
too  little,  more  is  added  ;  if  too  much,  lime  is  added 
to  prevent  loss  of  mercury.  The  treading  of  the 
torta  every  alternate  day  expedites  the  action.  The 
mules   are   hitched    four   abreast   and   blindfolded, 


Fig  138. 


Fig.  139. 


Strainfr  (  from 
Tiltmann). 


Fig.  140. 


The  Patio  Process. 


being  guided  by  a  halter  held  by  a  man  standing  on 
the  central  platform. 

The  treading  occupies  about  eight 
hours  on  each  occa.sion,  and  in  addi- 
tion the  mass  is  turned  over  twice 
a  week  with  wooden  shovels.  In- 
corporation by  a  mortar-mill  would 
])robably  be  more  thoroughly  eti'cc- 
tive  with  a  given  amount  of  power. 

When  the  mercury  has  absorbed  all 
the  silver,  the  mass  is  washed  by  agi- 
tation in  a  series  of  tanks  provided 
with  rapidly  revolving  stiiTers.  The 
rate  of  motion  of  these  is  gradually 
reduced,  and  the  metallic  or  heavier 
particles  commence  to  sink.  As  soon 
as  a  test  shows  that  the  upper  strata 
have  but  a  trace  of  metal,  a  ping  is 
withdrawn,  which  allows  the  earthy 
particles  in  suspension  to  be  run  olf. 
The  amalgam  and  heavier  mineral 
particles  are  separated  by  a  sub.se- 
quent  wasliing,  and  the  amalgam  placed 
in  a  stone  trough,  when  it  is  treated 
with  a  further  amount  of  mercury  and 
subjected  to  frequent  washings,  which  bring  the 
amalgam  into  condition  for  the  strainer,  whose  upper 
portion  is  of  leather,  and  the  lowei-  closely  woven 
canvas.  A  quantity  of  mer- 
cury strains  through  and  is  col- 
lected. The  remaining  amal- 
gam is  emptied  on  a  leather- 
covered  table  and  formed  into 
bricks  of  a  triangular  shape, 
which  are  then  ready  for  the 
process  of  retorting. 

Vaknet,  March  18,  1852. 
This  device  is  for  expe<liting 
the  straining  of  the  amalgam. 
The  tube,  being  closed  at  bot- 
tom, is  tilled  with  mercury. 
The  amalgam  is  poured  into 
the  vessel,  and  the  cock  at 
the  lower  part  of  the  tube 
is  then  opened.  The  quick- 
silver flows  out,  causing  a 
Toriicellian  vacuum  above  it 
and  beneath  the  strainer. 
The  quicksilver  in  the  amal- 
gam is  then  forced  through 
the  strainer  by  the  pressiue  of  the  atmosphere. 

In  some  other 
strainers  the 
vacuum  is  pro- 
duced by  me- 
chanical meaus, 
such  as  an  air- 
pump.  In  some 
others  it  is  ef- 
fected by  the 
condensation  of 
steam.  If  the 
pipe  be  long 
enough  it  may 
be  obtained  by  a 
body  of  water, 
but  the  mercuii- 
al  column,  as  in 
Vamcy's,  biings 
the  apparatus 
within  much 
more  compact 
limits. 
The  operation 


Vamey's  Strainer. 


AMALGAMATOR. 


76 


AMALGAMATOR. 


by  which  the  scimration  of  mercury  ami  silver  is 
elfecteJ  is  comlucted  Ijy  the  aid  of  a  large  iron  or 
copiier  lieil,  which  is  jilaced  over  the  amalgam, 
and  aioiiiid  wliiidi  is  kindled  a  charcoal  lir<'.  A 
circular  tank  of  masou'-y  is  constructed  lidow  the 
floor  of  the  burning-house,  tlirough  whicli  a  stream 
of  water  is  constantly  caused  to  How  ;  an<l  in 
this  is  placed  an  iion  tripod,  covered  hy  a  round 
plate,  having  a  hole  in  its  center  for  the  escape  of 
mercury.      On  this  plate  are  piled   the  bricks  of 


Fig.  141. 


Lifling  the  Belt  (  Tilmann), 


silver,  to  such  a  height  as  to  reach  to  within  a 
short  distance  of  the  top  of  the  bell,  which,  when 
placed  over  them,  leaves  a  space  of  about  an  inch 
Ix'tween  its  siiles  and  the  cohunn  of  amalgam.  When 
thus  arranged,  the  bell  is  lowered  over  it  and  the 
bottom  secured,  either  liy  lute,  or  by  a  water-joint 
constantly  sup]ilied  by  means  of  a  Jiipe.  Adobes 
(unburnt  bricks)  are  now  built  around  the  arrange- 
ment in  the  form  of  a  hollow  wall,  leaving  an  annu- 
lar s])ace  between  them  and  the  bell,  of  about  eight 
inches  in  width.  This  is  tilled  with  charcoal,  whi(di 
is  ignited,  and  as  the  ti'mperature  increases  the 
mercury  becomes  volatilized,  and  passing  into  the 
chamber  below  the  lloor  is  condensed,  collects  in  a 
liquid  form,  and  escapes  by  an  iron  pipe  into  a, 
proper  receptacle.  The  lire  is  thus  kept  up  during 
about  fifteen  hours,  after  which  the  ajiparatus  is 
allowed  to  cool,  and  when  sufficiently  cold  the 
bell  is  removed,  eitlii'i'  by  a  windla.ss  or  by  means 
of  simple  liloc-ks,  as  shown  in  the  figure. 

This  silver,  which  is  found  to  have  assumed  a 
porous  structure  and  a  beautiful  frosted  appearance, 
is  called  by  the  Mexicans  phii-i  pina,  and  is  placed 
in  leathern  bags  for  removal  to  the  smelting-house, 
wheic  it  is  assayed  and  run  into  bars.  The  silver 
obtained  by  the  patio  ]irocess  of  amalgamation  is 
in  moat  cases  very  nearly  |iure,  being  generally 
above  990  fine  ;  and  in  many  cases,  as  at  Gua- 
naxnato,  almo.st  absolutely  ]mre  silver  is  obtaineil. 

By  the  ]ialio  process,  the  a.inount  of  ([uicksilver 
lostvaiies  IVoni  ten  to  twenty-four  ounces  per  mark 
of  silvci-,  eight  ounces  ('i.^MJi  grains),  and  the 
tinie  occupied  is  from  fifteen  to  forty-five  days. 

The  conniiinutiim  of  the  ore  in  arrastras  is  not 
a  necessary  feature  of  the  jiatio  ])rocess,.as  in  places 
where  water-]iower  is  abundant  the  ore  is  reduced  to 
a  jiroper  grade  of  fineness  by  stamps.  A  large  num- 
ber of  ])atents  for  cr\ishers  and  grinders  have  been 
patented  in  the  Uniteil  States,  which  are  intended 
to  act  upon  a  constant,  moderate  sujiply  of  the 
broken    ore,    and    reduce   it    by   a    succession    of 


operations    to    the   fineness    required.       See   Ore- 
ciiiisiiEH.s,  etc. 

The  nature  of  the  chemical  reactioiKS  of  the  patio 
process  has  been  much  misunderstood,  but  Sonnes- 
cliniid  has  given  a  solution  which  is  now  accejited. 
According  to  his  theory,  that  portion  of  the  silver 
'\luch  exists  in  the  ores  in  a  native  .state  is  alone 
capable  of  uniting  directly  with  mercury  ;  and  if, 
in  grinding  with  this  metal  any  ores  which  do  not 
contain  silver  in  the  metallic  form,  a  small  quan- 
tity of  amalgam  he  obtained,  it  is  pro- 
duced by  the  action  of  some  substance 
which  in  presence  of  nu'rcury  has  the 
property  of  reducing  the  silver  existing 
in  a  state  of  combination.  These  com- 
pounds, as  well  as  the  native  metals,  are 
susceptible  of  conversion  into  muriate 
of  silver  under  the  inlluence  of  muriatic 
acid  liberated  by  the  action  of  the  sul- 
phuric acid  of  the  magistral  on  a  solu- 
tion of  common  salt.  The  nniriate  of 
silver  thus  foinunl  may  be  destroyed  by 
the  addition  of  alkaline  earths,  but  the 
silver  will  then  be  converted  into  an 
oxide  which  has  no  longer  the  property 
of  forming  an  amalgam  with  mercuiy. 
Farther,  that  as  certain  metals  have 
the  peculiarity  of  se]iarating  others  in 
a  state  of  purity  from  the  acids  with 
which  they  are  combined,  mercuiy 
performs  this  part  with  regard  to  sil- 
ver, by  taking  from  it  the  muriatic 
acid,  by  which  a  portion  of  it  is  de- 
stroyed while  the  remainder  forms  an  amalgam  with 
the  liberated  silver.  This  reduction  of  the  silver 
by  the  action  of  muriatic  acid  on  metallic  mercury, 
together  with  the  direct  action  of  the  same  on 
that  metal,  are  the  two  cau.ses  occasioning  the 
loss  of  quicksilver  ;  the  direct  action  of  the  acid 
manifesting  itself  whenever  it  becomes  necessary  to 
make  a  furth-er  adilition  of  magistral.  The  mer- 
cuiy lost  remains  in  the  residue,  either  in  com- 
bination with  muriatic  acid,  or  in  tlu'  metallic  state  ; 
th<!  Ibrnier  representing  the  deficit  known  as  coii- 
siimidii  (consumed)  and  the  latter  ibrming  that  por- 
tion of  the  less  classed  as  pcrdido  (lo.st). 

The  Hot  Pkockss.  This  is  employed  in  South 
America  on  a  peauliar  class  of  ores,  containing  a 
large  pro]}ortion  of  native  silver,  or  in  which  that 
metal  occurs  in  the  fonn  of  chloride,  iodide,  or 
bromide.  The  ore  is  roughly  stamped,  reduced  to  a 
ceitain  gi'adc  in  the  arrastra,  and  washed  on  an 
inclined  plane,  by  which  the  richer  portions  are  con- 
densed into  an  amount  two  per  cent  of  the  original 
bulk.  The  refuse  may  be  graded  and  sorted,  and 
tile  richer  part  subjected  to  a  saving  process.  The 
finer  portion  is  removed  to  a  "  cazo,"  a  copper- 
bottiinieil  \'essel  over  a  furnace.  Water  is  ad<lcil  to 
make  a  liquid  paste  ;  when  ebullition  sets  in  salt  to 
the  amount  of  from  five  to  ten  per  cent  of  the  weight 
of  the  ore  is  added.  The  boiling  mass  is  then  stirred, 
and  mercury  added  at  intervals.  This  must  not 
exceed  twice  the  weight  of  the  silver  contained  in 
the  ore.  This  is  (leterniined  by  repeated  tests. 
The  operation  completed,  the  liquid  matter  is  re- 
moved and  added  to  the  ingredients  of  u  "torta," 
while  the  .solid  ])ortions  arc  .stored  in  wooden  cis- 
terns, and  are  subsequently  washed  and  treated  as 
described  under  the  ]iatio  ]U'ocess. 

An  enlargement  of  the  hot  process  consists  of  a 
largercopper  vessel  calleda  "foudon,"in  which  blocks 
of  eO])per  are  drawn  around  as  the  ])orphyry  blocks 
of  an  arrastra.  It  is  he.atcd  by  a  furnace  below,  as  in 
the  case  of  the  "cazo."     The  charge  of  the  latter 


AMALGAMATOR. 


77 


AMALGAMATOR. 


may  be  about  100  pounds,  while  that  of  the  "fon- 
doii"  is  from  1,200  to  1,500  iiounJs,  and  the  time 
for  working  them  otF  is  about  six  hours  in  caeli 
case.  The  suli>liides  are  not  reduced  by  tliis  pro- 
cess, and  are  therefore  added  to  the  material  of 
the  patio,  but  do  not  require  the  addition  of  magis- 
tral, as  they  contain  a  sufficient  amount  of  chloride 
of  copper  to  convert  the  sulphides  of  silver  into 
chloride  ;  the  copper  is  furnished  by  the  attrition 
of  the  bottom  of  the  vessel,  which  is  kept  clean,  by 
the  paddle  in  the  case  of  the  "cazo,"  and  the  cop- 
per block  in  the  case  of  the  "fondou."  The  prop- 
er proportion  of  the  mercury  and  the  mechanical 
action  prevent  the  loss  of  mercury  by  adherence  to 
the  bottom  of  the  pan. 

The  EsTfFA  Process.  In  some  of  the  colder  and 
more  humid  districts  of  Mexico,  a  modification  of 
tlie  patio  process  has  been  employed.  The  ground 
ore,  instead  of  being  exposed  in  the  open  air  on  a 
paved  courtyard,  as  in  the  ordinary  patio  process,  is 
placed  under  a  shed,  and  the  usual  method  of  patio 
amalgamation  proceeded  with,  until  the  operation  is 
about  half  completed.  The  ore  is  then  removed 
into  a  chamber  tefmed  an  exfiifn  (stove),  which  has 
under  it  a  fireplace  six  or  eight  feet  long,  so  con- 
nected by  side  flues  with  small  chimneys  as  to 
elevate  the  temperature  of  the  room  containing  the 
ore.  Here  it  is  exposed  to  a  gentle  heat,  and  al- 
lowed to  remain  during  two  or  three  days,  when  it 
is  again  removed,  and  the  reduction  completed  by 
the  ordinary  method  of  patio  amalgamation. 

By  this  process,  the  time  required  for  the  reduc- 
tion of  the  ore  is  less  than  by  the  patio,  and  the 
yield  of  silver  greater  ;  the  loss  of  mercury,  ou  the 
other  hand,  is  more  considerable. 

The  B.\uuEL  Process.  An  apparatus  of  this  de- 
scription was  in  use  at  the  latter  part  of  the 
last  century  in  Germany.  It  is  described  as  "an 
apparatus  consisting  of  eighteen  small,  cylindrical, 


by  pinions  upon  their  shafts  engaged  by  the  teeth 
of  a  large  spnr-wheel.  Each  cask  had  a  circular 
apei'ture,  closed  by  a  lid  while  revolving,  and 
opened  a,s  required  to  receive  a  charge  of  roasted  ore 
by  a  spout  from  the  hopper  above  ;  or  openeil,  when 
in  the  reverse  position,  to  discharge  its  contents 
into  the  hopper  below,  after  the  argentiferous  mer- 


Fig.  143. 


Freiberg  Ama/gamaiur  (vertiral  section). 

vertical  vessels,  arranged  in  a  circle,  in  which  the 
ores  were  mLxed  with  niercurj'  and  constantly  agi- 
tated by  a  vertical  spindle  in  each  tub,  the  spindles 
being  worked  by  a  large,  horizontal  spur-wheel 
placed  in  the  center." 

The   amalgamating   apparatus   of    Freiberg    con- 
sisted of  wooden  casks  arranged  in  rows  and  driven 


Freiberg  Amalgamating  Barrels  {.top  fine). 


cury  had  been  withdrawn  at  another  opening,  which 
at  other  times  is  closed  by  a  plug.  Each  barrel  is 
charged  with  300  pounds  of  water  and  1,000  ])Ounds 
of  finely  gi'ound  ore  ;  fragments  of  iron  arc  added, 
the  barrels  closed  and  set  in  motion.  When  the 
material  is  i-educed  to  a  paste  of  the  proper  consist- 
ence, 500  pounds  of  mercury  are  added  to  each  cask, 
and  the  closed  barrels  revolved  for  16  hours  at  the 
uniform  rate  of  13  revolutions  per  minute.  By  the 
addition  of  water  and  subsequent  revolution  at  a 
slower  rate,  the  mercury  is  separated  from  the 
slimes  and  collects  in  a  mass  below  the  water,  which 
holds  the  major  part  of  the  earthy  particles  in  sus- 
pension, by  the  aid  of  moderate  agitation.  The 
mercury  is  then  withdrawn  by  removing  a  plug  and 
conducting  the  metal  by  a  hose  to  a  spout  and 
receiver.  The  passage  of  earthy  particles  indicates 
the  time  to  stop  the  flow.  The  plug  is  replaced, 
the  lid  withdrawn,  and  the  muddy  residuum  dis- 
charged into  troughs  below.  The  cldoride  of  silver 
contained  in  the  roasted  ores  is,  as  in  the  Freiberg 
process,  decomjiosed  by  agitation  with  iron  frag- 
ments, the  chloride  combining  with  it  to  form 
protochloride  of  iron,  while  the  reduced'  nu'tallic 
silver  becomes  subsequently  dissolved  in  mercury. 
The  ehiorides  of  lead  and  co])per  which  may  be 
present  are  reduced  at  the  same  time  as  the  cldoride 
of  silver,  and  enter  into  the  composition  of  the 
amalgam  produced.  The  cldorides  in  the  roasted 
ores  are,  by  trituration  with  iron,  reduced  to  the 
state  of  minimum  chloi'ination,  before  the  addition 
of  the  mercury,  allowing  the  latter  to  act  ujion  the 
silver  immediately,  and  obviating  the  conversion  of 
the  mercury  into  calomel,  which  would  not  be  again 
reduced  and  would  prove  a  loss. 

The  muddy  residuum,  previously  referred  to,  is 
re-treated,  if  sufficiently  rich,  by  roasting,  etc. 

Tlie  amalgam  obtained  is  filtered  in  tlie  usual 
manner,  and  the  remainder  distilled  to  sublime  the 
mereuiy.     The  metallic  result  is  then  refined. 

The  barrel  puocess  at  the  Ophir  and  other  mines 
in  Nevada  is  preceded  by  drying  the  ores  in  a 
kiln  ;  dry  stamping,  screening  through  wire  sieves, 
and  roasting  in  reverberatory  furnaces  for  from  4J 
to  6  hours.  About  5A  per  cent  of  salt  is  added  by 
portions  in  the  furnace,  the  ore  being  stirred,  and, 
before  drawing,  li  to  8  per  cent  of  carbonate  of  soda 
is  added  to  decompose  the  sulphates  and  chlorides 
of  copper,  zinc,  etc.,  and  prevent  loss  of  quicksilver. 

The  roasted  ore  is  then  screened  and  the  barrels 


AMALGAMATOR. 


78 


AMALGAMATOR. 


are  cliaigi'd  with  it.  The  charge  of  eacli  harrcl  is 
2,000  poiiiuls  of  ore,  4.50  jiomuls  of  iron  fra^'nifiits, 
anil  water  sulHuit-nt  ;  tliuy  arn  then  revolveil  for  3 
liour.s.  From  350  to  400  pounds  of  niercuiy  arc 
now  adilfd  to  cac-li  barrel,  which  are  then  revolved 
for  12  or  13  hours  at  the  lute  of  12  revolutions  jier 
minute.  They  are  then  filled  up  with  water,  a<,'ain 
run  fi>r  2  liuurs,  and  tlic  water  drawn  otl'.  The 
amali;ani  is  strained  tinouyh  a  canvas  bag  to  remove 
a  portion  of  tlie  nuicksilver.  The  tailings  are 
washed  in  a  settler,  and  thence  passed  through  a 
series  of  sluiee-bo.xes  into  a  Hume  about  (iUO  feet 
long  and  4  feet  wide,  pi'ovided  with  riffles. 

The  amalgam  is  distilled  in  circular  retorts. 

The  I'.VN  rudCKss.  •  This  process  was  dc-signed 
especially  for  operating  ujion  ores  of  poorer  cpiality, 
dispensing  with  roasting  incident  to  the  barrel  pro- 
cess and  to  the  frei[uent  manipulations  and  loss  of 
time  incident  to  the  patio  process.  The  ores  of  the 
mine  being  sorted  into  three  grades  of  comparative 
richness,  tlie  first,  assaying  over  $  90  per  ton,  and 
containing  a  great  deal  of  sulphur  and  refractory 
metals,  is  stamped  dry  and  reserved  for  the  barrel 
process;  while  the  second,  from  1 40  to  $90  per 
ton,  and  the  thinl,  from  |  20  to  S  40  per  ton,  are 
stamped  wet  and  treated  by  the  pan  process. 

Tlie  cruslunl  ore,  after  pas.sing  through  the  screen 
of  the  stamp-box,  is  conveyed  to  the  settlers,  passing 
from  one  to  anotlier  till  the  water  runs  off  clear. 

The  ]ians  are  very  various  in  their  construction, 
and  a  number  of  tliem  will  be  shown  in  this  section 
of  the  article  on  amalgamation.  The  connnon  pan 
is  a  round,  wooden,  or  east-iion  tub,  six  feet  in  di- 
ameter, two  feet  in  depth,  and  with  a  Hat  bottom. 

Fig.  144. 


the  apertures  J.  The  false  bottom  is  made  one  inch 
less  in  diameter  than  the  bottom  of  the  pan  itself, 
and  has  an  aperture  in  the  center  an  inch  lai-ger  in 
diameter  tlian  tlie  base  of  the  pillar,  in  which  the 
vertical  shaft  works.     To  fasten  the  bottom  in  its 


Fig.  145. 


Commi'n  Amaf^fimntitjg  Fan. 

A  false  bottom  of  l.\-inch  iron  is  iirserted  into 
this,  and  a  Indhiw  pillar  in  the  center  admits  the 
pas.sage  of  an  upriglit  sliaft  whicdi  is  generally  worked 
by  gearing  beiieatli  tile  pan,  capable  of  communi- 
cating to  it  from  lifteen  to  twenty  revolutions  per 
minute.     It  is  sometimes  geared  mucli  higher. 

To  the  wooden  arms  a  are  attached  the  blocks 
b,  also  of  wood,  to  which  are  fastened  the  iron 
shoes  c,  by  means  of  the  bolts  d,  passing  up  through 
the  arms.  Each  slioe  has  also  an  iron  pin,  about 
an  inch  in  length,  which  fits  into  the  wooden 
block  and  keeps  the  iron -facing  steadily  in  its 
place.  On  the  shaft  /  passing  through  the  central 
pillar  r  is  the  yoke  (j,  which,  being  fitted  with  a 
sliding  key,  can  be  raised  by  m"ans  of  the  screw  /( ,- 
and  the  endsof  the  yoke  itself,  being  attaclied  to  the 
wooden  cross-arms,  the  mul'ers  will  be  raised  at  tlie 
same  time.  Steam  is  introduieil  into  the  pan  by 
the  jiipe  i,  the  discharge  being  clfected  by  means  ot 


Norlands  Amalgamator. 

place,  and  jirevent  the  mercury  from  finding  its  way 
under  it,  strips  of  cloth,  abc-.;t  two  inches  in  width, 
are  lapped  around  the  edge 
of  the  false  bottom,  as  well  as 
applied  against  the  sides  of 
the  pan. 

A  little  iron  cement  is  then 
poured  in,  and  the  bottom 
secured  in  its  place  by  means 
of  well-dried  wooden  wedges 
tight'y  driven  between  tlie 
two  layers  of  cloth.  These 
wedges,  which  are  driven 
quite  close  to  each  other, 
must  be  somewhat  shorter 
than  the  thickness  of  the 
false  bottom,  thus  leaving  a 
space  above  them  which  is 
subsequently  covered  with  a 
paste  of  iron  cement,  that  is 
allowed  to  set  before  using 
the  apparatus.  About  one- 
horse  power  is  required  to  work 
this  pan,  which  will  amalgamate  from  one  and  a  half 
to  two  tons  of  on^  in  the  course  of  twenty-four  hours. 
NdHTON,  September  18,  1860.  The  annular  re- 
volving funnel  G  di.stributes  the  powdered  material 
by  pipes  //  to  the  space  near  the  central  pillar 
through  which  the  vertical  shaft  passes.  The 
grooves  in  the  faces  of  the  muUer  and  bed-plate 
are  arranged  in  curved  lines,  so  that  the  material  is 
fed  from  the  center  towards  the  circumference  before 
it  reaches  the  discharge-openings  0.  Projecting 
points,  as  the  mnller  and  bed-plates,  act  upon  the 
fed  material,  and  force  it  from  the  center  as  it 
passes  from  the  pipes  If  into  the  mill,  giving  it  an 
eccentric  motion,  and  causing  it  to  come  repeatedly 
under  the  tiiturating  operation.  The  balauce-rynd 
with  its  niullers  is  adjustable  vertically  on  the 
shaft  to  regulate  the  proximity  of  the  grinding 
surfaces. 

Vaiiney,  December  16,  1862,  and  July  12,  1864. 


AMALGAMATOR. 


79 


AMALGAMATOR. 


A  stationary  bed-plate  is  attached  to  the  floor  of  |  balance-rynd  a,  to  wliose  ends  are  attached  the  mul- 


the  pan  A,  and  has  radial  grooves  which  are  tilled 
with  wood.  The  rotary-disk  lias  radial,  o]ien  grooves, 
formed  by  the  intervals  between  the  sectional  pieces 
which  are  attached  to  tlie  face  of  the  disk  and  form 
the  mullers.  The  disk  itself  is  an  annulus,  and  is 
connected  by  arms  i  with  the  outer  tube  /t,  which 
forms  the  balance-rynd  and  rests  ujjon  the  central 
pillar  m,  being  rotated  by  the  central  shaft  wliich 
is   driTen   by  gearing  below.     The   opening  in  the 


Vamey''s  Amalgamating  Pan. 

center  of  the  rotating  disk  is  considerably  larger 
than  the  tube  h,  so  as  to  leave  a  hiatus  in  winch 
the  material  collects.  The  action  is  such  that  the 
ore  will  pass  outward  from  this  central  space  be- 
tween the  faces  of  the  upper  and  lower  mvillers,  and 
arriving  at  the  peripheral  opening  is  drawn  in  by 
spiral  scrapers  6-,  which  are  supi)orted  from  al:iove  and 
return  the  pulp  over  the  top  of  the  upper  muller,  to 
the  central  space,  for  a  repetition  of  the  operation. 
The  shoes  are  renewable,  and  are  secured  to  the  disk 
by  rivets  which  are  cast  in  them.  The  operation  of 
this  apparatus  is  as  follows  :  The  space  about  the 
periphery  of  the  lower  muller  is  filled  with  <[uick- 
silver,  and  the  pan  nearly  filled  with  pulp  of  the 
proper  consistency  to  flow  easily  ;  the  shaft  is  now 
made  to  revolve  at  a  proper  speed,  from  sixty  to 
eighty  revolutions  per  minute,  by  which  the  upper 
muller  is  rotated.  The  pulji  between  the  nnillers,  by 
means  of  the  centrifugal  force  developed,  is  made  to 
pass  out  through  the  radial  channels  between  the 
dies,  as  well  as  between  the  grinding  surfaces  of  the 
upper  and  lower  mullers  ;  also  into  and  over  the 
quicksilver,  thereby  causing  amalgamation. 

The  outward  motion  of  the  pulp  has  the  effect 
of  keeping  the  quicksUver  entirely  away  from  the 
grinding  surface,  thereby  obviating  what  has  often 
proved  a  very  serious  difficulty,  namely,  the  grinding 
of  the  mercury. 

The  rotation  of  the  upper  muller  causes  the  pulp 
in  the  ))an  to  revolve  with  it.  This  current  is  met 
by  the  cuneiform  projections  and  curved  plates,  and 
thereby  turned  toward  the  central  opening  in  the 
upper  muller.  The  radial  slots  between  the  shoes, 
running  from  the  central  opening  to  the  outward 
one,  allow  currents  of  considerable  size  to  pass  with 
great  velocity  ;  and  the  pulp  filling  these  .slots, 
being  continually  thrown  outwardly,  tends  to  pro- 
duce a  vacuum.  By  this  the  pulp  in  the  body  of 
the  pan  is  set  in  motion,  causing  a  rapid  and  abun- 
dant flow  downward  at  the  center,  and  upward 
along  the  inner  surface  of  the  pan.  The  pulp  is 
thus  made  to  circulate  until  the  complete  pulver- 
ization of  the  quartz  and  amalgamation  of  the  metals 
have  taken  place. 

CoLEMAX,  August  18,  1863.  The  muller  of  this 
pan  is  driven,  as  are  the  preceding,  by  the  central 
vertical  shaft  which  is  jirojected  up  the  central 
cavity   of  the  annular  pan.     The  shaft  supports  a 


ler  C,  which  revolves  between  two  plates  B  D,  re- 
spectively below  anil  above.  The  muller  C  has  cor- 
rugations on  its  upper  and  lower  surfaces,  as  have  also 


CotemafCs  Amalsamator. 

the  surfaces  with  which  it  comes  in  contact.  The 
vertical  position  of  the  rotary-wheel  or  muller  is  ad- 
justed by  the  central  wheel  b,  and  that  of  the  upper 
plate  H  by  the  set  screws  c,  which  are  four  in  num- 
ber and  set  at  opposite  points.  By  this  double  ad- 
justment the  spaces  between  the  grinding  suifaces 
are  gradually  ajiproached,  as  the  pulp  becomes  finer 
in  the  progress  of  the  work. 

Wheeler,  December  8,  1863.  The  lower  face  of 
the  rotary-muUer  has  spirally  cuivcd  grooves  which 
act  in  apposition  to  reversedly  curved  spiral  grooves 
on  the  bed-plate  or  stationary  muller.  I'ig.  148 
is  a  vertical  section,  and  Fig.  149  shows  the  pan  in 
perspective,  the  muller  being  raised  and  turned  bot- 
tom upwards.     The  dies  a  are  attached  to  the  bed 

Fig.  148. 


Wheeler's  Amalgamating  Pan. 


of  the  pan,  and  the  shoes  b  to  the  rotary-disk  ;  this 
is  attached  to  the  hollow  cone  F  (see  Fig.  148). 
which  is  connected  to  the  vertical  shaft  ff,_  and 
that  to  gearing  beneath  the  ]ian.  The  dies  a 
are  kept  in  their  places  by  the  central  ring  e.  and  on 
the  sides  by  the  inclined  ledges  d,  under  which  their 
edfes  are  wedged.  Spiral  ribs  are  fi.xed  on  the 
periphery  of  the  rotary-muller,  and  act  in  concert 
with  revei-sedly  spiral  ribs  d  attached  to  the  side 
of  the  pan  to  create  an  u]nvard  current  in  the  pulp, 
which  is  then  swept  toward  the  center  again  by 
curved  guide-plates  attached  to  the  blocks  c  on  the 


AMALGAMATOR. 


80 


AMALGAMATOR. 


Fig.  149. 


Wheeler^s  Amalgamator. 

inside  of  tlie  pan.  Tliis  pan  is  i  feet  in  diameter  at 
the  bottom,  is  said  to  renuire  from  2i  to  3  horse 
power  to  run  it  etfeetively,  and  is  geared  for  sixty 
revolutions  per  minute.  Tlie  muller  is  connected  to 
its  driver  liy  a  universal  joint.  The  pan  has  a  double 
bottom,  ancl  is  heated  by  steam  admitted  to  the  space 
thus  tormcd. 

WilF.i;i.EU,  July  14,  18(53.     This  machine  is  con- 
structed for  saving  the   mercury  from  the  pulj)  or 

Fig.  150. 


Wheeter\t  Separator. 

waste  matter  which  escapes  from  the  ordinary  amal- 
gamators, and  consists  of  a  tub  with  concave  bottom 
and  a  central  depression,  in  which  is  a  vertical  tubu- 
lar rotary-shaft  having  arms  on  which  pads  are 
placed,  wliich  rub  on  the  bottom  and  collect  the 
I)articles  of  mercury  which  run  down  into  the  cen- 
tral chaTubt-r  ;  water  is  suiiplied  tliroui^h  the  hollow 
shaft,  which  may  be  decanted  olf  by  a  siphon  or 
cocks,  and  the  quicksilver  drawn  olf  by  the  lower 
tube  connected  witb  the  gatheiing-chaniber. 

Ilr.i'iuii'.x  Asn  PF.TF.itsoN,  April  19,  1S64.  This 
])an  dill'ers  mainly  from  the  foregoing  in  the  shape 
of  tlie  bottom,  which  is  inclined  towards  the  center, 


or  shaped  like  an   inverted  cone.       The  shoes   are 
bolted  to  the  face  of  the  conical  muller   in  such  a 

Fig.  151. 


Anial£;amnting  Pan- 


way  as  to  leave  intervals  which  form  spiral  grooves. 
Tlie  dies  of  the  bed  are  fastened  to  the  pan  bottom, 
and  have  a  similar  aiTangement.  forming  spiral  con- 
ductors whereby  the  )inl))  is  led  towards  the  periph- 
ery ;  ascending  against  the  sides  of  the  ]ian,  it  de- 
scends by  gravitation  over  the  upper  surface  of  the 
rotary-mnller,  is  collected  at  the  center,  and  again 
driven  outwards.  A  constant  and  active  circulation 
is  thus  established  without  the  aid  of  the  curved 
scrapers  shown  in  some  of  the  ]jrec<'ding  examples. 
The  cbai'ge  for  this  ]iaii  is  about  1,400  ]iounds,  and 
the  time  requisite  for  working  it  from  two  to  four 
hours,  according  to  circiuiistances.  The  rate  of  run- 
ning is  from  fiity  to  sixty  revolutions  jier  minute. 
The  muller  is  sujqiorted  upon  a  balance-rynd,  as  in 
the  previous  e.Namjiles,  and  is  adjustable  veitically 
by  hand-wheels,  a  thimble,  and  a' tubular  screw. 

The  following  two  are  examples  of  planetary  mo- 
tion. 

Hansbkow,  October  27,  1863.     The  pan  has  the 

Fig.  152. 


Hansbrow^s  Amalgamating  Pan. 


AMALGAMATOR. 


81 


AMALGAMATOR. 


same  fcntuies  as  the  foregoing,  but  the  action  of  the 
muUers  is  different.  The  vertical  shaft  is  driven 
by  gearing  beluw,  and  passes  up  through  a  central 
cavit}-  in  the  annular  pan.  On  the  summit  of  the 
shaft  is  an  arm  iu  which  are  journaled  the  vertical 
shafts  of  the  dependent  muUers.  Each  of  the  latter 
shafts  has  a  pinion  which  engages  a  circular  station- 
ary rack  on  the  inner  edge  of  the  pan,  so  that,  as 
the  mullers  revolve  around  the  main  .shaft,  they 
have  also  a  rotary  motion  on  their  own  a.\es.  They 
thus  acquire  what  is  called  a  planetary  motion,  ro- 
tating as  they  revolve. 

The  grinding  effect  of  this  motion  is  very  satis- 
factory, and  the  uiuUers  wear  nearly  evenly.  The 
effect  of  a  simply  revolving  niuller  is  to  wear  the 
fastest  nearer  the  periphery,  as  that  passes  over  a 
gi'eater  frictional  surface  in  describing  a  larger  cir- 
cle. This  difficulty  is,  however,  met  by  Dodge's 
patent,  described  elsewhere  in  this  article. 

Kenvox,  July  19,  1S64.  This,  like  the  one  im- 
mediately preceding,  consists  of  a  circular  pan, 
through  the  center  of  which  passes  a  vertical  shaft. 
To  the  upper  end  of  the  shaft  is  attached  a  cross- 
head  fitted  with  a  yoke,  through  which  a  screw 
passes  and  rests  upon  the  end  of  the  shaft.  At  the 
ends  of  the  cross-head,  bows  are  attached  carrj'ing 
the  vertical  shalts,  upon  which  are  pinions  gearing 
into  a  stationary  wheel.  At  the  end  of  each  shaft 
are  placed  anns,  and  at  their  ends  are  irons  for 
receiving  the  mullers.  The  mullers  have  a  quad- 
rangu.'ar  arrangement  at  the  ends  of  arms  o,  .sim- 
ilarly disposed  and  radiating  from  the  shafts  I. 
As  in  the  preceding  example,  they  have  rotation 
on  their  own  axes  by  the  engagement  of  their 
respective  pinions  m  with  the  stationary  wheel  n, 

Fig.  153. 


and  have  also  a  revolution  in  the  track  foi-med 
by  the  annular  pan,  owing  to  the  rotation  of  the 
shaft  n  and  cross-head.  The  adjustment  of  press- 
ure of  the  niullei-s  on  the  face  of  the  pan  is  ob- 
tained by  the  set-screw  ),  which  passes  through  the 
yoke  h  and  rests  on  the  shaft  a.  Each  muUer 
receives  a  cycloidal  movement. 

The  process  of  working  in  pans  is  not  merehi  a 
mechanical  trituration  of  the  material,  and  an 
exposure  of  it  to  the  contact  of  mercury.  These, 
of  course,  are  necessari-  incidents,  but  the  chemical 
reactions  of  the  constituents  are  in  many  respects 
similar  to  those  described  under  the  patio  process 
and  the  barrel  process  of  Freiburg  and  Nevada. 
The  energy  of  the  treatment,  however,  has  the  effect 
of  expediting  the  decomposition  of  the  material  and 
the  combination  of  the  precious  metals  with  the 
mercury. 

S 


In  operating,  the  charge  ha\-ing  been  placed  iu 
the  pan,  the  muller  is  put  in  motion,  and  gradually 
lowered  as  the  material  becomes  pulverized.  Steam 
is  then  injected  into  the  mass,  raising  its  tempera- 
ture to  200°  Fahr.,  care  being  taken  to  retain  a  projjcr 
consistence.  The  muller  being  slightly  raised,  quick- 
silver is  added  in  a  shower  from  a  canvas  bag,  to 
the  extent  of  from  ten  to  fifteen  per  cent  of  the 
material  under  treatment  ;  sulphate  of  copper  and 
sulphuric  acid  are  also  added  in  small  quantities  ; 
also  salt  in  some  cases.  Many  suggestions  of  ma- 
terials to  be  added  are  rife  among  the  miners,  but 
appear  to  be  empiric  in  their  character,  and  not 
derived  from  critical  chemical  consideration  of  the 
reactions  taking  ]ilace  or  required.  The  runnhig 
of  the  pan  to  complete  the  amalgamation  is  con- 
tinued for  three  or  four  hours.  The  pulp  is  then 
thinned  so  as  to  flow  out  of  an  opening  in  the 
bottom  of  the  pan,  and  is  conducted  to  the  se])a- 
rator  ;  or  it  may  be  thinned  and  .settled  in  the  pan, 
reducing  the  pulp  so  as  to  allow  the  heavier  ]ior- 
tions  to  settle,  and  decanting  the  mere  liquid  either 
by  siphon  or  by  opening  the  cocks  on  the  side  of 
the  pan,  beginning  at  the  uppermost  and  proceeding 
downwards  in  order,  as  the  condition  of  the  settling 
renders  advisable.  Several  of  the  examples  show 
these  cocks,  but  others  are  so  arranged  that  the 
pan  will  tip  on  its  hinges  and  discharge  its  contents. 
In  the  larger  pans,  where  it  is  desired  to  make  the 
work  as  continuous  as  may  be,  the  whole  charge  of 
the  pan  is  drained  oft'  and  subjected  in  a  separator 
to  a  second  process  of  dividing  the  eaithy  paiticles 
from  the  metal,  in  order  that  the  jian  may  be 
expeditiously  recharged  and  proceed  with  its  work. 

One  of  these  sejiaratoi-s  is  shown  in  this  article, 
but  the  common  pan  (also  shown)  is  frequently 
used. 

In  the  separator  the  pulp  is  mixed  with  a  large 
quantity  of  water,  and  a  regular  steady  supply  kept 
up,  so  as  to  carry  off  the  lighter  particles  of  earthy 
matter,  at  first  from  holes  in  the  u]iper  part  of  the 
pan  ;  but  as  the  separation  proceeds  the  discharging- 
point  is  gradually  lowered,  until  eventually  nothing 
but  the  heavier  pyrites  and  liquid  amalgam  is  left. 
The  amalgam  is  drawn  ofl'from  the  bottom,  and  the 
pyrites  then  scooped  out,  and  after  being  further 
washed  in  another  separating-pan,  to  remove  the 
last  traces  of  amalgam,  it  is  reserved  for  final  treat- 
ment by  calcination  and  reduction  in  barrels.  The 
amalgam  is  now  carefully  washed  in  clean  water, 
ilried  with  flannels,  and  finally  removed  to  tlie 
amalgam-room,  where  it  is  strained  through  thick 
conical  bags  of  canvas  twelve  inches  in  diameter  at 
the  larger  end,  and  two  feet  in  length. 

After  the  bags  have  drained  for  some  time,  they 
are  beaten  with  a  round  stick  to  cause  a  fcrther 
quantity  of  the  mercury  to  I'un  oH'.  The  haid,  dry 
amalgam  is  finally  removed  from  the  bags  and 
weighed  into  store. 

The  mercury  run  off  from  the  bags  is  technically 
known  as  "charged  quicksilver,"  and  after  being 
mixed  with  retorted  mercury  is  returned  to  the 
pan-room  for  farther  use.  Charged  quicksilver  is 
preferred  to  the  pure  metal,  as  with  it  amalgan;ation 
is  found  to  proceed  more  rapidly. 

A.M.iLOAM.iTiON  OF  Ro.i.sTED  Ores.  In  some 
of  the  mining  districts  of  Nevada,  and  particularly 
in  the  neighborhood  of  Austin,  where  the  ores  con- 
sist of  various  compound  sulphides  of  silver,  contain- 
ing a  considerable  amount  of  antimony,  the  ordinary 
pan  process,  as  practised  at  Virginia  City,  cannot  be 
advantageously  employed.  The  ores  from  this  jiart 
of  the  State  consequently  require  roasting  before 
being  subjected  to  amalgamation,  and  then,   when 


AMALGAMATOR. 


82 


AMALGAMATOR. 


r    1  ,  T  1 


woi'ki'il  ill  tlie  p.iiis,  airoid  better  results  than  tliose 
obtiiiiu'd  tVuiii  tile  ores  of  the  Coinstock  vein  treated 
in  their  rasv  state.  Each  battery  of  five  stam))ers 
will  crush  (dry)  lour  tons  of  ore  daily,  through  a 
wire-gauze  screen  of  forty  holes  per  linear  inch. 
One  thousand  pounds  of  this  crushed  ore  are  roasted 
with  eight  per  cent  of  common  salt  ;  the  time 
occupied  in  tlie  furnace  by  each  charge  being,  on 
an  average,  si.x  hours.  Pans  are  most  commonly 
employed,  and  are  charged  with  from  eight  hundred  to 

one  thousand  pounds 
Fin.  154.  of  roasted  ore,  which 

occupiies  live  hours 
in  working.  A  mill 
often  stampers,  with 
all  the  necessary 
furnaces,  pans,  and 
appliances,  willtre.at 
eight  tons  of  ore  in 
the  course  of  twen- 
ty-four hours,  with 
a  total  consumption 
of  about  ten  cords 
of  wood.  It  is  stat- 
ed that  the  loss  of 
silver  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  Austin, 
where  tlie  ores  con- 
tain little  or  no 
gold,  seldom  ex- 
ceeds seven  per  cent 
of  the  assay  value. 
Si'KNCEH,  Novem- 


Spencer^s  Amalgamator. 


ber  22,  186-t.  The  treatment  is  designed  to  desul- 
liliurize  the  ore  simultaneously  with  its  exposure  to 
tlie  mercurial  fumes.  The  ore,  liiiely  pulverized,  is 
placed  in  a  vcssl'I  with  a  small  amount  of  mercury, 
and  the  vessel  then  strongly  closed.  Heat  is  then 
Fig.  155. 


Aina'ijmn   Retort. 


applied,  so  as  to  vaporize  the  mercury.  After  this 
treatment  the  ore  is  placed  in  any  suitalile  ainalga- 
uiating  vessel,  and  washed  and  treated  in  the 
usual  way. 

Rktokting.  The  silver  or  gold  amalgam  is  treated 
in  the  assay-office,  and  the  mercury  separated  by  dis- 
tillation in  a  cast-iron  retort  with  a  luted  cover, 
jilaced  upon  an  arch  of  fire-brick,  and  having  another 
arch  above  it,  being,  with  the  exception  of  one  end, 
enclosed  within  a  chamber.  Fig.  155  shows  the 
arrangement  of  the  retort  and  chamber.  Tlie  charge 
of  amalgam  is  weighed  and  placed  in  a  semicircular 
tray  divided  by  a  transverse  partition.  Before 
being  put  in  the  tray  the  amalgam  is  coated  with 
milk  of  lime  or  a  thin  wash  of  clay,  a  sheet  of  paper 
being  sometimes  placed  under  it  ;  by  these  means 
the  amalgam  is  prevented  from  adhering  to  the 
tray.  The  tray  being  placed  in  the  retort,  the  cover 
is  closed  and  carefully  luted  with  a  thin  paste  of 
clay  and  wood-ashes.  The  fire  is  then  lighted  in 
the  furnace,  and  the  heat  very  gradually  raised 
until  the  retort  is  at  a  bright  red  heat.  The  llame 
and  smoke  from  the  furnace  pass  through  the  Hues 
a  a,  etc.,  up  into  the  chamber  b  and  around  the 
retort,  tlie  smoke,  etc.  ascending  into  the  chim- 
ney d  through  the  flues  1,  2,  3,  etc.,  and  the  cham- 
ber c,  the  draft  being  regulated  by  dampers  at- 
tached to  these  flues.  A  horizontal  pipe  Z>  is  fitted 
into  the  inner  end  of  the  retort,  and  is  so  connected 
to  the  vertical  downcast  pipe  E  that  they  admit  of 
being  readily  separated  for  cleaning  ;  the  pipe  £ 
terminates  in  a  chamber  open  at  the  bottom,  and  im- 
mersed sufficiently  deep  in  a  tank  of  water  to  keep 
it  air-tight,  but  not  to  allow  of  water  being  drawn 
up  into  the  heated  retort,  and  passes  through  an 
outer  pipe  F,  in  which  a  current  of  water  circulates 
IVom  below  njnvard,  having  its  exit  by  a  pipe  at  the 
top.  As  the  retort  becomes  heated  the  volatilized 
mercury  passes  through  the  pipes  -D  and  E,  being 
condensed  in  its  passage  through  the  lattei-,  and 
accumulates  in  the  reservoir  G,  from  whence  it  is 
drawn  off  by  a  bent  tube. 

When  the  mercury  has  ceased  to  distil  over,  the 
retort  is  allowed  to  cool  gradually,  and  when  cold  tlie , 
retorted  silver  is  withdrawn,  and  it  and  the  mercury 
which  has  passed  over  are  weighed  for  the  purpose 
of  ascertaining  if  there  has  been  any  leakage  from 
the  retort. 

A  sheet-iron  hood  is  placed  over  the  furnace- 
door  to  conduct  any  escaping  vapors  into  the  flues. 
According  to  Phillips,  the 
cost  of  working  from  $  45  to 
$  50  ores  by  the  pan  process 
is,  in  those  portions  of  the 
State  of  Nevada  in  which 
water-power  can  be  obtained, 
nearly  as  follows  ;  — 

Per  ton. 
Stamping  wet,  through 

No.  6  screens  .  .  $  1.50 
Milling,   including,  the 

loss  of  mercury,  etc.        5.00 

Total     cost    including     

wear  and  tear  .  .  $6.50 
The  loss  of  mercury  amounts 
to  from  1;^  to  IJ  pounds  for 
each  ton  of  ore  containing  sil- 
ver to  the  amount  of  from 
$  35  to  $  50  per  ton. 

The  B.VRUEL  Process  as  ap- 
plied to  gold  is  exemplified  in 
many  forms.  In  Fig.  156  the 
gold  is  amalgamated  in  hollow 
revolving  cylinders  upon  hori- 


3^ 


AMALGAMATOR. 


83 


AMALGAMATOR. 


Fig.  156. 


csiy 


inder  turns  thereon.  The  pipe  D  connects 
with  a  retort,  and  conducts  therefrom  the 
mercurial  fumes  which  pass  into  the  cylin- 
der through  perforations  in  the  lower  part 
of  the  pipe.  The  end  D'  of  the  pipe  dips 
into  a  vessel  of  water  that  condenses  any 
mercurial  vapor  which  passes  over  when  the 
stopcock  g  is  opened.  The  cock  regulates 
the  pressure  of  vapor  in  the  cylinder,  which 
has  a  door  by  which  it  is  charged  and  un- 
charged. 

Staats,  March  13, 1866.  Theore  is  placed 
in  a  closed  vessel  in  company  with  an  al- 
lowance of  quicksilver,  and  is  then  rotated 


Fig.  169. 


Wright's  Barrel  Amalgamator. 

zontal  axes,  the  trunnions  being  hollow  to  admit  the 
pulverized  ore  from  one  cylinder  into  another.  The 
cylindere  are  connected  by  flanges  or  S-pipes  with 
grooves  turned  into  the  axes  or  trunnions,  and  rings 
are  fitted  into  the  grooves  and  covered  by  the 
flanges  ;  the  whole  are  so  connected  as  to  make  them 
water  or  steam  tight,  and  so  arranged  as  to  give  a 
fall  of  about  six  inches  to  each  cylinder.  The  cyl- 
inders contain  rollers,  knives,  burnishers,  and  other 
analogous  arrangements  to  produce  friction,  scour 
the  ore,  and  assist  the  contact  with  the  quicksilver. 
Heath,  February  17,  1863.  This  machine  con- 
sists of  a  cylinder  which  rotates  upon  an  axis  diago- 
nal with  the  true  cylindrical   axis,    and  is  formed 

with  a  corrugat- 
Fig.  157.  ed   interior  sur- 

face, the  corru- 
gations running 
parallel  with 
the  true  axis 
and  across  the 
end  ;  it  is  al.so 
jirovided  with 
annular  ribs, 
which  project 
from  the  inside 
of  the  cylinder 
1  in  a  plane  paral- 
-  lei  to  the  heads 
and  at  right  an- 
gles to  the  axis 
of  the  cylinder.  The  effect  of  the  obliquity  of  the 
axis  of  rotation  is  to  make  the  contents  slide  ami 
roll  as  the  raichine  is  rotated.  A  lid  admits  to  the 
interior,  and  the  latter  is  also  entered  by  a  pipe. 
Hall,  February  28,  1866.     The  hoii^ontal  rotat- 

Fig.  158. 


Heatk's  Amalgamator. 


HalVs   Cylinffer  Amalgamator. 


ing  cylinder  A  has  internal  lifters  c  c,  which  raise  and 
turn  over  the  pulverized  quartz  contained  there- 
in.    The   central   pipe   is  stationary,  and  the  cyl- 


Stants^s  Amalgamator. 


on  its  horizon- 
tal axis  above 
the  fire  in  the 
furnace.  The 
fumeseliminat- 
ed  by  the  heat 
from  the  mercury  penetrate  the  material  as  it  is 
agitated  by  the  rotation  of  the  vessel. 

Sturgf.s,  September  18,  1866.  The  barrel  amal- 
gamator has  a  pocket  to  retain 
the  mercury  and  distribute  it 
to  the  ore  as  the  baiTel  revolves. 
The  cylinder  is  stayed  by  dia- 
metric bolts. 

Gold.  The  Battery  Process. 
In  the  amalgamation  of  gold ' 
ores  the  auriferous  quartz  is 
broken  by  a  crasher  into  pieces 
of  about  a  pound  weight,  and 
is  then  stamped.  For  wet 
crushing,  stamps  are  used  weigh-  Stmges's  Amalgamator. 
ing  from  five  to  nine  hundred 
pounds  including  the  stem,  and  are  driven  at  the 
rate  of  seventy  blows  per  minute  with  a  fall  of  from 
six  to  nine  inches.  They  are  fed  by  an  attendant 
whose  duty  it  is  to  regulate  the  supply  of  ore,  water, 
and  quicksilver,  when,  that  metal  is  used  in  the  bat- 
tery for  amalgamating  the  free  gold  present. 

Amalgamation  in  the  battery  requires  careful 
attention,  principally  to  avoid  the  too  rapid  addi- 
tion of  quicksilver,  which  should  be  supjilied  in 
ver>'  small  quantities  only. 

To  amalgamate  the  free  gold  in  a  battery,  the 
quantity  of  quicksilver  to  be  used  is  about  oiie 
ounce  weight  to  each  ounce  of  gold  present  ;  this 
is  suflicient  to  collect  the  gold  and  form  a  dry 
amalgam.  If,  therefore,  a  mill  will  stam]i  twenty- 
four  tons  of  ore  in  twenty-four  hours,  and  the  ore 
contain  an  ounce  of  gold  per  ton,  it  will  be  neces- 
sary to  put  into  the  battery  an  ounce  of  quicksilver 
eve'ry  hour.  Wlien,  in  addition  to  gold,  the  rock 
under  treatment  contains  metallic  silver,  the  amount 
of  mercurv  added  must  be  proportionably  incieased. 
Jlore  than  eighty  per  cent  of  the  assay  value  of  the 
gold  in  the  ore  may  by  careful  manipulation  be  thus 
obtained.  The  gold  amalgam  accumulates  in  the. 
corners  and  crevices  of  the  battery  box,  between  the 
dies,  on  the  breast  of  the  mortar,  over  which  the 
crushed  ore  is  washed  into  the  settling-cisterns,  and 
is  even  found  in  considerable  qunntities  adhering  to  • 
the  stamp-shoes.  The  amalgan.  thus  obtained  is 
very  hard  and  hea%'y,  and  is  commonly  so  rich  in 


AMALOAMATOF. 


84 


AMALGAMATOR. 


Dodgers  Amalsamator. 


goUl  as  to  be  worth  us  nnicli  as  ten  tlollars  per  ounce. 
The  crushed  ore  is  taken  off  from  the  mortar  by  a 
supply  of  water,  e(iual  to  the  run  of  J-inch  pipe  to 
each  set  of  five  stamps,  passing  through  screens  in 
the  back  and  front  of  the  box.  These  screens  are 
made  of  thin  Russia  iron  perforated  witli  holes 
punrlied  by  si'wing-needles. 

Auriferous  sand  is  treated  in  divers  amalgamating 
machines  ;  it  being  already  in  a  comminuted  state,  it 
is  not  necessary  to  put  it  through  the  battery. 

DoriGK,  May  3,  1S64.  This  invention  relates  to 
an  anangement  of  the  rotary-shoes  of  the  machine, 
whereby  the  outer  ones,  which  are  subjected  to  the 
most  wear  in   consequence  of  having   the  greatest 

speed,  may  al- 
Fig.  161.  ways     be     ad- 

justed so  as  to 
run  in  contact 
with  the  bot- 
tom of  the  pan, 
and  the  wear 
tliereby  com- 
pensated for. 
In  the  ordi- 
nary amalga- 
mating m  a- 
chinestheout- 
ier  shoes,  in 
consequence of 
being  subject- 
ed to  more  wear  than  the  inner  ones,  soon  become 
com  paratively  useless. 

The  adjustable  shoes  are  attached  to  supplemental 
bars,  which  are  hinged  to  the  radial  arms  D,  and  are 
also  connected  thereto  by  springs  which  pemiit  ad- 
justment of  the  pressure. 

ifUccUaiuoiis  Mnxhincs.  The  following  are  diverse 
in  their  constniction  from  those  previously  cited,  and 
are  not  strictly  referable  to  either  of  the  classes, 
while  partaking  of  some  of  the  features  of  the  "pan" 
anil  the  "  barrel  "  process. 

Cn.\riLES,  September  25,  1866.  The  inclined 
panners  B  are  suspended  by  rods  from  the  frame, 

and  are  oscillat- 
F'g-  182.  ed    by   machin- 

ery. They  dis- 
charge into  a 
trough  which 
leads  the  ore- 
dust  and  water 
to  a  giinding- 
pan.  The  ore 
and  water  enter 
the  eye  of  the 
runner,  and  pass 
between  it  and 
the  beil-plate  to 
the  periphery,  at 
which  they  are 
discharged  by  a  spout  to  a  series  of  anialgamat- 
ing-boxes,  each  of  wiiicli  consists  of  a  case  A'  con- 
taining a  series  of  coiijier  pans  placed  in  vertical 
series.  The  ujiper  muUer  L  has  a  rotai-y  motion, 
and  the  lower  one  an  oscillation,  derived  from  the 
crank  and  pitman  0.  The  shell  M,  whose  lloor  forms 
the  lower  mulh^r,  travels  on  rollers  as  it  oscillates. 

BiiocK,  May  1,  IStill.  The  upper  surface  of  the 
revolving  disk  c  is  divided  into  a  number  of  recepta- 
cles, and  the  lower  surface  of  the  disk  above  it  is 
rilibed.  The  respective  disks  i-evolve  in  different 
directions.  The  receptacles  are  filled  with  mer- 
•  cury,  and  the  action  of  the  upper  plate  n  is  to  feed 
tlie  pulverized  ore  from  the  center  continually  to- 
wards   the   periphery,    its    gravity   keeiiiug    it    as 


Charlen^s  Amalgamator. 


Fig.  1J3. 


Brock^s  Amalgamator. 

a  film  in  contact  with  the  mercury  upon  which  it 
floats  and  travels.  The  disks  are  rotated  by  the 
engagement  of  their  respective  pinions  with  bevel- 
wheels  on  the  driving-shaft. 

Battels,  January  6,  1863.  This  apparatus  con- 
sists of  a  .series  of  toothed  annular  ]ilates  H  I, 
secured  to  the  casing  of  the  machine  and  inclining 
down  towards  the  center,  and  a  corresponding  num- 
ber of  revolving  toothed  jilates  E  F,  mounted  on  a 
vertical  shaft,  forming  basins  in  which  the  mercury 
is  contained  and  occupying  the  spaces  between 
the   stationary  plates.     The  material  to  be  washed 

Fig.  164. 


Battels's  ]Vasker  and  Amalgamator. 

or  scoured,  falling  on  the  outer  part  of  the  uiiper 
stationary  plate,  is  acted  on  by  the  teeth  of  the 
revolving  plate  above,  and  passes  inward  by  its  own 
gi-avity  until  it  falls  on  the  center  of  the  revolving 
plate  E  next  below,  whence  it  is  carried  outward  by 
centrifugal  action  until  it  falls  on  the  stationary 
]ilate  /  next  below,  and  so  on  to  any  extent  re- 
quired. 

The  vertical  shaft  is  stepped  in  n  lighter-bar, 
which  is  raised  or  lowered  to  adjust  the  proximity 
of  the  teeth  on  the  rotating  disks  to  those  on  the- 
stationary  ones.  The  amalgamated  metals  collect 
in  the  central  pockets,  and  are  removed  therefrom 
as  they  accumulate. 

PlETscH,  May  3,   1864.     The  upper  part  of  the 


AMALGAMATOR. 


85 


AMALGAMATOR. 


app  aratus 
consists  of  a 

O  double  seiies 
of  pans,  the  al- 
ternate    ones 

revolving  in 
different  di- 
rect io  n  s. 
Each  is 
smooth  on  its 
upper  sur- 
face, but  has 
teeth  below, 
which  agitate 
the  material 
in  the  pan 
next  b  e - 
neath.  The 
ore  and  water 
are  compelled 
into  a  tortu- 
ous course, 
falling  over 
the  edge  of 
each  pan  in 
the  series, 
and  being 
caught  by  the 
one  beneath. 
After  reach- 
ing the  point 
0,  the  ore  is  led 

in  again  to  the  center,  and  the  action  is  repeated. 

The  heavy  particles  accumulate  at  the  bottoms  of  the 

pans,  and  are  thence  removed 

to  the  amalgamators    below, 

wlieie  tlijy  are   agitated   by 

stirrers  above  and  in  contact 

with  the  mercury  which  oc- 
cupies the  depressions  in  the 

bottoms   of    the    pans ;    the 

)i:i:is  communicate  by  a  cen- 

tr.ii  channel. 

Kendhick,  May  29,  1866. 

Theagitatori?' operates  in  the 


Picisck'fi  Separator  and  Amalgamator. 


Fig.  167. 


Peck^s  Amalgamator. 


ing  platform.  Each  pan  empties  into  the  one  next 
below  it  in  the  series.  The  belly  of  each  ]'an  has 
some  mercury,  and  the  combined  vertical,  longitu- 
dinal, and  partial  rotaiy  movement  is  to  settle  the 
heavier  matters  to  the  bottoms  of  the  jians  and  sliift 
the  lighter  material  to  the  pans  next  below.  The  pe- 
culiar conjplex  motion  of  the  pans  is  intended  to  im- 
itate the  hand  motion  in  panning. 

Partz,  July  14,  1S63.  The  powdered  ore  is  dis- 
tributed in  a  dry  state  over  the  cuiTent  of  nicrcurv 
flowing  upon  the  inclined  surface  of  the  metallic 
trough.  The  surface  of  the  latter  is  amalgamated 
with  mercury,  and  that  which  flows  to  the  lower 
end  is  re-elevated  and  again  distributed  upon  the 
trough.  A  current  of  water  and  an  agitator-wheel 
assist  in  removing  the  tailings  which  reach  the 
receptacle  at  the  lower  end  of  the  trough. 

Fig.  168. 


=^. 


Fig.  166. 


Kendrick's  Amalgamator, 


bottom  of  the  tank,  being  driven  by  the  vertical 
s'.iaft  C  and  the  gearing  above.  The  box  E  occupies 
a  I  osition  near  the  bottom  of  the  tank,  and  is 
hoMtcd  by  steam  introduced  by  the  jiipe  o.  b  is  the 
disi/harge-pipe  for  the  water  of  condensation. 

rr.ci;,    February   21,    1865.       The   pans   are   ar- 
ranged in  successive  order  upon  steps  on  the  swing- 


Partz^s  Amalgamator. 

Hilt,,  January  1,  1861.  This  operates  by  centiif- 
ugal  action.  The  rotating  basin  has  a  central  de- 
pression to  contain  the  mercury,  and  its  surfaces  are 
amalgamated  to  cause  adhesion  of  the  amalgam,  as 
it  is  formed  by  the  contact  of  the  mercury  with  the 
precious  metals  in  the  pulverized  ore.  The  water, 
quartz,  and  lighter  impurities  are  expelled  over  the 
edge  of  the  basin  by  centrifugal  force,  while  (he 
heavier,  valuable  results  settle  into  thecentral  pocket. 

Gahpiner, 
October      4,  Fig-  1C9. 

1864,  subjects 
the  finely  pul- 
verized dust  of 
ores,  in  connec- 
tion with  mer- 
cury, to  a 
powerful  agita- 
tion and  cen- 
trifugal action, 
by  placing 
them  in  a  par- 
tially covered 
revolving  pan ; 
the  form  of  the 
rim  prevents 
the  loss  of  the  Hill's  Amalgamator. 


AMALGAMATOR. 


86 


AMALGAMATOR. 


metallic  portions,  while  the  lighter  impurities  are 
ejected  over  the  edge  of  the  pan,  into  which  a  stream 
of  water  constantly  flows. 

Whelpley   and  Storer,   September  11,  1866. 

Fig.  170. 


interior  surface  by  the  centrifugal   force,   and    the 
metallic  particles  are  seized  and  amalgamated  by  the 
mercury. 
The  supply  is  derived  from  the  tank  T  by  pipe  P, 


Whflpley  and  Storer's  Amalsamator. 

The  outer  cylinder  is  supported  on  shaft  attached 
by  a  hub  to  an  internal  plate.     The  interior  of  the 


Fig.  171. 


Phelps^s  Amalgamator. 

cylinder   is  coated  with  mercury  ;   the  pulp,  being 
introduced  during  rapid  rotation,  is  spread  over  the 

Fig  172. 


and  the  tailings  dis- 
charged by  pipe  S. 
Phei.p.s,  October 
18,  18-46.  The  low- 
er roller  revolves  in 
a  trough  of  mercury 
C,  and  distributes  it 
upon  the  upper 
rollers  A  B,  wliieh 
are  brought  into  an 
electric  circuit  to  in- 
crease their  attrac- 
tive energy  in  accu- 
mulating the  adlier- 


Day's  Amalgamator. 


Adams  and   Worthington^s  Amalgamator. 


ing  amalgam,  which  is  subsequently  scraped  ott'  and 
falls  into  the  receiver  0.  The  pulp  is  supplieil  to  the 
u])per  roils  through  a  spout  proceeding  from  a  tank 
J.  The  jackets  hold  the  ores  to  the  rollers  for  a  spe- 
cific portion  of  their  revolution. 

Adams  and  Wouthington,  February  12,  1864. 
This  invention  consists  in  pulverizing  the  quartz  or 
metalliferous  substances  containing  ])recious  metals 
to  an  impalpable  powder,  and  precipitating  and 
discharging  this  dust  either  in  a  calcined  or 
otherwise  prepared  condition,  in  order  to  isolate 
the  metallic  particles  from  tlieir  sulpliuious 
or  other  foreign  combinations,  into  an  atmos- 
phere of  hot  vapor  of  quicksilver.  On  the  u]i- 
per  end  of  a  vertical  stationary  cylinder  is  fitted 
a  short  cylinder,  which  is  made  to  turn  therein, 
the  same  being  provided  with  a  screen  or  liojijvr. 
Below  the  stationary  cylinder  is  a  pan  in  which 
stirrers  are  made  to  o])erate.  Communicating 
with  the  main  cylinder,  by  means  of  a  tube  placed 
a  little  below  the  screen  in  the  upper  cylin- 
der, is  a  furnace  or  still  for  distilling  the  quick- 
silver which  falls  with  the  calcined  particles  of 
ore  through  the  stationary  cylinder. 

Day,  September  26,  1865.  The  retort  is  set 
in  a  furnace  A,  and  delivers  fumes  of  mercury 
into  the  vertical  tube  D.  The  pulverized  ore 
from  the  hopper  C  is  delivered  by  a  feed-wheel 
in  graduated  quantities,  and  falls  the  length  of 
the  tube,  at  the  lower  end  of  which  it  is  deliv- 
ered by  a  discharge-wheel,  so  that  the  fumes 
may  not  escape.  The  length  of  the  tube  may 
be  such  as  is  found  sufficient  for  the  purpose, 


AMALGAMATOR. 


87 


AMALGAMATOR. 


and  the  respective  wheels  E  F  are  connected  by  a 
driring-chain.  The  particles  of  the  precious  metals 
combiiie,  in  falling,  w-ith  the  mercurial  fumes  with 
which  the  tube  is  charged. 

Hall,  December  27,  1864.  This  invention  con- 
sists of  a  series  of  curved  pipes  connected  with 
quicksilver  basins  in  such  a  manner  that  the  lower 
end  of  the  upper  pipe  and  the  upper  end  of  the 
second  pipe  will  enter  the  bottom  of  the  first  basin, 
the  end  of  the  other  pipe  extending  slightly  above 

Fig.  174. 


HaWs  Amalgamator. 

the  bottom  of  the  vessel.  The  lower  end  of  the 
latter  pipe  and  the  upper  end  of  the  pipe  A  enter 
the  bottom  of  the  pan,  and  so  on  throughout  the 
whole  series. 

He  claims  an  apparatus  for  separating  gold  from 
foreign  substances,  composed  of  a  series  of  bent  pipes 
or  tubes  combined  by  means  of  a  series  of  connect- 
ing-basins containing  quicksilver. 

To  aid  the  proc.ss  of  amalgamation  various  pro- 
cesses have  been  adopted  to  render  desuljihurization 
by  roasting  more  etfective,  among  which  may  be 
cited  the  following  :  — 

Raht,  August  21,  1866,  forces  air  through  the 
mass  of  fused  metal,  to  remove  sulphur,  arsenic,  and 
antimony.  The  apparatus  may  be  similar  to  the 
"  Bessemer." 

Ryers'in,  August  14,  1866.  The  ores  are  heated 
in  a  muffle  in  the  presence  of  a  current  of  air  ; 
behind  each  muffle  is  a  passage  in  which  binoxide 
of  nitrogen  is  generated,  which  mixes  with  the  air 
and  sulphurous  acid  passing  from  the  muffles  ;  the 
mixture  is  driven  by  fans  into  receivers  in  company 
with  a  steam-jet.  The  receivers  are  charged  with 
ore  previously  desulphurized  in  the  muffles.  The 
sulphurous  acid  is  converted  into  sulphuric  acid, 
and  combines  with  the  base  metals  in  the  receiver  ; 
the  sulphates  are  dissolved  out  by  water,  leaving 
the  gold  free  ;  the  silver  may  by  the  usual  method 
be  afterwards  precipitated  from  the  solution  of 
mixed  sulphates. 

Wheli'lf.y  and  Stoker,  September  11,  1866. 
In  this  process  the  chemical  reagents  are  blown  in  a 
finely  divided  state  upon  the  heated  ore  by  means 
of  a  blast  of  air  or  steam.  The  interior  of  the  fur- 
nace is  stated  to  have  an  atmosphere  charged  with 
"  coal  in  aerial  or  air-borne  combustion." 

Fleury,  July  3,  1866,  mixes  the  sulphurets 
or  tailings  mth  coal-dust,  and  bakes  them  into 


a  metalliferous  coke.     This  is  ground,  heated,  and 
treated  with  steam,  after  which  it  is  amalgamated. 

Brower  and  Campbell,  January  23,  1866.  The 
ores  are  smelted  with  a  suitable  flux,  such  as  carbo- 
nate of  soda,  and  the  fused  mass  precipitated  into 
cold  water,  to  disintegrate  the  mass  and  e.xpel  the 
sulphur. 

Whelpley-  and  Stoker,  September  11,  1866. 
The  cylindrical  vessel  is  connected  with  a  hopper  at 
one  end,  an  exhaust-pipe  at  the  other  end,  and  hns 
a  series  of  rotary  agitating  arms  attached  to  a  shaft 
passing  through  the  said  cylinder.  The  hopper  has 
a  grating  and  a  feed-brush.  Air  may  be  admitted 
to  the  cylinder  through  a  grating. 

The  inventors  claim,  lirst,  brightening  metallic 
particles  in  finely  pulverized  and  desulphurizeil 
ores,  when  such  brightening  is  effected  on  the  prin- 
ciple of  mutual  attrition  in  a  cylinder  alternately 
closed  during  the  brightening  process,  and  opened 
to  set  flee  the  charge  by  means  of  a  valve  in  the 
exhaust-pipe,  intending  to  claim  for  this  end  the 
principle  of  alternately  closing  and  opening  the 
cylinder,  so  as  to  do  the  work  in  a  close  cylinder, 
as  well  as  the  comliination  of  the  cylinder-valve 
and  exhaust-pipe  for  the  purpose  and  substantially 
as  described. 

A  fine  grating  prevents  in  the  feed-hopper  the 
passage  of  any  but  very  fine  dust  into  the  cylinder. 

In  their  patent  of  June  13,  1865,  they  separate 
metals  from  mixtures  of  earth  and  metal  by  the 
action  of  gravity  in  counteraction  to  currents  of 
air  in  an  upright  pulveriziiig-mill,  the  air  mov- 
ing upward  to  carry  oft'  the  finer  dust  of  earthy 
matter,  while  the  metal  falls  by  its  supeiior  gi'avity. 

Within  the  cylindrical  case  is  a  revolving  shaft 
provided  with  blades.  The  ca.'^e  is  provided  with  a 
hopper  and  an  air-aperture  at  the  top,  and  an  air- 
outlet  and  an  outlet  for  the  oie  through  the  con- 
ductor at  the  bottom.  The  conductor  communicates 
with  a  box,  which  is  provided  with  an  air-aperture 
and  door.  This  box  communicates  with  another 
box  by  means  of  a  pipe,  the  latter  box  being  also 
provided  with  an  air-aperture  and  a  door.  A  tube 
leads  from  this  latter  box  to  the  center  of  a 
spray-wheel  which  is  contained  in  a  box,  the  bot- 
tom of  which  is  covered  with  water,  and  the  said 
box  is  provided  with  .shelves  in  the  upper  part. 

The  same  inventors  have  an  apparatus  for  desul- 
phurizing ores,  by  roasting,  while  falling  through  a 
chunney  above  a  furnace. 

Electric  action  has  been  called  into  play  to  secure 
the  deposit  of  gold  and  silver  from  the  earthy  mat- 
ters witli  which  itis 

associated,  and  has  I^'g  1"5- 

also  been  used  to 
energize  the  action 
of  the  amalgam. 

C'OK.soN,  May  5, 
1868.  The  ores" are 
containedin  an  in- 
sulated pan  or  bar- 
rel, and  subjected 
to  electric  action 
therein.  The  bat- 
tery is  formed  in 
the  jian,  and  is  in- 
dependent of  ex- 
terior influences, 
the anode and  cath- 
ode being  exposed 
in  the  slime  and 
amalgam,  and  con- 
nected by  a  metal- 
lic strip.  Corson's  Amalgamator. 


AMALGAMATOR. 


AMALGAM  MANIPULATOR. 


For  other  ailairtations  of  Electro-Metallurgy  to 
the  eollection  of  the  precious  metals,  see  Gold  and 
SiLviiK,    Electro-met.\llurgic    Processes     for 

CoLLIXTlON  OF. 

Ill  Kye];son's  apparatus,  June  4,  1861,  the  sub- 
stance containing  the  gold  and  silver  is  intioduced 
into  the  cylindrical  vessel,  provided  with  a  hemi- 
spherical or  dished  bottom,  in  a  finely  divided  state, 
together  with  mercury  and  water.  Superheated 
steam  is  introduced  by  the  coiled  pipe  into  the  bot- 
tom of  the  vessel,  escaping  into  the  mass  by  a  series 
of  small  holes.  The  vapor  of  the  mercury  is  con- 
densed against  the  bottom  of  the  cover  of  the  vessel, 
and  fa  Is  in  a  linely  divided  state  through  the  mass. 

The  extraction  of  tln^  precious  metals  by  immers- 
ing the  powdered  ore  in  a  lead-bath  has  been  calletl 
amalgamaiiou,  but  the  term  is  incorrect ;  it  forms 
an  alloy,  not  an  amalgam.  It  will  be  considered 
under  Le.\d  Process  for  Extraction  of  Pre- 
cious Metals. 

Buusill's  English  patent  of  February  12,  1853, 
describes  a  mode  which  partakes  of  a  combination 
of  the  mercurial  and  lead  processes,  and  may  be  men- 
tio  leil  liere. 

Hj  treats  a'.iriferous  and  argentiferous  ores  with 
an  amal.;ani  firmed  by  the  union  of  mercury  with 
a  readily  fusilile  alloy  of  lead  and  bismuth  ;  or  lead, 
bismuth,  and  tin.  The  ore  is  immersed  in  the  bath 
of  nudten  metal. 

The  lead  process  preceded  the  mercurial,  at  least 
on  this  continent,  having  been  practised  from  time 
immemorial  by  the  Indians  of  Peru. 

Heister'.s  new  process  for  the  reduction  of  ar- 
senical sulphurets  and  other  refractory  ores  is  thus 
described  by  the  San  Francisco  Times.  "To  all 
outward  appearance  the  machine  is  very  simple, 
consisting  of  three  barrels,  one  of  cast-iron  and  two 
of  wood.  The  iron  cylincler  is  about  half  filled  with 
sulphurets  or  pulverized  ore,  and  revolved  over  a 
moderate  fire  for  an  hour,  keeping  it  below  a  red 
heat.  The  ore,  having  been  thoroughly  heated 
through,  is  drawn  out  into  a  wooden  cylinder,  and 
ten  iicr  cent  of  cjuicksilver  added,  and  the  opening 
then  made  air-tight,  to  prevent  the  fumes  of  the 
ipiicksilver  from  escaping.  After  revolving  for  two 
hours,  the  ore  and  (piicksilver  are  found  to  be 
intimately  mi.xed  together,  and  the  gold  and  silver 
a'nalg.imated.  The  charge  is  then  drawn  off  into 
the  third  barrel  and  diluted  with  water,  and  after 
revolving  for  two  hours  the  quicksilver  and  amal- 
gam are  drawn  off.  The  secret  of  tliis  process  is  in 
this  last  barrel,  used  as  a  settler  ;  for,  in  every  in- 
sta'.icu',  with  the  most  refractory  arsenical  sulphu- 
rets, and  with  comliiuations  of  lead  and  iron,  the 
i[uicksilver  is  found  at  the  bottom,  collecting  and 
forniiiig  an  amiilgam  containing  over  ninety  per  cent 
of  the  gold  and  silver,  while  the  only  appreciable 
lo.ss  in  (piicksilver  in  a  month's  working  was  what 
was  spilt  by  carelessness  outside.  The  cost  of  working 
live  tons  a  day  onglit  not  to  exceeil  S  30.  A  live- 
horse  engine  would  give  an  excess  of  power,  and  by 
grading  the  barrels  properly  two  common  laborers  on 
a  shift  could  keep  the  machine  going  to  full  capacity." 

A  process  saiil  to  yield  excellent  results  was 
described  in  the  "  Alta  Californian  "  of  August  30, 
1866.  See  also  "American  Journal  of  Mining" 
(now  the  "Engineering  and  Mining  Journal"), 
Vol.  II.  p.  43  el  seq. 

"  The  dry  rook  is  crushed,  and  afterward  submitted 
to  the  a  'tion  of  balls  in  a  drum  to  insure  full  pulver- 
ization, it  being  desirable  that  the  ]iowder  should  ap- 
proach as  iii'ar  the  fineness  of  wheat- flour  as  possible. 
A  charge  of  this  ]iowdered  quartz  is  then  placed  in 
an  iiir-tight  cylinder,  the  interior  of  which  is  fur- 


nished with  a  worm  of  pipes  to  convey  superheated 
steam  therein.  Added  to  the  charge  is  a  given 
(juantity  of  quicksilver,  which  is  first  heated  by 
the  introduction  of  ordinary  steam  ;  the  super- 
heated steam  is  then  turned  on,  and  the  whole 
seethed  or  boiled  for  an  allotted  period.  On  the 
top  of  this  cylinder  a  water-bath  is  placed,  and  a; 
the  mercurial  vapors  rise  they  become  condensed. 
Thus  the  system  of  thoroughly  impregnating  the 
crushed  rock  with  quicksilver  is  carried  out  with 
efficiency.  After  thus  cooking,  the  cylinder  door  is 
opened,  and  the  whole  mass  discharged  upon  a 
novel  shaking-table,  which  is  worked  by  the  power 
of  the  steam  employed  in  the  previous  operation. 
This  table  is  built  of  copper  on  a  wooden  frame,  with 
rollers  and  riffles  of  peculiar  constniction,  which, 
when  it  is  in  motion,  give  the  water,  amalgam,  and 
dust  the  same  action  as  the  ocean-surf,  —  an  under- 
tow. As  the  mass  descends,  the  amalgam,  from  its 
metallic  weight,  gradually  clears  itself  from  the 
quartz-dust,  and  the  result  is,  that  it  is  all  col- 
lected in  the  troughs  of  the  riffles,  containing  every 
particle  of  metal,  he  it  precious  or  base,  the  quartz 
holds.  The  mode  of  a]iplying  super-heated  steam 
to  the  crushed  rock  desulphurizes  it,  freeing  the 
metals,  and  'all  that  is  necessary  is  to  retort  the 
amalgam  to  obtain  the  result  of  the  yield." 

The  "Journal  of  Mining,"  August,  1868,  mentions 
the  following  as  a  reported  success,  but  without 
vouching  for  it :  "Zinc  added  in  small  quantities  to 
the  quicksilver  used  in  amalgamation  augments,  in 
a  remarkalile  degree,  the  retentive  power  of  the  latter 
for  gold  and  silver.  It  is  stated  that  one  ounce  of 
zinc,  or  less  even,  should  be  used  to  ten  pounds  of 
quicksilver.  The  action  in  this  case  is  said  to  be 
about  the  same  as  when  sodium  amalgam  is  em- 
ployed. The  beneficial  result  is  thought  to  lie  in 
the  fact  that  zinc  has  a  tendency  to  crystallize  in  a 
needle  or  barb-like  form  ;  hence,  when  disseminated 
in  minute  particles  through  the  quicksilver,  the 
power  of  the  latter  to  take  up  the  atoms  of  gold  and 
silver  with  which  it  may  be  brought  in  contact 
becomes  very  much  intensified.  This  method  of  in- 
creasing the  efficiency  of  the  amalgamation  process  is 
said  to  have  been  in  vogue  in  the  Mexican  mines." 

Many  valuable  imijrovements  have  first  been  no- 
ticed in  the  current  journals  of  the  day,  the  "  Engi- 
neering and  Mining  Journal,"  "Scientific  Amer- 
ican," and  "  American  Artisan."  Books  and  their 
editors  cannot  keep  jiace  with  the  march  of  improve- 
ment, which  is  incessant,  and  naturally  finds  its 
expression  in  these  scientific  pajiers.  See  also 
"Mines,  Mills,  and  Furnaces,"  by  R.  "W.  Raymond, 
United  States  Commi.ssioner  of  Mining  Statistics  : 
J.  B.  Ford  &  Co.,  New  York. 

A-mal'gam,  E-lec'tri-cal.  For  covering  the 
cushions  of  electrical  machines. 

Zinc,  1  oz.  ;  grain  tin,  1  oz.  ;  melt  in  an  iron  ladle, 
and  add  mercury,  2  oz.  Stir  with  an  iron  rod,  jiour 
into  a  wooden  box  chalked  on  the  inside,  and 
agitate  till  cold  ;  or  stir  till  cold,  and  then  powder. 

The  powder  is  spread  on  the  cushion,  which  is 
previously  smeared  with  t.allow. 

A-malgam  Gild'ing.  Grain  gold,  1  ;  mercury 
8  ;  unite  by  gentle  heat  and  stirring. 

In  using,  first  rub  the  brass,  copper,  etc.,  with  a 
solution  of  nitrate  of  mercury,  and  then  spread  a 
film  of  amalgam.  Heat  volatilizes  the  mercury  and 
leaves  the  gold  behind. 

A-mal'gam  Ma-nip'u-la  tor.  A  dentist's  in- 
.strument  to  facilitate  the  prejaration  of  amalgam  for 
filling  excavations  in  carious  teeth.  It  has  a  cup 
at  one  end  for  taking  up  the  desired  amount  of 
filings   or   powder,    and   a   curved    spatula   at   the 


AMALGAM  SILVERIXG. 


89 


AMBULANCE. 


other   end    for   combining   the   mercury   with   the 
filings  and  packine  it  in  the  cavity. 

A-mal'gam  Sil'ver-ing.  Silver,  1 ;  mercury, 
8  ;  mix  with  heat,  and  stir  as  with  gold. 

Apply  as  the  gold  amalgam,  previously  using  a 
wash  of  nitrate. 

For  silvering  the  insides  of  hollow  glass  vessels, 
globes,  convex  mirrors,  etc.  :  — 

Lead,  tin,  and  bismuth,  each  1  part ;  melt,  mix, 
and  cool  to  tlie  lowest  point  at  which  the  alloy  will 
remain  fluid  ;  add  mercury,  10  oz.  Warm  the  glass, 
pour  in  the  amalgam,  and  roll  the  glass  round  and 
round.  The  amalgam  will  adhere  readily  at  a  cer- 
tain temiiei-ature. 

A-mal'gam  Varnish.  Melt  grain  tin,  4  ;  bis- 
muth, 1 :  add  mercury,  1  ;  and  stir  till  cold.  Grind 
fine  with  white  of  egg  or  varnish. 

A-man'do-la.  A  greeu  marble  haviug  the  ap- 
pearance of  a  lioney-comb. 

Am-a-sette'.  A  horn  instrument  for  collecting 
painters'  colors  on  the  stone. 

Am'be.    A  raised  stage  for  a  rostrum. 

An  old  chiraigical  machine  invented  by  Hippo- 
crates for  reilucing  luxations  of  the  shoulder. 

Amtro-type.  A  picture  taken  on  a  jilate  of 
prepared  glass,  in  which  the  lights  are  represented 
in  silver,  and  the  shades  are  produced  by  a  dark 
background,  visible  through  the  unsilvered  portion 
of  the  frlass.  —  Webskr.     See  Photogkaphy. 

Am'bu-Iance.  Late  events  in  the  United  States 
have  directed  attention  to  means  for  the  trans- 
poitation  and  care  of  the  sick  and  wounded.  Deal- 
ing strictly  with  the  mechanical  aspects  of  affairs, 
it  may  be  stated  at  once  that  ambulances  are  of  three 
kiuds,  four-wheeled,  two-wheeled,  and  those  adapted 
for  pack-saddles. 

Fig.  176. 


Moseses  Ambulance. 

Moses,  September  28,  1858.  The.  sectional  fold- 
ing-seats are  arranged  along  the  sides,  and  may  be 
converted  into  couches.  Hammocks  form  an  u]iper 
tier  for  patients.  An  adjustable  door  serves  for 
a  table.  The  surgeon's  medicines  and  implements 
are  carried  in  cases,  which  fit  in  and  under  the 
seats,  or  in  di-awers  under  the  body  of  the  vehicle. 
The  water-keg  is  suspended  beneath  the  rear,  its 
faucet  defended  by  tlie  step. 

McKe.\n',  October  11,  1864.  The 
stretchers  are  run  in  longitudinally  up- 
on rollers,  which  rest  upon  a  false'  bot- 
tom suspended  by  rubber  springs  from 
the  sides  of  the  carriage.  The  water- 
vessel  is  sufficiently  elevated  to  supply 
the  wounded  by  a  flexible  pipe  which 
is  under  their  control.  A  fan  is  sus- 
pended from  the  roof.  The  side-slats 
are  vertical  and  are  controlled  by  a  sin- 
gle rod  ;  their  beveled  edges  enable  them£ 
to  shut  closely  and  present  plane  exte- 
rior and  interior  suriaces. 

Arnold,  April  5,  1864,  suspends  his 
cots  upon  pivots,  which  enable  them  to 
swing  in  accordance  with  the  inclina- 


tion of  the  ground,  so  as  to  avoid  the  rolling  mo- 
tion of  the  patient.  The  pivots  themselves  rest  on 
springs,  w:hich  give  some  resiliency  when  the  car. 
riage  receives  vertical  motion,  and  thereby  lessen 
the  jar. 

RucKER,  Allen,  and  Smith,  November  6,  1866. 
This  is  a  double  or  single  tier  ambulance.  Each 
couch    of    the  „    ... 

lower  tier  is  ili-  '■ — ~  ' 

vided  longitu- 
dinally and 
hinged.  It 
may  lie  flat 
upon  the  floor, 
wliile  the  upper 
tier  is  occu- 
pied b}-  other 
patients ;  or  it 
may  be  bent  so 
as  to  form  a 
seat  and  sup- 
port, while  the 
stretchersofthe 
upper  tier  are 
placed  on  edge 
against  the  car- 
riage sides  and 
form  backs  for 
the  seats.    The  sides  are  separately  adjustable. 

The  two-wheeled  ambulances  are  spring  carts 
with  provision  for  recumbent  or  sitting  patients. 

Hayward,  May  16,  1865.  The  stretchers  may 
be  adjusted  for  recumbent  or  sitting  patients,  the 
legs  operating  to  support  them  in  either  capacity 
when  the  stretchers  rest  on  the  ground.  The  pack- 
saddle  has  wedge-shaped  sockets  to  receive  cor- 
responding wedge-shaped  blocks  on  the  legs  of  the 
stretchers. 

Sis,  1863,  WiLKiNS,  1864,  Slatter,  1865,  and 
others  have  patented  improvements  which  might  be 
cited  would  room  permit. 

This  description  of  sennce  was  brought  to  great 
efficiency  by  Baron  LaiTey,  during  the  wars  of 
Napoleon  1.  The  experience  was  almost  lost  in  the 
peace  interval,  judging  by  the  ambulance  arrange- 
ments in  the  Crimea,  1854.  At  the  battle  of  the 
Alma,  in  which  1,986  British  and  1,360  French 
were  killed  or  wounded,  the  generals  of  both  armies 

Fig.  178. 


RtKlcer   AUtn.  and  SmiOCs  Ambulance, 


HayxcaTfTs  Ambulance, 


AMBULATOR. 


90 


AMMONIUM. 


appeal'  to  have  been  taken  by  surprise.  The  Eng- 
lish were  least  efficient,  the  French  improvised 
chairs  or  panuiera  slung  over  tlie  liacks  of  mules, 
like  one  of  the  illustrations  precedinf;.  Our  own 
service,  IStJl  -65,  was  well  performed,  after  things  got 
in  running  order.  Perhaps  the  Crimean  heroes  might 
say  the  s;ime,  with  the  concluding  proviso. 

Am'bu-la'tor.  Sometimes  cal  led  a  perambulator. 
An  iiis..\iment  for  measuring  distances.  See  Odume- 
TEii.  The  word  "  amlnilator"  is  often  erroneously  ap- 
plied to  a  velocipede,  ami  to  a  traction-engine,  whose 
mode  of  propulsion  is  by  oscillating  bai-s  whose  feet 
come  in  contact  with  the  ground  in  .somewhat 
similar  manner  to  the  natural  action  of  the  legs  of 
animals  or  of  man.  The  light  carriages  driven  by 
hands  or  feet  will  be  considered  under  the  heading 
ViCLOcu'Enij.     See  also  Traction-enoin'e. 

A-mer'i-can  Leath'er.  An  enameled  cloth  im- 
itating leather. 

.Am'i-ci's  Prism.  A  glass  piism  mounted  be- 
neath the  stage  of  a  micj-oscope  to  obli(inely  illu- 
minate an  object  beneath  the  stage.  The  prism  has 
a  llat-bottom  side  and  two  lenticular  sides,  com- 
bines the  refracting  ami  retlecting  powers,  and 
thniws  a  converging  pencil  of  rays  ujion  the  object. 
It  has  three  adjustments  :  one  on  a  horizontal  a.xis 
to  ilirect  the  rays  upward  at  the  required  angle  ; 
one  for  distance  from  the  axis  of  the  microscope,  to 
vary  the  oblifpiity  ;  one  by  rotation  on  a  vertical 
a.xis,  to  determine  the  direction  whence  the  rays 
shall  proceed. 

Am  mo-Di'ac-al  En'gine.  This  motor  seems  to 
be  yet  in  an  inchoate  state,  but  has  received  some 
attention  in  Euro]ie.  The  machine  described  is  the 
invention  of  M.  Froment.  The  London  "  Mechanics' 
Magazine"  thus  refers  to  it  (it  appears  to  have 
been  at  work  —  or  rather  in  action,  for  it  was 
not  usefully  employed  —  at  the  Paris  Exposition)  : 
"Strong  liquid  ammonia  is  used  in  the  boiler,  and 
the  vapor  generated  is  said  to  be  a  mixture  of  at 
least  eighty  parts  of  amniouiacal  gas  and  twenty 
parts  of  steam,  so  it  may  be  fairly  called  an  ammo- 
ni.ical  engine.  The  principal  recommendations  of 
ammonia,  when  applied  as  a  motive-power,  consist 
in  the  small  amount  of  fuel  re<juired,  and  the  short 
time  it  takes  to  get  up  the  steam,  so  to  speak.  The 
economy  in  fuel  is  very  considerable,  being  about 
one  fourth  of  that  required  to  generate  steam  alone. 
As  regards  the  boiler,  it  may  be  of  either  of  the 
ordinary  forms,  the  only  complete  novelty  being 
the  apparatus  for  condensing  the  steam  and  ammo- 
nia. Tlie  gas  disengaged  (about  six  atmospheres  at 
110°  Centigrade  with  an  ordinary  solution  of  ammo- 
nia) does  its  work  in  the  cylinder  and  then  escapes 
into  the  tubes  of  a  condenser,  where  the  steam  is 
condensed  and  the  gas  is  cooled.  The  gas  then 
meets  with  a  cold  liquid  from  an  injector,  which 
dissolves  it,  and  the  solution  is  carried  on  into 
a  vessel  called  the  'dissolver,'  from  which  it  is 
pumped  back  into  the  boiler  to  do  its  work  over 
again.  The  liquid  for  the  injector  is  taken  from 
the  boiler,  and  is  cooled  before  meeting  with  the 
amniouiacal  gas  by  passing  through  a  worm  sur- 
rounded with  cold  water." 

"  Ammonia,  at  the  temperature  of  our  atmos- 
phere, is  a  permanent  gas  of  well-known  pungent 
odor.  It  is  formed  by  the  union  of  three  volumes 
of  hydrogen  to  one  of  nitrogen,  condensed  into  two 
volumes.  Its  density  is  596  ;  air  being  1,000.  The 
density  of  the  liquid,  compared  with  water,  is  76, 
or  about  one  quarter  lighter  than  that  liquid.  Its 
vapor  at  60°  Fahr.  gives  a  pressure  of  100  pounds 
to  the  siiuare  inch,  while  water,  to  give  an  equiva- 
lent pressure,  must  be  heated  to  325°  Fahr.     The 


volume  of  ammoniacal  gas  under  the  above-named 
pressure  is  983  times  greater  than  the  space  occu- 
pied by  its  liquid,  while  steam,  under  identical 
in'essure,  occupies  a  space  only  303  times  gi'eater 
than  water."  —  Annals  of  Clicmistrij  (French). 

"  Ammoniacal  gas,  which  is  an  incidental  and 
abundant  product  in  certain  manufactures,  especially 
that  of  coal-gas,  and  which  makes  its  appearance  in 
the  destructive  distillation  of  all  animal  substances, 
is  found  in  commerce  chiefly  in  the  form  of  the  aque- 
ous solution.  It  is  the  most  soluble  in  water  of  all 
known  gases,  being  absorbed,  at  the  temperature 
of  freezing,  to  the  extent  of  more  than  a  thousand 
volumes  of  gas  to  one  of  water  ;  and  at  the  temjiera- 
ture  of  50°  Fahr.,  of  more  than  eight  hundred  to 
one.  What  is  most  remarkable  in  regard  to  this 
property  is  that,  at  low  temperatures,  the  solution 
is  sensibly  instantaneous.  This  may  be  strikingly 
illustrated  by  transferring  a  bell-glass  filled  with 
the  gas  to  a  vessel  containing  water,  and  managing 
the  transfer  so  that  the  water  may  not  come  into 
contact  with  the  gas  until  after  the  mouth  of  the 
bell  is  fully  sulimerged.  The  water  will  enter  the 
bell  with  a  violent  rush,  precisely  as  into  a  vacuum, 
and  if  the  gas  be  quite  free  from  mixture  with  any 
other  gas  insoluble  in  water,  the  bell  will  inevitably 
be  broken.  The  presence  of  a  bubble  of  air  may 
break  the  force  of  the  shock  and  save  the  bell. 

"This  gas  cannot,  of  course,  be  collected  over 
water.  In  the  experiment  just  described,  the  bell 
is  tilled  by  means  of  a  pneumatic  trough  containing 
mercury.  It  is  transferred  by  passing  beneath  it  a 
shallow  ves.sel,  which  takes  up  not  only  the  bell- 
glass,  but  also  a  suBicient  quantity  of  mercury  to 
keep  the  gas  imprisoned  until  the  arrangements  for 
the  experiment  are  comjdeted. 

"The  extreme  solubility  of  ammoniacal  gas  is, 
therefore,  a  property  of  which  advantage  may  be 
taken  for  creating  a  vacuum,  exactly  as  the  same 
object  is  accomplished  by  the  condensation  of  steam. 
As,  on  the  other  hand,  the  pressure  which  it  is 
capable  of  exerting  at  given  temperatures  is  much 
higher  than  that  which  steam  allbrds  at  the  same 
temperatures  ;  and  as,  conversely,  this  gas  requires 
a  temperature  considerably  lower  to  produce  a  given 
pressure  than  is  required  by  steam,  —  it  seems  to 
possess  a  combination  of  properties  favorable  to  the 
production  of  an  economical  motive-power. 

"Ammonia,  like  several  other  of  the  gases  called 
permanent,  may  be  liquefied  by  cold  and  pressure. 
At  a  temperature  of  38.5°  C,  it  becomes  liquid  at 
the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere.  At  the  boiling- 
point  of  wati^r  it  re(juires  more  than  sixty-one 
atmospheres  of  pressure  to  reduce  it  to  liquefaction. 
The  same  eff'eet  is  j)roduced  at  the  freezing-point  of 
water  by  a  pressure  of  five  atmospheres,  at  '21°  C. 
(70°  Fahr.)  by  a  pressure  of.  nine,  and  at  38°  C. 
(100°  Fahr.)  by  a  pressure  of  fourteen."  —  Barnard. 

L.\.\im's  Ammonia  Engine  is  driven  by  the  ex- 
panding pressure  of  liijuefied  ammonia,  and  is  spe- 
cially adapted  for  small  powers,  especially  portable 
engines  for  street  cars,  etc.  The  ammonia  is  to  be 
liquefied  at  a  central  station,  at  which  the  reservoirs 
on  the  ears  receive  their  sujiply. 

The  engine  is  driven  by  the  force  of  the  gas  upon 
the  piston,  and  the  gas  is  exhausted  into  a  body  of 
water  surrounding  the  gas  reservoir.  The  absorption 
of  the  gas  by  the  water  is  instantaneous,  and  the 
water  derives  an  increment  therefrom  which  is 
imparted,  through  the  walls,  to  the  contents  of  the 
reservoir.  See  "  Engineering  and  Mining  Journal," 
Vol.  X.  p.  65. 

Am-mo'ni-um.  The  hypothetical  metallic  base 
of  ammonia.     Equivalent,  18  ;  symbol,  NH4.     Only 


AMMUNITION. 


91 


AMPUTATING-KNIFE. 


known  in  its  combination  with  mercury  as  an 
amalgam. 

The  salts  of  this  metal,  volatile  and  otherwise,  are 
used  in  i)hamiauy,  chemistry,  ami  as  stimulants. 

Am'mu-ni'tion.  In  its  most  coni}irehensive 
signification,  this  includes  artillery  and  small-arm 
projectiles  with  their  cartridges  and  the  percussion- 
caps,  friction-primers,  etc.,  by  means  of  which  they 
are  fired  ;  also  war-rockets  and  hand-grenades.  For 
artillery,  when  the  projectiles,  their  cartridges, 
primers,  etc.,  are  packed  in  the  same  box,  it  is 
designated  in  the  United  States  service  as, fixed  ani- 
inuiiUioii :  this  is  the  descrijition  furnished  for  Held 
and  rilled  siege  artillery.  For  larger  calibers,  the 
projectiles  and  cartridges  are  ]iut  up  in  separate 
bo.xes,  round  solid  shot,  however,  being  generally 
transported  loose. 

Up  to  12-pounders  for  smooth-bore  ordnance  the 
cartridge  is  attached  to  the  projectile  ;  above  that 
caliber  the  shell  or  case-shot  are  tilled,  the  fuse  in- 
serted, and  the  sabot  attached  ;  in  this  case,  the  pro- 
jectile is  said  to  be  strnpped ;  shells  of  8-inch  caliber 
and  upwards  are  seldom  tilled  previous  to  issue,  this 
operation  being  performed  as  they  are  re(iuired  at 
the  place  where  they  are  used.  Projectiles  for 
rilled  artillery  are  always  separate  from  their  car- 
tridges. 

Fi.xed  ammunition  for  field  artillery  is  put  up 
in  bo.xes  of  uniform  size  for  each  caliber,  each  con- 
taining a  given  number  of  rounds,  viz.  :  — 

Smooth-bore  6-pounder  gun         .         .14 
Smooth-bore  12-pounder  gun  .         .  8 

Smooth-bore  12-pounder  howitzer        .     12 
Smooth-bore  2-t-pounder  howitzer    .  6 

Smooth-bore  32-pounder  howitzer        .       4 
EiHed-bore  3-inch  or  10-pounder  gun        10 

Ammunition  for  small-arms  is  known  in  the  United 
States  service  as  sniall-arm  carlridijes.  In  these  the 
bullet  and  cartridge  are  invariably  put  up  together 
in  bo.\es  of  1,000,  e.xcept  some  descriptions  of 
jiatented  cartridges,  which  are  put  up  in  bo.xes 
containing  000  or  1,200,  and  repeating-cartridges,  as 
Spencer's,  in  which  the  bo.\  is  made  to  contain  a 
multiple  of  the  number  which  fills  the  breech- 
chamber. 

Kules  have  been  laid  down  for  determining  the 
proper  supply  of  ammunition  of  each  description  for 
an  army  in  the  field. 

That  assumed  by  the  British  authorities  allows 
300  small-arm  cartridges  per  man  for  six  months' 
operations  ;  of  which  an  army  of  60,000  men  should 
have  2,680,000  with  them,  besides  those  in  reserve. 

This  amount  is  understood  to  be  in  addition  to 
that  carried  in  the  cartridge-boxes  of  the  men,  60 
rounds  each  in  the  case  of  an  infantry  soldier. 

The  wagons  for  this  service  are  intended  to  carry 
20.000  rounds  each,  and  are  drawn  by  four  horses. 
Several  wagons  are  organized  into  an  equipment 
under  the  charge  of  a  detachment  of  artillery  ; 
several  such  equipments  would  be  attached  to  an 
army  of  60,000  men,  one  for  each  division  of  infan- 
try and  a  proper  proportion  for  the  cavalry  ;  the 
remainder  being  in  reserve. 

The  proportion  given  in  the  United  States  Ord- 
nance JIanual  is  100  rounds  for  each  man,  40  rounds 
in  the  cartridge-bo.x,  and  the  remainder  in  reserve 
for  infantry. 

Ammunition  for  cannon  :  200  rounds  for  each 
piece,  both  of  the  reserves  and  active  batteries  ;  the 
ammunition  which  cannot  be  carried  in  the  chests 
of  the  caissons  to  be  kept  with  the  reserves. 

During  our  late  civil  war  it  is  believed  that,  where 
at  all  practicable,  the  amount  of  readily  accessible 


ammunition,  both  for  artillery  and  small-arms,  was 
kept  largely  in  excess  of  the  above  standard. 

A  supply-train,  under  the  charge  of  an  ordnance- 
officer,  was  attached  to  each  division,  from  whii  h 
issues  were  made  as  required  to  the  company  or 
regimental  officers,  upon  properly  approved  requi- 
sition. 

The  wagons  of  which  these  trains  were  coni- 
])osed  were  generally  diawn  by  si.x  horses  or  mules, 
and  were  capable  of  carrying  from  40,000  to  00,000 
rounds  of  small-arm  cartridges,  or  an  equal  weight 
of  artillery  ammunition. 

See  We.WiiNS  ;  PlidJECTILES. 

Am'mu-ni'tion-chest.  The  box  in  which  the 
fixed  ammunition  for  field  cannon  is  packed.  One 
is  carried  on  the  limber  of  the  gun-carriage,  and  one 
on  the  limber  and  two  on  the  body  of  each  caisson. 

The  chest  is  of  walnut,  and  has  a  hinged  lid, 
which  is  covered  with  sheet  copper  ;  it  is  fastened 
by  means  of  a  hasp  and  turnbuckle,  and  secured 
by  a  padlock. 

The  interior  dimensions  are  40  inches  long,  18 
inches  wide,  and  14 J  inches  deep  ;  and  it  is  divided 
into  compartments  varying  in  number  from  12  to 
50,  according  to  the  caliber  of  the  gun,  by  longi- 
tudinal and  transverse  partitions. 

The  shot,  shell,  case,  and  canister,  with  their  car- 
tridges, are  inserted  in  these  compartments,  each  in 
a  separate  part  of  the  chest  ;  and  over  these  is  fitted 
a  tray  for  containing  the  fuses,  friction-primers,  and 
small  implements  required  for  the  service  of  the 
piece. 

The  chest  is  fastened  in  position  by  means  of 
skuj-pi'as  and  ieys,  and  is  readily  removed  or  re- 
placed. 

Am'phi-type.  The  amphit}T)e  process  in  pho- 
tography is  an  application  of  the  calotype  process, 
taking  its  name  from  the  fact  of  negative  and  posi- 
tive pictures  being  produced  by  one  process.  It 
originated  with  Sir  John  Herschel. — Photogra2>hic 
News. 

Am'pli-tude  Com'pass.  An  azimuth  compass 
whose  zeros  of  graduation  are  at  the  east  and  west 
points,  for  the  more  ready  reading  of  the  amplitudes 
of  celestial  bodies. 

Am-pul'la.  Any  vessel  having  a  belly,  as  cucur- 
bits, receivers,  etc. 

Am'pu-ta'ting-knife.  A  long,  narrow-bladed 
knife  used  for  making  the  incisions  in  amputations. 
The  ancient  surgeons  endeavored  to  save  a  covering  of 
skin  for  the  stump  by  having  it  drawn  upward  pre- 
vious to  making  the  incision.     In  1679,  Lowdham, 

Fig.  179. 


^^^^aX2 


Amputalinq-Knife. 


of  Exeter,  England,  suggested  cutting  semicircular 
Haps  on  one  or  both  sides  of  a  limb,  so  as  to  pre- 
serve a  fleshj'  cushion  to  cover  the  end  of  the  bone. 
Both  these  modes  are  now  in  use,  and  are  called  the 
"circular"  and  the  "flap"  operations.  The  latter 
is  the  more  frequently  used. 

Amputation  was  not  practised  by  the  Greeks  ; 
at  least,  Hippocrates  (B.  C.  460)  does  not  refer  to 
it  and  did  not  practise  it.  C'elsus  notices  it 
(A.  D.  30).  Cautery,  pitch,  etc.  were  used  to  ar- 
rest the  bleeding.  The  needle  and  ligature  were 
introduced  about  1550,  by  the  French  surgeon  Fere. 


AMrUTATING-SAW. 


92 


ANAESTHETIC   APPARATLTS. 


He  was  surfjeon  to  Henry  II.,  Francis  II.,  Charles 
IX.,  iiiiil  Henry  III.  of  France,  and  though  a  Protes- 
tant was  concealed  in  the  king's  chamber  on  the 
night  of  St.  liartholoinew.  The  king  is  said  to 
have  itniarked,  "There  is  only  one  Pere."  A  com- 
plete bet  of  surgical  instruments  of  bronze  was 
discovered  at  Pompeii.  The  tournicjuet  was  in- 
vented hy  Morelli  in  lt)74. 

Ba.s.so-rclievos  in  the  temples  of  Karnak,  Tentyra, 
and  Lu.\or  show  that  the  ancient  Egyptians  per- 
fornjed  amputations  of  limbs,  without  the  tourniipiet, 
liowevcr,  or  the  mode  of  ligating  the  severeil  arte- 
ries ;  it  is  merely  a  cutting  and  sawing,  followed  by 
the  cautery,  styptics,  or  compress. 

The  chirnrgeon  of  ancient  times  was  principally 
emjiloyed  in  reducing  fractures  and  lu.xations,  in 
treaiiag  wounds,  ajiplying  topical  remedies,  and  in 
the  application  of  simple  or  strange  drugs  with 
occult  charms  and  pow-wows. 

One  form  of  amputating-knife  found  at  Pompeii 
in  1819  had  a  thick  back  and  a  wavy  edge,  and 
is  suppo.scd  to  have  been  used  by  the  blow  of  a 
mallet  on  its  back. 

Am'pu-ta'ting-saw.  Amputating-sawsare  niod- 
ifiaitious  of  the  tenoii,,  frame,  joint,  and  crown  saws. 

They     are     of 


Fig.  180. 


Amputating-  Saws. 


Sizes  from  4  to 
14  inches  in 
length.  Some 
have  edges  more 
or  less  curved, 
and  the  smallest 
of  these  dwin- 
dle down  to  a 
nearly  circular 
plate  of  steel 
less  than  one 
inch  in  diam- 
eter, serrated 
round  the  edge, 
e.xcept  where  a 
slender  shank 
terminating  in 
a  wooden  han- 
dle is  riveted 
to  the  edge  of 
the  saw-plate. 
These  are 
known  as  Hey's 


saws,  and  are  used  in  making  exsections,  operatii  ^ 
on  the  cranium  and  metacarpal  bones,  and  in  rcmov" 
ing  carious  bones  from  deep-seated  places. 

Am'u-sette'.  A  stocked  gun  mounted  on  a 
swivel,  and  carrying  a  ball  or  chaige  of  buck-shot 
of  from  8  to  32  ounces'  weight. 

An'a-bas'ses.  (Fabric.)  A  coarse  blanketing 
nuidc  in  France  for  the  African  market. 

An'a-clas'tic  Glass.  A  sonorous,  flat-bel'ied 
glass  made  in  Germany,  having  a  thin,  flexible, 
slightly  convex  bottom,  which  is  ca])able  of  flapping 
back  and  forth  by  the  expiiation  or  inspiration  of 
the  breath  when  the  mouth  is  applied  thereto.  As 
the  bottom  is  drawn  in  or  out  it  makes  a  loud 
crash. 

An'a-cos'ta.  (Fabric.)  A  woolen  diaper  made 
in  Holland  for  the  Spanish  market. 

An  ses-thet'ic  Ap'pa-ra'tus.  Anaesthesia  is  a 
term  made  use  of  in  medicine  to  denote  a  deprivation 
of  sensibility  to  external  impressions,  affecting  a 
part  or  the  whole  of  the  body.  In  some  nervous 
diseases  a  portion  of  the  body  may  become  jiar- 
tially  or  totally  insensible  to  pain,  while  the  sensi- 
bility of  another  part  may  become  excessively  acute, 
or  in  a  state  of  hypersesthesia.     The  division  of  a 


nerve,  as  is  well  known,  produces  an  entire  depriva- 
tion of  sensibility  in  those  parts  of  the  body  de- 
pendent on  it. 

When  the  insensibility  is  confined  to  the  surface 
of  the  body  it  is  termed  pcrijiliern! ;  but  when  aris- 
ing from  a  cause  acting  on  the  brain  or  s|iinal  mar- 
row, from  one  or  the  other  of  which  all  the  nerves 
enumate,  it  is  called  central. 

Means  for  inducing  temporarily  either  of  these 
conditions  with  safety  to  the  patient  have  been  long 
sought  for  in  surgical  practice.  The  Indian  hemji, 
Cannabis  Indica,  was  anciently  employed  ;  and  it 
appears  that  the  Chinese  employed  some  prepara- 
tion of  liemp  for  producing  insensibility  during 
surgical  operations,  more  than  fifteen  hundred  years 
ago.  Mandragora  was  used  by  the  Greeks  and 
Konians  for  the  same  purpose,  and  appears  to  have 
continued  in  use,  in  combination  with  ojiinm  and 
other  drugs,  so  late  as  the  thirteenth  century,  the 
patient  inhaling  the  vapor  from  a  sponge  saturated 
witli  these  substances.  The  mandragora,  however, 
at  times  induced  convulsions,  and  though  mention 
is  made  of  its  ana'sthetic  powers  for  producing  a 
"trance  or  a  dee]ie  terrible  dreanie,"  in  ojierations 
for  the  stone,  toward  the  close  of  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury, it,  or  similar  agents,  appears  to  have  gradually 
gone  out  of  use. 

It  seems  a  little  singular  that  sulphuric  ether 
should  not  have  been  employed  for  the  jiurpose 
for  some  three  centuiics,  unless,  as  has  been  sug- 
gested, it  is  the  substance  sjioken  of  by  John  liap- 
tista  Porta  of  Naples,  who  published  a  book  on 
Natural  Magic  in  1597  ;  this  "rjuintessence  "  was 
extracted  from  medicines  by  somniferous  "  men- 
strua," and  was  kept  in  leaden  vessels  tightly 
closed  to  prevent  its  escape.  The  cover  being 
removed,  it  was  applied  to  the  nostrils  of  the 
sleeper,  who  was  thereupon  thrown  into  the  most 
profound  sleep,  etc.,  etc. 

In  1784,  Dr.  Moore  of  London  tried  the  expedi- 
ent of  compressing  the  nerves  of  a  limb  preparatory 
to  amjjutation  ;  but  this  caused  much  pain. 

Narcotic  poisons  will  induce  ana'sthetic  condi- 
tions of  the  body,  in  which  surgical  operations  may 
be  performed  without  apparent  jiain  to  the  subject. 
The  same  is  true  of  alcoliol.  The  ]>eculiar  nervous 
condition  induced  by  what  is  called  aninuil  magne- 
tism has  also  produced  insensibility  to  pain,  during 
wliich  operations  have  been  performed. 

The  modern  anesthetic  agents  are  :  cold  applica- 
tions, protoxide  of  nitrogen  (laughing-gas),  chloro- 
form, ether,  amylene,  kerosolene. 

.Sir  Humphry  Davy  suggested  the  use  of  protoxide 
of  nitrogen  as  an  ana;sthetic  afjcnt  in  surgical 
operations.  It  was  used  by  Dr.  Wells  of  Hartfonl, 
Conn.,  in  1844,  in  dental  ojierations.  It  has  now 
attaineil  gieat  favor. 

Chloroform  is  a  terehloride  of  formyle  (the  hypo- 
thetical radical  of  fomiic  acid).  Its  discovery  is 
claimed  by  Soubeiran,  Guthiie,  and  Liebig,  whose 
claims  have  about  an  even  date,  1831.  The  verdict 
seems  to  have  settled  in  favor  of  the  former.  Its 
first  use  as  an  anaesthetic  was  by  Dr.  Simpson  of 
Edinburgh,  1847. 

Hydrate  of  chloral  has  recently  become  quite  un- 
pleasantly prominent  in  the  list  of  anodynes,  seda- 
tives, and  hypnotics. 

Ether  was  known  to  the  earliest  chemists.  The 
discovery  of  its  use  as  an  antesthetic  was  made  by 
Dr.  Jackson  or  Dr.  Morton  of  Boston,  in  1846.  .\ 
contest  ensued  between  the  parties  to  ]>rove  pri- 
ority, and  was  much  debated  in  the  scientific  jour- 
nals of  the  day.  In  an  apjilication  to  Congress  for 
a  remunerative  appropriation  of  $100,000,  tlie  rep- 


ANAESTHETIC   REFRIGERATOR. 


93 


ANALYZER. 


resentatives  of  Dr.  Wells  came 
in  with  a  claim  to  the  first  in- 
vention. The  enterprise  failed, 
hut  mankind  owes  a  debt  of 
gi-atitiiJe  to  each. 

Amylene  is  a  colorless  liquid 
obtained  by  distilling  fusel  oil 
with  chloride  of  zinc.  It  was 
discovered  by  M.  Balard,  of 
Paris,  in  1844.  Fii'st  used  by 
Dr.  Snow  in  1856. 

Kerosolene  was  derived  from 
the  distillation  of  coal-tar  by  Mer- 
rill of  Boston.  Its  use  as  an  an- 
ffisthetic  was  made  known  in  1861. 

Nitrate  of  ethyl,  of  which  the 
chemical  formula  is  C«  HsO,  Noc 
possesses  remarkable  antesthetic 
properties  ;  it  has  a  very  fragrant 
and  agreeable  smell,  a  sweet,  but  a  bitter  after 
taste.  Its  boiling-point  lies  at  185°  Fahr.,  and  its 
specific  gravity  is  1.112  at  62.5°  Fahr.  It  burns 
with  a  white  Hame,  is  not  soluble  in  water,  but  easily 
so  in  alcohol. 

Various  forms  of  apparatus  are  used  in  the  admin- 
istration of  anaesthetic  agents.  Some  consist  of 
cups  which  contain  the  sponge  saturated  with  the 
liciuid  and  exposed  to  the  current  of  air  as  it  passes 
to  the  lungs.  Others  pass  the  air  through  a  body 
of  liquid.  The  administration  of  nitrous-o.xide  re- 
quires a  ditferent  arrangement,  and  the  tube  con- 
necting the  bladder  with  the  mouth-piece  has  valves 
so  arranged  as  to  pass  the  gas  to  the  mouth  during 
inspiration,  and  allow  the  e.'ipired  breath  to  pass  to 
the  atmosphere  instead  of  contaminating  and  weak- 
ening the  contents  of  the  bag. 

These  are  more  properly  considered  under  In- 
HALEKS  (which  see),  as  that  has  become  the  term 
by  which  they  are  generally  known  and  patented. 
A  class  of  inventions  which  preceded  the  inhalers 
just  described  are  termed  Respikatoks  (which 
see),  and  are  not  adapted  for  the  introduction  of 
aiiaisthetic  or  curative  medicaments  into  the  lungs, 
but  arc  intended  as  air-heaters  or  filters,  and  are 
used  by  two  classes  of  persons,  —  by  consumptives 
to  temper  the  rigor  of  the  air  in  cold  weather,  by 
causing  the  air  to  rush  rapidly  through  a  succession 
of  narrow  passages ;  and  by  mechanics,  cutlers 
especially,  to  arrest  particles  of  steel  and  grit  which 
permeate  the  air  where  the  grinding  is  carried  on. 

The  anaesthetic  apparatus  which  operates  by  topi- 
cal application  of  cold  is  ordinarily  in  the  form  of 
an  Ai'OMiZEP.  (which  see),  and  consists  of  a  tube 
whose  lower  end  communicates  with  a  body  of 
liquid,  and  whose  Contracted  upper  end  is  exposed 
to  a  blast  at  right  angles  to  the  axis  of  the  upper 
tube  and  across  the  orifice  thereof.  This  has  the 
ett'ect  of  raising  the  liquid,  which  is  dis|)ersed  as  it 
reaches  the  opening,  and,  a.ssuming  the  form  of  fine 
spray,  becomes  a  great  absorber  of  sensible  heat,  and 
consequently  lowers  the  temperature  of  the  air  in 
its  vicinity.  The  air,  thus  cooled,  is  projected 
upon  the  part  where  local  anesthesia  is  required, 
and  by  absorbing  the  heat  of  the  part  renders  the 
nervous  system  of  the  part  incapable  of  feeling, 
calloused  by  cold. 

Bags  of  ice  have  been  laid  upon  the  part  affected 
to  produce  insensibilitj'  by  freezing. 

For  freezing  mixtures,  see  Ice,  Manufacture  of. 

An'ses-tbet'ic  Re-frig'er-ator.  An  appara- 
tus for  producing  local  aniesthesia  by  the  application 
of  narcotic  spray. 

The  apparatus  consists  of  a  bottle  to  contain  the 
ether  or  other  Uuid  to  be  used  ;  through  a  perfo- 


Fig.  181 


Whitens  Anasthetic   Rffri^erator. 

rated  cork  a  double  ttibe  is  passed,  one  extremity 
of  the  inner  part  of  which  goes  to  the  bottom  of  the 
bottle  ;  above  the  cork  a  tube,  connected  with  the 
bellows,  pierces  the  outer  part  of  the  double  tube, 
and  communicates  by  a  small  aperture  at  the  inner 
end  of  the  cork  with  the  interior  of  the  bottle. 
The  inner  tube  for  delivering  the  ether  runs  upward 
to  the  e.xtremity  of  the  outer  tube. 

When  the  bellows  are  worked,  a  dnuble  current  of 
air  is  produced ;  one  cun-ent  descending  and  jiress- 
ing  upon  the  ether,  forcing  it  along  the  inner  tube, 
and  tlie  other  ascending  through  the  outer  tube 
and  plaj-ing  upon  the  column  of  ether  as  it  [asses 
li'om  the  inner  tube. 

Put  the  ether  into  the  bottle,  nearly  filling  it, 
then  insert  the  tube  with  the  cork  firndy,  and  fit 
tlie  nozzle  to  give  the  jet  desired  ;  the  bulb  on  the 
extremity  of  the  rubber-tubing,  being  now  grasped 
in  the  hand  and  rapidly  used  as  a  hand-bellows,  — 
the  other  bulb  acting  as  a  reservoir,  —  keeps  uj)  a 
steady  pressure  upon  the  ether  and  produces  a  con- 
tinuous j  t. 

The  small  wires,  called  stylets,  are  used  to 
(Traduate  the  spray,  which  is  made  finer  or  heavier 
by  tl  ;  use  of  the  •different  sizes. 

Remove  the  nozzle  and  insert  the  stylet  in  the 
small  tube.  The  hook  on  one  end  of  the  wires  is 
to  prevent  their  slipping  into  the  tube. 

Two  nozzles  accompany  the  instrument ;  the  straight 
one  for  prodilcing  a  single  jet,  and  the  double  curved 
one  for  operating  on  both  sides  of  a  molar  tooth. 

An'a-glyph.     .A.  chased  or  embossed  ornament. 

An'a-glyp'to-grapll.  .•\n  instrument  for  making 
a  medallion  engraving  of  an  object  in  relief,  such 
as  a  medal  or  cameo.  A  point  is  passed  ovei-  the 
medal  at  an  angle  of  45°,  and  comnmnicatcs  motion 
to  a  diamond  etching-point.  The  diamond  partakes 
of  the  motions  of  the  tracer,  following  the  curves 
of  the  object,  making  the  lines  relatively  ojien  on 
the  sides  of  the  protuberances  ujion  which  the 
light  is  supposed  to  strike,  and  making  the  lines 
closer  on  the  sides  opposed  to  the  light.  See  Me- 
UAi.Lic  Engkavixg. 

A'nal-di-la'tor.  {Surgical.)  An  instrument  for 
dilating  tlie  sphincter  muscle  for  the  examination 
of  hemorrhoids  or  fistula  in  ano. 

An'a-lem'ma.    A  fonn  of  sun-ilial  now  disused. 

A'nal-spec'ulum.  {Surgical.)  An  instni- 
ment  for  distending  the  anal  opening  to  expose  the 
inner  surface  of  the  rectum,  in  case  of  hemorrhoids, 
fistula  in  ano,  etc.     See  Speculu.m. 

An'a-lyz'er.  The  upper  or  eye  prism  of  the 
polarizing  apparatus. 

The  first  of  the  two  columns  in  the  Coffey  Still  ; 
the  second  being  the  rectifier.     See  Still. 


ANAPLASTIC   INSTRUMENT. 


94 


ANCHOR. 


An'a-plas'tic  In'stru-ment.  For  the  ojiera- 
tiori  of  foiminc;  a  nose  iinon  tlie  face.  The  Taglia- 
cozzinn  operation.     Sfe  RHIN'oi'LAsTtn  PrN. 

An  a-8tat'ic  Engrav'ing  and  Print'ing.  In- 
vented by  Wood  in  ISil.  An  engraving  or  other 
printed  sheet  is  moistened  with  dihite  (iliosjihorie 
aeid,  and  pressed  on  to  a  clean  surfaee  of  zine, 
wliieli  is  etelied  thereby  in  the  place  not  protected 
by  the  ink.  The  plate  is  kept  damp  by  acidulous 
solution  of  gum,  and  in  the  printing  process  only 
takes  ink  from  the  rollers  at  the  points  where  the 
ink  of  the  original  imjiressiou  first  adhered. 

Zincography  is  the  term  applied  to  drawing  upon 
zinc  for  s\ibsequent  treatment  as  above. 

An'chor.  1.  Anchors  were,  according  to  Apol- 
lonius  Khoilius  and  Stephen  of  Byzantium,  origi- 
nally made  of  stone,  or  of  logs  of  wood  covered 
with  lead.  These  were  succeeded  by  a  bent  rod 
with  a  single  fluke.  The  invention  was  ascribed  by 
Pliny  to  the  Tuscans  ;  Strabo  ascribes  the  addition 
of  the  second  fluke  to  Anacliarsis  the  Scythian. 
They  were  first  forged  in  England,  A.  D.  578, 
when  Titillus  reigned  in  East  Anglia.  The  general 
shape  of  anchors  is  well  known,  consisting  of  two 
arms  terminating  in  broad  expansions  termed  Hukes, 
and  attached  to  a  long  shank,  to  which  is  fixed  a 
stork  of  wood  or  iron  at  right  angles  to  tlie  arms, 
to  insure  the  perpendicularity  of  the  Hukes  when 
the  anchor  is  on  the  bottom,  in  order  that  they 
may  take  firm  hold  of  the  gi-ound.  Small  anchors 
termed  grajmels,  and  having  four  or  more  arms, 
are  used  for  boats,  and  at  times  for  small  vessels. 
The  mushroom-anchor,  so  called  from  its  shape,  is 
much  employed  in  the  East  Indies  by  the  native 
vessels  called  grabs.  The  weight  of  the  largest 
anchors,  for  vessels  of  1,000  tons  or  less,  is  about 
1  cwt.  for  each  20  tons  measurement,  or  .0025  of 
the  tonnage.  Various  improvements  have  been  pro- 
posed upon  the  ordinary  anchor,  of  which  the  most 
pronunent  are  Rodgers's,  Trotman's,  and  its  modi- 
fications, Isaaes's  and  Lenox's. 

In  Tuot.man's  anchor  the  arms  are  passed 
through  the  shank,  which  is  slotted,  and  are  held 
by  a  liolt,  thus  bringing  the  uppeT  ann  and  fluke 
down  on  the  shank,  and  allowing  the  lower  one  to 
penetrate  deeper  when  the  anchor  is  on  the  bottom. 

Fig.  182. 


ii 


lyotman's  Anchor. 

This  arrangement,  aided  by  the  horns  on  the  back 
of  the  flukes,  also  prevents  fouling.  At  a  trial  made 
in  1853,  under  the  au.spices  of  the  British  Board  of 
Admiralty,  to  determine  the  comparative  general 
merits    of    various   descriptions   of  anchors,    their 


comparative  merits  were  decided  to  be  as  follows, 
the  Admiralty  anchor  being  taken  as  unity  :  — 

Trotman  .         .     1.28  Houibal  (or  Porter)  1.09 

Rodgers  .         1.26  Aylen  .         .     1.09 

Mitclieson  .         .     1.20  Admiralty        .         1.00 

Lenox     .         .         1.13  Isaacs  .         .       .73 

Notwithstanding  the  numerous  recent  modifica- 
tions claiming  to  be  improvements,  an  anchor  differ- 
ing  little  from  the   old- 
fashioned  type,  excepting  Fig.  183. 
that  even  the  very  largest  fl 
sizes   have    iron    stocks,                        11 
still  maintains   its   place                      (Jsj) 
both    in    the    navy    and 
merchant  sei-vice   of  the 
United  States. 

Anchors  require  to  be 
made  of  the  very  best  and 
toughest    wrought  -  iron. 
They  are  made  by  welding 
together   a  fagot  of  bars 
under   a   steam    or    trip 
hammer,  the  smaller  ana 
more  difficult  portions  be-  X^iK^ 
ing  shaped  and  rounded      -^^.^^ 
off,  and  the  whole  anchor 
finished  up  by  hand.   This 
portion  of  the  work,   es-     English,  Admiralty  Anekor. 
pecially  in  the  case  of  a 

large  anchor,  is  one  of  the  most  arduous  labors  of  the 
smith's  shop  ;  as  the  workmen  are  unable  to  stand 
the  intense  heat  from  the  huge  mass  of  red-hot  metal 
and  wield  the  ponderous  sledge-hammers  employed 
but  for  a  very  short  space  of  time,  each  strikes  his 
blow  and  falls  hack  to  make  room  for  another,  who 
in  turn  retires  to  give  place  again  to  his  predecessor, 
and  so  on  until  the  iron  becomes  too  cool  for  further 
hammering.  This  evidently  recpiires  a  considerable 
share  of  strength,  activity,  and  endurance  on  the  part 
of  the  men,  who  are  not  only  compelled  to  strike 
while  the  iron  is  hot,  but  have  to  put  in  as  many 
and  as  heavy  strokes  as  they  possibly  can  in  the 
time. 

IsAACs's  anchor  has  a  flat  bar  of  iron  from  palm 
to  palm,  which  passes  the  shank  elliptically  on  each 
side,  and  from  each  end  of  the  stock  to  the  njid- 
length  of  the  shank  are  fixed  two  other  bars  to  pre- 
vent fouling. 

Fig.  184. 


Isaaes's  Anchor. 


ANCHOR. 


ANCHOR. 


Porter's  anchor,  or  Honibal's  as  it  is  some- 
times called  from  the  purchaser  of  the  right,  is 
very  similar  to  Trotman's  (which  see),  the  latter 
being   au  improvement   upon    Porter's,    with   some 

Fig.  185. 


Lenoxes  Anchor. 

modifications  in  the  shape  of  the  flukes  and  their 
horns.  Lenox's  improvement  (1832-39)  con- 
sisted  in  an  improved 


Kg.  186. 


while  the  other  arm  falls  down  upon  the  shank, 
obviating  the  danger  of  fouling  and  by  means  of  the 
curved  bar  assisting  the  first  arm  to  bear  the  strain. 


Williams^s  Anchor. 


mode  of  welding,  and 
in  rounding  off  the 
sharp  edges  and  lines; 
also  in  reducing  the 
size  of  the  palms,  the 
object  being  to  obtain 
a  stronger  anchor  and 
prevent  injury  to  the 
cable. 

RoDGERs's      anchor 
has    a    shank   with   a 
wooden  core,  for  giving 
more  surface,  and  con- 
sequent strength  for  a 
given  weight  of  metal. 
WiLLi.\Ms's   anchor, 
patented      March     16, 
1858.    This  anchor  has 
three  flukes  hinged  to 
a  block   at    the    lower 
end  of  the  shank,  and 
so  set  that  two  of  them 
may    penetrate     the 
ground  at  the  same 
time,  while  the  third 
falls  down  upon  the 
shank     to     prevent 
the  cable  from  being 
fouled.      The    flukes 
are  set  at  120°  apart 
and  hinged  in  a  sep- 
arate block. 

Morgan's  anchor, 
patented  June  21, 
1864.  The  arms  are 
separately  pivoted 
near  the  end  of  the 
shank,  and  are  con- 
nected by  a  curved 
bar  passing  through 
a  hole  in  the  shank. 
AVhen  one  fluke  has 
hold  of  the  ground 
its  arm  rests  against 
and  is  supported  by 
the    crown-piece, 


Fig.  188. 


Fig.  189. 


Morgan^ s  Anchor. 


MarshnlVs  Anchor. 


Marshall's  anchor,  patented  October  17,  1865. 
Antedated  March  6,  1865. 

The  arms  are  straight  and  tnm  in  an  arc  of  a 
circle,  moving  separately  on  a  pivot  passing  through 
the  crown.  Each  is  provided  with  harlis  or  projec- 
tions to  help  the  fluke  to  take  and  retain  its  hold, 
and  the  oscillation  is  checked  b}'  cusjis  on  the  thick 
portion  of  the  crown,  so  that  the  arms  have  a  given 
inclination  to  the  shank. 

Latham's  an- 
chor, patented 
August  21,  1866. 
The  shank  J  B 
is  made  of  two 
pieces,  which 
separate  at  their 
lower  ends  to  al- 
low the  passage 
of  the  middle 
fluke.  The  arm 
C  turns  in  the 
shank  and  has 
three  parallel 
flukes. 

The  weight  by| 
these  means  is 
concentrated  at 
the  lower  part 
of  the  anchor. 
When  the  anchor 
is  let  go,  the 
flukes  make 
about  a  quarter  of  a  revolution,  lying  in  the  posi- 
tion shown  in  the  illustration  when  they  enter  the 
ground.  The  shoulder  on  the  crown-piece  comes 
against  the  shank  and  restrains  the  oscillation  of  the 
arms  in  either  direction,  and  the  anchor  stows  com- 
pactly b)'  bringing  the  arms  parallel  with  the  shank, 
the  middle  arm  or  fluke  lying  in  the  space  between 
the  two  portions  of  the  shank. 

Stuard's  anchor.  Among  the  single-armed  an- 
chors may  be  mentioned  Stuard's  (English),  which 
has  a  very  short  shank  made  in  one  piece  with  the 
arm,  the  pile  being  bent,  but  not  welded.  The 
stock  is  a  wrought-iron  bar  with  knobs  on  the  end, 
which  cant  the  anchor  so  that  its  fluke  penetrates 
the  ground  as  it  is  dragged  along.     One  hole  in  the 


Latharn's  Anchor. 


ANCHOR. 


96 


ANCHOR,    SUSPENSION-CABLE. 


sh.ink  is  for  attachment  of  the  cable,  and  a  shackle 
at  the  crown  is  for  the  buoy-rope. 

The  largest  inchor  in  tlie  world,  according  to 
Charles  Kyland's  "  Iron  Trade  Report,"  was  made  at 
H.  P.  Parke's  Works,  Tipton,  Startbrdshire,  for  the 
Great  Eastern,  and  weiglis  eight  tons  exclusive  of 
the  stock.  Its  dimensions  are  :  Length  of  shank, 
twenty  feet  si.K  inches  ;  of  wooj-stock,  nineteen 
feet  si.K  inches  ;  trend  of  arms,  seven  feet  fonr 
inches.  It  is  somewhat  ditferent  in  form  from  ordi- 
nary anchors,  the  palms  or  blades  being  divided  or 
split  so  that  it  may  more  readily  pierce  the  sea- 
bottom. 

Tlie  parts  of  an  anchor  are  as  follows  ;  — 
a  to  b,  shank  ;  b  to  c,  square  ;  o!  to  e,  arm  ;  /  to 
g,  palm,  fluke,  or  kevel  ;  h  to  i,  point,  pee,  or  bill  ; 

Fii;.  191. 


til 


u 


1  to  I;  blade  ;  M  to  iV,  crown  ;  o,  ring  ;  p,  stock  ; 
d,  tlnoat  or  crutch. 

For  clu'cking  and  regulating  the  motion  of  the 
cable  as  it  runs  towards  the  hnime-holcs  wliile  the 
anchor  is  droiiping,  und  for  holding  the  cable  after 
the  anchor  lias  taken  hold,  four  kinds  of  apparatus 
are  used  to'jetlier  or  sei)arately,  —  Con'ti'.olleiis, 
BiTT.s,  STciriT.ns,  Cumphessous  (which  see). 

To  cad  or  drop  anchor  is  to  let  go  the  anchor. 

To  ride  at  anchor  is  the  condition  of  the  vessel 
when  anchored. 

To  sieinij  at  anchor  is  when  the  ship  obeys  the 
change  in  the  direction  of  the  tide  while  at  anchor. 

To  iveirjli  anchor  is  to  heave  it  out  of  the  grounil. 

To  back  an  anchor  is  to  strengthen  its  lioUl  of  the 
ground  by  means  of  a  seconil  anchor  laid  down 
ahead  of  tile  other,  and  fastened  to  the  crow'n  of  tlie 
latter  by  a  cable. 

An  anchor  is  foul  when  the  cable  is  twisted 
around  it  or  the  anchor  is  entangled  with  a  wreck 
or  another  anchor. 

The  anchor  bites  when  the  fluke  takes  hold  of  the 
gi'ound. 

To  sirei-p  for  an  anchor  is  for  the  recovery  of  a 
lost  anchor  by  sweeping  the  bottom  with  the  bight 
of  a  cabh'  or  haw,ser. 

Pnrliiuj  :  Breaking  cable  and  leaving  the  anchor 
in  the  ground. 


An  anchor  is  a-cock-bill  when  it  is  suspended  per- 
pendicularly from  the  cathead  ready  to  let  go. 

It  comes  home  when  dragged  from  its  hold  by  the 
pulling  of  tlie  cable. 

An  auchor  is  a-stay  when  the  angle  of  the  cable 
with  the  water  is  about  that  of  a  stay.  A  long-stay 
apeak  when  coinciding  with  the  main  stay  ;  sliort 
stay  wlien  with  the /ore  stay. 

It  is  a-pen/c  when  the  cable  is  drawn  in  so  tight 
as  to  bring  the  ship  directly  over  it. 

It  is  a-weigh,  or  a-trip,  when  lifted  clear  of  the 
ground. 

It  is  a-wash  when  lifted  to  the  surface  of  the  water. 

It  is  hove  up  when  lifted  to  the  hawse-liole. 

It  is  Iwokcd  when  cat-fall  is  fast  to  the  ring. 

It  is  catted  or  lumled  up  when  lifted  by  tlie  ring 
to  the  cathead. 

It  is  f  shed  when  the  fluke  next  to  the  ship's  side 
is  lifted  to  the  iish-davit. 

It  is  OH-board  when  the  fluke  is  lifted  to  its  rest- 
ing-place on  the  bill-board. 

It  is  in-board  when  on  deck. 

It  is  secured  when  all  is  made  fast,  the  cable  and 
buoy-rope  unbent,  and  the  anchor  stowed. 

The  weight  of  Anchor  and  Kedge  is  given  exclu- 
sive of  that  of  its  stock. 

Bower  and  Sheet  Anchors  should  be  alike  in  weight. 

Stream  Audwrs  should  be  \  the  weight  of  the  best 
bower. 

Kedges  are  light  anchors  used  in  wai'jiing. 

2.  The  block,  frame,  or  masonry  deeply  buiied 
in  tlie  earth,  to  which  the  cables  or  wires  of  suspen- 
sion-bridges are  attached.      See  Anx'HOH,  Suspen- 

SIOX-C.AHI.E. 

An'chor  and  Collar.  A  form  of  hinge  foi'  a 
lock-gate.  The  anchor  is  let  into  the  stone  coping  ; 
the  collar  is  attached  like  a  clevis  to  the  anchor, 
and  forms  a  socket  for  the  pintle  of  the  heel-post  of 
the  gate. 

An'chor-balL  1.  A  contrivance  of  Captain 
Manby,  li.  N.,  for  saving  life  in  eases  of  shipwreck. 
It  is  a  ball  having  several  hinged  prongs  fitting  in 
slots,  which  are  intended  to  catch  in  the  i-iggiiijj 
of  a  stranded  vessel. 

It  is  tired  from  a  mortar,  and  carries  a  light  lim 
by  which  a  stout  rope  may  be  carried  ashore  froui 
the  ve.s.sel. 

The  French  use  a  ball  for  this  purpose  having  i 
harpoon  passing  through  it,  on  the  rear  end  ol 
which  a  line  is  wound. 

2.  A  carcass  or  incendiary  ball  aflixed  to  a  grapnel 
by  which  it  is  intentled  to  adhere  to  and  hre  a  vessid. 

An'chor-bolt  (Machinery. )  One  having  an 
expanded  sliaiik  to  prevent  its  drawing  out. 

An'chor-chocks.  Blocks  on  which  a  starved 
anchor  r '.sts. 

An'chor,  Sua-pen'sion-ca'ble.    The  anchors  of 

Fig.  192. 


Suxpfn$i on- Chain  Anchor. 


ANCHOR-DRAG. 


97 


ANCHOR-TRIPPER. 


the  chains  of  the  Meiiai  Suspension  Bridge  are  cast- 
iron  plates  liaving  a  bearing  against  tile  soliJ  rock. 
Three  obliijue  circnlar  shafts  six  feet  in  diameter 
and  sixty  feet  in  depth  were  blasted  into  the  solitl 
rock,  a  considerable  space  being  left  between  each 
shaft.  At  the  bottom  is  a  cross-tunnel  which  runs 
horizontally  and  at  right  angles  to  the  inclined 
shafts.  The  iron  plates,  weighing  2,240  pounds, 
were  fitted  into  seats  in  the  face  of  the  rock  at  right 
angles  to  the  chains  which  are  bolted  thereto,  a, 
cross-tunnel ;  b,  anchor  ;  c,  suspension-cable. 

An'chor-drag.     See  DnAO-ANXHOR. 

Au'chor  Es-cape'ment.  The  anchor  escape- 
ment superseded  the  crown-wheel  escapement  for 
clocks.  It  was  invented  by  Clement,  a  London 
watchmaker,  in  16S0.  By  some  it  is  credited  to 
Dr.   Hooke. 

The  anchor  has  two  arms  whose  hent  ends  resem- 
ble Hukes  in  some  degree,  and  thus  give  rise  to  the 
name.  It  is  suspended  from  a  horizontal  axis,  on 
which  it  turns  freely  along  with  the  dejieudent  stem, 
which  terminates  at  its  lower  end  in  a  fork  or 
crutch  between  whose  prongs  the  pendulum-rod 
passes,  so  that  the  motions  of  the  pendulum  are 
communicated  to  the  anchor,  and  the  pressure  of 
the  wheel  upon  the  pallets  of  the  anchor  is  also 
communicated  to  tlie  pendulum  so  as  to  make  up 
for  the  .small  loss  by  friction  incident  to  its  action. 

"The  great  advant.age  of  this  escapement  over 
the  ohl  crown-wheel  is  that  it  allows  the  escape  to 
take  place  at  a  small  angle  of  vibration,  thereby 
preventing  the  necessity  for  the  maintaining  power 
acting  upon  the  pendulum  with  so  gi'eat  foi'ce  as  by 
the  old  plan  ;  and  by  the  introduction  of  a  heavy 
ball,  leaving  that  to  be  done  by  the  uniform  power 
of  gravity  which  before  was  dependent  upon  the 
impulse  given  by  the  wheel  to  the  pallets." 

Clement,  in  connection  with  this  escapement, 
introduced  his  mode  of  suspending  the  pendulum 
by  a  thin  piece  of  llexible  spriug,  a  mode  which  has 
remained  in  favor  ever  since. 


Fig.  193. 


Recoil. 


Anchor  Escapement. 


Figure  193  shows  two  foi-ms  of  anchor  escapement : 
one  is  on  the  recoil  principle  and  the  other  is  the 
ckad-lmt ;  the  former  is  so  called  because  each  tooth 
of  the  wheel  makes  a  back  or  recoil  motion  after 
escaping  from  the  pallet.  In  the  figure  one  tooth 
is  represented  as  having  just  escaped  from  the 
anchor,  and  a  tooth  on  the  opposite  side  of  the 
wheel  has  dropped  on  to  the  pallet.  The  pendu- 
lum continuing  its  course  a  little  farther  to  the  left. 


I  the  slope  of  the  pallet  will  drive  the  tooth  on  the 
right  a  little  way  back  and  produce  the  recoil. 

The  other  figure  shows  the  (lead-beat  escapement, 
in  which  the  slope  of  each  jiallet  stops  at  the  points 
where  the  teeth  fall,  the  rest  of  each  pallet  form- 
ing portions  of  a  circle  of  which  the  axis  is  the 
center.  The  tooth  having  passed  the  pallet,  the 
continued  motion  of  the  ijendiiluni  merely  holds 
the  tooth,  but  does  not  give  it  any  backward  mo- 
tion. See  Dead-beat  Escapement;  Recoil 
Escapement. 

An'ohor-gate.  A  heavy  gate,  such  as  is  used 
in  the  locks  of  canals,  reipiires  for  its  upper  bearing 
a  collar  which  is  stayed  by  the  adjacent  masonry. 
Barbed  metallic  projections  from  the  collar  are  em- 
bedded in  the  masonrj',  and  resist  displacement  of 
the  gate  while  enduring  strain  or  swinging  on  its 
axis. 

An'chor-lin'ing.  Sheathing  on  the  ship's  plank- 
ing, under  the  fore-channels,  to  keep  the  bill  of  the 
anchor  from  ripping  the  ship's  side  when  hauling  it 
up,  or  fishing. 

An'chor,  Mush'room.  The  vmshromn  ancJwr 
is  used  for  moorings,  and  is  said  to  be  a  favorite  in 
the  East  Indies.     Its  name  indicates  its  form,  hav- 


Fig.  194. 


Mushroom  Anchor, 

ing  a  central  shank  and  a  head  of  a  howl  sluape, 
which  reijuires  no  stock  on  the  shnvk  to  cause  it  to 
engage  with  the  ground  over  which  it  is  dragged. 

An'chor-ring.  The  ring  of  an  anchor  by  which 
it  is  bent  to  the  cable.  A  jew's-harp  shackle  is  now 
used. 

An'chor-stock  Plank'ing.  (Sliip-building.) 
Each  ]ilank  has  one  straight  edge,  the  other  consist- 
ing of  t\\o  equal  slopes. 

An'chor-trip'pers.  These  aredevices  for  "trip- 
ping "  or  casting  loose  a  shiji's  anchor.  In  some  of 
them  it  is  suspended  by  its  ring  from  the  cat-block  or 
a  tripjnng-bolt  ;  in  others  it  is  fastened  at  each  end 
liy  chains  which  are  cast  loose  simultaneously. 

DuN(.-AX,   April  2  8,  Fig.  195. 

1863.  The  anchor  hangs  ^  „„,„„.M>i.„--. 
from  a  clutch-ring  on  the  ^ 
cat-block,  which  is  sus- 
pended below  the  cat- 
head. AVhen  the  fall  is 
east  loose,  the  block  de- 
scends, and  the  clutch  is 
opened  by  the  chains 
which  are  attached  to  the 
cathead,  and  to  the  pro- 
jecting levers  or  prongs 
on  the  respective  halves  of 
the  clutch.  A  .single  mo- 
tion, the  slackening  of 
the  fall,  operates  the  trip- 
per ;  the  clutch  is  opened 
when  the  chains  are  made 
taut  by  the  descent  of 
the  block. 

Stacey,  December  27, 

1864.  The    anchor    is 
suspended  by  its  ring  from 


Duncan^ s  Anchor- Tripper. 


ANCHOR-TRIPPER. 


98 


ANCHOR-TRIPPER. 


Stacey's  Anchor-Tripper. 


the  hook  of  the  fall- 
block,  which  depends 
fi-om  the  cat-head.  The 
tripping-roiie  is  attached 
to  an  eye  on  the  fall-block 
hook,  and  is  belayed  to 
a  pin  on  the  cat-head. 
When  the  fall  is  cast 
loose,  and  as  soon  as  the 
slack  of  the  triiiping-rope 
is  e.Khausted,  the  said  rope 
upsets  the  hook,  and 
casts  loose  the  anchor. 

Holmes,  April  28, 1857. 
A  short  chain  is  attached 
to  the  ring  of  the  anchor,  and  the  link  on  its  upper 

end  is  trausti.\ed 
by  a  pin  which  has 
its  bearings  in  a 
block.  By  turn- 
ing the  handle  half 
a  revolution  in  one 
direction,  the  screw 
upon  the  shaft  will 
cause  the  pin  to 
recede,  and  disen- 
gage itself  from  the 
link  of  the  cliain. 
The  thread  works 
in  a  sjiiral  groove  or  nut,  by  which  it  receives  lon- 
gitudinal motion  \vhen  partially  rotated. 

Heit.man,    May  16,   180.5.     The   anchor  is   sus- 
pen<lcd  by  a  shank-painter  and  a  ring-stoi)per.    One 
end  of  each  chain  is  fast  to  the  vessel,  while  the 
ring  at  its  other  end  rests  upon  a  pivoted  latch- 
Fig.  198. 


Holmes's  Anchor- Tripper, 


in  its  staple,  the  bar  is  released,  and  the  block  A 
freed  to  rotate  under  the  weight  of  the  anchor, 
whii'h  is  thereby  "tripped." 

Buiu'On's  anchor-tripper  (English).     The  stand- 
ing eud  of  the  cat-head  stopper   is  worked  into  a 


Fig.  20O. 


Heitman^s  Anchor-Tripper. 

piece.  These  latch-pieces  are  supported  upon  a 
bar,  which  is  rotati'd  to  give  simultaneous  disen- 
gagement to  tile  latches,  and  cast  the  anchor  loose. 
The  movement  of  the  bar  is  effected  by  raising  a 
lever  which  rests  upon 


Fig.  199. 


GibsotCs  Anchor-  Tripper. 


the  rail. 

There  are  thirteen 
United  States  patents 
for  anchor-tripix'rs. 

GiBso.s',  December 
5,  1865.  In  this  de- 
vice the  fluke  of  the 
anchor  rests  on  a  block 
A,  which,  is  pivoted  in 
a  notch  of  the  gun- 
wale. A  bar  i3,  at- 
tached to  said  block, 
is  held  by  a  shaekle-bar 
C,  when  the  latter  is 
in  its  upper  position. 
By  sliding  the  shackle 


Burton^s  Anchor-Tripper. 

ring  placed  around  the  end  of  the  bolt  b  c,  which 
is  pivoted  at  d,  on  the  cat-head  a.  The  other  end 
c  of  the  bolt  is  olili(iue,  and  is  held  down  by  the 
clnnip  c,  tui'uing  on  the  pivot  /,  the  clasp  bi'ing  se- 
cured by  a  hasp  </,  and  pin  h.  The  cat-head 
stopper  passes  through  the  ring  of  the  anchor,  over 
the  thumb-cleat  k,  and  is  made  fast  round  the 
timber-head  l.  When  it  is  required  to  let  go  the  an- 
chor, a  handspike  is  inserted,  so  as  to  bear  against 
thi>  clasp  c,  and  hold  it  closed  while  the  pin  /(  is 
withdrawn,  and  the  hasp  (l  is  cast  otf.  The  linnd- 
sjiike  being  then  removed,  the  oblique  end  c  of  the 
bolt  throws  open  the  clamp  c,  and  the  bolt  revolving 
on  its  pivot  d  allows  the  standing  end  of  the  cat- 
head stopper  to  fall  off,  and  the  anchor  to  drop. 

Spence's  tripper  (English)  is  especially  intended 
for  casting  off  the  sluinlc-painter ,  which  holds  the 


Fig.  201. 


Spencers  Anchor-  Tripper. 

shrink  and  flul~es  to  the  ship's  side,  while  the  cat- 
head stopper  holds  the  rincf  of  the  stocJc. 

a  is  a  carriage  bolted  to  the  gunwale  ;  i  is  a  liolt 
which  is  pivoted  at  i  to  the  carriage,  and  sustains 
the  chain-end  of  the  .'ilmnk-paintcr ;  e  is  a  lever 
pivoted  at /to  the  upper  side  of  the  carriage  a,  and 
iiaving  a  hook  d  at  its  end  which  holds  the  bolt  b 
in  an  upright  position.  When  the  shanl' -painter  is 
to  be  cast  oil',  a  pry  is  taken  upon  the  end  of  the 
lever  by  a  haiulspike  till  the  pin  (j  is  removed.    The 


ANCHYLOSIS  APPARATUS. 


99 


ANEMOMETER. 


lever  e  is  then  oscillated  till  the  hook  d  is  disen- 
gaged from  the  bolt  b.     Tlie  latter  is  immediately 
rotated  by  tlie  weight  of  the  anchor,  and  the  shank- 
painter  is  east  loose. 
Anch'y-lo'sis  Ap'pa-ra'tus.  Anapjiaratusforre- 

lieving  the  strain 


Fig.  202. 


Anchylosis  Apparatus. 


upon  the  tle.xed 
anchylosis  articu- 
lation by  support- 
ing the  respective 
parts  of  the  limb 
at  a  distance  from 
the  center  of  lev- 
erage. 

Fig.  202  shows 
an  apparatus 
adapted  for  the 
knee.  The  upper 
and  lower  bands 
are  secured  around 
the  thi^h  and  low- 
er legrcspectively, 
J^the  joint  being  set 
immovably  at  the 
angle  reijuired. 
The  small  tigure 
represents  the  key 
by  which  the  joint 
is  loosened  or 
locked. 

Aucon ;   An- 
cone.    An  elbow 
or  angle.   Aquoin. 
console. 


An  ornamental  keystone.      A 
Tlie  an,t,'le  of  a  knee-tumbler. 
An'co-ny.     ( Mela  I-  workinfi. )  A  piece  of  partially 
wronglit  bar-iron,  partly  finished  in  the  middle,  but 
unwrought  at  the  ends. 

An'cove.  (Architectnrc.)  A  console  on  each 
side  ol  a  duor  to  support  a  cornice  or  entablature. 

An-cy'lo-mele.  A  curved  probe  used  by  sur- 
geons. 

And'i-rons.  Tlie.se  are  used  upon  the  hearth  to 
support  the  burning  logs  and  brands.  Sometimes 
called  dog-irons,  and  familiar  to  all  who  have  been 
aciiiiainted  with  the  old-fashioned  fireplace. 

Smvlir,  .Inly  12,  lSi3.  The  horses  of  the  andi- 
rons are  adjustably  connected,  so  as  to  place  them 
ftt  any  convenient  distance  apart  and  keep  them 
steady.  They  are  guarded  by  a  safety-bar  against 
the  danger  of  upsetting. 

LoG.VN',   March  27,  1S60,  has  a  bottom  plate  or 

frame,   in    combination   with   two  upright   angular 

bars,  in  such  a  manner 

^^^  Fig.  203.  that    the   same    stands 

ipi\  firmly  in  its  place  and 

allows  a  free  circulation 

of  the  heat. 

The  name  andiron  is 
supposed  to  be  derived 
from    the   Anglo-Sa.xon 
,brand-iroH.     Others  de- 
^^■'rive  it  from  hand-iron. 
For  the  large  kitchen 
fire,  the  andirons  were 
Logan's  Andiron.  very  strong  and  massive, 

but  usually  i[uite  plain. 
In  the  hall,  that  ancient  seat  of  hosjiitality,  they 
were  also  strong  and  massive,  to  support  the  weight 
of  the  huge  logs  ;  but  the  standards  were  kejit  bright 
or  ornamented  with  brass  rings,  knobs,  rosettes,  heads 
and  feet  of  animals,  and  various  grotesque  forms. 
In  kitclnns,  and  in  the  rooms  of  common  houses, 
the  andiron,  as  its  name  implies,  was  of  iron  ;  but 


in  the  hall  the  standards  were  of  copper  or  brass, 
and  sometimes  of  silver. 

Until  the  seventeenth  century  wood  was  the  ordi- 
nary fuel.  It  was  burned  in  holes  dug  iii  the  floor, 
on  hearths  in  the  middle  of  the  fioor  or  against  the 


Fig.  204. 


wall.  Chimneys  are  a  comparatively  modern  inven- 
tion, and  no  traces  of  them  are  found  [irevious  to  the 
twelfth  century.     See  Chimxkv. 

In  the  baronial  halls  of  England  the  logs  were 
liberally  piled  on  the  hearth  in  the  middle  of  the 
hall,  being  confined  within  the  two  staiulards  of  the 
andiron,  their  ends  resting  on  the  billet-bar  for  the 
purpose  of  admitting  air  beneath  them,  and  thus 
promoting  combustion. 

A-nem'o-graph.  An  instrument  for  measuring 
and  recording  the  direction  and  force  of  the  wind. 

An'e-mom'e-ter.  An  instrument  for  detennining 
the  foue  of  the  wind.  The  most  simple  f<iini  of 
this  instrument  is  a  board  or  other  plane  surface  of 
given  area,  which  is  presented  to  the  wind  and  has 
a  spring  attached  by  which  the  direct  force  of  the 
wind  is  measured  on  a  principle  precisely  similar  to 
that  of  an  ordinary  spring-balance.  A  scale  may  le 
attacht-d,  which  will  show  the  absolute  pressure  in 
pounds  and  fractions  to  the  square  loot  or  inch. 
The  earliest  known  anemometer  w:us  that  of  Dr. 
C'rombie,  1667,  afterwards  improved  by  Wolfius  and 
others.  Dr.  J.\mes  Li.nd  of  Wimisor  invented, 
about  the  year  1775,  a  very  convenient  and  accu- 
rate anemometer  which  is  well  suited  for  private 
observers  or  those  desiring  a 
portable  instrument  occn])ying  a 
small  sjiace.  It  consists  of  a 
gi'aduated  glass  tube  having  two 
arms,  one  of  which  has  the  up- 
per part  bent  perpendicularly  ; 
the  tube  is  mounted  on  a  stand, 
the  two  arms  being  in  a  verti- 
cal position,  and  the  bent  por- 
tion horizontal,  so  that  its  mouth 
can  be  presented  to  the  wind. 
AVater  is  jioured  in  until  the 
instrument  is  filled  to  the  middle 
or  zero  of  the  scale.  For  use,  it 
is  placed  so  that  the  month  shall 
recei\'e  the  full  force  of  the  wind, 
which  depresses  the  water  in  that 
arm  and  causes  it  to  rise  in  the 
other.  As  the  pressure  of  the 
atmosphere  at  the  earth's  surface  ^ 
will  ordiiiaiily  sustain  a  colnnin 
of  water  about  33  feet  in  height, 
which  is  eciuivalent  to  about  2,060  pounds  to  the 
si-piare  foot,  if  we  suppose  tlio  wind  to  blow  with 
a  force  sufficient  to  cause  a  difference  of  level  of 
one    inch    in    the    two  branches    of   the    tube,   this 


Lind's  Anemoineler. 


ANEMOMETER. 


100 


ANEMOMETER. 


Fig.  206. 


Mr.  CsTLEii's  apparatus,  or  some  moilitication  of 
it,  is  probably  tbe  most  perl'uct  yet  devised,  especially 

Fig.  207. 


WheweWs  Anemometer, 

indicates  a  pressure  equivalent  to  ^ 
of  ^j  of  the  whole  weight  of  the  at- 
mosphere, or  about  5^%  pounds  to  the  , 
square  inch.  The  force  being  as  the ' 
S(iu:ire  of  the  velocity,  the  latter  is 
readily  ascertained  by  calculation,  or 
by  inspection  from  a  table  engraved  on 
the  instniment. 

Another  form  of  anemometer  is  op- 
erated by  vanes  like  the  sails  of  a 
wiiiilniill  and  working  on  the  same 
jjrineiple  ;  their  a.\is  has  a  perpetual 
screw  wliich  turns  a  vertical  cog-wlieel 
on  an  a.xis  at  right  angles  to  the  axis 
of  the  vanes.  To  this  is  attached  a 
b.ir  connected  to  a  counterpoise  weight 
sustained  by  a  cord  passing  around 
a  cone.     The    movement  of  this   bar,      ^''''^r^;pPfJ^'^rj\rj\rj^^ 

actuated   by   the    vanes,    indicates    the  ^^  ,  f^^    ^^^^^-C^   o|^  ^-^ 

comjiarative  force  of  the  wind,  which  is  shown  by 
tile  dial. 

In  Whevveli.'s  anemometer  a  windmill  fly  is  pre- 
sented perpendicularly  to  the  wind  by  a  vane  ;  the 
fly  actuates  a  train  of  gearing  which  causes  a  pencil 
to  descend,  according  to  the  force  of  the  wind  and 
consequent  velocity  of  revolution  of  the  Hy,  and 
trace  a  corresponding  line  on  a  fi.xed  cylinder, 
which  is  divided  by  vertical  lines  representing  the 
points  of  the  compass  ;  as  the  wind  changes,  the 
pencil  is  moved  round  on  the  sui'face  of  the  cylin- 
der, and  caused  to  register  the  direction  as  well  as 
the  velocity  of  the  wind,  the  former  by  its  rotary 
and  the  latter  by  its  vertical  motion. 


Ostler^s  Anemometer, 

for  public  institirtions,  or  where  it  is  desired  to  keep 
a  perfect  record  of  the  changes  in  the  force  and 
velocity  of  the  wind.  The  essential  parts  are  a 
plate,  having  its  face  constantly  presented  to  the 
wind  by  a  set  of  vanes  at  right  angles  to  it  ;  the 
force  of  the  wind  on  this  plate  causes  it  to  move  an 


ANEMOMETER. 


101 


ANEMOSCOPE. 


arm  carrying  a  pencil,  which  makes  a  mark  on  a 
sheet  of  paper  especially  ruled  for  the  purpose,  hav- 
ing separate  comiiartments  for  registering  the  force 
and  direction  of  the  wind,  and  a  third  to  show  the 
amount  of  rain  ;  the  paper  is  slowly  moved  forward 
by  clock-work  ;  the  pencil  approaches  toward  or 
diverges  from  the  edge  of  the  paper  as  the  force  of 
the  wind  varies,  while  a  similar  peucil,  attached  to 
an  anil  connected  by  a  spiral  worm  and  nut  to  the 
guide-vaues  above  mentioned,  registers  the  direction 
of  the  wind  in  the  center  compartment.  Tlie  rain- 
gage  is  attaclied  to  a  bent  lever,  also  carrying  a 
pencil,  which  is  drawn  toward  the  center  of  the 
paper  as  the  gage  becomes  filled  with  water,  thus 
ludicating  the  amount  of  rain.  When  the  gage  is 
completely  full  it  tilts,  empties  itself,  and  the  record 
commences  afresh. 

Sri'XTZ,    February  4,    1S62.     An   endless   apron 
moving  upon  three  rollers  carries  the  paper  upon 


Fig.  20S. 


Velocity 

Per 

Pressure 

per  hour. 

second. 

per  sq.  ft. 

Miles. 

ft. 

lbs. 

10 

14.67 

.492) 

15 

22.00 

1.107  ( 

20 

29.34 

1.968  ( 

25 

36.67 

3.075 

30 

44.01 

4.429 
6.027 

35 

51.34 

40 

58.68 

7.873 

45 

66.01 

9.963 

50 

73.35 

12.300 

60 

88.02 

17.715 

80 

117.36 

31.490 

100       146.70       49.200' 


Stuntz^s  Anemometer. 

which  the  record  is  to  be  made,  a  uniform  velocity 
being  given  to  one  of  the  rollers  by  clock-work.  A 
pencil-holder  is  attached  to  the  lower  part  of  the  vane- 
shaft,  anil  the  proper  mark  is  made  on  the  highest 
part  of  the  apron  above  the  I'oller.  A  (iricker,  actu- 
ated by  a  spring  through  mechanism  opei-oted  by  a 
wind-wheel,  makes  perforations  in  the  paper,  the 
number  occurring  in  a  given  length  denoting  the 
velocity  of  the  wind  during  the  intervals  of  time  in- 
dicated by  a  scale  on  the  paper. 

The  following  table,  calculated  by  Smeaton,  shows 
the  force  and  velocity  of  the  wind  ;  — 

Telocity 

per  hour. 

.Miles. 


Per 
second, 
ft 
1.47 
2.93 
4.40 
5.87 
7.33 


Pressure 
per  sq.  ft. 
lbs. 
005 
.020 
.044 
.079 
.123 


Hardly  perceptible. 
Just  perceptible. 

Gentle,  pleasant  wind. 


Pleasant,  brisk  breeze. 
Very  brisk. 
High  wind. 

Vei-y  high. 

A  storm  or  tempest. 
A  great  storm. 
A  hurricane. 

A    hurricane   that    tears 
up    trees,    carries   buihl- 
(  ings,  etc.  before  it. 
About  twenty  varieties   of  anemometers  are  de- 
scribed  in   works   devoted   to   physics,   under   the 
department  Meteorology. 

A   convenient   form  of  anemometer,  adapted  for 
ascertaining  the  force  of  currents  in  pipes  or  Hues, 
was  formed  by  a  piece   of  cardboard  C,    of  known 
dimensions,  suspended  to  one  arm  of  the  beam  of  a 
balance,  and  placed  at  the  edge  of  the  mautel-jnecc 
in  the  ascending  current.     The  graduated  stem  of 
a  broken  thermometer   t   was   suspended  to 
the  other  end  of  the  beam,  and  was  placed 
in  a  glass  vessel  containing  water  ;  weights 
were  placed  on  the  card-board  till  the  zero- 
point   of  the  graduated   stem   was   level   with   the 
surface  of  the  water.     The  degrees  were  read  with 
the   assistance    of  a   magnifier  G,   and    the    num- 
ber  of  degrees   moved   indicated   the   force   acting 
on  the  card.     The  value  of  each  degree  was  found 
by  adding  weights  to  the   card.      In  this   way   it 
was  ascertained  that  the  force  of  the  upward  cur- 
Fig.  209. 


.^:^ 


rent  at  the  mantel-piece  was  considerable,  and  that 
it  varied  in  strength.  It  was  strongest  in  the  cen- 
ter, but  e.'itended  to  both  sides  of  the  ruantel-iiiece  ; 
this  upward  current  had  a  force  of  from  15  to  4J 
grains  to  the  square  foot  ;  the  force  diminished  as 
the  fire  got  low,  but  the  same  action  weut  on  even 
when  the  fire  was  extinguished. 

The  greatest  pressure  of  wind  ever  registered  at 
Glasgow  Obs-rvatory  was  55  lbs.  per  foot.  Profes- 
sor Airy,  however,  states  that  it  may  reach  80  lbs. 
per  foot  in  this  country,  while  Mr.  Scott  Russell 
asserts  that  40  lbs.  per  foot  is  about  the  ma.'cumim 
force  which  it  is  necessary  to  reckon  upon  in  con- 
structing roofs,  etc.  This  is  identical  with  the 
maximum  registered  at  Menai  Bridge. 

A-nem'o-scope.  An  instrument  for  showing 
the  course  or  ilirection  of  the  wind.  A  weathercock. 
It  is  related  that  Andronicus  Cyrrhestes  built  an 
octagonal  tower  at  Athens,  having  at  each  side  a 
statue  of  the  god  to  whom  the  wind  blowing  from 


ANEROID   BAROMETER. 


102 


ANGLE. 


that  quarter  was 
(li'dii-ateil  ;  and  in 
the  iiiidiUe  of  the 
tower  was  a  small 
siiire  liaving  a  eop- 
])er  Triton,  which 
lieing  put  in  motion 
liy  the  wind  pointed 
to  the  deity  from 
whom  it  jiroceeded. 
Tlie  custom  of  plac- 
ing; vanes  on  the  top 
of  chureli-.steeples 
is  at  least  as  old  as 
tlie  middle  of  the 
iiintli  century  ;  and 
as  these  vanes  were 
freiiuently  made  to 
resemble  a  cock,  the 
enjblem  of  clerical 
vigilance,  they  re- 
ceived the  name  of 
weathercocks.       In 

the  ages  of  ignorance  the  clergy  frequently  styled 
themselves  "  the  cocks  of  the  Almighty." 

Varro  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  who  connected 
the  vane  by  a  rod  to  a  dial  in  the  interior  of  a 
building. 

This  instrument  is  mentioned  by  Vitrnvius,  and 
■was  introduced  in  mansions  in  the  time  of  Wil- 
liam 111. 

On  the  Hall  of  Commerce,  London,  is  an  anemo- 
scope connected  witli  an  index  and  dial  in  a  room 
below,  like  that  of  Varro  above  mentioned. 

When  thus  arranged,  the  shafts  connecting  the 
vane  ami  index  should  be  made  of  cane,  bamboo,  or 
other  light  material. 

The  anemoscope  may  be  combined  with  the  ane- 
momi'tcT-,  thus  indicating  both  the  direction  and  the 
force  of  the  wind.      See  AxE.MOMETEIt. 

An'e-roid  Ba-rom'e-ter.  An  instrument  for 
indicating  atmos]ilieric  ]>ressui'e,  invented  by  M.A^idi 
of  France.  The  action  of  the  aneroid  depends  on  the 
pressure  of  the  atmos]ihere  on  a  circular  metallic 
box  hermetically  sealed  and  having  a  slightly  elastic 
top,  the  vacuum  serving  the  ])urpose  of  the  colunm 
of  mi^i'cury  in  the  ordinary  barometer. 

The  arrangement  is  illustrated  by  the  accompany- 
ing figures,  the  first  showing  the  face  and  the 
second  the  interior  of  the  instrument,  which  is 
made  about  4J  inches  in  diameter  across  the  face 
and  IJ  inches  thick. 

The  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  is  shown  by  the 
liand  pointing  to  a  scale  which  is  graduated  with 
40  divisions  to  the  inch  ;  one  or  two  thermometers 
are  aftixed  to  the  face,  but  are  not  essential. 

The  sei>ond  figure  shows  the  internal  construc- 
tion, as  seen  with  the  face  removed,  but  with 
the  hand  still  attached.  «  is  a  flat,  circular  me- 
tallic box,  about  2j  inches  in  diameter  and  J  of  an 
inch  dee]),  having  its  upper  and  lower  surfaces 
corrugated  in  concentric  circles.  This  box  or 
chamber,  being  exhausted  of  air  through  the  short 
tube  b,  which  i.s  subsequently  made  air-tight  by 
soldeiing,  constitutes  a  spring  which  is  aftected 
by  every  variation  of  pressure  in  the  external  at- 
mosphere, the  corrugations  increasing  its  elasticity. 
At  the  center  of  the  u)iper  surface  of  tlie  exhausted 
chamber  is  a  solid  cylindrical  projection  x,  about 
half  an  inch  high,  to  the  top  of  which  the  principal 
lever  c  d  e  is  attached. 

This  lever  rests  partly  on  a  spiral  spring  at  d  ; 
it  is  also  supported  by  two  vertical  pins  with  per- 
fect freedom  of  motion.     The  end  e  of  the  large  or 


Fig.  210. 


Aneroid. 

principal  lever  is  attached  to  a  second  or  small 
lever  f,  from  which  a  chain  7  extends  to  h,  where 
it  works  on  a  drum  attached  to  the  arbor  or  axis 
of  the  hand,  connected  with  a  hair-spring  at  /(, 
changing  the  motion  from  vertical  to  horizontal, 
and  regulating  the  hand,  the  attachments  of  which 
are  made  to  the  metallic  plate  i.  The  motion  origi- 
nates in  the  corrugated  metallic  box  n,  the  surface 
of  which  is  depressed  or  elevated  as  the  weight  of 
the  atmosphere  is  increased  or  diminished,  and  this 
motion  is  comnmnicated  through  the  levers  to  the 
axis  of  the  hand  at  h.  The  spiral  spring  on  which 
the  lever  rests  at  d  is  intended  to  comi>ensate  for 
the  etfects  of  alterations  of  temperature.  The  actual 
movement  at  the  center  of  the  exhausted  box  from 
whence  the  indications  emanate  is  very  slight,  but 
by  the  action  of  the  levers  this  is  multijdied  657 
times  at  the  point  of  the  hand,  so  that  the  move- 


■5^X1 
through  three  inches  on  the  dial. 

Barometeh. 

Fig.  211. 


See  also  BounDo 


Aneurism  Needles. 

An'eu-rism  Nee'dle.  A  needle  for  passing  a 
ligature  around  a  dilated  artery. 

An'eu-rism  Tour'ni-quet.  An  instrument  for 
briui'iug  a  pressure  ujiou  a  sanguineous  tumor  re- 
sulting from  the  dilation  or  rupture  of  the  coats  of 
an  artery. 

The  instrument  lias  two  legs  and  a  hinge-joint. 
The  pressure  being  adjusted  as  required,  the  hinge 
is  set  by  the  key  so  as  to  make  it  rigid. 

An'gar-i-po'la.  {Fabric.)  A  kind  of  coarse 
linen  nuide  in  Spain. 

An'ge-lot.  A  nuisieal  instrument  of  the  lute  kind. 

An'gel-shot.    See  Chain-.shot. 

An'gle.  The  arris  or  edge,  salient  or  receding, 
formed  by  the  junction  of  two  surfaces  not  in  the 


ANGLE-BAR. 


103 


ANGLE-IRON. 


Jig.  2:12. 


Aneurism  Tourniquet. 


same  plane.  Various  are  the  modes  of  attacliing 
the  two  portions  ;  among  other  devices  may  be 
cited  :  — 


Angle-joint. 

Feather. 

Rebate. 

Cramp. 

Glue. 

Serews. 

Dovetail. 

Miter. 

Tongue  and  groove 

Dowel. 

Nails. 

See  JoiN'T. 

Pieces  at  the  angles  of  structures  are  known  as  — 

Angle-brackets,  angle-rafters,  angle-ribs,  angle- 
bars,  angle-staffs,  angle-tie,  etc. 

An'gle-bar.  (Carpentiij.)  The  upright  bar  at  the 
meeting  of  two  faces  of  a  polygonal  or  bow  window. 

An'gle-bead.  A  strip  having  a  rounded  edge, 
and  placed  at  the  vertical  exterior  angle  formed  by 
plastered  surfaces.     A  beaded-edge  angle-statf. 

An'gle-brace.    A  corner-drill.     An  angle-tie. 

An'gle-brack'et.  (Curpcntnj.)  One  beneath 
the  eave  at  tile  corner  of  a  building,  and  projecting 
at  an  angle  of  45'  with  the  face  of  each  wall. 

An'gle-float.  A  float  made  to  fit  any  internal 
angle  of  the  walls  of  a  room. 

A  float  is  a  plasterer's  trowel. 

An'gle-gage.  A  gage  for  setting  the  reflectors 
on  a  frame  for  the  e.\hibition  of  light  under  the 
catoptric  system,  has  two  long  arms  connected  by 
a  gi'aduated  arc.  The  arms,  having  been  first  placeil 
at  the  angle  whi-h  is  supplemental  to  that  of  the 
inclination  of  the  axes  of  the  two  adjacent  mirrors, 
are  made  to  span  the  faces  of  the  reflectors,  one  of 
which  is  moved  about  till  its  edges  are  in  close 
contact  with  the  flat  surface  of  one  of  the  arms  of 
the  gage. 

The  instrument  has  many  other  applications. 

A  gage  for  determining  angles  of  hexagonal  nuts. 
The  graduated  bar  A  has  graduated  arms  B  and  (J  ; 

Fig.  213. 


An'gle-i'ron.  {Machinery.)  A  bent  piece  joining 
the  sides  of  an  iron  structure.     See  Aniu.e-joint. 

A  description  of  iron  which  is  used  for  ship's 
knees,  for  uniting  the  edges  of  plates  which  meet  at 
an  angle,  and  for  other  purposes  too  numerous  to 
mention.  On  a  larger  scale,  with  more  than  one 
bend,  it  may  form  a  beam,  girder,  or  rail,  the  differ- 
ence consisting  rather  in  proportions  and  purjiose 
tlian  in  construction.  The  fagoting  and  construc- 
tion of  wrought-iron  beams  will  be  considered  under 
Beam,  Wrought- ikox.  Some  devices  substan- 
tially similar  in  inventive  features  will  be  found 
under  Rail!10.\d-rails,  Fagoting,  and  Rolling; 
the  difference  between  a  railroad-rail  and  a  girder 
is  one  of  shape  and  proportion  of  the  parts,  as  will 
be  seen  by  comparing  their  cross-sections. 

Lewis,  Aprif  26,  18t)4.  The  rollers  have  fiat 
faces,  and  a  central  triangular  gi'oove,  and  rib  re- 
spectively, so  that  the  bar  can  be  introduced 
between  the  rollei-s  flat,  instead  of  cornerwise.  The 
efl'ect  of  this  is,  that  both  sides  of  the  angle-iron 
when  finished  run  parallel  to  the  layers  of  the 
original  bar.  and  not  crosswi.se,  as  is  the  case  with 


Fig.  2U. 


i"  I  '  r;  I '  7^T=^ 


I..  I  ^  !.'-i  .  i-.^^g 


'  ^  I 


Eeltogg's  Angle-  Gage. 

the  latter  movable,  and  proWded  with  a  block  whose 
edge  fonns  with  it  an  angle  of  120°  as  a  gage  for 
hexagonal  prisms. 


Lewis's  Machine  for  Hotting  Angte-lron. 

one  side  of  the  angle-iron  when  rolled  in  the  ordi- 
nary manner.  The  parallelism  of  the  wings  with 
the  top  of  the  pile  is  maintained  till  the  bar  is 
reduced  nearly  to  its  proper  tliickness,  when  it  is 
finished  by  passing  it  through  a  plain  rectangular 
gi-oove  which  turns  up  the  wings  and  finishes  them 
with  a  grain  conformable  to  that  of  the  original  bar. 
The  ordinary  angle-iron   is  a   bar  whose  section 

Fig.  215. 


^^ 


Angle-Irons. 

forms  two  sides  of  a  triangle,  but  the  term  now 
includes  other  shapes,  such  as  the  cruciform,  etc. 

a  is  an  angle-iron  forming  two  sides  of  a  right- 
angled  triangle  ;  b 

is    a    flatter    form  Fig.  216. 

with  two  flanges, 
and  is  called  "chan- 
nel-iroii "  ;  c  is  cru- 
cifomi  in  cross-sec- 
tion. It  is  called 
*'  cross  half-lattice 
iroii,"  Box- Girder  and  T- Iron. 


r 

'^t' 

I 

L 

. .  '^ 

ANGLE-IRON. 


104 


ANGLE-IRON. 


d,  Fig.  216,  sliows  the  application  of  angle-iron 
in  making  a  bo.x-girJer,  or  wrouglit-iron  cell  ;  c  is  a 
form  having  a  Iraid  and  web.  It  is  called  T-iron. 
Other  forms  are  known  as  Z-iron,  I-iron,  etc. 

Fig.  217  shows  the  mode  of  using  angle-iron  in 
compound  girders,  tanks,  and  other  structures. 

/  shows  its  application  to  uniting  the  angular 
junction  of  two  plates. 

¥ig.  217. 


An^le-lrons. 

g  shows  a  beam  strengthened  by  angle-plates  at 
each  side. 

h  shows  angle-plates  uniting  a  tread-plate  and 
its  web. 

Angle-bars  for  shipbuilding  are  bent  and  worked 
into  the  various  forms  required  in  ships,  by  men 
called  angle-iron  smiths ;  they  are  then  pnnc.'licd 
with  holes,  generally  about  the  center  of  the  arm, 
and  by  the  rivets  inserted  in  these  holes  the  angle- 
iron  is  attached  to  the  plates  of  the  ship.  The 
dimensions  are  usually  given  in  the  specification  of 


Fig.  218. 


Arxi^lt-  Irons  for  Shipbuilding. 


a  vessel  in  this  form,  namely,  3  in.  x  3  in.  x  J 
in.  This  means  that  each  arm  of  the  bar  is  to  be 
three  inches  from  the  angle,  and  the  thickness  in 
the  center  of  arm,  or  at  the  rivet-hole,  half  an 
inch. 

As  angle-iron  is  generally  applied  for  the  ribs  of 
a  ship,  the  arm  which  is  perpendicular  to  the  sur- 
face of  the  plates  is  that  which  is  in  the  position 
to  afford  the  gi'eatest  stifiness  to  the  shell.  On  this 
account  angle-iron  has  been  rolled  with  arms  of 
unequal  lengths,  that  the  greatest  strength  may 
be  obtained  from  a  given  quantity  of  iron. 

a,  6,  c,  d,  are  angle-irons  and  braces  for  flooring 
in  iron  ships. 

e  shows  the  connection  of  outer  skin  and  inner 
flooring  by  angle-irons. 

/  is  the  arrangement  of  angle-irons  and  braces 
for  stiftening  ship's  bottom  longitudinally  ;  answer- 
ing to  the  keelson  in  wooden  vessels. 

cj,  keel  ;  showing  its  connection  to  the  outer  skin 
and  beams. 


Angle- Irons  for  Shipbuilding. 

CI,  h,  c,  d,  e,  /,  are  angle-irons  and  beams  employed 
for  flooring  in  iron  ships. 

(/,  outer  skin  and  flooring  of  an  iron  steamer  with- 
out keel  ;  showing  the  mode  of  connection  of  the 
two,  and  the  longitudiiuil  stiffening-plates  and 
angle-irons  of  ship's  bottom  and  flooring. 

The  angle-iron  and  plates  for  building  iron  ships 
are  heated  in  reverberatory  furnaces,  of  which  two 
are  generally  placed  together,  the  flues  from  them 
leading  to  one  cliimney.  They  are  formed  of  brick 
and  have  a  brick  turned  arcli,  the  sides  being  se- 
cured by  binding-pl.alrs,  like  a  puddl intj-furnace. 

One  furnace  is  made  wide,  say  4i  x  10  feet,  and  is 
suitable  for  heating  plates  ;  the  other  long  and  nar- 
row, say  2  feet  wide  by  25  feet  long,  and  is  used  for 
heating  the  angle-bars  which  go  to  make  the  frame. 
An  iron  sill  is  placed  across  the  doorway  on  which 
the  angle-iron  slides  in  entering  or  withdrawing. 

The  furnace  A  has  the  usual  grate-bars,  and  a 
pan  B  beneath,  filled  with  water,  cools  the  ashes  as 
they  fall  and  thus  preserves  the  bars  from  injury. 

This  furnace  is  fed  with  coals,  the  flame  of  wliich 
passes  along  the  chamber  C,  and  over  the  brick  bed 
D,  on  which  the  plates  or  bars  are  laid.  The  roof 
over  the  whole  is  a  brick  arch,  about  two  feet  from 
the  bed,  acting  by  reverberation,  to  concentrate  the 


ANGLE-JOINT. 


105 


ANGULAR  IRON-BAND. 


heat  upon  the  iron.  The  flame  and  hot  air  then 
escape  down  a  narrow  flue,  situated  across  the 
mouth  of  tlie  furnace,  and  leading  by  the  main  flue 
to  the  chimney.  The  end  at  which  the  plates  or 
hars  are  inserted  and  withdrawn  is  closed  by  a 
door  F,  framed  of  iron,  and  enclosing  flre-bricks. 
This,  being  very  heavy,  is  suspended  by  a  chain, 
and  this  chain  is  attached  to  a  lever  G,  having  a 
balance-weight  H  suspended  from  it,  that  the  men 
may  have  less  dilficulty  in  raising  and  lowering  it. 


Fig.  220. 


Angle-Iron  Furnace, 

Angle-joint.     Angle- joints  differ  according  to 
the  material,  thickness,  purjjose,  and  e.vposure. 

a,  b,  are  joints  which  are 
Fig.  221.  entirely  dependent  upon  sol- 

der ;  such  are  used  with  tin- 
ware and  sheet-lead. 

c  is  a  7nikr-joint.  It  is 
used  for  thicker  metals  with 
hard  solders. 

d  is  a  butt-joint;  other- 
wise similar  to  c. 

e  is  a  lap-joint ;  the  metal 
is  creased  over  the  hntchet- 
stakc  or  by  the  spinning-tool. 
It  requires  solder. 

/,  one  plate  is  bent  rec- 
tangularly, and  the  other  is 
doubly  bent  so  as  to  recurve 
back  on  itself,  lappingctrow^rf 
the  edge  of  the  other.  It 
needs  solder  to  keep  it  from 
slipping  apart. 

g  has  a  fold  to  each  plate  ; 
these  lock  upon  each  other 
and  require  no  solder  to  per- 
fect their  hold,  although  it 
may  be  added  to  make  the 
joint  air  and  water  tight 
where  the  closure  is  not  ab- 
solutely perfect. 

h  is  a  riveted  joint,  one 
plate  being  bent  to  lap  upon 
the  other.  This  joint  is 
called  the  folded  angle,  and 
is  common  in  all  sizes  of 
work,  from  domestic  uten- 
sils to  steam-boilers. 

i,  the  edge  of  one  plate 
is  formed  into  tenons  which 
Angle-joints.  enter  mortises  in  the  other, 

and  are  there  riveted. 
j  resembling  i,  except  that  the  tenons  are  pro- 
longed, so  as  to  be  retained  in  the  mortises  by  cotters. 
k;  one  plate  makes  a  butt-joint  with  the  other, 
and  is  attached  by  L-formcd  rivets  or  screw-bolts, 
whose  heads  are  riveted  to  one  plate,   while  their 


screw-stems  pass  through  the  other   plate  and  are 
fastened  by  nuts. 

1,  the  two  plates  are  secured  by  being  bolted  or 
riveted  to  an  angle-iron,  which  is  straight  or  bent 
into  sweeps  according  to  the  shape  of  the  object. 

An'gle-me'ter.  Any  instrument  for  measuring 
angles.  The  term  seems  to  have  become  more  par- 
ticularly ajiplied  to  an  instrament  made  use  of  by 
geologists  for  ascertaining  the  dip  of  inclined  strata. 
In  the  broader  sense  of  a  measurer  of  angles  it 
would  include  a  great  number  of  astronomical  and 
surveying  instruments  for  measiiring  angles,  such 
as  transit  instruments,  quadrants,  se.xtants,  theodo- 
lites, adapted  for  observations  in  altitude  and  azi- 
muth ;  also  those  of  special  adaptation,  as  angu- 
lometers,  goniometers,  protractors,  etc.,  which  are 
treated  under  their 
h  respective  heads. 
rr  An'gle  of  Re- 
pose'. {C'icil  Eiuji- 
nccring.)  1.  The  ut- 
most inclination  at 
which  a  carriage  will 
stand  at  rest  upon 
a  road.  At  the  an- 
of  repose,  the 
gi'avity  of  the  load 
and  the  friction  of 
the  load  are  equal.     See  FniCTloN. 

2.  The  natural  angle  at  which  the  soil  of  a  cut- 
ting or  embankment  will  stand  without  slipping. 
See  Si.ijpE. 

An'gle  of  Sight  (Ordnance.)  The  natural 
angle  of  sight  is  the  angle  between  a  line  drawn 
through  the  axis  of  the  bore,  and  a  line  drawn 
from  the  rear  of  the  base-ring  to  the  swell  of  the 
muzzle  or  to  the  top  of  the  sight. 

An'gle-plane.  A  plane  whose  bit  reaches  into 
a  re-entering  angle. 

An'gle-raft'er.  {Carpentry. )  A  rafter  at  the  hip 
of  a  roof,  receiving  tlie  heads  of  the  jack-rafters  or 
cripplc-stndiUng. 

An'gle-staff.  A  strip  of  wood  fixed  to  the  ver- 
tical angle  of  a  wall  flush  with  the  plastering  of  the 
two  planes.  It  is  designed  as  a  substitute  for  plas- 
tering in  a  situation  so  nnieh  exposed. 

A  round  staff  is  known  as  an  angle-bead. 

An'gle— tie.  (Carpentry.)  A  brace-jnece  in  the 
interior  angle  of  a  wooden  frame,  securing  two  side- 
pieces  togetlu'r  and  occupying  thereto  the  position 
of  a  hypothenuse. 

An-go'ra.  (Fabric.)  A  light  and  fashionable 
cloth  made  from  the  wool  of  the  Angora  goat. 

An'gu-lar  File.  A  locksmith's  file  for  working 
into  the  corners  of  the  wards  in  keys. 

An'gu-lar  Gear'ing.  The  wheels  are  quadri- 
lateral, and  the  speed  of  the  driven  wheel  is  variable. 
The  driving-wheel,  ro- 
tating at  regular  speed, 
will  impart  a  quicker 
rate  to  the  other  wheel 
when  the  angle  of  the 
former  is  in  contact  with 
the  flat  side  of  the  lat- 
ter, and  conversely.  Has 
been  used  in  printing- 
presses. 

An'gu-lar  In'stru- 
ments.  {Surveying.)  One  in  which  the  horizontal 
angles  are  measured  by  a  divided  circle  and  verni- 
ers as  well  as  by  the  needle  ;  as  the  superior  kinds 
of  railroad  comiiasses,  the  engineer's  and  surveyor's 
transits,  etc. 

An'gu-lar  I'ron-band.    A  ferrule  angular  in  its 


Fig.  222. 


ANGULAR  THREAD. 


106 


ANIMAL   POWER. 


cross-section.      A  sipiare,   or  other  sideil  collar  or 
biinlin'.^-lion[i. 

An'gu-lar  Thread.  A  screw-thread  whose  pro- 
jeotion  lieyoiid  the  barrel  of  the  screw  is  triangular 
in  cross-section.  In  contradistinction  to  a  square 
thread. 

An-gu-lom'e-ter.  This  instrument  is  defined  by 
Francis  as  one  for  measuring  exterior  angles.  The 
tenns  angle-meter  and  goniometer  might  be  held  to 
mean  tlie  same  thing  judging  by  their  derivation, 
but  the  former  is  ajiplied  to  instruments  u.sed  by 
geologists  for  mea.suring  the  dip  of  strata,  and  the 
latter  for  measuring  the  angles  of  crystals. 

A  try-s(iuare  may  be  termed  an  angidometer,  "  a 
bent  nu'a.sure." 
Thayeii,  August  26,  1862.  This  invention  consists 

in    so    construct- 
FiR.  223.  ing  and  hang- 

ing a  pendulum, 
and  connecting  it 
with  a  portion  of 
the  surface  of  a 
sphere,  that  it  will 
indicate  at  once 
whetlier  any  plane 
to  which  it  is  ap- 
plied is  level ;  and 
if  not  so,  will  sliow 
the  degrees  of  the 
angle,  whether  of 
elevation  or  de- 
pression, which 
such  plane  makes 
with  the  horizon. 
The  jiendulum 
moves  u])on  three 
or  more  bearings 
in   the   same    plane,   and   carries    upon    its    top   a 

graduated    ar 


Thayer^s  Plane  An^&meter. 


Fig.  224. 


acting  ni  com- 
bination with 
the  spherical 
surface  and  the 
opening    there- 


Hali.'s  angu- 

lometer  has  two 

hinged  legs,  and 

a  graduated  arc  wliich  indicates  the  dihedral  angle. 

An  instrument  called  a  enrlrmis,  for  measuring  the 

angle  for  the  facets  of  gems  in  cutting  and  polishing. 

Fig.  225. 


HnlVs  An^ulomftfT. 


Genevese  An^ilometer. 

The  gem  i^  cemented  on  the  end  of  a  rod  which 
is  clamped  between  the  jaws  a,  which  are  closed  like 
a  vise  by  means  of  a  set-screw  passing  through 
them.  Each  of  the  jaws  has  on  tlie  inside  a  hemi- 
spherical cavity  into  wliich  is  fitted  a  brass  ball. 
A  tube  passes  tliiough  the  ball,  and  carries  at  its 
■upper  end  a  small  graduated  disk.  The  cement- 
stick,    carrying  the  stone  to  be  cut,   fits  within 


the  tube  sufficiently  tight  to  hold  it  while  Fig  226 
a  facet  is  being  cut,  and  the  upper  end  of 
the  stick  has  a  pointer  by  which  the  divis- 
ions on  the  disk  are  read  off. 

The  vertical  angle  of  the  tube  is  deter- 
mined by  the  (luadrant  c,  fixed  on  one  side 
of  the  jaws  a,  and  the  tube  is  retained  at  any 
angle  by  closing  the  jaws  upon  tlie  ball.  The 
divisions  of  the  quadrant  admit  cf  any  degi'ce 
of  vertical  inclination  upon  the  s/civc,  or  of  "^ 
vertical  position  when  grinding  the  table  or 
collet. 

The  facets  around  the  .stone  will  be  deter- 
mined by  twisting  the  cement-stick  in  the 
tube,  until  the  index  marks  the  required 
division  on  the  disk  b. 

An'i-mal    Black.       Carbonaceous     Fig.  227. 
matter  obtained  by   the  calcination  of  (f\ 

bones  in  close  vessels.  Used  in  filtering,  y,ii^ 
deodorizing,  defecating,  discoloring  syr- ^jS^I  ijl 
ups,  liquors,  solutions.  (        ^j 

An'i-mal  Cbar'coal.  Calcined  bones 
preiiared  for  sugar-refining.  See  BoNE- 
BL.vcK  rrnx-\CE. 

An'i-mal  Clutch.  Agrippingdevice 
for  catching  animals  by  the  leg.  It  is 
especially  used  for  slinging  animals  dur- 
ing the  operations  of  slaughtering. 

In  the  noose  form.  Fig.  226,  the  cliain 
is  attached  to  one  end  of  the  plate,  and 
the  key  on  the  end  of  the  chain  engages 
in  the  slot  to  form  a  bight  for  looping 
around  the  leg  of  the  animal. 

In  another  i'onn.  Fig.  227,  thegambrel 
of  theanimalis  clutched  by  tlie  gripping- 
jaws  which  are  attached  by  cliains  to 
the  frame,  whose  roller  travels  on  a 
way-rod  to  transport  the  hog  from  tlie 
"sticker"  to  the  scalding-tub,  or  from 
the  latter  to  the  "gutter." 

An'i-mal'cule   Cage.     A   cell   in 
whicli   living   microscopic    objects  are  Hog-Hoister. 
kept  and  exposed  to  view. 

An'i-mal-iz'ing  Fi'ber.  The  process  of  confer- 
ring upon  vegetable  fiber  tile  phj'sical  characteristics 
of  animal  fiber.  Cotton,  under  the  microscope,  is  a 
riblion-shaped  tube,  and  when  treated  with  a  cold, 
strong  solution  of  caustic  soda,  shrinks  and  assumes 
the  form  of  a  simple  cylinder.  It  becomes  stronger, 
smaller,  and  has  an  increased  capacity  for  receiving 
coloring  matter. 

An'i-mal  Poke.  A  yoke  placed  upon  an  animal 
to  keep  it  from  pushing  down  or  jumping  fences. 
See  Poke. 

An'i-mal  Pow'er.  The  expression  of  tlie  nu- 
merical values  of  the  results  of  the  labor  of  men  and 
animals,  particularly  horses,  is  a  subject  whicli  on 
account  of  its  eminently  practical  bearing  has  at- 
tracted considerable  attention  among  scientific  as 
well  as  practical  men. 

A  work  entitled  "  De  Motu  Anamalium  "  was  pub- 
lished as  far  back  as  1680  by  Borelli,  but  Coulomb, 
who  devoted  a  great  deal  of  attention  to  the  matter, 
has  furnished  more  information  of  jiractical  value 
than  any  other  writer. 

The  unit  of  value  employed  by  Coulomb  was  1 
kilogramme  (2.2047  pounds)  trans]iorted  a  distance 
of  one  kilometre  (6.214  miles)  the  total  force  exerted 
being  estimated  by  the  number  of  kilogrammes  of 
the  burden  multiplied  by  the  number  of  kilometres 
it  is  trans])orted  during  a  working  day  of  eight 
hours  ;  these  measures  are  of  course  ri'adily  reducible 
to  any  other  denominations,  as  pounds  and  miles. 

Coulomb  ascertained  that  on  an  average  a  man 


ANIMAL  POWER. 


107 


ANIMAL  TRAP. 


could  travel  unloailod  31  iniles  jtcr  day  ;  and  sup- 
posing his  weight  to  be  160  lbs.,  the  e.xpression  for 
the  ctfect  e.xerted  by  him  would  in  this  ease  be 
160x31  =  4,960  pounds  carried  one  mile  per  day. 
He  found  also,  by  the  average  of  the  work  performed 
by  tlie  portei-s  of  Paris,  that  a  man  could  carry  a 
burden  equal  to  12S  lljs.  9.72  miles  per  day.  As- 
suming the  weight  of  the  man  to  be  160  lbs.,  the 
total  effect  produced  would  be  eipiivalent  to  160-1- 
128  X  9.72=2,799  ;  but  the  transportation  of  his  own 
weiglit  formed  no  part  of  the  useful  effect,  wliich  is 
con.sequently  exjiressed  by  128  x  9.72=1,244. 

The  u.seful  effect  is  found  to  be  at  a  ma.ximum 
when  a  man  is  loaded  with  121  pounds  ;  under  this 
burden  he  can  walk  lOJ  miles  per  day,  giving  an 
effect  of  121  X  10^=1,250. 

A  porter  going  short  distances  with  a  burden  and 
returning  unloaded,  as  usually  occui's,  carries  135 
lbs.  7  miles  per  day.  A  man  can  wheel  150  lbs.  in 
a  wheelbarrow  10  miles  in  the  same  time. 

The  maximmn  effect  of  a  strong  man  exerted  for 
2i  minutes  is  estimated  at  18,000  pounds  raised  one 
foot  in  a  minute  ;  and  the  force  of  a  man  of  ordinaiy 
strength  exerted  in  lifting  is  equivalent  to  30  lbs. 
I'aised  2A  feet  per  second  for  ten  hours,  or  4,500 
lbs.  raised  1  foot  per  minute  ;  the  estimated  power 
of  a  horse  being  equivalent  to  33, 000  pounds  raised 
one  foot  in  the  same  time,  according  to  Boultou 
and  Watt's  experiments. 

The  following  statement  by  Hachette  shows  the 
force  exerted  by  the  strength  of  men  applied  in 
■various  ways,  expressed  in  terms  equivalent  to  the 
number  of  pounds  carried  by  a  man  one  mile  during 
a  day  of  eight  hours. 

brawing  a  light  four-wheeled  wagon  over 

moderately  uneven  gi'otind         .         .     857  lbs. 

Pulling  hoiizontally  at  a  rope  attached 
to  a  weight  and  passing  through  a 
pulley 378  " 

Rowing  in  a  boat .         .         .         .         .     374  " 

Pushing  horizontally,  as  at  a  capstan  .         368  " 

Turning  a  winch  and  axle     .         .         .     159  " 

The  above  estimates  are  based  on  the  average 
strength  of  men  generally,  and  in  many  instances, 
es])ecially  in  carrying  weights,  are  largely  exceeded  ; 
thus  it  is  said  that  a  London  porter  will  carry  200 
lbs.  on  his  shoulders  at  tlie  rate  of  three  miles  an 
hour,  but  such  efforts  cannot  be  sustained  for  any 
great  length  of  time.  The  porters  of  Constanti- 
nople are  said,  by  a  judicious  distribution  of  their 
burdens,  to  carry  much  greater  weights  than  this 
for  considerable  distances. 

The  useful  effect  of  a  horse  walking  in 
a  circle,  as  in  turning  a  mill,  is  es- 
timated at 800  lbs. 

A  horse  carrying  a  load  of  200  lbs.  25 

miles  per  day  .....     5,000  " 

An  African  dromedary  carrying  his 
rider  (160  lbs.)  can  travel  for  9  or 
10  hours  at  the  rate  of  between  7 
and  8  miles  per  hour  ;  say  160  x  9J 
x7J= 11,400" 

An  Asiatic  camel  can  carry  a  load  of 
from  500  to  800  lbs.  at  the  rate  of 
2J  hours  ;  this  for  a  day  of  8  hours 
would  give  (assuming  the  load  to 
be  600  lbs.)  600x8x21  or     .         .     12,000" 

A  draft-horse  can  draw  1,600  lbs.  23  miles  per 
day,  the  weight  of  the  carriage  being  included. 

In  hauling  for  short  distances  and  returning 
unloaded,  a  horse  will  draw  on  a  good  road  2,000  lbs. 
or  more,  exclusive  of  the  weight  of  the  cart. 

In  drawing  a  load  the  greatest  effect  is  found  to 
be  produced  when  the  traces  are  perpendicular  to 


the  collar  ;  as  the  position  of  the  horse  changes  in 
heavy  pulling,  the  traces  become  moie  nearly  parallel 
to  the  road.  With  very  hea%'y  drafts,  loading  tlie 
back  of  a  horse  is  found  rather  advantageous  than 
otherwise,  by  not  compelling  him  to  incline  forwaid 
so  much  and  enabling  him  to  use  his  muscles  in  a 
more  advantageous  position.  The  circle  in  which  a 
horee  moves  in  turning  a  mill  sliould  not  be  less 
than  25  or  30  feet  ;  40  feet  is  better. 

According  to  Tredgold,  a  horse  can  draw,  as  indi- 
cated by  the  dynamometer,  125  pounds  at  the  rate  of 
2i  miles  per  hour,  which  for  one  day  will  give  125  x 
2j  X  8=2,500.  By  the  experiments  of  Boulton  and 
Watt  they  determined  that  a  good  horse  can  draw 
125  pounds  at  the  rate  of  3  miles  per  hour,  125  x  3  x 
8=3,000  pounds  one  mile  in  a  day.  Multiply  this 
amount  by  the  nundier  of  feet  in  a  mile,  and  divide 
the  product  by  the  number  of  minutes  in  8  hours  ; 
the  result  is  33,000,  which  stands  for  the  number  of 
pounds  raised  one  foot  per  minute,  and  this  is  now 
the  admitted  measure  of  a  horse  power. 

An'i-mals.  In  the  nomenclature  of  the  mechanic 
arts,  the  names  of  animals  have  not  been  entirely 
overlooked  e.  g.  :  — 


Ass. 

Cricket. 

Hound. 

Rat. 

Bear. 

Crow. 

Jack. 

Seal. 

Bee. 

Dog. 

Jenny. 

Serpent. 

Beet'e. 

Dolphin. 

Kite. 

Skate. 

Buck. 

Drill. 

Leech. 

Slug. 

Buffalo. 

Fish. 

Lizard. 

Snail. 

Bull-dog. 

Fly. 

Mole. 

Sole. 

Butterfly. 

Fox. 

Monkey. 

Starling. 

Camel. 

Frog. 

Mouse. 

Swift. 

Cat. 

Goose. 

Mule. 

Throstle. 

Cock. 

Hawk. 

Pig- 

Turtle. 

Cow. 

Hedgehog. 

Pike. 

Urchin. 

Crab. 

Hog. 

Ram. 

AVorm. 

Crane. 

Horse. 

Each  of  these  useful  animals  is  described  in  its 
alphabetical  place. 

An'i-mal  Trap.  A  device  for  catching  anima's. 
There  are  numerous  varieties  ;  some  to  set  in  the' 
path  of  the  animals,  others  are  pulled  off  by  a  per- 
son on  watch  ;  tlie  more  common  forms  are  those  in 
which  the  animal  is  the  cause  of  his  own  capture 
by  meddling  with  the  bait,  or  by  crawling  into  his 
prison  in  search  of  food. 

A  few  instances  of  different  arrangements  will  be 
given. 

1.  The  (jitUlotine-trnp  has  a  descending  knife  or 
row  of  spikes  which  descends  vertically  upon  the 
animal  which  is  tampering  with  the  bait. 

2.  The  rotnting-claw  is  actuated  by  a  spring  on 
the  axis,  and  is  released  by  nibbling  at  the  bait.  It 
strikes  the  animal,  and  throws  him  to  a  distance, 
resetting  itself. 

3.  The  dead-fall  is  a  weight  or  sjmng  bar,  re- 
leased by  the  animal,  either  by  stepping  on  a  plat- 
form or  touch- 
ing the  bait.  Fig.  228. 

4.  The  grip-  ^  '  "iP^"^ 
pimi- jaw -trap  ^  ' 
is  shown  in  the 
familiar  form 
wherein  the 
jaws  are  actu- 
ated by  a 
spring  released 
by  the  depres- 
sion of  a  small 
platform  be- 
tween them.      -rLfe^ 

Auotherform—  _=5" 
of  jaw-trap    is  S^nj  Jaw-Trap. 


ANIMAL  TRAP. 


108 


ANIMAL  TRAP. 


seen  in  Fig.  22S,  in  which  the  spring  and  jaws  are 
made  of  one  strip  of  steel,  and  tlie  brace,  which 
keeps  tliem  apart,  has  tlie  bait  attached  ;  a  trigger 
releases  the  jaws,  which  gi'asp  the  animal  that 
is  pulling  upon   the   bait. 

The   illustration   shows 
Fig.  229.  the    mode    of  setting  the 

trap.  The  forward  part 
stands  on  two  legs,  and 
the  bow  at  the  rear  is  sup- 
ported on  a  little  crotch. 

5.  Thefallinij-cage.  This 
may  be  a  wire  basket,  as 
in  "Fig.  229.  The  bell- 
shaped  cage  is  suspended 
vertically  above  the  plat- 
form ;  it  rests  upon  a  tog- 
gle-jointed bar,  and  is 
eleased  by  the  baited 
1  trigger,  which  allows  the 
toggle  to  double  up. 

Another  fonu  of  drojiper 
A  disk  with  a  circular 


Trap. 


is   shown  in   Fig. 
series    of   vertical 


230. 
wires. 

The  arm  which  rises  ver- 
tically from  the  falling  disk 
has  at  top  a  staple  which 
rests  on  the  top  of  a  vibrata- 
ble  lever,  to  which  the  bait 
is  tied. 

The  fall  of  the  disk  im- 
prisons or  impales  the  ani- 
mal. 

6.  The  gravitatinii-plal- 
form  has  many  forms. 
Fig.  231  may  be  taken  as 
an  illustration. 

Pressure  on  the  swinging 
bait-bo.x  releases  the  plat- 
form, which  swings  and  pre- 
cipitates the  animal  into 
the  cage  beneath.  The  ad- 
justable weight  returns  the 
platform  to  place,  when  it 
becomes  reset. 


nl  I  fflilTillil'HJ'li'lllil'ill  '"'''^  essential  features  of 
lllllllll  'IIImHI  I  these  traps  are  a  falling 
platform,  a  resetting  de- 
vice, and  a  receiver  beneath. 
The  resetting  is  sometimes 
done  by  a  spring,  some- 
times by  a  weight,  in  some 
cases  by  the  animal  in  passing  to  an  interior  cham- 
ber. 

Fig.  231. 


Dropping- Ca^e  Trap. 


an 


Failing- Platform  Trap. 

7.  The  rotatinff-plnt/orm,  Fig.  232,  has  a  number 
of  platforms  brought  successively  into  use. 

A  series  of  wings  is  attached  to  a  rotarj'-shaft 
that  is  actuated  by  a  weighted  cord,  so  that  they 
consecutively  assume  a  horizontal  position,  fonning 
a  platform  upon  which  the  rat  stands  while  nibbling 


at    the    bait,  Fig.  232. 

and  from 
which  he  is 
thrown  down 
into  the  trap. 

In  anoth- 
er form,  the 
wheel  is  ro- 
tated by  a 
coiled  spring, 
the  radial 
wings  being 
in  turn  de- 
tained by  their 
latches,  wliicli 
catcll  upon  a 
detent-lug  on 
the  case.  The 
motion  of  the  oscillating  platfonn  disengages  the 
latch,  the  wing  descends,  and  the  ne.xt  becomes 
ready  for  duty. 

Fig.  233  has  a  duplication  of  the  rotary 
feature.  The  invention  consists  of  two  radial  ro- 
tatiug-platforms,  each  held  in  position  by  separate 
triggers,  but  the  wires  controlling  them  come  to- 
gether at  the  bait-hook,  which  forms  one  of  them. 

Fig.  233. 


f- .■  "  ^^'.^"."i' w.'.  ■                   1 

: 

1 
1 

■i  ■   ' 

....     ^ 

■^i^^^^— 

j3 ' 

1 

1 

"  '  '    1                       t 

Rotary-Platform  Trap, 


GatcheWs  Trap. 

Each  wire  is  connected  with  a  rock-shaft,  and  the 
triggers  or  detents  are  withdrawn  by  the  pulling  of 
the  bait  by  the  animal,  whose  resting-]ilace  is  at 
the  center,  upon  two  wings.  Upon  the  animal 
falling  into  a  receptacle  below,  the  trap  is  reset. 

8.  The  fallincj-door.  Several  forms  of  traps  which 
come  under  this  class  are  familiar  to  the  public, 
some  with  one  door,  and  some  with  two. 

Fig.  234. 


-•^7" 


-  I 


Falling- Door  Trap. 


ANIMAL  TRAP. 


109 


ANKLETS. 


Fig.  234  is  open  at  both  ends,  when  set,  the  doors 
B  being  supported  by  triggers.  The  animal  stand- 
ing on  the  platform  (?,  to  reach  the  bait  on  the 
hook,  operates  the  rods  /,  C,  and  releases  the  doors, 
which  fall  .simultaneously.  This  darkens  the  trap, 
and  the  animal  lifts  the  grating  0  in  passing  to  the 
light  chamber  M.  The  opening  of  the  giating  0 
resets  the  trap. 

9.  A  slidhig-gatc.  Of  these  there  are  several 
varieties.  In  Fig.  235  the  animal  passes  through 
one  of  the  holes  into  the  first  chamber.     His  weight 


Fig.  235. 


Sliding- Gate  Trap 


on  the  platform  brings  the  shutters  over  the  holes 
and  prevents  his  return.  In  passing  through  the 
gi-ated  door  into  the  next  chamber  he  resets  the 
trap. 

In  Fig.  236  the  box  is  provided  at  its  center 
with  an  oscillating  platform,  to  which  is  rigidly 
attached  an  upright  leaf  or  partition  of  the  same 
width,   which  has  its  openings  for  the   entrance 


In  another  form  the  box  forming  the  trap  is  pro- 
vided with  two  apartments,  separated  in  the  usual 
way  by  a  hinged  grating,  or  self-closing  door.  In 
the  first  apartment  is  arranged  a  revolving  shaft 
armed  with  vanes  or  paddles,  and  actuated  by  a 
spring.  The  animal,  on  entering  this  first  apart- 
ment, releases  by  means  of  a  treadle  the  detent  of 
the  revolving  vanes,  which  pjress  the  said  animal 
forward,  causing  him  to  enter  the  inner  chamber, 
the  said  detent  immediately  checking  the  further 
revolution  of  the  vanes.  An  index  on  the  outside 
of  the  trap  indicates,  by  the  number  of  vanes  re- 
leased, the  number  of  animals  caught. 

10.  The  cage.  This  class  includes  those  in  which 
an  inverted  wire  basket  is  entered  between  a  set  of 
converging  wires  which  oppose  a  return. 

Sometimes  this  form  of  trap  has  a  grated  inclined 
door. 

11.  The  noose.  This  is  a  very  old  form  of 
snare,  consisting  of  a  running  noose  placed  in  the 
path  of  the  animal.  Such  were  the  "springes  to 
catch  woodcocks,"  of  old  Polonius.  They  are  used 
by  poachers  in  England  for  snaring  hares,  and  by 
boys  for  catching  the  less  aristocratic  rabbit. 


Fig.  238. 


Mouse-Trap. 


Among  barbarous  nations  and  fron- 
tiersmen a  snare  of  this  kind  is  attached 
to  a  sapling  bent  over  and  held  by  a 
trigger.       The 

of   the  Fig.  239. 


Baker^s  Trap. 

of  the  animal  so  arranged  that  when  it  depresses  the 
tilting  platform  by  its  weight,  the  said  attached  leaf 
or  partition  is  thereby  swung  past  said  opening, 
leaving  the  opposite  side  of  the  platform  in  like 
manner  open  to  admit  the  next  visitor.  The  en- 
tra])ped  animal  escapes  on  either  side  into  a  closed 
apartment. 

Fig  237. 


Revolving- Gate  Trap. 


sprmging 
triggerreieasesthe 
sapling,  tightens 
the  noose,  and 
swings  the  animal 
clear  of  the  ground. 

The  common  mouse-trap  is 
another  form  of  the  noose.  A 
bow  of  spring  wire  is  depressed 
at  an  opening,  and  the  tam- 
pering with  the  bait  allows 
the  loop  to  spring  up 
and  strangle  the  animal 
■53  against  the  top  of  the 
^  opening.  (Fig.  238.) 
Anklets.  Cunning- 
H.\>r,  March  20,  1866. 
The  frame  is  made  in 
three  portions,  reaching 
from  a  garter-band  on 
the  leg  to  the  skate.  The 
upper  two  portions  are 
extensible  on  each  other 
as  the  limb  is  flexed  and 
extended,  and  the  middle 
piece  hinged  to  the  lower 


Chtnninsfiam^s  Ankle- 
Supporter. 


ANNEALING. 


110 


ANNEALING. 


one  to  ]iennit  the  said  motion.  It  is  intended  to 
stiffen  the  ankle-joint  and  ijievent  the  ankle  turn- 
ing sideways  in  skating. 

Tlie  term  is  also  apiilied  to  an  article  of  dress 
wliieh  forms  an  extension  above  the  top  of  the 
bootee  or  the  shoe,  and  forms  in  some  cases  a  protec- 
tion for  a  weak  ankle,  in  othera  is  merely  an  orna- 
mental e,xtension. 

Stockings,  stiffened  with  steel  springs  or  whale- 
bones, worn  as  a  protection  to  weak  ankles,  may  also 
be  termed  anklets. 

See  GArPKliS. 

Annealing.  Annealing  is  a  process  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  glass  and  iron  for  the  purpose  of 
rendering  them  less  brittle.  It  is  jierformed  by 
allowing  them  to  cool  very  gradually  from  a  high 
heat,  a  .sudden  reduction  of  temperature  reiulering 
them  hard  and  brittle.  The  singular  properties  of 
enameled  glass  are  strikingly  shown  in  Prince  Ru- 
pert's drops  and  the  Bologna  vial.  The  former  are 
prepared  by  allowing  melteil  glass  to  drop  into 
water,  where  the  drops  which  are  not  broken  by 
contact  with  the  water  form  irregularly  elongated 
globular  bodies  tapering  to  a  tail  at  one  e.vtremity. 
These  will  bear  a  considerable  blow  on  the  thick 
end  without  breaking,  but  if  a  small  piece  be 
snapped  off  the  tail  the  whole  immediately  falls  into 
powder,  emitting  a  cracking  sound. 

The  Bologna  vial  is  a  rude  flask  of  some  three  or  four 
inches  in  length  by  about  one  in  diameter,  and  from 
Jj  to  J  of  an  inch  in  thickness. 

If  a  leaden  bullet  be  dropped  into  it  from  a  height 
of  three  or  foui  feet,  or  it  be  struck  a  smart  blow  on  the 
outsiile  with  a  stick,  it  will  not  break,  but  the  drop- 
ping of  a  grain  of  sand  or  a  small  sharp  fragment 
of  Hint  into  it  will  cause  it  to  crack  and  fall  to 
pieces. 

ITpon  the  jiroper  annealing  of  glass  much  of  its 
utility  for  many  purposes  entirely  depends,  and  for 
vessels  which  are  to  be  subjected  to  great  e.xtremes 
of  heat  and  cold,  careful  annealing  is  absolutely  in- 
dispensaljle.  Its  neglect  is  one  of  the  ]irincipal 
causes  of  the  breakage  of  so  many  lam])-cliimneys, 
tumblers,  etc.,  whose  cost  often  forms  such  a  con- 
siderable item  in  domestic  e.xpenditure.     See  Gl.\ss. 

Annealing  is  also  a  necessary  process  in  the  manu- 
facture, by  ((rawing,  of  wire  and  small  tubing,  as  well 
as  in  making  brass,  copper,  or  .sheet-iron  vessels  by 
hammering  and  rolling  ;  the  metal,  by  compression, 
becoming  too  hard  and  brittle  for  further  reduction 
until  annealed,  after  which  it  recovers  its  former 
softness  and  pliability. 

When  molten  glass  is  allowed  to  cool  slowly,  its 
pai'ticles  assume  a  fibrous  arrangement,  which  im- 
]>arts  a  ceriain  elasticity  to  the  whole  mass,  so  that 
it  can  transmit  vibrations  from  one  extremity  to 
the  other.  When  suddenly  cooled,  the  interior  par- 
ticles are  enclosed  by  the  solidification  of  the  exte- 
rior before  they  have  assumed  the  fibrous  condition 
which  insures  the  elastic  stnicture  or  condition. 

Glass  may  be  annealed  by  ydacing  it  in  tepid 
water,  boiling  it  for  a  considerable  length  of  time, 
and  then  allowing  it  to  cool  gradually. 

Glass-ware  is  annealed  by  placing  it,  while  yet 
hot,  in  an  oven,  technically  called  a  /ecr,  in  which 
the  gla.ss  is  allowed  to  cool  very  gradually.  A  com- 
mon form  of  the  her  is  a  long  oven,  with  sliding  or 
travelling  pans  to  liold  the  glass-ware,  which  enters 
at  one  end,  as  hot  as  it  comes  from  the  liands  of 
the  glass  blower  or  presser,  and  by  the  gradual 
accession  of  pans  of  ware  is  pushed  to  the  other 
end,  whence  it  issues  at  a  temperature  which  per- 
mits it  to  be  handled.  The  ]iartieles  of  glass  are 
supposed  to  assume  a  different  structural  relation. 


when  thus  slowly  cooled,  which  favors  their  cohe- 
sion, and  permits  a  certain  degree  of  resiliency  or 
elasticity.  When  cooled  suddeidy,  there  seems  to 
be  an  inherent  strain,  a  compulsory  union,  but 
faulty  and  fragile  static  condition,  whose  e(iuilih- 
rium  is  disturbed  by  an  excitant  in  the  form  of  a 
blow,  which  generates  a  tremulous  motion  among 
the  particles,  and  pennits  them  to  yield  to  the 
disruptive  force.  This  disruptive  tendency  may 
arise  from  want  of  homogeneity,  unequal  contrac- 
tion, or  something  else. 

In  the  annealing  of  metals,  cast-iron  for  instance, 
the  metal  is  brought  to  a  red  heat,  and  then  al- 
lowed to  cool  slowly.  The  rationale  of  this  proc'css 
has  been  variously  explained,  and  the  most  reason- 
able seems  to  be  that  the  particles  of  metal  take  a 
ditt'erent  arrangement  under  these  circuuistances 
ti'om  that  assumed  by  them  when  allowed  to  cool 
rapidly.  In  the  latter  case  the  exterior  jiortion 
of  the  metal  contracts  first,  and  ]iresses  upon  the 
interior  portion,  and  the  particles  of  the  latter 
may  thereby  be  compelled  to  take  an  arrangement 
which  they  would  not  were  the  cooling  to  take 
place  at  an  equal  rate  in  every  part,  and  the  process 
of  cooling  be  long  jirotractcd.  It  does  not  seem 
to  be  detemiined  wliether  the  protraction  of  the 
process  is  merely  necessary  to  insure  an  ei|ual  rate 
of  cooling  in  every  part,  but  it  is  not  a  violent  con- 
jecture that  the  said  slowness  may  favor  a  jiarticu- 
lar  aggregation  of  the  particles,  which  gives  them 
the  greatest  possible  cohesion  attainable  with  the 
structural  nature  of  cast-iron.  In  making  cast-iron 
malleable,  as  it  is  termed,  a  process  much  used  in 
making  builders'  hardware,  the  metal  is  kept  for 
several  hours  at  a  tenqierature  a  little  below  the 
fusing-point,  and  then  allowed  to  cool  slowly. 
From  the  prolongation  of  both  stages  of  the  process 
in  this  case,  it  is  evident  that  the  perfect  result  is 
best  attained  by  giving  the  particles  time,  and  not 
violently  changing  their  structural  relation  ;  unli'ss 
it  be  held  that  chemical  changes  in  the  furnace 
(such  as  parting  with  a  poition  of  the  I'lirbon) 
have  to  be  taken  into  consideration,  and  that  the 
change  is  not  all  in  the  mechanical  disposition  of 
the  jiarticles.  Tenqiering  and  annealing  are  nearly 
allied,  but  the  processes  are  not  conlbunded  in  the 
arts,  owing  to  their  different  technical  applications. 
The  word  "annealing"  is  derived  from  the  .-\nglo- 
Sa.xon  signifying  to  "  kindle,"  and  the  heating  is  a 
necessary  prelinnnary  whether  to  withdraw  the 
hardness  incident  to  hanuuering  and  lolling  of 
malleable  metals,  or  the  hardness  incident  to  the 
rapid  cooling  of  a  casting  in  its  mold.  The  pro- 
traction of  the  process  of  cooling  the  casting  has  a 
favorable  effect  upon  its  toughness  and  conqiarative 
softness.  This  is  plainly  seen  by  comparing  them 
with  chill-hardened  articles,  which  are  rendered 
hard  and  brittle  by  the  sudden  cooling. 

Exposure  of  the  hot  steel  to  a  cold  surface  renders 
it  hard.  This  is  usually  done  by  dipping  the  red- 
hot  metal  in  water,  but  other  cold  surfaces  which 
are  rapid  coiuluctors  will  answer  the  same  purpose. 

A  thin,  heated  blade  jilaced  between  the  cold 
haumu'r  and  anvil  is  hardeni'd  by  rapid  cooling. 

Thicker  pieces,  under  the  .same  circumstances,  are 
somewhat  hardened,  but  may  be  fdcd. 

Placed  on  cold  cinders,  or  other  bad  conductor, 
the  steel  cools  nioie  slowly  and  becomes  softer. 

Placed  in  hot  cinders,  and  allowed  to  cool  by 
their  gradual  extinction,  it  becomes  still  softer. 

Encased  in  a  close  box  with  charcoal-powder, 
raised  to  a  red  heat,  and  allowed  to  cool  very  slowly, 
it  reaches  its  softest  state,  except  by  a  partial  de- 
composition, as  in  the  following  process. 


ANNEALING. 


Ill 


ANNEALING. 


The  steel  is  placed  in  a  close  box  with  iron  turn- 
ings, filings,  or  scales,  lime,  or  other  matters,  which 
will  eliminate  the  carbon  from  the  steel,  and  reduce 
it  to  the  condition  of  pure,  soft  iron.  This  is  the 
process  used  in  softening  plates  and  dies  under  the 
modem  system  of  bank-note  engraving  invented  by 
Jacob  Perkins  (cited  below). 

Analogous  processes  are  had  in  the  case  of  cast-iron, 
producing  the  various  grades  of  hardness,  from  the 
chilled  east-iron  to  the  soft  malleable  iron-castings. 

The  annealing  of  steel,  to  soften  it  for  the  uses 
of  the  die-sinker  and  engi-aver,  is  effected  by  heating 
it  to  a  bright  cherry  red,  and  sutfering  it  to  cool 
gradually  in  a  bed  of  charcoal.  Another  process, 
adopted  by  the  writer,  has  been  to  imbed  the  steel 
blanks  or  forgiugs  in  lime  within  a  cast-iron  box. 
This  is  heated  to  redness  in  the  fire,  remaining  a 
sufficient  time  to  insure  an  eijual  heat  of  the  articles 
inside  ;  the  box  is  then  removed  and  buried  in  hot 
ashes,  which  protract  the  process  of  cooling  for  sev- 
eral days.     See  TEiirEKiXG. 

Perkins's  process  of  transfer-engraving  is  as  fol- 
lows :  — 

A  soft  steel  plate  is  first  engraved  in  finished 
style,  either  by  hand  or  mechanically,  or  the  two 
combined,  and  the  plate  is  then  hardened.  A  de- 
carbonized steel  cylinder  is  next  rolled  over  the 
hardened  steel  plate  by  powerful  machinery  until 
the  engraved  impression  of  the  plate  appears  in 
relief  upon  the  roller,  the  hollow  lines  of  the  plate 
being  salient  ridges  on  the  cylinder.  The  roller  is 
then  reconverted  to  the  condition  of  ordinary  steel, 
and  hardened,  after  which  it  serves  for  giving  the 
intaglio  impressions  to  any  number  of  decarbonized 
plates,  every  one  of  which  is  an  absolute  countei-part 
of  the  original.  Each  plate  when  hardened  will 
afford  150,000  impressions,  and  in  the  event  of  acci- 
dent to  the  transfer-roller,  any  number  of  new 
rollers  with  the  design  in  cameo  may  be  obtained 
from  the  original  plate. 

The  metallurgic  process  was  explained  by  the 
inventor  in  the  thirty-eighth  volume  of  the  Transac- 
tions of  the  Society  of  Arts.  He  there  states  that  to 
decarbonize  the  plates  they  are  placed  in  a  vertical 
po.'iition  in  cast  -  iron  boxes  not  less  than  three 
fourths  of  an  inch  thick,  and  surrounded  on  all  sides 
by  iron  filings  not  less  than  one  half  an  inch  thick. 
The  boxes  are  then  placed  in  a  furnace,  and,  aft<T 
being  heated,  are  allowed  to  cool  in  the  most 
gi'adual  manner  by  stopping  off  all  the  air-passages, 
and  covering  the  boxes  with  a  layer  of  cinders  six 
or  seven  inches  deep. 

The  plate  or  roller,  as  the  case  may  be,  having, 
in  the  softened  state,  received  its  impression,  is 
reconverted  in  a  similar  box,  wherein  it  is  packed 
with  sifted  charcoal,  made  from  leather  scraps. 
After  being  heated  in  this  cementing  box  and  fur- 
nace from  three  to  five  hours,  the  plates  or  rollers 
are  hardened  by  plunging  veitically  into  cold  water. 

The  use  of  steel  plates  for  engraving  has  but 
comparatively  lately  superseded  that  of  copper,  an<l 
its  peculiar  value  arises  from  the  fact  that  by  the 
processes  of  hardening  and  annealing  it  is  made  to 
assume  the  opposite  condirions  of  extreme  hardness 
and  sufficient  softnes.s,  so  as  in  the  former  state  to 
endure  wear  in  prinring,  and  also  jireserve  the  sharp- 
ness of  its  liues  when  enduring  immense  pressure 
against  a  soft  steel  roller  or  plate  ;  and  in  the  latter 
case  to  be  readily  cut  by  the  graver  or  dry  point, 
and  have  sufficient  plasticity  to  yield  to  pressure, 
and  insinuate  itself  into  the  finest  lines  of  the  har- 
dened steel  against  which  it  is  pressed. 

The  use  of  steel  in  preference  to  copper  may  be 
credited  to  Mr.  Perkins  and  the  engraver  Warren. 


Warren  annealed  his  plates  at  a  high  temperature 
in  earthen  boxes  packed  with  pounded  oyster-shells. 

The  practice  in  the  Bank  of  England,  as  modified 
by  Oldham,  is  to  anneal  at  one  time  four  cast-iron 
boxes,  each  containing  from  three  to  six  steel  plates, 
surrounded  on  all  sides  with  fine  charcoal,  mixed 
with  an  eijual  quantity  of  chalk,  and  driven  in  hard. 

The  reverberatory  furnace  employed  has  a  circu- 
lar cast-iron  plate  or  bed  upon  which  the  four  boxes 
are  fastened  by  wedges,  and  as  the  plate  is  slowly 
and  continually  revolved  by  power  from  the  steam- 
engine  which  drives  the  printing-presses  and  other 
machinery  of  the  building,  the  plates  are  exposed  to 
an  equal  heat.  When  the  required  temperature  is 
attained,  all  the  apertures  are  carefully  closed  and 
luted  to  exclude  the  air  and  extend  the  cooling  over 
at  least  forty-eight  hours. 

The  surfaces  of  the  cylinders  and  plates  are  thus 
rendered  exceedingly  soft  to  the  depth  of  about  ^ 
of  an  inch,  so  as  to  be  ahnost  as  impressible  as 
lead  and  readily  yield  to  the  pressure  of  the  transfer- 
press,  where  they  are  brought  in  contact  with  the 
counteqiart  portion,  the  softened  cylinder  with  the 
hardened,  originally  engraved  plate,  or  the  softened 
plate  with  the  hardened  roller,  whose  design  was  re- 
ceived during  the  soft  stage  from  the  hardened  plate, 
wliich  had  been  engraved  during  its  soft  condition. 

In  some  cases  the  extremely  soft  surface  of  the 
plates  is  planed  off.  In  the  Bank  of  England  the 
plates  are  used  for  printing  without  previous  har- 
dening, as  they  can  then  be  repaired,  tlie  parts 
brought  up  sharjily  by  re-rolling  under  the  transfer- 
roller.     Danger  of  warjiing  is  also  avoided. 

Though  belonging  to  the  hardeninrj,  and  not  to 
the  annealing  process,  it  may  here  be  mentioned,  to 
complete  the  subject,  that  Oldham,  Jr.,  has  intro- 
duced a  plan  for  precipitating  the  plates  instantly 
into  water,  so  as  to  prevent  even  an  instantaneous 
exposure  to  the  air  ;  thus  avoiding  scale,  or  even  a 
rough  discoloration.     See  Tempering. 

Many  recijies  are  e.xtant  in  the  trade  for  anneal- 
ing and  hardening  compounds  ;  such  are  frequently 
heirlooms  and  prescned  with  jealous  care.  Lime 
and  ox-gall  are  recommended  by  the  operators  in 
the  English  mint  as  an  annealing  conijiosition. 

For  annealing  of  cast-iron,  see  M.vlleable 
Cast-irox. 

Ede  gives  the  follow  ing  directions  :  — 

"In  the  annealing  of  steel,  the  .same  care  is  re- 
quired in  the  heating  of  it  as  there  is  in  heating  it 
for  hardening,  for  overheating  the  steel  is  as  injuri- 
ous in  one  case  as  in  the  other.  In  the  process  of 
annealing,  artists  differ  ver}'  nuich,  some  approving 
of  heating  the  steel  and  buning  it  in  lime,  some  of 
heating  it  and  burjiiig  it  in  cast-iron  borings,  wliile 
others  approve  of  heating  it  and  burning  it  in  saw- 
dust. A  far  better  plan  is  to  put  the  steel  into  a 
box  made  for  the  purpose,  and  fill  it  with  charcoal- 
dust,  and  plug  the  ends  up  so  that  the  air  is  kejit 
from  the  steel,  then  to  put  the  box  and  its  contents 
into  the  fire  till  it  is  heated  thoroughly  through, 
and  the  steel  is  at  a  low  red  heat :  it  must  then  be 
taken  from  the  fire,  and  allowed  to  remain  in  the 
box,  without  opening  the  box  till  the  steel  is  cold. 
Then  when  taken  out  the  steel  will  be  nice  and  clean 
and  very  soft,  and  without  those  bright  spots  which 
some  mechanics  call  pins,  and  which  are  no  small  im- 
pediments to  the  filing  and  working  of  steel,  and,  in 
fact,  the  steel  is  believed  to  be  imjiroved  by  the  pro- 
cess. A  piece  of  stout  gas-pipe,  with  a  bottom  weld- 
ed in,  and  a  pmg  made  for  the  other  end,  makes  a 
very  good  box  for  a  small  quantity  of  steel  ;  but,  for  a 
large  quantity,  the  box  must  be  large  in  proportion. 
If  the  steel  is  very  large,  it  is  as  well  to  make  a  char- 


ANNEALING. 


112 


ANNEALING. 


coal  tire  to  lieat  it  in,  and  then  let  the  steel  and  the 
fire  get  cold  together  before  it  is  taken  out,  and  it 
will  be  eijually  soft.  But  it  sometimes  happens 
that  a  pieee  of  steel  is  wanted  in  a  liurry,  and  the 
steel,  perhaps,  is  too  hard  to  work  on,  and  cannot 
wait  for  its  being  softened  in  a  box  ;  in  such  eases 
it  may  be  heated  in  an  open  fire,  and  buried  in 
ehari'oal-dust  till  it  is  cold,  or  if  it  be  lieated  to  a 
red  heat  sulfieient  to  be  seen  in  a  dark  place,  and 
then  pluiigi'il  into  cold  water,  it  will  work  more 
pleasantly,  but  not  so  soft  as  if  it  were  heated  in  a 
box  with  charcoal.  There  are  many  that  do  not 
know  the  value  of  a  good  tool,  because  the  steel 
they  work  on  has  never  been  properly  annealed,  and 
before  the  tool  has  half  done  its  duty  it  is  worn  out, 
or  wants  repairing  ;  whereas,  if  the  steel  had  been 
properly  annealed,  the  same  tool  might  have  lasted 
ten  times  as  long  without  repairing." 

Tin;  process  of  annealing  gongs,  cymbals,  bells, 
and  mortals  of  bronze,  is  a  complete  inversion  of  the 
process  cited  above.  The  gong,  for  instance,  which 
derives  its  name  from  the  Chinese  tsliounri,  a  bell,  is 
a  compound  of  copper,  78  ;  tin,  22.  AVhen  cast,  it 
is  very  brittle,  from  the  quantity  of  tin,  which  is 
douljle  the  percentage  of  gun-metal  (copper,  90  ; 
tin,  10),  anil  between  that  and  the  proportions  of 
speculum  metal  (copper,  43  ;  tin,  20).  The  speculum 
metal  is  called  by  Ure  the  whitest,  most  brilliant, 
hardest,  and  most  brittle  of  alloys.  (Iridosmine  is 
harder.)  Tlie  gong  when  cast  is  as  brittle  as  glass, 
but  by  being  plunged  at  a  cherry-red  heat  into  cold 
water,  and  being  confined  between  two  disks  of  iron 
to  keep  it  in  shape,  it  becomes  tough  and  malleable. 
Other  bronze  articles  may  be  similarly  tempered  or 
annealed,  as  it  has  been  variously  termed. 

Tliere  are  several  ways  of  hardening  copper,  —  by 
the  fumes  of  phosphorus,  by  an  alloy  of  the  latter,  or 
some  other  mi'tals,  —  but  these  render  it  brittle  and 
destroy  its  usefulness  for  most  purposes.  In  com- 
mon with  many  others,  Prescott  regrets  the  loss,  or 
rather  our  non-discovery,  of  the  lost  art  of  tempering 
bronze.  After  a  carel'ul  examination  of  what  has 
been  written  on  tlie  subject,  the  writer  is  inclined  to 
the  opinion  that  tlie  hardness  was  imparted  by  judi- 
cious alloying  with  tin  and  iron,  by  the  hammer, 
and  by  a  careful  use  of  the  annealing  process  to 
confer  toughness  upon  the  back  while  the  edge  was 
allowed  to  maintain  the  hardness  necessary  for 
maintaining  a  sharp  edge.     See  BuoxzE  ;  Alloys. 

Lewis's  A.nxe.vling  Box.  The  top,  bottom,  and 
sides  consist  of  three  separable  pieces,  to  prevent 
warping  by  the  heat  of  the  annealing  oven.  The 
bottom    forms   a   tray   to   receive   the   rectangular 

Fig.  240. 


frame  forming  the  sides ;  the  top  is  strengthened 
by  ribs,  rests  on  rabbets  in  the  sides,  and  is  fastened 
by  transvci'se  rods. 

Wa.shbukn's  Wire-annealer.  The  wire  isplaced 
in  a  box,  wliich  is  then  charged  with  a  gas  which 
will  not  oxydize  the  wire  when  the  latter  is  heated. 
This  is  for  the  purpose  of  preventing  the  fonnation 
of  scale,  and  obviatiug  the  subsequent  use  of  an  acid 

rig.  241. 


^)    fj 

^^^J^ 

Jr^ 

^VashbunVs  Annealing  Box. 

bath  to  cleanse  the  wire.  The  vessel  is  provided 
with  stopcocks  by  which  the  air  in  the  interior  is 
displaced  and  an  artificial  atmosjjhere  or  gas  substi- 
tuted. This  is  applicable  to  other  articles  besides 
wire. 

McCarty,  June  11,  1861,  The  device  is  intended 
for  annealing  cut-nails.  The  process  consists  in 
confining  them  in  a  suitable  vessel,  subjecting  both 


Fig.  242. 

^^^^^^Hi, 

Mc  Carty^s  Annealing  Box. 


Leivls's  Annealing  Box. 


vessel  and  contents  to  a  red  heat,  and  allowing  the 
whole  to  cool  from  sjx  to  twelve  hours,  according 
to  the  size  of  the  nails  and  tube,  and  maintaining 
the  vessel  air-tight  during  the  heating  and  cooling 
process. 

Much  attention  has  been  directed  to  the  annealing 
of  cast-iron  car-wheels.  The  object  is  to  make  the 
web  soft  and  tough,  so  as  to  withstand  the  jar  and 
strain  incident  to  use,  and  at  the  same  time  have  a. 
luLrdeued  rim  wluch  will  bear  the  wear. 

Whitney,  April  25,  1848,  placed  the  wheels  in  a 
pile  in  a  cylindrical  pit  or  case  in  which  they  were 
closely  covered  and  left  to  cool  gradually.  A  non- 
conducting jacket  protracted  the  period  of  cooling, 
and  contributed  to  the  effectiveness  of  the  ojieration. 

Geisse,  April  IK,  1859.  The  wheels,  while  hot, 
are  removed  from  the  molds  and  piled  in  a  cylindri- 
cal oven,  where  they  are  allowed  to  cool  gradually. 
A  Wast  of  air  is  earned  through  the  centers  of  the 
hubs,  which,  as  the  wheels  are  sjTnmetrically  piled, 
form  a  continuous  air-duct,  at  the  top  of  which  is  a 
conductor  leading  to  the  chimney.  Dampers  at  the 
ash-pit  and  also  in  the  chimney  afford  means  for 
regulating  the  passage  of  air  and  thereliy  modifying 
the  rate  of  cooling.  By  the  means  described,  the 
wheels  are  induced  to  commence  cooling  at  the  cen- 
ters, the  cooling  gradually  extending  outward.  The 
heat  at  no  time  is  sufficient  to  draw  the  chill  which 
has  been  conferred  upon  them  in  the  mold.  The 
object  is  to  prevent  the  hubs  shrinking  away  from 


ANNEALING. 


113 


ANNEALING. 


Fig.  ais. 


Gtisse's  Annfaling  Oven. 

the  rims  after  the  latter  have  cooled,  as  is  apt  to  be 
the  case  when  the  cooling  is  initiated  in  the  reverse 
order. 

1S61.  The  car-wheels,  alter- 
nating with  layers  of  charcoal, 
are  built  up  into  a  pile  in 
a  pit,  which  is  so  arranged 
that  the  quantity  of  air  may 
be  gi-aduated  to  regulate  the 
combustion,  which  is  designed 

Fig.  245. 


Howry,   May  7, 
Kg.2M. 


Moicry's  Car-Whed 
Annealing. 


Mooters  Car -Wheel  Annealing 


Fi2.  246. 


to  be  protracted.  The  double  walls  of  the  pit  or 
annealing  case  form  a  non-conductor  to  retain  the 
heat,  and  allow  but  a  very  gradual  cooling  to  the  mass. 
MoOBF.,  December  5,  1S65.  The  wheels  are  re- 
moved from  the  molds  while  hot,  are  piled  one  above 
another  in  a  vertical  pit,  ^vith  intervening  rings  so 
placed  as  to  separate  the  chilled  tire  from  the  web 

which  is  to  be  an- 
nealed. The  inte- 
rior space  around 
the  hubs  is  filled 
with  charcoal,  and 
the  outside  space 
around  the  tires  is 
filled  with  sand. 
The  charcoal,  be- 
ing ignited  by  the 
heat  of  the  wheels, 
bums  slowly,  and 
anneals  the  web 
of  the  wheel,  while 
the  sand  protects 
the  tread  from  the 
same  action,  re- 
taining thechilled 
surface  which  it 
has  acquired  in 
casting. 

SlooRE,  Octo- 
ber 9,  1866.  This 
varies  from  the 
preceding   in   the 


mode  of  introducing  the  air-draft,  and  in  the  mode 
of  isolating  the  tires. 

The  car-wheels  are  piled  upon  supporting  rings  at 
the  bottom  of  the  c?^e,  so  that  a  passage  is  formed 
by  the  holes  through  the  hubs  for  cold  air,  and  an- 
other passage  around  the  tread  of  the  wheels  for  the 
draft  for  burning  the  charcoal,  which  is  distribu- 
ted upon  the  perforated  flanges  of  the  ring  inter- 
posed between  each  wheel. 

The  openings  in  the  base  of  the  annealing  case 
are  the  means  of  admission  of  atmospheric  air  to  aid 
in  the  combustion,  and  this  supply  is  graduated  to 
suit  the  requirements  of  the  case.  Another  opening 
admits  air  to  pass  upward  through  the  hubs  to  cool 
them. 

Ells's  furnace  for  annealing  and  polishing  sheet- 
iron.  The  sheets  of  metal  to  be  oj^erated  on  are  placed 
in  an  iron  bos  or  muffle,  with  layers  of  oxide  of 
iron,  lime,  and  animal  charcoal  between  them,  heat- 
Fig.  247. 


Mooters  Car -Wheel  Annealing. 
8 


JEUs's  Annealing  Furnace. 

ing  the  whole  to  about  eight  hundred  degrees  in  a 
suitable  furnace,  meanwhile  subjecting  the  box  to  a 
rocking  and  rotating  motion. 

The  attrition  of  the  particles  during  the  opera- 
tions of  heating  and  cooling  is  to  give  the  peculiar 
mottled  and  polished  appearance  of  Kussia  sheet- 
iron. 

In  Wood's  annealing  furnace,  1S67,  the  box  has 
track  wheels.    Its  lower 
plate   has  an  upwardly  ^  248. 

projecting  rim  to  hold 
the  sand  used  as  luting. 
Tlie  top  is  a  rectangular 
box,  which  is  inverted 
over  the  pack  of  sheets, 
and  is  clamped  at  the 
bottom  portion. 

The  plates  are  held  in 
rigid    compression    be- 
tween the  wagon  bottom  iv^;?MJ»^.^^yj»^^<^  ii^;:-;^^!^^^^ 
and   the  inverted     box  ;      Wood's  Annealing  Furnace. 
the  object  being  to  pre- 
vent discoloration.     The  truck  has  wheels  by  which 
it  traverses  on  the  railway,  and  is  thus  run  in  and 
out  of  the  oven. 

AVoRCESTER,  September  25,  1860.  This  arrange- 
ment is  intended  to  give  a  solid  support  to  the  bed- 
plate of  the  box  which  contains  the  pack  of  sheet- 
iron  or  the  other  iron  articles  which  are  to  be  an- 
nealed. TNTien  the  carnage  is  nin  into  the  oven 
with  its  load,  consisting  of  some  tons  of  iron,  if  the 
bed-plate  be  supported  in  but  a  few  places  it  is  apt 


ANNEALING. 


114 


ANNEALING   POT. 


to  warp,  w]iich  is  destructive  of  the  apparatus  and 
injurious  to  the  load  then  under  treatment.     In  this 


Fig  249. 


Worcester's  Anrualing  Oven. 


oven  are  dwarf-walls  on  the  sides  of  the  oven,  below 
the  level  of  the  bed-plate  of  the  box  as  it  is  ran  into 
the  oven.  After  the  box  has  rearhed  its  position 
longitudinally,  the  winch  at  the  end  of  the  carriage 
is  turned  and  the  bed  lowered  till  it  rests  on  the  walls. 
A  further  turn  or  two  of  the  winch  lowers  the  sup- 
porting [losts,  so  that  they  run  clear  of  the  bed-plate 
when  the  carriage  is  withdrawn.  The  withdrawal 
of  the  charge  is  the  converse  of  the  former  action  ; 
the  carriage  being  run  beneath  the  bed-piece  of  the 
box,  the  winch  is  turned  so  that  the  posts  elevate 
the  bed-plate  from  the  walls,  and  the  carriage  is 
then  withdrawn  with  its  load. 

In  Wuon's  patent,  July  9,  1867,  the  sheets  are 
compressed  between  the  top  and  bottom  of  the  box, 
which  are  temporarily  clamped  together.  The  ob- 
ject is  to  prevent  warping  and  discoloration. 

JIalonk,  May  22,  IStiti.  The  furnace  is  at  one  end 
of  the  annealing  chamber  ;  the  caloric  passes  along  the 


Fig.  250- 


Fig.  251. 

,^,,r~l, r 


Malone^s  Annealing  Furnace, 


upper  flue,  dives  down  side  flues  to  the  lower  flue, 
and  thence  pa.sses  by  apertures  and  cross  flues  to  the 
chimney.     The  object  is  an  even  heat  at  all  parts. 

Ketsolds,  February  13,  1866.  This  is  an  oven 
for  decarbonizing  and  annealing  iron.  The  caloric 
current  from  the  furnace  passes  by  the  flues  M  M, 
beneath  the  arches  K  K,  in  the  chambers,  and 
thence  by  the  diving-flues  S  S,  and  the  lower  flues 
N',  to  the  eliimney. 

Annealing  and  tempering  devices,  especially  in- 
tended for  wire,  and  which  act  continually  upon  the 
wire  as  it  passes  through,  will  be  considereil  under 
AViRE  Temi'euing  AXn  Ansk.^ling.  As  before  re- 
marked, annealing  and  tempering  are  nearly  allied ; 
the  strictly  tempering  devices,  however,  are  more 
conveniently  considered  under  Tempeiung  (which 
see),  as  they  generally  consist  in  means  for  giving 
peculiar  grades  of  temper  to  axes,  cutlery,  scythes, 


Reynotds^s  Annealing  Furnace. 

springs,  etc.,  and  in  devices  for  securing  the  integ- 
rity of  the  articles  under  the  great  strain  and 
cliange  incident  to  the  process. 

An-neal'ing  Arch.  Theovenin  whichglass-ware 
is  allowi-d  to  cool  gradually  in  order  to  anneal  it.  It 
is  called  a  leer  in  some  departments  of  glass-making. 

Tile  annealing  arch  of  the  plate-glass  manufacture 
is  called  a  carqwiise  ;  the  front  door,  the  throat  ;  the 
back  door,  the  (jueulctle  (little  throat)  ;  it  is  heated 
by  a  furnace  along  the  side,  called  a  tisar.  The  no- 
menclature is  French,  and  indicates  the  source 
whence  the  manufacture  was  derived. 

An-neal'mg  Color.  The  color  which  steel  takes 
in  teiiiperiiii;  m-  ex|iosure  to  progressive  heat. 

An-nealing  Furnace.  A  furnace  in  wliich 
metals  are  heated  nearly  to  fluidity,  and  then  allowed 
to  cool  slowly,  so  as  to  render  them  less  brittle  or  to 
make  them  malleable. 

Or,  —  as  with  glass, — a  furnace  in  which  the 
heat  is  retained  for  a  considerable  period  in  order 
that  the  process  of  cooling  may  be  protracted.  X 
glass-annealing  furnace  is  called  a  leer. 

Gold,  silver,  and  zinc  are  occasionally  annealed  in 
tlie  process  of  working,  to  render  them  more  trac- 
table. The  process  is  of  more  especial  and  freii\ient 
aiiplication,  however,  to  steel.     See  Anne.\i,ixg. 

The  annealing  funiace  for  gold  or  silver  in  fillets 
or  pliinchets  has  an  iron  table  in  front  on  which  a 
east-iron  carriage  is  loaded  with  the  metal  in  jointed 
and  luted  tubes ;  the  car  and  its  load  are  then  run  on 
to  the  floor  of  tlie  furnace,  and  the  door  is  lowered. 

An-neal'ing  Lamp.  A  dentist's  appliance  for 
heating  foil  used  in  tilling  excavations  in  carious 
teeth.  It  is  a  small  alcohol  lamp  on  a  stand,  and 
has  a  tray  of  mica  or  german-silver  in  which  the 
foil  is  placed.  The  foil  is  more  adhesive  when 
warm. 

An-neal'ing  Ov'en.  A  chamber  in  which  arti- 
cles are  placcil  to  ;illow  them  to  cool  gradually  so  as 
to  make  them  tougli.     .See  Annealing. 

The  annealing  arch  for  glass  is  called  a  leer. 

An-neal'ing  Pot.  A  closeil  pot  set  in  a  furnace, 
and  used  for  exposing  an  object  to  heat  without 
forming  a  scale  of  oxide. 

Pots  for  annealing  wire  are  made  annular,  so  as  to 
receive  with  as  little  vacant  space  as  possible  the 
wire  which   is   coiled   therein.        The   smaller   the 

Fig.  252. 


Wire-Annealing  Pet, 

amount  of  air  in  the  closed  pot,  the  less  the  dete- 
rioration of  the  surface  of  the  wire  by  e.xposure  of 
its  heated  surface. 


ANNIHILATOR,   FIRE. 


115 


AXNULAK-CYLINDER   ENGIXE. 


An-nilli-la-tor,  Fire.  An  apparatus  for  extin- 
guishing fire  by  the  rapid  production  of  carbonic- 
acid  gas,  which  excludes  the  vital  air  from  the  com- 
bustible material.     See  Fire  Axnihilatou. 

An'nu-lar  Bit.  A  boring  bit  which  cuts  a  circu- 
lar channel,  but  does  not  rout  the  central  portion. 

Wads,  buttons,  and  some  other  things,  are  made 
by  a  tool  of  this  kind. 

One  form  of  the  diamond  drill  makes  an  annular 
groove,  leaving  a  central  cylindrical  plug  of  stone. 
See  Di.iMOND  Drill. 

Several  annular  boring  tools  are  described  and  il- 
lustrated under  .\rGER,  which  see. 

Annu-lar  Borer.  A  description  of  rock-boiing 
tool,  in  which  a  circular  groove  is  made  in  the  stone, 
leaving  an  axial  stem  of  unbored  matter.  The 
tool  descends  until  the  stem  is  nearly  as  long  as  the 
wings  of  the  tool ;  then,  the  latter  being  withdrawn, 
a  grapnel  is  introduced  into  the  liole,  the  stem 
broken  oft'  and  raised.  The  borer  is  then  relowered 
and  the  work  proceeds.  This  mode  of  boring  is  con- 
venient for  attbrding  a  perfect  section  of  the  strata, 
giving,  if  care  be  taken,  the  dip  as  well  as  the  qual- 
ity.    See  RiiCK-BORiNG  Tools  ;  Gr.\pnel. 

Annu-lar-Cyl'm-der  Steam'-en-gine.  A 
form  of  dircd-ading  stcam-cnginc  invented  Liy  ilauds- 

Fig.  253. 


lay,  England,  and  patented  by  him  in  1841.  It  con- 
sists of  fixed  inner  and  outer  cylinders,  between 
which  is  an  annular  steam  space  o,  occupied  by  a 
jiiston  c.  This  piston  has  two  rods,  d  d,  which  pass 
through  stuffing-boxes  in  the  cylinder-liead,  and  are 
keyed  to  the  cross-head  e.  The  latter  connects  by 
rods// with  the  guide-block  g,  which  reciprocates  in 
the  open-ended  cylinder  /;.  To  a  pin  on  tlie  block 
g  is  attached  the  connecting-rod  h,  which  passes  to 
the  crank  on  the  paddle-shaft. 

In  another  form  of  this   engine   the   cylinder  is 
annular   and   has 


Fig.  254. 


Maudslay^s  Annular-  Cylindn  Steam-EngiTie. 


two  piston  -  rods 
which  connect  to 
a  cross-head  plate, 
slotted  to  jiermit 
the  movement  of 
the  connecting- 
rod  which  passes 
through  it.  Rods 
pass  up  from  this 
plate  to  an  upper 
cross-head  whose 
slides  are  within 
the  annular  cyl- 
inder. The  con- 
necting-rod jiasses 
from  this  cross- 
head  to  the  wrist- 
pin  of  the  crank. 

It  may  be  ne- 
cessary to  remark 
that  the  Trunk 
Engine  and  the 
Annular  -  Piston 
Engine  are  dis- 
tinct devices. 
There  is  a  certain 
siniilarit)'  of  ap- 
pearance, the  in-  Annular- Cylinder  Table  Steam-Engine. 
ner  and  concen- 
tric cylinder,  the  most  salient  feature  of  novelty  in 
appearance,  being  present  in  each  engine. 

In  the  .AiinHlar-Ci/liiidcr  Engine  botli  cylinders 
are  fixed  and  the  piston  reciprocates  in  the  annular 
intervening  space. 

In  the  Tninl.-£nginct}\ea.n- 
nular  piston  is  attached  to  the 
inner  cylinder  (the  tnml)  and 
reciprocates  therewith  ;  the 
latter  slides  in  stuffing-boxes 
at  the  ends  of  the  fixed  outer 
cylinder.  See  Trunk  En- 
gine. 

In  another  form  of  this  de- 
scription of  engine  the  parts 
are  somewhat  modified.  The 
two  cylinder-heads  are  con- 
nected by  a  trunk  which  is 
of  flattened  fonn  £,  as  shown 
in  the  plan.  The  piston  A 
is  of  corresponding  shape,  and 
not  strictly  annular.  It  is 
connected  by  the  rods  H  II, 
with  the  cross-head  G,  from 
which  proceeds  the  connect- 
ing-rod E  leading  to  the  crank 
I.  The  rods  H  H  pass 
through  stuffing-boxes  in  the 
upper  head  C,  and  the  trunk 
B  connects  the  heads  C  D. 

Perhaps  the  most  gigantic 
steam-enginesin  the  worldare 
the  three  engines,  the  Leerfi-     Annvla.r-'Pi^ion  Engine 


Fig.  255. 


ANNULAR-CYLINDER   ENGINE. 


116 


ANNUNCIATOR. 


water,  the  Cnuiuius,  and  the  Lynilen,  erected  1840- 
50,  for  the  purpose  of  draining  the  Haarlem  Lake. 
This  had  an  area  of  45,230  acres,  and  a  maximum 
depth  of  seventeen  feet  helow  the  level  of  the  boezem, 
or  eateh-water  lasin,  of  the  distiiot.  The  boezeni 
carries  tlie  collected  watei's  to  the  sea,  into  which  it 
di^ch  vr!.;i's  by  sluices  at  Katwyk  on  the  North  Sea, 
and  at  Sparndara  and  Halfweg  on  the  Y,  or  the 
Soutluirn  end  of  the  Zuyder  Zee.  See  Koninklijk 
ItistitiU  van  Ifi'jciiicurSj  1857-9,  plaat  3,  4. 

Each  of  the  three  engines  mentioned  has  two 
steam-cylinders  placed  concentrically,  the  one 
within  the  other,  the  outer  of  twelve  feet  diameter, 
and  the  inner  one  of  .seven  feet  diameter  ;  both  are 
secured  to  one  bottom  and  covered  by  one  cover, 
but  the  inner  cylinder  does  not  touch  the  cover 
within  IJ  inches.  There  are  two  pistons,  twenty- 
si.x  inches  deep,  the  compartments  of  which  are 
fitted  with  east-iron  plates  ;  the  outer  piston  is  an- 
nular, and  has  a  packing  on  both  sides  ;  beneath 
this  annular  piston  a  constant  vacuum  is  main- 
tained when  working.  The  two  pistons  are  con- 
nected by  five  piston-rods  to  a  great  cross-head 
weighing  about  190,000  pounds.  Eight  connecting- 
rods  from  the  cross-head  i)ass  to  the  inner  ends  of 
eight  working-bi-ams,  to  whose  outer  ends  the  pis- 
ton-rods of  eight  pumps  are  suspended.  These 
pumps  are  situated  in  a  circular  series  around  the 
steam-engine,  the  working- beams 
radiating  from  an  axis  coincid- 
ing with  a  vertical  prolongation 
of  the  cylinder  piston-rod.  (See 
Du.viNi.s'o,  for  an  illustration 
of  tlie  engine.) 

The  working  of  the  engine  is 
as   follows  :  — 

Steam  is  admitted  below  the 
central  piston,  and  lifts  it,  the 
annular  piston,  the  cross-head, 
and  the  inner  ends  of  the  pump- 
beams  ;  causing  the  ]>ump-pisr 
ton  to  descend.  A  hydraulic  ap- 
paratus is  brought  into  action  to 
maintain  the  parts  in  this  posi- 
tion until  the  pump-valves  have 
had  time  to  change.  The  eipii- 
librium-valve  is  then  opened,  the 
steam  passes  above  both  pistons 
and  drives  them  down,  the 
pressure  being  nearly  e(iualized  on  the  upper  and 
lower  sides  of  the  small  piston,  wdiile  nearly  two 
thirds  of  it  acts  on  the  upper  side  of  the  annu- 
lar piston,  which  has  a  partial  vacuum  beneatli 
it,  to  aid  in  the  work.  The  effective  stroke  is  also 
aided  by  the  dead  weight  of  the  cross-head,  which 
weighs  over  ninety  tons,  and  by  the  weight  of  the 
pistons  and  rods  of  the  engine. 

Each  engine  has  two  air-pumps  of  forty  inches 
diameter,  and  five  fe.^t  stroke.  The  steam  is  cut 
off  in  the  small  cylinder  at  from  one  fourth  to  two 
tlurd^  of  its  stroke,  according  to  the  load,  and  is 
then  fartlier  expanded  in  the  large  cylinder. 

When  working  with  the  net  jiower  of  350  horses, 
the  average  consumption  is  2J  pounds  of  Welch 
coal  per  horse-power  per  hour,  or  75,000,000  pounds 
of  water  raised  one  foot  high  with  94  pounds  of 
coal.  The  duty  of  the  engines  has  been  as  high 
as  87,000,000.    'See  Dl'TY. 

The  Lynden  and  Cruipiius  engines  work  eight 
pumps,  each  of  seventy-three  inches  diameter  and 
ten  feet  stroke.  The  Leeghwater  works  eleven 
pumps  of  sixty-three  inches  diameter,  ten  feet 
stroke,  each  engine  being  calculated  to  lift  si.xty- 
si.x  cubic  meters  of  water  per  stroke. 


Fig.  256. 


The  three  engines  are  capable  of  discharging 
2,000,000  tons  of  water  in  twenty-four  houre  at 
their  full  depth.  They  were  erected  by  two  Eng- 
lish companies. 

An'nu-lar  Gear'- 
Wheel.  A  wheel  whose 
teetli  are  on  the  concavity  of 
an  annulus,  or  ring,  which 
isdestituteof  web  or  sjiokes. 

An'nu-lar  Mi-orome- 
ter.  A  form  of  the  circular 
micrometer  invented  by 
Fraunhofer  of  Mnuich,  con- 
sisting of  an  annular  glass 

disk  whose  central  aperture  

isabouthalfaninchindiam-   Annular  Whed and  Pinion. 
eter  and  bounded  by  a  me- 
tallic ring  which  is  cemented  to  the  inner  edge  of  the 
glass. 

The  metallic  ring  is  used  to  determine  differences 
of  declination  between  stars,  from  the  differences 
of  time  occupied  by  them  in  traversing  different 
chords  of  the  ring.     See  Circular  Micrometf.k. 

An'nu-lar  Pan.  A  ring-shaped  trough  in  which 
the  vertical  grinding-wheels  of  an  ore-crusher  re- 
volve. 

The  main  shaft  may  stand  in  a  central  aperture 
of  the   bed  and  receive  motion  from   a   horizontal 

Fig.  257. 


AnniiUiT  Pan. 

shaft  beneath.  The  pulverized  ore,  mixed  with 
water,  is  loosened  up  by  rakes,  and  scraped  from 
the  sides  to  the  wheel-tracks  by  knives.  The  wheels 
follow  different  tracks. 

I'he  pan  form  of  amalgamator  is  a  favorite,  and 
several  illustrations  may  be  seen  under  Amalgama- 
tor, Figs.  144-153,  pp.  78-81. 

An'nu-lar  SaTW.  The  annular  saw  for  cutting 
pearl-button  blanks  is  a  steel  tube  with  a  ser- 
rated end. 

The  annular  saw  of  the  surgeon  is  the  tTqmn,  or, 
preferably,  the  trephine  ;  which  see.  Other  varie- 
ties of  annular  saws  are  known  as  crown,  barrel, 
drum,  or  ciiUnder  saws  ;  which  see. 

An'nu-lar  Valve.  A  gravitating-plate  valve  of  a 
circular  form  and  with  a  circular  central  aperture. 
It  works  u]ion  a  stem  by  the  upward  pressure  of 
water,  and  clo.ses  an  annular  aperture  when  the  lift- 
ing force   is  removed.     See  illustration  in  Screw- 

PrOI'KLLF.K  Sn-.AM-F.Nf.INE. 

An'nu-lat-ed  Col'umn.  A  clustered  column  girt 
by  bands. 

An'nu-let.  A  flat  molding ;  a  small  square 
member  in  the  Doric  capital. 

An-nun'ci-a-tor.    Annunciators  are  substitutes 


ANNUNCIATOR. 


117 


ANODE. 


for  the  old-fashioned  an-angement  of  bells  in  hotels, 
etc.  Instead  of  each  room  being  connected  to  a 
separate  bell  in  the  office  of  the  hotel,  the  bell-pull 
of  each  room  is  connected  to  a  single  bell,  which 
gives  notice  to  the  clerk  or  jiorter,  and  at  the  same 
time  a  pendulum  with  the  number  of  the  room  is 
caused  to  vibrate,  or  the  shield  is  removed  from  a 
number  corresponding  to  that  of  the  room.  The 
devices  are  various.  The  general  scheme  is  to  con- 
nect the  wire  from  the  room  to  a  numbered  plate, 
which  is  moved  up  to  an  opening  and  thereby  ex- 
poses its  number  to  view.  The  wire  at  the  same 
time  trips  a  trigger  which  actuates  the  hammer  of 
tlie  bell.  A  variation  in  the  mode  of  operation  is 
found  in  those  annunciators  whose  openings  are  all 
covered  by  pivoted  shields,  the  numbers  being  per- 
manently attached  in  the  rear.  The  motion  of  the 
wire  trips  the  sounding-hammer  as  before,  and  at 
the  same  time  trips  the  shield  to  which  it  belongs, 
and  causes  it  to  oscillate  from  before  the  opening 
and  e.\pose  the  number  to  which  it  Ijelongs.  A 
crank  o])erated  by  the  hotel  clerk  restores  the 
noi-mal  condition  after  the  number  has  been  ob- 
serveil. 

H(iRSF.\LL,  October  4,  1853,  and  Hale,  April  22, 
1856,  are  among  the  earlier  inventors. 

In  Horsfall's,  the  wire  from  the  room  operates 
a  rod  whose  horizontal  lifting  and  tripping  arm  ex- 
tends beneath  it5  appropriate  swinging  inde.x-plate. 
The  rod  and  arm  are  arranged  in  such  relation 
to  the  rocking-frame  which  carries  the  alarm-bell, 
th;it,  as  either  of  the  rods  is  raised  for  the  pur- 
pose of  trip[iiug  one  of  the  index-plates  and  expos- 
ing its  number  to  view,  the  frame  and  bell  will  be 
also  raised,  and  the  pendulous  hammer  allowed  to 
descend  some  distance.  ^\lien  the  rod  descends 
after  triiiping  the  index-plate,  the  rocking  frame 
and  bell  also  descend,  and  the  contact  of  the  short 
arm  of  the  hammer  with  a  lever  causes  the  hammer 
to  sound  the  alarm,  subsenueut  to  the  exposure  of 
the  number. 

The  index-plates  are  thrown  back  to  their  cover- 
ing position  by  an  eccentric  rod  and  connecting 
devices. 

In  the  e.rample  annexed,  a  crank  arm  is  at- 
tached   to   the    center   of  the   lever,  and   is   acted 

Fig.  258. 


movement  of  the  slides 
is  limited  by  trans- 
verse bars  above  them, 
which  cross  the  line 
of  their  motion. 

The  mechanism  in 
Fig.  260  is  so  ar- 
ranged and  connected 
with  a  knob  in  the 
room  of  a  hotel,  that 
as  the  knob  is  actu- 
ated b}"  the  occupant 
a  bell  will  be  sounded 
at  the  office,  and  a 
slide  moved  which  dis- 
closes the  name  of  the 
article  wanted,  such 
as  "water,"  "  boots," 
"messenger,"  etc.  A 
slide  in  the  room  is 
made  to  cover  the 
names  of  articles  gen- 
erally wanted  by  a 
guest,  and  coiresponds 
with  a  similar  slide 
and  names  in  the  of- 
fice. The  extent  of 
the  pull  determines 
wliat  name  shall  be  ex- 
posed, and  the  guest, 
by  noticing  the  effect 
at  the  /)!(//  end,  may 
determine  the  effect  at 


Hotel  Annunciator. 

upon  by  the  wire,  can-ying  a  pendulum  in  front  of 
the  face  of  the  annunciator,  and  by  its  vibration 
denoting  the  wire  acted  upon  and  the  number  of 
the  room. 

In  Fig.  259  the  annunciator  is  so  arranged  that 
the  lifting  of  any  wire  shall  not  alone  expose  the 
number  of  the  apartment,  but  shall  lift  a  plate,  and 
through  the  connecting  wire  cause  the  hammer  to 
strike  upon  the  bell.  The  slides,  with  the  numbers 
upon  their  faces,  have  projections  on  their  rear  with 
holes  through  which  the  ^\-ires  pass,  and  the  upward 


Fig.  259. 


Annunciator, 


the  other  end,  as  the  slides  are  coincident. 

Another  foim  is  a  combined  hydraulic  and  pneu- 

Hg.  260. 


matic  annunciator.  The  chamber  of  the  guest  and 
the  hotel  office  are  each  ]irovided  with  an  indexed 
gage,  consisting  of  a  hollow  tube  containing  a  colored 
liquid.  At  the  back  of  each  tube  is  a  graduated  in- 
dex marked  at  intervals,  "fire,"  "light,"  "water," 
"brandy,"  "towels,"  etc.,  as  may  suit  the  aver- 
age of  customers.  The  respective  tubes  are  con- 
nected by  an  air-pipe,  into  which  air  is  injected  by. 
the  guest,  to  raise  the  liijuid  in  the  respective  tubes 
to  the  point  which  indicates  his  wants. 

An'ode.  That  pole  of  the  galvanic  battery  by 
which  the  electricity  enters  into  the  substance  suffer- 
ing decomposition  ;  the  positive  or  +  pole.  This 
nomenclatuie  was  adopted  by  Professor  Faraday. 


ANORTHOSCOPE. 


118 


ANTI-FRICTION   METALS. 


A-nor'tho-scope.  The  name  given  by  M.  Pla- 
tiMii  of  Brussels  to  an  instrument  invented  by  him 
and  intended  to  produce  a  peculiar  kind  of  anamor- 
phosis by  means  of  two  disks  rotating  i-apidly  one 
before  tlie  other  ;  the  hinder  one  is  transparent  and 
bears  distorted  figures,  wliile  the  front  one  is  opa(Hie 
and  is  pierced  witli  a  number  of  narrow  slits.  On 
revolving  the  disk  the  distortions  appear  as  amusing 
and  interesting  figures  and  pictures.  As  in  other 
toys  of  a  similar  kind,  the  etfect  depends  upon  the 
persistence  of  impressions  on  the  retina.  —  Brande. 
It  probably  suggested  the  Zodrope,  which  has  lately 
become  so  popular  in  the  United  States.     See  TuAU- 

MATROPE  ;    PhENAKISTOSCOPE  ;    SritOBOSCUPE. 

An'sae.  (Artillery.)  The  handles  of  some  kinds 
of  brass  ordnance. 

An'ta.  (Architecture.)  A  pilaster  oecuiTing  at 
the  corner  of  a  flank  wall. 

An'te-fix'se.  (Architecture.)  a.  Ornaments 
placed  below  the  eaves  of  a  Grecian  temple  ;  perfo- 
rated to  allow  the  escape  of  water  from  the  roof. 

b.  Blocks  covering  the  termination  of  the  ridge 
formed  by  the  overlap  of  the  tiles  on  a  Grecian  roof. 

An'te -mural.  (Furtijieation.)  An  outwork  con- 
sisting of  a  higli,  strong  wall  with  turrets,  for  the 
defence  of  a  gate. 

An-teri-des.    Buttresses. 

Ante  so-la  ri-utn.     A  balcony  facing  the  sun. 

An-te-venna.     An  awning,  or  shade  roof. 

An'tho-type.  A  photographic  process  in  which 
the  colored  juices  of  the  wild  poppy,  rose,  stock, 
etc.,  are  ell'nced  by  the  action  of  light. 

Au'thra-cene.  A  solid  crystalline  hydrocarbon,  ac- 
com]mnyin,L,' najilithaliTie  in  the  distillation  of  coal-tar. 

An-thra-oom'e-ter.  An  instrument  for  mea.sur- 
iug  the  amou)]t  of  carbon  in  a  given  case.  — Beil. 

An'ti  at-tritiou  Compound.  For  the  bear- 
ings of  machinery  and  a.xles  of  carriages.  See  Lu- 
bricant ;  Alloy  ;  Anti-fkiction  Composition  ; 
An'ti-fkiction'  Metals. 

An'ti  cli'nal  Line.  (Mining  Engineering.)  The 
axis  of  curvature  on  the  arch  or  saddle  of  a  range,  on 
each  side  of  which  the  strata  dip.  Opposed  to  Syu- 
eliiiiJ. 

An'ti  friction  Bearing.    A  rolling  bearing  for 

Fig.  261. 


Anti-Jriclion  Bearing. 


an  axle  or  gudgeon.  The  intention  is  that  the  parts 
primarily  in  contact  shall  not  rub  against  each 
other,  but  move  in  unison.  In  one  form  the  roller 
surfaces  impinge  upon  the  surfaces  of  the  a.xle 
and  its  box  (Fig.  261)  ;  in  another  form  the  rollers 
are  on  axles  (see  Fig.  263).  A  familiar  illustration  is 
also  found  in  the  improved  form  of  hanging  grind- 
stones (see  Fig.  265). 

The  "  Palier  Glissant,"  of  Girard,  consists  of  a 
journal  box  whose  lower  part  is  grooved  and  has  an 
aperture  communicating  with  a  pipe  through  which 
water  under  a  heavy  pressure  is  introduced  beneath 
the  journal.  The  eflect  of  this  is  to  slightly  lift  the 
journal,  allowing  a  very  thin  film  of  water  to  escajie, 
which  etl'ectually  lubricates  the  bearing,  entirely 
preventing  contact  of  the  metallic  surfaces. 

This  is  analogous  to  the  hydraulic  pivot  for  tur- 
bine wheels,  invented  by  the  same  engineer,  in 
which  the  weight  of  the 
turbine  and  its  vertical 
shaft  is  supported  by  a 
water  cushion,  in  the  same 
manner  as  is  the  horizontal 
axis  in  the  foriner  case. 

An'ti-fric'tion  Box. 
An  enclosure  for  the  balls 
or  rollers  of  a  step  or  bear- 
ing. 

An'ti-fric'tion  Com- 
po-si'tion.  A  luljricat- 
ing  material  or  compound 
to  diminish  friction  of 
parts  moving  in  contact. 
The  compounds  are  numerous,  and  include  the  fol- 
lowing materials  in  various  combinations  :  — 

Alloys.    See  Anti-fric-  Mucilage. 


Anti-friction  Box. 


TioN  Metals. 
Alum. 
Asbestus. 
Bitumen. 
Borings  of  Metal. 
Cork. 
Cotton. 

Fiber,  Animal. 
Fiber,  Vegetable. 
Gelatine. 
Graphite. 
Gum. 
Gypsum. 
Lard. 
Lime. 


Oils  of  various  kinds. 
Pasteboard  saturated  with 

petroleum. 
Pith. 

Plumbago. 
Sal-ammoniac. 
Shavings  of  wood. 
Silicate  of  soda. 
Steatite. 
Sulphur. 
Talc. 
Tallow. 
Tannic  acid. 

AVood  saturated  with  oil. 
AVool  flock. 


An'ti-fric'tion  Met'als.  Alloys  principally  u.^ied 
for  l)earings  of  machinery  and  for  journal  boxes. 
Several  are  described  under  the  head  of  Alloy. 

Some  variations  are  found  in  the  formulas,  com- 
paratively few  agreeing  even  in  the  composition  of 
Babbitt's  metal,  patented  in  1839,  and  so  nnudi  used 
throughout  this  country  and  in  Europe.  The  lil- 
lowing  table  will  give  the  composition  of  several  :  — 


? 

S| 

1, 

°   i, 

«i 

3 

d 

u 

iS 

1 

1 

1 

s 

Babbitt's      . 

50 

5   1 

Another  formula 

10 

2  1 

Fenton's 

10 

10 

in 

Belgian,  for  objeota  ex- 

po.sed  to  friction 

4 

0  5  20 

hin 

*'  expo.«ed  to  shocks 

1 

2(1 

K 

"   expo.sed  to  heat    . 

0  5 

17 

1 

025 

Dinsman's 

ilfi 

S 

4 

1 

0.5 

Richardson's 

•2 

62 

.S4 

1 

1 

StrubinK's 

IS 

2.5 

75 

4.5 

Engl.  Pat.  896  of  1863. 

40 

28136 

2 

1 

1.5 

JiNTI-FRICTION   PRESS. 


119 


ANTIMONY  FURNACE. 


An'ti-fric'tion  Press.  A  press  in  which  tlie 
power  is  obtained  by  the  rolling  of  two  cams  against 
an  intennediate  roller.     See  Rollisg-C.^m  Press. 

Anti-friction  Pulley.  A  device  for  the  pur- 
pose of  lessening  the  friction  of  the  sheave  on  its 
pin.  An  annular  system  of  anti-friction  rollers  sur- 
round the  pin,  and  rotate  on  their  own  axes  as  they 
revolve  on  the  pin.     They  are  maintained  at  their 


Kg.  263. 


1 


X 


M 

'M 

0 

—  1 

D   (: 

.  ^1 

0 

\r4 

K 

]:i 


;] 


B 

Anti-Jriction  Pulleys. 


proper  relative  distances  by  a  ring  or  series  of  links, 
so  that  the  faces  of  the  roUers  themselves  do  not 
come  in  contact,  as  contacting  faces,  under  these 
circvmistances,  would  be  revolving  in  different  direc- 
tions, and  great  friction  would  result. 

An'ti-fric'tion  Step.    A  bearing  at  the  end  of  a 

rotating  shaft,  to 
Fig  264.  diminish  the  fric- 

tion of  the  con- 
tact with  the  step 
when  pressure  is 
applied  longitu- 
dinally. In  the 
step  for  propeller 
shafts,  the  loose 
collar  i?  has  anti- 
friction wheels  on 
radial  axes,  which 
act  between  a 
collar  on  the  pro- 
peller shaft  and  a 
fixed  plate  trav- 
ersed by  said 
shaft.  the  ob- 
ject is  an  anti- 
friction bearing  to  take  the  end  strain  of  the  shaft. 
A  somewhat  similar  arrangement  is  used  for  ver- 
tical shafts  in  .some  cases.     See  Fig.  262. 

An'ti-fric'tion  Wheel.  The  wheels  C  C  form 
a  rolling  bearing  for  a  shaft,  so  as  to  diminish  its 
friction  thereon  ;  the  bearings  for  the  axis  of  a 
grindstone,  for  instance,  as  shown  in  Fig.  265. 
Analogous  devices  are  found  in  many  machines  and 
in  carnages.     See  Jourx.^l  Bearings  ;  Axle. 

An  ti-gug'gler.  A  small  tube,  inserted  into  the 
mouth  of  a  bottle  or  carboy  to  admit  air  while  the 
liquid  is  running  out,  and  thereby  prevent  guggling 
or  splashing  of  corrosive  liquid. 

An'ti-in'crus'ta-tor.  A  device  or  a  composition 
to  prevent  the  inciitstation  of  steam-boilers. 

One  class  of  improvements  in  tliis  Une  is  mag- 
netic ;  it  depends  upon  keeping  up  an  electric 
action  which  prevents  the  adherence  of  the  scale  of 
salts  of  lime,  etc. 

Another  class  consists  of  mechanical  agents,  and  a 
third  of  chemical.     See  IxcRU.sTATioN  in  Boilers. 
An-tim'e-ter.   An  optical  instnunent  for  measur- 


Anti-JHction  Step. 


Fig.  265. 


^'     ,1111"    L-JT- 
Anti'friction  Wheels. 

ing  angles.     A  modification  of  Hadley's  Quadrant, 
long  since  supereeded  by  superior  instruments. 

An'ti-mo-ny.  Equivalent,  129.03.  (Svmbol,  Sb: 
Stibium.)  Specific  gra-sity,  6.8.  Melts"  at  995.5, 
Fah.  ;  passes  off  in  vapor  at  a  white  heat.  It  has  a 
peculiar  taste  and  smell.  It  is  a  bluish-white,  brit- 
tle metal,  and  is  much  used  in  hardening  tyjie-metal, 
to  whiih  it  also  imparts  the  faculty  of  not  shrinking 
in  cooling.  It  enters  into  the  composition  of  some 
other  alloys,  such  as  one  kind  of  speculum  metal. 

Its  salts  are  much  used  in  medicine  and  pyrotech- 
nics. 

Antimony  was  known  to  the  Hebrews  as  a  cos- 
metic. AVith  it,  it  is  supposed  that  the  wicked 
Jezebel  painted  her  eyelids  and  eyebrows,  B.  c.  884, 
just  before  she  was  thrown  out  of  window  by  the 
orders  of  the  cruel  Jehu,  wlio  trod  her  under  the 
feet  of  his  horse,  and  left  her  to  be  devoured  by 
dogs. 

The  Arab  women  use  JcohJ  to  increase  the  brillian- 
cy of  the  expression  of  their  eyes,  as  the  Hebrew 
women  did  down  to  the  times  of  Jeremiah  and  Eze- 
kiel,  and  later.  It  is  yet  an  Oriental  custom.  Lit- 
tle toilet  boxes  and  bottles  for  kohl  are  found  among 
the  relics  of  the  ancient  Eg\-i)tians,  and  are  preserveil 
in  many  collections  ;  for  instance,  iu  the  Abbott 
Collection  in  the  possession  of  the  Historical  Society 
of  New  York. 

Basil  Valentine  introduced  the  metal  antimony 
into  the  practice  of  medicine.  Observing  that  some 
swine  fattened  surprisingly  quick  after  the  adminis- 
tration of  the  drug,  he  tried  it  on  some  of  the  monks 
in  his  vicinity,  who  had  become  much  attenuated 
by  their  Lenten  fast.  The  account  says  that  they 
were  all  killed,  and  hence  the  name  Anti-woine.  It 
was  previously  called  Stibium,  and  yet  retains  that 
title  in  scientific  nomenclature. 

An'ti-mo-ny  Furnace.  The  antimony  furnace. 
Fig.  266,  as  at  present  used,  is  a  reverberator)'  whose 
hearth  is  foimed  of  clay  and  sand  solidly  rammed 
together  and  sloping  from  all  sides  towards  the 
middle,  at  which  j)Iace  is  the  discharge  opening, 
temporarily  closed  with  coal-ashes.  The  air  chan- 
nel passes  up  through  the  fire-bridge,  and  the  fire 


ANTIMONY   FURNACE. 


120 


ANVIL. 


Antt/noni/  Furnace. 


is  in  the  chamber  at  the  end,  the  flame  reverber- 
ating in  the  eliamber  above  tlie  ore.  Tlie  charge  is 
introduced  at  tlie  usual  opening,  which  is  closed  by 
a  door  while  the  operation  is  in  progress.  The 
slag  is  drawn  oil'  at  the  same  opening.  The  sul- 
phuret  of  antimony  is  found  associated  with  gangues 
of  ([uartz,  sulphate  of  baiytes,  and  carbonate  of  lime, 
and  is  easily  fused  therefrom  by  the  application  of 
lii-at  in  the  furnace  described.  It  is  not  obtained 
jierfectly  pure  therefrom,  but  is  fused  again  under 
coal-dust  in  crucibles  on  a  reverberatory  lu'arth. 

The  former  mode  of  obtaining  the  metal  from  the 
ore  consisted  in  exposing  it  in  luted  ciaicibles  which 
are  placed  in  a  furnace  (Fig.  267).  The  crucibles 
Iiave  openings  in  the  bottom,  and  are  luted  to  a 

Fig.  267 


Antimony  Crucible. 

perforated  tile  which  forms  the  roof  of  a  lower 
chamber  containing  a  pot  into  which  the  metal 
escapes  as  the  operation  proceeds,  The  gangtie  re- 
mains in  the  crucible  above.  This  method  is  found 
to  be  very  destructive  of  crucibles. 


The  crude  antimony  is  purified  by  repeated  ex- 
posure at  moderate  heats  to  e.xpel  the  sulphur  and 
fuse  the  metal.  The  difficulty  in  the  treatment  arises 
from  the  volatility  of  the  metal,  which  escapes  if 
excess  of  heat  be  appUed.  This  is  in  the  domain 
of  cheniistiy. 

The  ordinary  alloys  of  antimony  are  :  — 

Antimony.    Lead.    Tin.    Copper.    Bismuth. 


Type  Metal 

1 

i 

Stei-eotvpe  Metal 

1 

6 

Music  Plates 

1 

1 

1 

Britannia  Metal 

8 

100 

Pewter 

1 

12 

An'ti-qua'ri-an.  A  size  of  drawing-paper  measur- 
ing 52^  X  3Ui  inches,  and  weighing  233  pounds  to 
the  ream. 

An-tique' [an-teek'].  (Type.)  A  fancy  style  in 
which  each  stroke  of  the  face  has  an  equal  thick- 
ness.    There  are  many  varieties. 

An'ti-sep'tic.  See  Wood,  Peeservation  of  ; 
Food,  Puesei!Vation  of. 

An'vil.  {Fonjiiiff.)  1.  This  is  ordinarily  a  mass  of 
iron  w  hich  sustains  a  piece  of  metal  while  the  latter 
is  being  forged  to  shape.  In  its  ordinary  form,  where 
the  hanmier  is  worked  by  hand,  it  has  a  square 
central  block,  and  a  strong,  projecting,  and  pointed 
piece  of  steel  called  the  beak  or  horn.  The  quarter 
has  holes  for  tools  such  as  cutters  and  swages,  and 
the  whole  is  mounted  on  a  block.  Isaiali  speaks 
(xli.  7)  of  him  that  smites  the  anvil  in  connection 
with  the  art  of  tlie  goldsmith,  and  also  refers  to 
the  subsequent  soldering. 

In  heavy  operations,  such  as  the  forgings  of 
heavy  ordnance  and  shafting,  the  anvil  consists  of 
an  enormous  iron  block  imbedded  to  a  considerable 
depth  and  founded  on  jiiles  or  masonry. 

Fig.  268  shows  the  ordinary  blacksmith's  anvil, 


Fig.  268. 


Amnl  and  Tools. 

and  illustrates  the  methods  of  making  bolts. 

a  face  of  the  anvil. 

b  horn  or  beak. 

c  hardy  hole,  with  rounding-iron  inserted. 

n  body  or  web  of  the  anvil. 

In  forming  a  bolt  by  the  drawmg-doicn  process, 
the  size  of  the  bar  of  iron  is  reduced  at  proper 
intervals  by  fullers,  and  the  operation  is  completed 
by  the  ronnding-irons,  shown  at  c  and  d,  leaving 
the  head  of  the  full  size  of  the  bar  h,  which  is  then 
cut  off  with  a  chisel. 

In  upsctlinij,  the  body  of  the  bolt  remains  of  the 
full  size  of  the  bar,  while  the  head  is  enlarged  by 


ANVIL. 


121 


ANVIL. 


upsetting,  that  is,  driving  the  end  down  upon  the 
body  with  a  hammer,  thus  forming  an  enlargement ; 
or  it  is  enlarged  by  jumping,  that  is,  beating  the 
heated  end  forcibly  on  the  anvil  ;  in  either  case, 
the  head  of  the  bolt  is  finished  by  means  of  the 
he;idiDg-tool,  two  varieties  of  which  are  shown  at 
e  and/. 

The  third  process  of  bolt-making  is  by  welding 
or  building  up;  a  bar  of  flat  iron- is  bent  around 
the  horn  of  the  anvil,  as  shown  at  i,  and  the  bar  of 
round  iron  intended  to  form  the  body  is  inserted 
through  it  ;  the  ring  is  then  cut  off  at  the  proper 
length  by  the  chisel,  shown  at  k,  and  the  head 
finished  as  usual.  3  is  a  swage  for  forming  hexag- 
onal heads  to  bolts,  or  other  hexagonal  or  tri- 
angular forms,  and  I,  m,  represent  bolts,  in  the  first 
of  which  the  head  is  partiall}'  made,  and  in  the 
latter  completed. 

Tubal  Cain,  the  descendant  in  the  sixth  genera- 
tion of  Cain,  is  the  first  recorded  blacksmith,  and 
the  neces-sities  of  his  craft  must  have  introduced 
the  an\-il  before  the  time  of  CinjTa  of  Cyprus,  who 
is  credited  with  the  invention  by  Pliny. 

The  anvil  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans  (iTunM)  was 
usually  of  bronze,  and  was  shaped  like  our  own. 
It  had  a  horn,  and  was  mounted  on  a  wooden  block. 

Among  numerous  varieties  of  anvils  for  special 
trades,  and  to  give  a  more  extended  usefulness  to  the 
space  occupied  by  the  implement,  may  be  cited  one 
in  which  a  shears  and  punching  -  machine  are  corn- 


Fig.  269. 


Anvil  SJuars  and  Punch. 

pactly  placed  beneath  the  anvil,  and  are  worked  by 
handcrank,  pinions,  and  segment-rack. 

Another  anvil  has  a  secondary  horn,  is  socketed 
upon  the  be,ak  of  the  anvil,  and  confined  there  by 
a  hinged  link.  On  the  upp>r  surface  of  the  secon- 
dary horn  are  grooves  into  which  the  shoe  is  driven 

Fig  270. 


'  so  as  to  bevel  the  inner  edge,  to  facilitate  its  free- 

'  ing  itself  from  snow  which  becomes  packed  inside 

,  it. 

In  Fig.  271  the  anvil  is  supported  by  a  stout 
spring,  whose  recoil   is   par- 

j  tially    counteracted    by  the  rig-  271. 

light  springs  above.    The  ob- 

'  ject  is  a  certain  amount  of  re- 
siliency without  jar  as  the 
anrtl  regains  its  normal  posi- 
tion. 

The  gold-beater's  anvil, 
when  using  the  forging-ham- 
mer,  is  a  block  of  steel,  four 
inches  long,  and  three  broad. 
The  ingot  is  reduced  by  this 
operarion  to  a  thickness  of 
one  sixth  of  an  inch. 

The  anril  used  in  the  sub- 
sequent operation  is  a  block 
of  black  marble  twelve  inches 
square  at  top,  and  eighteen 
inches  deep,  framed  in  awood- 
en  block. 

Anvils  are  tempered  in  a 
float,  instead  of  being  merely  Spring  Anvil. 

dipped.     The  rapid  formation 

of  steam  keeps  the  water  from  close  contact  with  the 
metal,  and  in  the  Jioat  a  copious  stream  of  water  is 
]>oured  upon  the  surface  to  be  hardened,  falling  par- 
ticularly upon  the  center  of  the  face. 

Large  anvils  are  slung  from  a  crane  into  a  tank 
beneath  a  fall  of  water,  where  they  are  hardened  ; 
being  lifted  before  the  main  bulk  of  the  iron  is 
cooled,  the  remaining  heat  is  allowed  to  draw  the 
temper  to  the  right  degree,  when  the  anvil  is  in- 
stantly immersed. 

The  casting  of  an  anvil  weighing  358,000  pounds 
is  thus  described  by  the  "  London  Engineer  "  :  — 

"  Another  immense  casting  has  been  turned  out 
by  the  Midland  Works,  Sheffield,  viz.  a  160-ton 
anvil-block  for  a  steam-hammer.  In  the  center  of 
the  floor  a  great  pit  was  dug,  and  in  this  the  mold 
was  formed,  the  anvil  being  cast  -with  its  face 
downward.  The  mold  was  12  feet  square  at  the 
base,  and  11  feet  6  inches  deep,  and  it  was  es- 
timated that  nearly  170  tons  of  iron  would  be 
required  to  fill  it.  At  intervals  outside  the  shop 
were  five  furnaces,  and  at  six  o'clock  in  the  morn- 
ing these  commenced  to  pour  their  molten  con- 
tents into  the  huge  chasm,  and  continued  until 
about  five  o'clock,  when  the  operation  was  declared 
to  be  successfully  completed.  From  four  or  fiv6 
diff'erent  points  streams  of  liquid  fire  were  slowlj 
rolling  to  the  edge  of  the  pit,  where  they  fell 
amidst  showers  of  starry  sparks  into  the  vast  mass 
beueath.  A  metallic  rod  was  thrust  through  the  mass 
to  test  its  perfect  liquidity,  and,  this  having  been 
satisfactorily  proved,  the  top  of  the  pit  was  carefully 
closed,  to  be  opened  no  more  until  the  metal  has 
cooled,  which  will  probably  be  in  about  seven 
weeks.  Tlie  anvil  is  intended  to  be  placed  in  a 
gun-manufactory  in  the  vidnity.  The  bed  consists 
of  a  first  course  of  great  piles,  which  have  been 
driven  by  steam-power  15  feet  into  the  solid  ground. 
Upon  these  is  a  thick  bulk  of  oak,  solidly  braced 
and  bolted  together,  and  the  combined  mass  forms 
the  bed  of  the  anvil.  Only  about  half  a  foot  of 
its  bulk  will  appear  above  ground.  The  block  will 
have  to  sustain  the  blows  of  a  25-ton  steam-hammer 
which  will  be  employed  in  forging  600.pounder  and 
300-pounder  guns  for  Mr.  WliitHorth." 

Jlr.  Ireland,  of  Manchester,  England,  has  a  porta 
He  plant  for  casting  large  anvil-blocks  in  the  posL- 


ANVIL-CUTTER. 


122 


APIARY. 


tion  they  are  to  occupy  on  the  premises  where  they 
are  to  be  used.  He  furnishes  everything  but  the 
iron  and  tlie  blast. 

"  The  plant  used  at  Mr.  Bessemer's  works  con- 
sisted simply  of  a  cupola  4  feet  in  diameter  within 
the  lining,  and  12  feet  deep  to  the  charging-door, 
constructed  on  the  "upper  tweer"  principle.  A 
belt  about  2  feet  9  inches  deep  surrounds  the  cylin- 
der at  about  7  feet  from  the  ground,  and  into  this 
belt  the  blast  is  delivered  by  two  large  pipes,  one 
on  either  side.  The  upper  row  of  tweers  consists 
of  sixteen  orifices,  each  about  3  inches  in  diameter, 
ranged  ei|uidistantly  above  the  level  of  the  main 
supply  pipes,  wliich  discharge  into  the  lower  ])or- 
tions  of  the  belt.  The  lower  tweers  are  only  lour 
in  number,  each  about  8  inches  in  diameter,  dis- 
posed opposite  each  other,  but  not  opposite  the 
main  pipes.  By  this  means  the  blast  is  very  equally 
distributed  through  all  the  tweers.  At  the  time 
of  our  visit,  this  cupola  was  bringing  down  9  or 
10  tons  of  iron  per  hour,  and  Mr.  Ireland  has 
recently  cast  an  anvil-block,  weighing  no  less  than 
205  tons,  at  the  Bolton  Iron  and  Steel  Works,  at 
the  rate  of  25  tons  per  hour,  with  two  cuiiolas 
precisely  similar  to  the  one  under  consideration. 
The  consumption  of  coke  is  very  moderate,  when 
once  everything  is  well  warmed  up,  not  greatly  ex- 
ceeding one  cwt.  of  coke  per  ton  of  iron.  A  strange 
contrast  exists  between  such  operations  as  this  and 
those  in  which  Jlr.  Ireland  first  engaged  in  the 
year  1809,  when  he,  in  common  with  many  other 
founders,  considered  it  a  good  day's  work  to  melt 
a  single  ton  of  iron  in  ten  hours. 

"it  is  not  easy  to  see  how  the  casting  of  large 
masses  can  be  more  economically  effected  than 
under  this  .system.  The  lining  of  the  cupola  being 
removed,  it  is  brought  into  the  condition  of  an 
ordinary  boiler  shell  of  no  very  excessive  weight, 
easily  admitting  of  transport  by  either  rail  or  water. 
The  whole  att'air  being  carried  out  by  Contract, 
the  manufacturer  is  saved  an  immense  amount  of 
trouble  and  responsibility,  while  all  the  operations 
being  conducted  by  those  who  possess  a  special 
knowledge  and  experience  of  the  matter  in  hand, 
the  best  results  are  sure  to  be  obtained  at  the 
least  possible  outlay.  In  many  cases,  without  the 
existence  of  such  a  system,  the  manufacturer  would 
find  himself  compelled  to  erect  a  cupola  of  large 
dimensions  for  which,  the 
block  once  cast,  he  would 
have  no  further  use."  — 
London  Enriineer. 

2.  In  the  Laidley  car- 
tridge (Fig.  272)  is  an  a?n-i7- 
plate  A  which  is  held  in 
position  by  a  shoulder  d 
on    the   capsule.     On   the 

plate  is  a  nipple  which  holds  the  percussion-ca]!, 
and  the  latter  is  exploded 
by  a  blow  on  the  rear,  de- 
livered by  the  nose  of  the 
gnn-lock.  B  is  the  bullet 
retained  by  spinning  down 
the  edge  of  the  capsule. 

3.  A  little  pennon  on 
the  end  of  a  lance. 

Anvil-cut'ter.     A 

shears  operated  by  a  blow 

of  a  hammer,  for  the  use 

of  blacksmiths. 

The  lower  cutter  is  upon 

.one  end  of  a  lever  whose 

other  end  is  elevated  by  a 

Anvil-Cutter.  spring  to  open   the  jaws. 


Fig.  272. 


Cartridge  AnviL 


Fig.  273. 


The  jaws  are  closed  by  a  blow  of  the  hammer  upon 
the  on  er  end   of  the  lever. 

A-or'tic  Com-press'or.  An  instrument  for  com- 
pressing the  aorta  to  limit  the  flow  of  blood  from 
thence  to  the  divided  femoral  artery  in  ca.se.s  of  am- 
putation at  the  hip  joint.  See  Surijc&ii-Geiieral 
Barnrs's  Jicport,  Circular  A'o,  7. 

Ap'er-ture.  1.  (Architecture.)  An  opening  in  a 
wall  or  partition:,  for  a  window,  door,  ventilation,  or 
to  fonn  a  recess. 

The  sides  are  jambs. 

The  top  is  the  head,  or  lintd. 

The  bottom  is  the  silt,  or  threshold. 

2.  (Optics.)  The  orifice  in  the  end  of  a  telescope 
or  other  optical  instrument  through  which  light  en- 
ters. The  diameter  of  the  exposed  portion  of  the 
object-glass  ;  as,  "  6-inch  aperture." 

Aph'lo-gis'tic  Lamp.  Literally,  flame/ess.  A 
lam]j  in  w  liich  the  wick,  of  platinum  wire,  is  kept 
constantly  red-hot  by  the  slow  combustion  of  alco- 
hol, heated  by  the  wire  itself. 

A'pi-a-ry.  A  place  where  bees  are  kept.  It  gen- 
erally assumes  the  form  of  a  house  forming  a  com- 
mon shelter  for  the  hives,  but  in  some  cases  the 
hives  are  more  closely  associated  and  form  a  cluster 
of  families,  occupying  a  bee  "palace."  This  is  fre- 
quently an  ornamental  structure  with  a  number  of 
apartments  for  brood  comb,  and  outlying,  removable 
boxes  for  containing  suqilus  honey.  Tlie  interior 
has  provi.sion  for  ventilation  by  gauze-lined  tubes, 
and  the  portions  communicate  by  ducts,  or  by 
holes  in  the  partitions.  Provision  is  made  for  part- 
ing off  certain  portions  which  are  removable  with 
their  tenants  and  provisions  to  form  a  nucleus  for 
another  cluster  of  families.  The  intention  of  the 
bee-palace  arrangement  has  been  to  give  the  bees 
the  advantage  of  combined  ettbrt  and  at  the  same 
time  prevent  natural  swarming  by  making  colonies 
removable.  Experience  indicates  that  they  run 
well  for  a  season  and  then  dwindle,  becoming  a  prey 
to  their  natural  enemies,  among  which  the  most 
fatal  is  the  bee  moth.  Individual  families  are  com- 
paratively .short-lived,  and  modern  apiarists  have  ob- 
tained such  a  connnand  over  the  fraternity,  that  the 
families  may  be  divided  at  pleasure,  with  a  frequen- 
cy and  success  dependent  upon  the  resources  of  the 
bees  for  food  and  the  salubrity  of  the  season,  always 
bearing  in  mind  the  tribal  economy  of  the  bees, 
which  requires  the  presence  of  a  queen. 

In  some  parts  of  the  world  the  apiary  consists  of 
a  collection  which  are  formed  into  a  village  with 
avenues.  They  are  sheltered  in  winter-quarters,  and 
on  the  approach  of  spring  are  carried  out  to  favor- 
able localities,  where  they  work  during  the  honey- 
making  season.  This  is  especially  the  case  on  some 
]>arts  of  the  continent  of  Europe,  whcie  bee-keeping 
is  systematized  and  followed  as  a  regular  branch  of 
industry,  the  aim  being  to  glean  the  favorable  terri- 
tory of  aU  the  bee-supporting  nutriment. 

Fig.  274. 


n 


r 


□tfn 


n 


n 


Apiary. 


APIARY. 


123 


APIARY. 


The  devices  in  apiaries,  not  considering  those  be- 
longing to  hives,  which  are  considered  separately 
(see  Bkehive),  are  for  ventilation,  protection  against 
storms  and  depredators,  and  for  housing  during 
winter. 

In  the  compound  hive  (Fig.  274)  the  apartments 
are  associated  side  by  side  in  an  outer  case,  and  com- 
municate with  each  other  laterally,  and  each  with  its 
removable  honey-bo-x  above.  This  is  an  illustration 
of  the  lateral  arrangement  ;  others  are  associated 
vertically. 

In  Fig.  275  is  shown  another  form  of  apiary 
whose  "pigeon-holes"  are  occupied  by  drawers 
which   are   interchangeable   and   made   to   conimu- 


L 

Fig 

275. 

' 

c 
c 

B 

m 

H 

] 

B 

m 

a 

m 

m 

m 

m 

' 

/■ 

— »■     -  ,» 

5^-- 

Apiary. 

nicate  as  required.  Doors  inclose  the  front,  and 
the  whole  is  mounted  on  a  pillar  to  raise  it  out  of 
the  way  of  mice,  etc.  VentUatiug  arrangements 
are  made  in  the  interior,  the  ramifications  extending 
to  the  pockets  which  contain  the  drawers  fomiing 
the  apartments.  An  ornamental  character  is  given 
to  the  whole  to  make  it  an  agreeable  object  in  a 
bower  or  on  a  gi-ass  plat. 

Another   bee-palace   has   a  frame   on   which  the 

Fig.  276. 


hives  are  supported,  shelves  for  honey-boxes,  doors 
for  examination  or  change,  and  an  enclosing  shed 
above  for  protection  from  heat  and  wet.  The  lower 
part  of  the  case  has  inclined  sides  and  a  falling  door 
at  bottom  for  the  discharge  of  oH'al. 

In  Fig.  277  the  moths  ami  grubs  falling  from  the 
hives  are  directed,  by  the  inclined  sides  of  the  lower 
portion,  into   the    trap   beneath.     The   trap  has  a 

Fig.  277. 


Bet-Palace, 

funnel-shaped  conductor,  a  perforated  diaphragm, 
and  a  detachable  bottom  by  which  the  insects  and 
otfal  are  removed.  Additional  apartments  for  the 
e.xtension  of  room  are  added  above  and  on  the  sides, 
and  admittance  to  them  is  afforded  as  required  by 
withdrawing  the  slides  wliich  command  the  ducts  of 
communication. 

Fig.  278  shows  a  hive  w'hich  has  a  sunken  hatch- 
Fig.  278. 


Apiary. 


APLANATIC  LENS. 


124 


APPLE-PARER. 


way  in  the  center,  extending  into  a  pit  so  as  to 
tring  the  floor  of  the  hive  about  on  a  level  with  the 
surface  of  the  ground.  Tlie  walls  and  ceiling  are 
double,  and  have  a  layer  of  non-conducting  material. 
A  central  chinniey  removes  the  vitiated  air,  and  reg- 
isters determine  the  admission  of  air  to  each  hive  in 
the  group.  It  is  supported  by  posts  which  rest  in 
cups  of  water  to  prevent  access  of  ants  and  mice. 
The  devices  have  particular  reference  to  means  for 
maintaining  an  even  temperature  ;  the  double  sides 
and  non-conducting  material  obstructing  the  pas- 
sage of  heat  outward  in  winter,  and  also  moderating 
the  elt'ect  upon  the  bees  of  the  summer  heat  strik- 
ing upon  the  sides  of  the  hive.  The  equality  of  the 
temperature  is  also  conserved  by  the  nearness  of 
the  ground,  while  provision  is  made  for  removing 
effluvia  or  coiTupt  air  which  might  accumulate  in  the 
pit. 

Ap'la-nat'ic  Lens.  A  lens  constructed  of  dif- 
ferent media  so  as  to  correct  the  unequal  refrangibil- 
ity  of  the  ditl'erent  rays. 

The  object  to  be  attained  is  that  rays  parallel  to 
the  axis  of  the  lens  or  diverging  from  a  point  on  its 
axis,  after  passing  through  it  and  suttering  refrac- 
tion at  its  surface,  shall  converge  to  a  single  point, 
the  true  focus.     See  Aohro.matic  Lens. 

A-pol-lon'i-con.  A  large  chamber-organ  played 
by  key-boartls  or  by  barrels,  and  exliibited  in  Lon- 
don some  years  since.  It  was  constructed  by  Flight 
and  Robinson  in  1817.  It  had  1,900  pipes,  45  stops, 
5  key-boards  and  2  barrels.  The  number  of  keys 
acted  upon  by  the  cylinders  was  250. 

Ap'o-me-com'e-ter.  An  instrumentfor  measur- 
ing bights,  invented  by  a  Mr.  R.  Millar,  and  manu- 
factured in  London. 

The  apomeeometer  is  constructed  in  accordance 
with  the  pi'inciples  which  govern  the  sextant,  viz.  : 
As  the  angles  of  incidence  and  reflection  are  al- 
ways equal,  the  rays  of  an  object  being  thrown  on 
the  plane  of  one  mirror  are  from  that  reflected  to  the 
plane  of  another  mirror,  thereby  making  both  ex- 
tremes of  the  vertical  hight  coincide  exactly  at  the 
same  jioint  on  the  horizon  glass,  so  that  by  meas- 
uring the  base-line  we  obtain  a  result  equal  to  the 
altitude. 

The  eye  of  the  observer  when  in  position  will  be 
at  the  lower  end  of  the  hypotenuse,  and  the  summit 
of  the  object  at  the  other.  Keeping  the  line  of  vis- 
ion, which  forms  the  base,  exactly  horizontal,  the 
observer  approaches  the  object  till  the  images  coin- 
cide, when  the  base  will  agree  in  length  with  the 
]ierpenilicular,  and  the  measured  length  of  the  for- 
mer will  give  the  hight  df  the  latter. 

A-poph'y-ges.    A  molding  of  a  rounded  concave 

form.       See  iMoLDINO. 

A-pOB'tle.  (Naidical.)  A  knight-head  or  bol- 
lard-timber where  hawsers  and  heavy  ropes  are 
belayed. 

A-pos'tro-phe.  An  elevated  comma-shaped  point 
('),  to  indicate  an  abbreviation,  as  "don't"  for  "do 
not"  ;  to  mark  the  plural  of  figures  or  letters  used 
as  words,  as  "  two  20's,"  "  the  font  lacks  A's"  ;  or 
to  mark  the  possessive,  as  "  lago's  trick." 

Appa-ra'tus.  1.  A  set  of  tools  or  implements 
for  a  given  duty,  experimental  or  operative. 

2.  A  complex  instrument  or  appliance,  mechan- 
ical or  chemical,  for  a  specific  action  or  opera- 
tion. 

3.  {Nautical.)  A  ship's  war  equipage  and  am- 
munition. 

Ap-par'eL    1.  Body  clothing. 
2.     (Niiulical.)      Tlie   masts,    rigging,   sails,  and 
other  gear  of  a  vessel. 
Ap-pend'a-ges.  (Shipbuilding.)  Relatively  small 


portions  of  a  vessel  projecting  beyond  the  general 
shape,  as  shown  by  the  cross-sections  and  water-sec- 
tions.    These  parts  usually  consist  of,  — 

The  keel  below  its  rabbet. 

Part  of  the  stem  and  stern-post. 

The  rudder,  rudder-post,  and  screw  (if  any). 

These  volumes  are  calculated  separately  and  added 
to  the  main  part  of  the  displacement. 

Ap'ple-cor'er.  Many  of  the  apple-parers  have 
attaclinieuts  lor  dividing  the  fruit  into  quarters,  or 
still  more  minutely  ;  in  some  cases  the  apple  is 
pushed  from  its  impaling  fork  against  a  cutting-tube 
with  radial  knives,  the  tube  receiving  the  core  and 
the  knives  making  the  division.  A  device  for  cor- 
ing, slicing,  and  stringing  fruit  is  shown  in  Fig. 
279.  The  fruit  is  placed  above  the  coring-tube  and 
its   radial   knives,   and   is  pressed  down  upon   the 


Fig.  279. 


Fig.  280. 


Apple-  Corer. 

same  hy  a  plunger  whose  central  part  projects  suffi- 
ciently to  drive  the  core  into  the  tube.  The  quar- 
ters are  pressed  upon  sharp  plates  which  enter  the 
fruit  a  short  distance,  and  are  the  means  of  introdu- 
cing strings  which  depend  from  the  said  plates  ;  the 
successive  pieces  push  their  pred- 
ecessors ott'  the  plates,  and  the 
pieces  are  thus  strung  and  sus- 
pended until  a  sutficient  quan- 
tity is  gathered.  The  strings  are 
then  removed  and  empty  ones 
attached. 

Fig.  280  is  an  example  of  an 
implement  consisting  of  a  tube 
or  circular  cutter  of  sheet  metal, 
slightly  tapering  from  the  cut- 
ting edge,  and  with  four  or  more 
radial  cutters  projecting  from 
its  circumference.  The  central 
plunger  serves  as  a  guide  in  ap- 
jdying  the  implement,  and  is 
afterwards  the  means  of  ejecting 
the  core.' 

Ap'ple-par'er.  This  is  an 
ingenious  American  device,  and 
created  mingled  emotions  of  ad- 
mii'ation  and  amused  surprise 
when  it  was  introduced  into  Eng- 
land ;  thedateisnotremembered, 
but  it  was  referred  to  as  a  novelty  i 
about  1840.  There  are  now  over 
eighty  jiatents,  which  appear  to 


Ij 

1 

^ 


Apple    Carer  and 
Quatterer. 


APPLE-PARER. 


125 


APPOINTMENTS. 


agree  in  one  respect,  that  is,  the  rotation  of  the  fruit 
on  the  end  of  a  fork.  The  operation  requires  two 
motions,  which  vary  in  tlie  ditiereut  machines. 

1.  The  cutter  describes  a  semicircle  in  the  plane 
of  the  a.xis  of  the  fork  while  the  fruit  is  rotating,  so 
that  it  may  remove  a  paring  from  the  stem  to  the 
blossom  end,  following  the  rotundity 

of  the  fruit. 

2.  An  oscillatory  motion  is  given 
to  the  fork,  whose  stock  describes 
an  arc  in  the  plane  of  its  length, 
presenting  the  rounded  surface  of 
the  rotating  apple  to  the  knife,  which 
cuts  a  continuous  paring  from  the 
fniit,  from  the  stem  to  the  blossom 
end. 

The  first  patents  recorded  are  those 
of  CoATES,  1803,  and  Cruttenden, 
1809  ;  Gate.s  added  the  quartering 
in  1810.  The  Patent-Office  records 
perished  in  the  tire  of  1836.  We 
find  that  in  Mitchel'.s  patent,  April 
13,  1838,  the  first  granted  after  the 
fire,  that  the  knife  was  operated  by 
hand  while  the  fi'uit  was  impaled 
upon  a  fork  which  was  rotated  by 
gearing.  The  pared  apple  was  then  pushed  through 
an  opening  with  a  cruciform  knife  arrangement,  by 
which  it  was  quartered. 

Fig.  281. 


by  gear  connection  with  the  hand-crank  shaft.  The 
knife  returns  automatically  to  the  place  of  com- 
mencement after  making  its  efleetive  sweep. 

In  Fig,  283  the  rotation  of  the  fork  is  obtained 
by  one  motion  of  the  hand  in  an  arc  of  a  circle,  the 
smaller  cog-wheel  on  the  main   shaft  gearing  into 


Apple-Parer. 

In  Fig,  281,  date  of  1857,  the  threaded  shaft  draws 
the  slide,  bringing  the  paring-knife  against  the  sur- 
face of  the  apple  which  is  impaled  on  the  fork. 
The  knife-stock  is  so  pivoted  on  its  shaft  as  to  jire- 
sent  the  blade  to  the  app'e  while  following  its  con- 
ve.xity  to  some  e.vtent.  The  work  is  not  so  thor- 
oughly done  on  the  ends  as  by  later  inventions  in 
which  a  positive  semicircular  sweep  is  given  to  the 
fruit  or  knife.  The  slicing-knife,  which  follows  the 
parer,  cuts  the  apple  into  a  spiral,  leaving  a  cylin- 
drical core-piece  attached  to  the  fork.  In  a  later  ma- 
chine, cams  on  the  main  and  an  intermediate  wheel 

combine  to  oscillate 


Fig,  282. 


AppJe-Parer. 


a  rack,  which  sweeps 
the  paring-knife  al- 
ternately from  the 
stem  to  the  caly.x  of 
one  apple,  and  in  a 
contrary  direction 
on  the  next.  The 
device  is  attached  by 
a  clamp  to  the  table. 
In  Fiff.  282,  the 
apple  is  impaled  on 
the  revolving  fork, 
and  the  knife  is  made 
to  sweep  around  au- 
tomatically, as  its 
platform  is  revolved 


Apple-Parer. 

the  curved  rack  and  moving  the  larger  cog-wheel 
which  runs  the  pinion  on  the  fork-shaft.  The  par- 
ing-knife and  its  stock  have  no  motion  on  each  other, 
but  have  such  a  progressive  and  rotary 
movement,  that,  as  the  apple  is  revolved,  the 
knife  will  pass  from  the  stem  to  the  blos- 
som end  of  the  apple,  and  adapt  itself  to  the 
varying  form  and  inequalities  of  the  fruit 
being  pared.  The  knife  is  automatically 
moved  away  from  the  fruit  after  the  efi'ective 
sweep,  and  resumes  its  operative  position 
when  returned  to  the  starting-point. 

Ap'ple-quar'ter-er.  An  implement  for 
dividing  apples  into  ijuarters. 

A  wooden  plunger  is  pressed  down  upon 
the  apple  placed  on  a  central  point,  and 
forces  it  between  the  four  knives.  In 
another  form  it  is  a  coring-tube  with  four 
radial  wings. 

Fig.  284.        , 


Apple-  Qitarterer. 


Ap'pli-ca-tor.  A  surgical  instniment,  of  form 
and  proportions  adapted  to  its  specific  uses,  for  ap- 
plying caustic,  a  tent,  or  other  application  to  a  deep- 
seated  part. 

Ap-point'ments.  1.  (Personal.)  Accoutei-ments 
other  than  arms  and  ammunition. 

2.  (Naval. )  The  furnishing  or  equipment  of  a 
ship. 


APPROACH. 


126 


AQUARIUM. 


Approach'.  In  a  military  sense,  either  a  route 
by  wliicli  a  fort,  fortified  town,  or  otlier  military 
position,  may  be  approached  for  the  purpose  of 
attack  ;  or  the  trench  or  protected  road  constructed 
by  the  besiegers  for  conveying  ordnance,  ammuni- 
tion, and  stores,  or  for  marching  bodies  of  men  to  or 
from  the  parallels  ;  in  the  latter  case  approaches 
may  be  either  excavations,  with  the  earth  there- 
from thrown  up  as  an  embankment  on  the  side  ex- 
posed to  the  enemy's  shot,  or  they  may  be  formed  of 
sand-bags,  gabions,  fascines,  or  anything,  in  short, 
which  will  stop  a  cannon-ball.  The  works  of  tlds 
kind  constructed  during  the  siege  of  Sebastopol  in 
185-i  and  1855  are  probably  without  a  parallel  in 
nioil(?rn  history,  if  indeed  tliey  were  ever  equalled  in 
the  history  of  sieges.  They  embraced  seventy  miles 
of  sunken  tienches,  and  no  less  than  sixty  thousand 
fascines,  eighty  tho\isand  gabions,  and  one  nullion 
sand-bags  were  employed  to  protect  the  men  working 
in  the  trenches  and  at  the  different  batteries. 

A'pron.  1.  A  board  or  leather  which  conducts 
material  over  an  opening  ;  as,  the  grain  in  a  separa- 
tor, the  ore  in  a  huddle  or  frame^  etc. 

2.  The  sill  of  a  window  or  a  dock  entrance. 

3.  The  floor  of  a  tail-bay.     See  C.iNAi,  Lock. 

4.  A  leaden  plate  over  the  vent  of  a  gun. 

5.  A  leathern  covering  for  the  legs  of  the  person 
occupying  the  driving-seat  of  a  vehicde. 

6.  The  piece  that  holds  the  cutting  tool  of  a 
planer. 

7.  (Plumbing.)  A  strip  of  lead  which  leads  the 
drip  of  a  wall  into  a  gutter  ;  a  flashing.  See  Gut- 
ter. 

8.  (Shipbuilding.)  A  timber  within  the  stem  of  a 
ves.sel  in  prolongation  of  theffccc/wood.  It  .strength- 
ens the  stem,  and  attords  wood  for  the  reception  of 
the  plank  of  the  bottom  and  the  heels  of  the  fore- 
most timbers.     See  Stem. 

A'pron-piece.  (Carpentry.)  A  horizontal  piece 
su)ipurting  the  upper  ends  of  the  mrriagc-picccs  or 
rough-strings  of  a  wooden  staircase. 

A  pitching-piece.  The  carriage  which  supports 
the  steps  is  pitched  or  slanted  against  it. 

Apse,  Ap'sis.  (Architecture.)  a.  The  arched 
roof  of  a  house,  room,  or  oven. 

b.  The  domed  semicircular  or  polygonal  termi- 
nation of  the  choir  or  aisles  of  a  church,  where  the 
altar  was  placed  and  where  the  clergy  sat,  in  Gothic 
constnictions. 

A-qua'ri-um.  A  vessel  containing  salt  or  fresh 
water  in  which  living  specimens  of  aquatic  animals 
am!  plants  are  maintained  ;  sometimes  called  viva- 
rium or  aqua  vivarium.  From  the  earliest  times 
animals  living  in  water  have  been  kept  alive  in 
small  vessels  for  exhibition  or  transportation  by  fre- 
quently changing  the  water,  yet  it  is  only  since  the 
rise  of  modern  chemistry  and  physiology  that  the  true 
principles  of  the  aquarium  have  been  discovered. 

As  the  air  contained  in  the  water  is  breathed  by 
the  animals  and  loses  its  vitality,  the  resulting 
gaseous  product  becomes  deleterious  and  must  be 
removed  ;  this  is  the  office  of  the  plants  in  the 
modern  aquarium  ;  these  restore  the  oxygen  and 
abstract  the  excess  of  carbonic-acid  gas,  their  func- 
tion in  the  subaqueous  vegetation  being  similar  to 
that  performed  by  the  ordinary  terrestrial  flora. 

But,  besides  the  animals  and  plants  properly  pro- 
portioned to  each  otlier  to  maintain  the  uniform 
composition  of  the  air  in  the  water,  it  has  been  found 
necessary  to  add  certain  animals  which  feed  on  de- 
composing vegetable  matter  and  act  as  the  scaven- 
gers in  this  community  ;  such  are  the  various  species 
of  molluscous  animals,  as  the  snails,  etc.  It  is  of 
importance  to  guard  against  the   preponderance  of 


animal  life,  for  an  excess  of  animals  over  plants  in  a 
given  space  will  disturb  the  balance  and  lead  to  their 
destruction.  The  demonstration  of  these  conditions 
is  due  to  R.  Wariington,  1850.  In  some  cases  wheie 
the  supiily  is  continuous,  the  fresh  water  maintains  a 
healthy  condition  ;  and  the  same  effect  has  been  at- 
tained by  a  succession  of  bubbles  of  air  introduced 
into  and  ascending  through  the  water  to  maintain 
tlie  natural  ecpiilibrium  destroyed  by  the  animals 
breathing  therein.  Agitation  of  the  water  produces 
the  same  re-srUts  more  or  less  perfectly,  V)ut  tlu'  etl'ect 
is  not  so  pleasing  unless  it  be  introduced  with  scenic 
devices  or  machines,  such  as  paddles,  wdieels,  mills, 
or  moving  automatons  which  require  a  supply  of 
water  to  make  them  constant. 

In  1849  N.   B.  Ward  giew  sea-weed  in  artifiii.-il 
sea-water.    A  great  aquarium,  one  hundred  and  fifty 

Fig.  285. 


Aquarium. 

feet  long  and  thirty -six  feet  wide,  was  constructed  in 
1860  in  the  Jardin  d'Acclimation  in  Paris  by  Alfurd 
Lloyd  of  London.  The  same  gentleman  erected  a 
magnificent  aquarium  in  Hamburg. 

Fig.  286  shows  an  arrangement  for  the  introduc- 
tion of  air  for  the  revivification  of  the  water.  It  is 
an  air-forcing  apparatus  consisting  of  an  inverted 
weighted  vessel  whose  edges  are  submerged  in  the 

Fig.  286. 


Cutting^s  Aquarium. 

wnter  of  the  reservoir,  and  which  connects  by  a  flex- 
ilile  ])ipe  with  the  interior  of  the  tank.  As  the  in- 
verted weighted   air-holder   descends   gradually,    it 


AQUATIC  BOX. 


127 


AQUEDUCT. 


forces  air  through  the  flexible  pipe  into  the  aijua- 
rium. 

The  aquarium  of  the  Paris  Exposition  was  a  re- 
markable success,  and  has  given  rise  to  much  more 
ambitious  structures.  The  aquarium  of  Brighton, 
Eugland,  for  instance,  occupies  ground  715  feet  in 
length,  with  an  average  width  of  a  hundred  feet. 
The  aquarium  proper  is  divided  into  three  corri- 
dors. The  first  is  divided  again  into  nineteen  bays, 
which  are  roofed  over  with  bricks,  groined  vaulting 
of  red  and  black  alternating  with  red  and  bull'.  The 
arches,  ribs,  and  bosses  are  of  Bath  stone.  The  ex- 
treme length  of  the  corridor  is  broken  most  efiec- 
tively  by  a  central  square  55  by  45  feet,  the  groined 
vaulting  forming  a  sort  of  cloister  around  the  square, 
while  the  central  portion  is  covered  with  an  elabo- 
rate ornamental  iron  roof,  partly  glazed  with  antique 
colored  glass.  The  tanks  are  arranged  on  either 
side,  twenty-eight  in  number,  averaging  in  size  from 
11  X  20  feet  to  55  x  30  feet.  The  wliole  front  work 
of  the  tanks  is  of  Portland  stone,  ornamented 
with  appropriate  devices  of  tish,  shells,  marine  mon- 
sters, and  aquatic  sj-mbols.  Tliese  fronts  are  in- 
closed Ijy  plate  glass  of  great  thickness,  secured  to 
the  stonework  by  waterproof  cement.  The  area  of 
water  surface  visible  in  the  rear  of  the  glass  is  9  feet 
wide  by  5  feet  deep.  The  light  of  the  corridors  is 
only  transmitted  through  the  water,  thus  affording 
to  the  visitor  the  sensation  of  being  under  water 
without  the  inconvenience  of  a  wetting.  At  the 
eastern  extremity  of  this  corridor,  whieli  is  220  feet 
in  length,  the  visitor  finds  before  him  the  entrance 
to  a  fine  conservatory.  Tliis  entrance  is  at  the  junc- 
tion of  the  first  and  second  corridors  ;  the  latter, 
running  north  and  south,  forms  right  angles  with 
the  first  corridor.  The  conservatory  is  160  feet 
long  by  40  feet  wide  and  30  feet  high.  The  orna- 
mentation of  this  apartment  is  in  keeping  with  that 
of  the  other  parts  of  the  building.  It  is  chielly  in- 
tended for  a  sort  of  subterranean  promenade,  and  is 
ornamented  with  plants,  ferns,  small  aquaria,  etc. 
Corridor  No.  3,  which  is  approached  from  No.  2,  is 
of  the  same  length  as  the  conservatory,  contains 
twenty  tanks,  some  for  fresh-water,  others  for  salt- 
water fishes.  At  the  end  of  this  corridor  are  the 
engines  and  the  store  tanks,  boiler,  retiring  and 
naturalists'  rooms,  and  another  flight  of  steps  lead- 
ing to  the  terrace. 

The  water  for  the  tanks  is  supplied,  by  means  of 
pumps,  from  reservoirs  beneath  the  floor  of  the 
building  ;  and  by  an  arrangemen„  of  pipes  and 
pumping  the  water  is  kept  constantly  in  motion 
throughout  the  aquarium. 

The  whole  cost  about  §  250,000. 

A-quat'ic  Box.  An  accessory  to  the  microscope 
in  the  form  of  a  shallow  glass  cell  in  which  algte  or 
aniniiilculffi  are  placed  for  observation. 

A'qua-tint  A  peculiar  style  of  engraving  on 
metal  said  to  have  been  invented  by  St.  Non,  a 
French  artist,  about  1662.  Othenvise  stated  to 
have  been  invented  by  Le  Prince,  Metz,  1723. 
The  process,  briefly  described,  is  as  follows :  A  sur- 
face of  resin  is  sju'ead  upon  a  polished  plate  in  such 
a  manner  as  to  leave  innumerable  little  interstices 
between  the  resinous  particles.  This  surface  cov- 
ering is  called  a  ground,  and  may  be  made  in  two 
ways,  —  the  dry  process  and  the  solution  process. 

the  dry  process  is  performed  by  dusting  over  the 
very  slightly  gi-eased  surface  of  the  jdate  a  shower 
of  tinely  powdered  resin.  The  surplus  ha\'ing  been 
removed  by  tapping  the  plate,  which  is  held  in  a  re- 
versed position,  the  particles  are  caused  to  adhere 
to  the  plate  by  warming  the  latter  over  a  lamp,  or, 
what  is  much  better,  the  moderate  diffused  heat  of  a 


piece  of  burning  paper.  In  the  interstices  between 
the  particles  of  resin  the  plate  is  exposed  to  the  ac- 
tion of  acid,  of  which  presently. 

The  solution  process  consists  in  dissolving  the 
resin  in  alcohol  and  Hooding  the  plate  with  it,  allow- 
ing the  liquid  to  run  off  ;  a  film  adheres  to  the  plate 
and  cracks  in  drying,  leaving  innumerable  fine  fis- 
sures where  the  plate  is  exposed. 

The  design  is  now  placed  on  the  "ground,"  or  it 
may  have  been  previously  etched  in  ;  the  latter  is  now 
preferred.  A  wall  of  wax  being  erected  around  the 
design,  it  is  flooded  with  dilute  acid,  as  explained 
under  Etching  (which  see).  For  copper  plate, 
dilute  nitrous  acid  is  used  (acid,  1  ;  water,  5).  For 
steel,  dilute  nitric  and  pyroligneous  acid  is  used 
(nitric  acid,  1  ;  pyroligneous  acid,  1  ;  water,  6).  As 
soon  as  the  lighter  tints  are  sufiiciently  bit  in,  the 
acid  is  removed  and  the  plate  washed  and  dried. 
The  light  portions  being  stopped  out,  that  is,  covered 
with  Brunswick  black  to  protect  them  from  farther 
action  of  the  acid,  the  latter  is  again  applied  for 
the  second  tint,  and  so  on.  The  delicate  gradations 
are  obtained  hy  Jioodiny  anA  feathering,  which  are 
nice  teclmical  operations,  requiring  skill  only  at- 
tained b}'  practice,  and  for  a  description  of  which 
we  cannot  spare  room.  This  is  a  cheap  and  effec- 
tive mode  of  engi'aving,  and  is  not  estimated  at  its 
proper  value.  The  effect  produced  is  like  a  di'awing 
in  India  ink. 

For  different  grounds  the  resin  is  more  or  less 
diluted ;  thegreaterthe  dilution  the  finer  the  gi-ound, 
that  is,  the  more  delicate  and  numerous  are  the  in- 
terstices in  which  the  acid  acts.  A  different  ground 
is  also  obtained  by  a  change  of  ingredients.  Ber- 
gundy  pitch,  mastic,  frankim^ense,  and  other  resins, 
give  various  patterns  of  grounds,  so  to  speak. 

Aq'ue-duct.  A  conduit  for  the  conveyance  of 
water.  Jlore  jiarticularly  applied  to  those  of  con- 
siderable magnitude  intended  to  supply  cities  and 
towns  with  water  derived  from  a  distance  for  do- 
mestic purposes,  or  for  conveying  the  water  of  canals 
across  rivers  or  valleys.  Pocock  describes  one 
erected  by  Solomon  for  conveying  water  from  the 
vicinity  of  Bethlehem  to  Jerusalem.  Tliis  was 
formed  by  earthen  pipes  about  ten  inches  in  diame- 
ter, encased  with  stone  and  sunk  into  the  ground, 
and  would  seem  to  have  confomied  to  its  inequalities, 
indicating  a  more  advanced  state  of  hydraulic  engi- 
neering in  Solomon's  time  than  is  commonly  sup- 
posed to  have  been  possessed  by  the  earlier  Romans, 
who  were  justly  famed  for  their  works  of  this  kind, 
which  have  never  been  surpassed  in  strength  and 
beauty. 

The  earliest  account  of  any  aqueduct  for  convey- 
ing water  is  probably  that  whicli  is  given  by  Herodo- 
tus (who  was  born  484  B.  c. ).  He  describes  the 
mode  in  which  an  ancient  aqueduct  was  made  by 
Eupalinus,  an  architect  of  Megara,  to  sujiply  the 
city  of  Samos  with  water.  In  the  course  of  the 
aqueduct  a  tunnel,  nearly  a  mile  in  length,  was 
pierced  through  a  hill,  and  a  channel  three  feet  wide 
made  to  convey  the  water. 

The  first  of  the  Roman  aqueducts  (Aqua  Ajjpia) 
was  built,  according  to  Uiodorus,  by  Ajipius  Clau- 
dius, in  tlie  year  of  the  city  441,  or  312  B.  c.  The 
water  which  it  supplied  was  collected  from  the 
neighborhood  of  Frascati,  eleven  miles  from  Rome, 
ami  its  summit  was  about  one  hundred  feet  above 
the  level  of  the  city. 

The  second  (Anio  Vetus)  was  begim  forty  years  after 
the  last-named,  by  M.  Curius  Dentatus,  and  fin- 
ished by  Fulvius  Flaccus  :  it  was  sup])lied  from  the 
country  beyond  Tivoli,  forty-three  miles  distant. 
Near  Vicovaro  it  is  cut  tluough  a  rock  upwards  of  a 


AQUEDUCT. 


128 


AQUEDUCT. 


mile  in  length,  in  which  part  it  is  five  feet  high 
and  four  feet  wide.  Tlie  water  of  tliis  ai)ueduct 
wa.s  not  good,  and  therefore  only  used  for  the  most 
ordinary  ])urposes. 

The  third  (Aqua  Martia)  wa.s  supplied  from  a 
fountain  at  the  e.vtreniity  of  the  mountains  of  the 
Peligni.  The  water  entered  the  eity  by  the  Es- 
quiline  Gate.  Tliis  acjueduct  was  the  work  of  Qiiin- 
tns  Martins,  and  had  nearly  seven  thousand  arches 
in  a  course  of  thirty-nine  nules. 

Tlie  fourth  (Aqua  Tepula)  was  supplied  from  the 
vicinity  of  Frascati. 

The  tilth  (Aqua  Julia)  was  about  six  miles  long, 
and  entered  the  city  near  the  Porta  Esquilina. 

The  si.\th  (Aqua  Virginis)  was  constructed  by 
Agri|)pa  thirteen  years  alter  the  Julia.  Its  summit, 
in  the  territory  of  Tusculum,  was  about  eight  miles 
from  Rome,  which  it  entered  by  the  Pineian  Gate. 
This  water  still  bears  its  ancient  appellation,  being 
called  Acqna  Vergiue. 

The  seventh  (Aqua  Alsietina,  called  also  Augusta, 
from  the  use  to  which  Augustus  intended  to  apply 
it  for  supplying  his  Nauraachia)  was  brought  from 
the  lake  whose  name  it  bears. 

The  eighth  (Aijua  Claudia),  begun  by  Caligula 
and  completed  by  Claudius,  is  about  forty  miles  in 
length.  It  enters  the  eity  at  the  Porta  Nevia,  near 
the  Esquiline  Mount.  Tlie  quality  of  the  water 
which  this  aijueduct  supplies  is  better  than  that  of 
any  of  the  others.  It  was  built  of  hewn  stone  and 
supported  on  arcades  during  seven  miles  of  its 
length.  After  a  lapse  of  eighteen  hundred  years  it 
still  continues  to  furnish  Modern  Rome  with  pure 
and  wholesome  water. 

The  ninth  (Anio  Novus,  to  distinguish  it  from  the 
second-named  water)  was  begun  and  finished  by  the 
same  persons  as  the  last-mentioned.  It  is  the  water 
of  the  Anio,  which,  being  exceedingly  thick  and 
muddy  after  the  rains,  is  conveyed  into  a  large  reser- 
voir at  some  little  distance  from  Rome,  to  allow  the 
mud  to  subside. 

The  .\equa  Felice  Is  modern,  and  was  erected  by 
Sixtus  V.  in  1581. 

The  Popes  have,  from  time  to  time,  been  at  con- 
siderable pains  and  expense  in  repairing  and  renew- 
ing the  acpieducts  ;  but  the  quantity  of  water  de- 
livered is  constantly  diminishing.  In  the  ancient 
eity  the  sum-total  of  the  areas  of  the  dilferent  pipes 
(which  were  about  an  inch  in  diameter)  through 
which  the  above  iininense  c|uantity  of  water  was  de- 
livered, amounted  to  about  14, 900  superficial  inches  ; 
but  the  supply  was  subsequently  reduced  to  1170. 

The  waters  were  collected  in  reservoirs  called 
castella,  and  thence  were  conveyed  through  the 
city  in  leaden  ])ipes.  The  keepers  of  the  reservoirs 
were  called  castcllani.  Agri]ipa  alone  built  thirty 
of  these  reservoirs  during  his  asdileship.  There  are 
five  modern  ones  now  standing  in  the  city  :  one  at 
the  Porta  Maggiore,  Castello  dell'  Acqua  Giulia, 
dell'  Acqua  Felice,  dell'  Acqua  Paolina,  and  that 
called  the  Fountain  of  Trevi. 

The  aim  of  the  Roman  aqueduct-builders  was  to 
conduct  the  water  along  with  an  equal  fall  during 
the  whole  <listance  from  its  source  to  the  point  of 
delivery  ;  and  for  this  purpose,  instead  of  allowing 
the  conduits  to  follow  the  natural  slope  of  the 
ground,  they  almost  always  erected  long  and  mas- 
sive stone  arcailes  wherever  it  was  necessarj'  to  cross 
a  valley,  instead  of  availing  themselves  of  the  well- 
known  property  of  water  to  find  its  level.  This  was 
perhaps  necessary  in  the  then  state  of  the  meehauic 
arts,  the  art  of  casting  iron  pipes  of  large  size  being 
unknown. 

It  has  been  calculated  that  the  nine  earlier  aque- 


ducts of  Rome  had  a  total  length  of  more  than  249 
miles,  and  the  supply  of  water  to  Ancient  Rome  was 
computed  by  Professor  Leslie,  on  the  authority  of 
Sextus  Julius  Frontinus,  who  was  inspector  of  the 
aqueducts  under  the  Emperor  Nerva,  and  who  has 
left  a  valuable  treatise  on  the  subject,  at  fifty  niil- 
Uon  cubic  feet  per  day  for  a  population  of  one  mil- 
lion souls.  This  gives  the  immense  average  per 
head  of  fifty  cubic  feet,  or  three  hundred  and  twelve 
gallons,  per  diem,  — a  eon.suniption  quite  unequalled 
in  modern  times,  except  in  the  city  of  New  York, 
where  it  is  said  to  have  formerly  amounted  nearly 
to  this  quantity. 

The  aqueducts  of  Metz,  Nismes,  and  Segovia  are 
also  striking  examples  of  the  attention  paid  by  the 
Romans  to  the  subject  of  supplying  water  to  their 
towns  and  cities. 

It  does  not  appear  that  the  ancients  were  by  any 
means  ignorant  of  the  applicability  of  pipes  for  con- 
ducting water,  and  it  is  difficult  to  conceive  how  it 
could  have  been  distributed  to  the  baths  and  foun- 
tains of  Home  without  their  aid.  Their  system  a]i- 
pears  to  have  been  the  result  of  calculation  and 
ilesign,  and  it  is  notable  that  in  the  greatest  work^  of 
the  kind  of  modern  times,  such  as  the  aqueduct  of 
Marseilles  and  the  Croton  Aqueduct,  their  leading 
principles  have  been  carried  out,  and  the  use  of  jiipes 
follo\\"ing  the  elevations  and  depressions  of  the  hills 
and  valleys  has  been  in  a  gi-eat  degi-ee  (lis]ieii.sed 
with,  where  the  water  had  to  be  conveyed  along  a 
course  of  <'onsiderable  length,  —  though,  in  general, 
without  resorting  to  such  an  extensive,  or  indeed  ex- 
cessive, use  of  long  and  exjiensive  arcades  as  the 
Romans  enqiloyed. 

The  advantages  of  this  system  seem  to  be,  more 
perfect  freedom  from  deposition  of  mineral  substan- 
ces in  .solution  in  the  channel  way,  owing  to  the 
more  uniform  and  regular  flow  of  water  which  <'an 
be  obtained  ;  facility  of  constructing  traps  or  wells 
along  the  route  for  the  deposition  of  sediment  ; 
greater  security  from  interniption  and  opportunity 
for  rejiair  in  case  of  accident. 

The  aciueduct  of  Xisnies,  or  the  Pont  du  Gard,  in 
France,  is  one  of  the  earliest  constructed  liy  the 
Romans  out  of  Italy,  and  is  supposed  to  have 
been  built  in  the  time  of  Augustus  ;  it  was  intended 
for  carrying  the  waters  of  the  Eure  and  Airaii  from 
the  vicinity  of  their  sources  to  the  town  of  Xisnies. 

The  eommencement  of  this  aqueduct  was  con- 
ducted along  the  .sinuosities  of  a  hill,  entirely  un- 
der gi'ound,  and  was  often  cut  in  the  rock  itself 
Small  briilges  were  thrown  over  the  streams  crossed 
in  its  course,  and  it  passed  over  a  series  of  ari'he.s, 
resembling  those  of  the  upper  part  of  the  great 
arcade  of  the  Pont  du  Gard,  followed  the  crest  of  a 
hill  to  avoid  uunecessaiy  hight  in  the  piers,  and 
after  a  course  of  about  ?-|  miles  arrived  at  the  Pont 
du  Gard,  by  which  it  is  carried  over  the  liver 
Gardoii  at  a  bight  of  more  than  15/  feet  above  the 
surface  of  the  stream  below. 

This  m^ignifieent  structure  consists  of  three  tiers 
of  arches,  on  the  upper  one  of  which  the  water-way 
is  carried.  The  length  at  the  level  of  the  string 
course  surmounting  the  lower  tier  of  arches  is  o(>2 
feet,  and  at  the  string  course  of  the  second  tier  885 
feet. 

The  large  arch  through  which  the  liver  passes  is 
80  feet  5  inches  in  span,  the  three  on  the  right  side 
of  this  are  63  feet,  and  the  smaller  ones  51  feet. 
Those  of  the  upper  story  are  all  equal,  15  feet  9 
inches  in  span  ;  their  piers  vary  in  width,  and  do 
not  come  iinniediately  over  those  below. 

The  whole  is  constructed  of  freestone,  from  the 
foundation  to  the  third  course  above  the  cyniatium 


AQUEDUCT. 


lL".l 


AQUKDUCT. 


was 
and 


covering  the  piers  of  the  upper  story.  Rubble 
employed  for  filling  in  the  piers,  spandrels, 
haunches  of  the  fii-st  and  second  stories. 

The  stones  were  laid  without  cement,  each  being 
raised  by  the  lewis,  the  holes  for  the  insertion  of 


was  taken  to  prevent  leakage 
from  one  into  the  other,  so  that 
the  water  of  better  quality 
might  not  become  deteriorated 
by  mingling  with  that  of  infe- 


SectioQ  of  Upper  Story, 
enlarged  scale. 


which  are  still  to  be  seen  exactly  over  the  center  of 
g^a^^ty  of  each  stone. 

The  dimensions  of  the  water-way  are  4  feet  in 
width  and  4  feet  H  inches  high  ;  the  fall  through- 
out its  entire  length  is  2.112  inches  per  mile,  and  it 
is  estimated  to  have  been  capable  of  supplj'ing  from 
14  to  18  millions  of  gallons  of  water  per  day. 

The  entire  length  of  the  aqueduct  is  over  254 
miles. 

The  aqueduct  of  Segovia,  Spain,  was  built  by  the 
Emperor  Trajan,  and  is  of  squared  stone  laid  with- 
out moitar,  and  in  crossing  a  valley  has  a  length 

Fig.  2.8S 


,  Roman  Aqueflucts,  Julia^ 
Tepula,  and  Mania, 


Aqueduct  of  Segovia. 

of  more  than  2,200  feet ;  it  is  in  many  places  nearly 
100  feet  high.  An  elevation  and  plan  are  shown  in 
Fig.  288. 

The  waters  of  the  Aquae  Julia,  Tepula,  and  JIartia  at 
Rome  were  conduct- 
ed through  a  triple 
aqueduct,  forming 
three  channels,  one 
above  the  other,  as 
shown  in  theaccom- 
panying  section  ; 
the  Aqua  Martia  be- 
ing the  lowest,  the 
Aqua  Tepula  the 
middle,  and  the 
Aqua  .Tulia  the  up- 
permost of  the  se- 
ries. Particular  care 


rior  clearness  and  purity  ;  to 
effect  this,  the  bottom  of  the 
channel  of  each  wasba.sed  upon 
thick  stones  passing  into  the 
sides  of  the  aqueduct,  and  care- 
fully lined  with  tiles  and  a 
coating  of  cement.  Doors  from 
the  outside  admitted  the  per- 
sons in  charge  to  examine  the 
condition  of  the  conduits  at 
any  time,  and  they  were  requiied  to  report  con- 
stantly upon  their  efficiency  and  state  of  rejiair. 

The  accompanying  illustra- 
tion (Fig.  2fi0)  ..shows  one  plan 
adopted  by  the  Romans  for  con- 
veying water  across  a  valley. 
The  ac|ueduct  was  erected  by  the 
Emperor  Claudius  for  supplying 
a  palace  in  an  elevated  part  of 
the  ancient  city  of  Lugdunura 
(Lyons). 

The  channel-way,  both  in  as- 
cending and  descending,  was 
formed  by  masonry,  tiles,  and  ce- 
ment. 

The  work  was  performed  as 
follows  :  A  level  pavement  was 
formed  of  brick,  on  which  was 
raised  a  frame  or  caisson  of  tim- 
ber planks  ;  against  the  sides 
of  this,  squared  stones  were  laid  in  regular  courses, 
and  their  interior  filled  in   with  iiibble  in   a   dry 


state,  after  which  a  gi-outing  of  liquid 
poured    in   to    cousoliilate   the   whole. 


'Uient  was 
Lime,    fine 


Qdc 


Lyons  Aqueduct. 


AQUEDUCT. 


130 


AQUEDUCT. 


gravel  or  sand,  mixed  with  a  due  proportion  of  wa- 
ter, formed  this  grouting.  After  a  sufficient  time 
liad  allowed  this  work  to  consolidate,  the  caisson 
was  mounted  upon  another  course  or  layer  of  tiles, 
and  similar  o])erations  to  the  first  took  phice. 

The  bricks  or  tiles  used  were  21  inches  in  lengtli, 
12  inches  in  breadth,  and  lA  inches  in  thickness. 

The  wlinle  of  the  water  conduit  was  coated  with 
cement  ;  at  bottom,  its  thickness  was  6  inches,  at 
the  sides  H  inches.  24  inches  from  the  bottom  of 
the  canal,  at  distances  of  30  inches  apart,  the  side 
walls  were  stayed  with  iron  ties  to  prevent  their 
being  burst  apart. 

In  the  ancient  aqueduct  at  Lyons,  called  at  one 
part  of  its  course  Mont  de  Pile  and  at  another 
Champonest,  the  water  was  brought  over  eight 
bridges  in  the  usual  manner,  and  a  siphon  was  em- 
ployed for  conducting  it  across  the  ninth.  At  this 
point  the  valley  is  very  deep,  and  a  reservoir  was 
built  from  which  leaden  pipes  of  large  size,  bedded  in 
the  sides  of  the  valley,  conducted  the  water  to  others 
laid  over  a  bridge  in  an  inverted  curve  ;  they  were 
then  conducted  up  the  opposite  side  of  the  valley, 
and  delivered  the  water  into  a  reservoir  at  the  same 
level  as  the  first ;  from  this  they  were  conducted 
under  ground  for  some  distance,  and  thence,  by  a 
bridge  of  ninety  arcades,  to  another  reservoir,  from 
whence  it  again  descended  into  a  valley  through 
similar  leaden  pipes,  crossing  a  river  and  ascending 
tlie  other  side  of  the  valley,  where  it  was  delivered 
into  a  reservoir  on  that  side.  From  thence  it  was 
carried,  partially  over  arcades,  to  a  reservoir  at  one 
of  the  gates  of  the  city,  from  w'hence  again  it  was 
carried  by  leaden  jiipcs,  first  falling  and  again  rising 
until  it  reached  the  reservoir  from  whence  it  was 
finally  distributed  ;  in  this  last  instance  the  pipes 
were  bedded  in  solid  masonry,  and  not  carried  over  a 
bridge. 

The  total  length  of  this  remarkable  piece  of  work, 
which  certainly  seems  to  combine  all  the  known 
appliances  for  conveying  water  without  the  aid  of 
extraneous  mechanical  power,  was  13  leagues,  and 
the  fall  in  this  distance  upward  of  350  feet. 

Wherever  the  aqueduct  was  tunneled  in  the  sides 
of  the  hills  at  a  considerable  distance  below  the  sur- 
face, wells  were  sunk  to  carry  ott'  any  vapors  which 
might  accumulate,  and  to  admit  light  and  air  ;  they 
also  afibrded  access  to  any  workmen  who  might  be 
employed  to  make  repairs  or  remove  accumulated 
deposits  in  the  channel :  these  were  at  distances  of 
120  feet  apart.  Perpeiulicular  vent-pipes  were  also 
erected  for  ventilating  purposes.  The  walls,  where 
the  work  was  above  ground,  were  two  feet  thick, 
and  the  arches  were  roofed  over  to  shed  rain.  The 
entrance  to  the  aqueduct  was  through  iron  doors 
opening  internally.  The  underground  portions 
were  accessible  by  trajis  or  man-holes  brought  up  a 
little  above  the  level  of  the  soil. 

Pipes,  in  eases  where  a  very  large  supply  of  water 
is  not  required,  uiuloubtedly  possess  many  advan- 
tages, and  in  very  broken  and  rugged  localities  their 
use,  either  alone,  or  in  combination  with  masonry  or 
brick  conduits,  along  the  more  level  portions  of  the 
route,  is  indispensable  without  increasing  the  cost  of 
the  work  beyond  all  reasonable  bounds  ;  but  it 
would  seem,  both  from  the  experience  of  anti(piity 
and  that  of  more  recent  times,  that  the  stone  or 
brick  channel  into  which  the  air  is  freely  admitted, 
and  to  which  ready  access  can  be  had  for  the  re- 
moval of  im]nirities  or  obstructions,  is,  when  the 
engineering  difficulties  and  cost  are  not  too  great, 
preferalile  to  any  other. 

Tliis  of  course  does  not  apply  to  the  delivery  and 
discharge  of  water  within  cities  or  towns  ;  there. 


metallic  pij>es  of  some  kind  are  indispensable.  Cast- 
iron  is  the  material  now  universally  employed  for 
the  larger  pipes  of  this  de.scription,  called  mains,  and 
is  perfectly  unobjectionable  in  every  respect.  Leaden 
jiipe  is  very  extensively  employed  in  buildings  for 
discharging  water,  but,  unless  kept  constantly  filled, 
is  a  very  dangerous  material,  its  salts  being  active 
poisons.     Lining  with  tin  is  a  good  expedient. 

In  China  and  Japan,  bamboos  of  large  size  are 
used  to  convey  water  from  one  point  to  another. 

The  ancient  works  executed  under  the  later  Ro- 
man enqiciors  for  the  supply  of  Constantinople 
combine  the  system  of  aqueducts  with  the  collection 
and  impounding  of  water  by  means  of  reservoirs 
at  the  head  of  the  aipieduct.  The  impouniling  res- 
ervoirs are  situate  about  twelve  miles  from  the  city, 
on  the  slopes  of  a  range  of  mountains  whii'li  form 
the  southeastern  prolongation  of  the  gieat  Balkan 
chain.  There  are  four  principal  acpieducts,  one  of 
which  conveys  the  water  collected  by  three  separate 
reservoirs,  while  the  other  three  are  each  supplied 
by  its  own  reservoir.  Besides  these  extensive  pro- 
visions for  securing  water  to  the  city,  tliere  are  im- 
mense subterranean  reservoirs,  one  of  which,  now 
in  ruins,  is  called  the  Palace  of  the  Thousand  and 
One  Pillars,  not  because  this  is  the  jn-ecise  number 
aup])orting  the  roof,  but  because  the  number  is  a 
favorite  one  in  the  expression  of  Eastern  hyperbole. 
This  great  subterranean  cistern  is  suppo.sed  to  have 
been  made  by  the  Greek  emperors  for  the  pui[iose 
of  storing  water  in  case  of  a  siege  or  similar  calam- 
ity. Although  originally  of  great  depth,  it  is  now 
nearly  filled  up  with  earth  and  rubbish.  It  is  sin- 
gular that  in  the  nineteenth  century  we  are  reviving 
in  our  covered  reservoirs,  for  the  purpose  of  storing 
water  in  a  state  of  freshness  and  uniform  tempera- 
ture, the  practices  which  were  followed  nearly  two 
thousand  years  ago  by  nations  whose  modern  de- 
scendants are  half  barbarians. 

Works  of  great  magnitude  were,  according  to 
Garcilasso,  eonsti-ucted  for  purposes  of  irrigation 
by  the  ancient  Peruvians,  previous  to  the  conquest 
of  that  country  by  the  Spaniards. 

On  the  western  slopes  of  the  Andes  there  are  im- 
mense districts  where  rain  never  falls,  and  which  are 
incapable  of  cultivation  unless  watered  by  artificial 
means.  The  Incas  caused  numerous  aqueducts  to  be 
constructed  for  this  purpose  ;  one  of  these  is  stated  _ 
to  have  been  120  leagues  in  length  and  12  feet  in' 
depth,  and  to  have  watered  a  tract  of  country  more 
than  50  miles  in  width  ;  another  was  150  leagues  in 
length,  travei'sing  an  extensive  province  and  irrigat- 
ing a  vast  and  arid  district  of  jiasture  laud. 

The  Peruvians  do  not  appear  to  have  advanced  so 
far  as  the  use  of  bridges  or  pipes  for  conducting  the 
water  across  valleys,  —  their  purpose  j>robably  did 
not  require  it,  — but  gave  their  aqueducts  a  sinuous 
course,  winding  around  the  mountains  ami  through 
the  valleys  with  sufficient  inclination  to  allow  the 
water  to  How  freely. 

The  Fren<;h  aqueducts  referred  to  in  this  article 
are  most  of  them  of  great  magnitude  and  impor- 
tance, and  the  most  stupendous  work  of  the  kind 
ever  projected  originated  in  France.  This  was  the 
a(pieduct  of  Maintenou,  which  was  undertaken  in 
lost  and  al)andoned  in  ll5S8,  during  which  tinie 
22,000,000  francs  are  .said  to  have  been  expended 
upon  it.  It  was  intended  to  have  brought  water 
from  the  river  Eure  at  Pongoin  to  Versailles,  a  dis- 
tance of  nearly  25  leagues,  and  embraced  an  arcade 
of  masonry  16,090  feet  in  length,  comprising  three 
tiers  of  arches  at  its  highest  part. 

The  illustrations  (Fig.  291)  exhibit  to  the  same 
scale,  — 


AQrEDL'CT. 


131 


AQCEDUCT. 


1.   The  PotU  du  Gard  Aqueduct,  at  Xisines.  un-    conduit  is  157  feet  above  the  river,  and  is  referred 
der  which  the  river  Gardon  pa&ses,  and  ivhicli  was  i  to  above, 
built   by  the  Bomans,  possibly  by  Agripi)a.     The  |      2.   The  Solani  Aqueduct  of  the   Ganges  Canal ; 


Fig.  291. 


<rrr'a%AAfy^A.'V^'vvy'a'Trifa°a.°=.'^ya%^n.-a  >.* 


Aqueducts. 


the  area  of  the  water-way  is  eighty  times  that  of  the 
Pont  du  Gard. 

3.  The  Eoque/avour  Aquiduct,  erected  by  Mon- 
tricher  to  conduct  the  waters  of  the  Durance  to 
Marseilles. 

The  aqueduct  for  supplying  Marseilles  with  water 
extends  from  the  river  Durance,  a  distance  of  51 
miles,  though  a  very  hilly  country.  It  comprises 
78  tunnels,  having  a  uniteil  length  of  over  12  miles. 
It  has  500  bridges,  embankments,  and  other  artificial 
con.structions.  Marseilles  lies  in  a  large  arid  basin, 
and  the  aqueduct  approaches  the  edge  of  the  basin 
at  a  hight  of  500  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea. 
Branches  extend  to  and  irrigate  the  area  of  25,000 
acres,  and  also  supply  the  city  of  ilarseilles.  The 
bridge  over  the  valley  of  the  Arc  is  1.287  feet  in 
length  and  262  feet  in  hight.  It  is  forujed  of  a 
triple  tier  of  arehes  ;  is  said  to  have  occupied  from 
700  to  800  workmen  for  seven  years,  and  to  have 
cost  S  750,000.  The  water  channel  is  30  feet  wide 
at  top,  10  at  bottom,  and  is  7  feet  deep.  It  deliv- 
ers 11  tons  of  water  per  second. 

The  aqueduct  of  Chirk  on  the  EUesmere  and  Ches- 
ter Canal  iu  England  is  noted  as  being  the  first  in 
which  iron  was  employed,  the  lx)ttom  of  the  water 
channel  being  of  oast-iron  and  the  walls  of  masonry  ; 
that  of  Pont-y-Cysytlte,  on  the  same  canal,  has  the 
entire  channel  made  of  cast-iron  arches  or  ribs  rest- 
ing on  pillars  of  stone. 

It  carries  the  waters  of  the  canal  across  the  valley 
of  the  Dee.  It  is  upwards  of  one  thousand  feet  in 
length,  consisting  of  nineteen  arches  of  equal  span, 
but  varying  in  their  hight  above  the  ground.  The 
three  shown  in  elevation  in  Fig.  292  are  the  high- 
est, being  those  which  cross  the  river  Dee  itself ; 
the  surface  of  the  canal  is  one  hundred  and  twenty- 
seven  feet  above  the  usual  level  of  the  water  in  the 
river.  The  aqueduct  itself  is  a  cast-iron  trough 
formed   of  plates   with  flanges  securely  bolted   to- 


gether. This  trough  is  supported  upon  cast-iron 
arches,  each  composed  of  four  ribs,  supported  upon 
piers  of  masoniy.  The  towing-path  overhangs  the 
water,  being  supported  at  intervals  on  timber  pillars. 
Watt's  submei^d  aqueduct  acro.ss  the  bed  of  the 
Clyde  was  an  arricnlated  pipe  whose  joints  rendered 
it  flexible,  so  as  to  accommodate  itself  to  the  shape  of 
the  river-bed.     It  is  stateil  to  have  been  a  success. 

Fig.  292. 


Pont-y-Cysyllte  Aqueduct. 


The  Croton  Aqueduct  was  commenced  in  1S37 
and  completed  in  1842,  costing  S8,575,000. 

Its  length  is  40*  miles,  33  miles  of  which  dis- 
tance it  is  built  of  stone,  brick,  and  cement,  arched 
above  and  below.  It  has  a  capacity  for  dischargin'^ 
60,000,000  of  gallons  per  day.  It  is  carried  over 
the  Harlem  River  by  pipes  laid  upon  a  bridge  con- 
sisting of  fifteen  arches,  eight  of  80  feet  and  seven 


AQUEDUCT. 


132 


AQUEDUCT. 


of  50  fi'ttt  sfiaii,  I'isiiig  to  114  feet  above  low-water 
mark. 

At  tlip  spot  wlieie  the  Croton  dam  is  constructed, 
the  surlacc-Wiiter  of  the  creek  was  about  38  feet 
lower  than  the  elevation  vet^uired  as  a  head  for  the 
delivery  of  the  water  into  the  city  of  New  York  at  a 
.sufficient  hif^ht.  by  going  farther  up  stream  a 
dam  of  less  hight  would  have  been  sufficient,  but 
the  supply  of  water  would  of  course  have  been 
smaller.  The  mediiun  How  of  water  at  thi'  dam  is 
about  50,000,000  gallons  daily,  and  the  minimum 
in  very  dry  seasons  about  27,000,000  gallons. 

The  water  is  set  back  upon  the  course  of  the 
creek  by  the  dam,  about  si.x  miles,  forming  the  res- 
ervoir, whicli  has  an  area  of  abovit  400  acres,  now 
called  Croton  Lake.  The  available  capacity  of  this 
reservoir  down  to  the  point  where  the  water  would 
cease  to  flow  into  the  aqueduct  is  estimated  at 
600,000,000  gallons,  in  addition  to  which  tlie  re- 
ceiving reservoir  in  the  city  is  capable  of  containing 
150,000,000  more  when  full,  which  together  attbrd  a 
reserve  supply  of  750,000,000  gallons  in  seasons 
of  extreme  drouglit.  In  case  of  necessity  other 
streams  might  be  turned  into  the  Croton  River  at  or 
above  the  reservoir,  or  into  the  aqueduct. 

From  the  dam  at  the  lower  end  of  Croton  Lake  to 
the  receiving  reservoir  there  is  no  essential  change 
made  in  the  form  of  the  channel-way,  except  that,  in 
crossing  the  Harlem  Kiver  and  a  valley  on  Manhattan 
Island,  iron  pii)es  are  used  instead  of  masonry  ;  at 

these  places  the 
Fifc'-293.  pipes   fall  and 

rise  again  so 
that  they  are  al- 
ways full.  The 
channel-way  of 
masonry  is  nev- 
er entirely 
filled,  so  as  to 
cause  a  pres- 
sure on  its  in- 
terior .surface. 
To  avoid  this, 
si.\  waste  weirs 
were  construct- 
ed at  suitable 
places  to  allow 
tlie  water  to  flow  ott'  upon  attaining  a  certain  level. 
Fig.  293  is  a  section  showing  the  kind  of  masonry 

used  in  earth  • 

FiR-  294.  excavations.    I 

The    foun-  j 

dation    is    of 

concrete,  the 

side  walls  of ; 

stone,     the 

bottom     and 

sides    of    the 

interior  faced 

with     lirick, 

and    the    top 

covered  with 

an     arch    of 

brick. 

After  the 
masonry  was 
finished  the 
excavation 
was  tilled  uji 
around  it  and 
over  the  top 
of  the  cover- 
ingarch,gen- 
Rrick  Knnrnlion.  erallv    to   the 


Earth  Excavation. 


Rock  Tunnel. 


depth  of  three  or  four  feet,  and  in  deep  excavations 
up  to  the  natural  surface. 

Fig.  294  shows  a  section  in  open  cuttings  in  rock. 
The  rock  was  excavated  to  the  re(|uisite  depth  and 
width,  and  the  bottom  tilled  in  with  concrete  to  the 
proper  liight  and  form  for  receiving  an  inverted  arch 
of  brick  ;  the  siile  walls  were  of  brick  bonded  with 
all  outer  cnsiiig  of  .stone,  built  up  clo.sely  against  the 
sides  of  the  rock.  Un  the  exterior  of  the  rooting 
arch,  and  hlling  the  space  between  it  and  the  rock, 
spandrels  of  stone  were  built. 

When  finished,  the  space  above  the  masonry  was 
filled  in  with  earth. 

Fig.  295  is  a  section  in  tunnel  cuttings  in  .solid 
rock.    In  hard, 

sound  rock  the  Fig-  295. 

natural  rock 
often  served  as 
a  roof,  but 
when  soft,  a 
brick  arch  was 
built  over  the 
channel  walls 
and  the  space 
between  its  up- 
per surface  and 
the  rock  tilled 
in  with  well- 
ramined  earth. 
In  some  cases 
where  the  rock 
was  originally 
hard,  it  was 
found  to  be- 
come soft  and  insecure  upon  exposure  to  the  air,  ren- 
dering it  necessary  to  arch  over  the  channel-way  to 
support  the  natural  roof. 

Fig.  296  is  a  section  in  earth  tunnel  cuttings.  In 
dry  and  compact  earth  the  excavation  for  the  bottom 
and     .sides     was 

made  of  just  suf-  Fig.  296. 

ficient  size  to  re- 
ceive the  mason- 
ry built  closely 
against  it ;  the 
top  was  maile 
high  enough  t • < 
give  room  l"i 
turning  the  root- 
ing arch,  and 
when  complete 
the  space  above  it 
was  filled  with 
earth  closely 
rammed.  In  wet 
earth  the  excava- 
tion was  made 
larger  and  the  top 
and  sides  sup- 
]iorted  by   props 

of  timber  and  plank  until  the  masonry 
pleted  ;  the  vacant  space  around  it  was 
partly  filled  with  earth.  In  crossing  valleys,  the 
a(|ueduct  was  supjiorted  on  a  foundation  wall  of 
stone,  laid  dry,  and  sloping  embankments  of  earth 
were  thrown  up  on  each  side  of  it. 

.\t  intervals  of  a  mile  apart,  ventilating  shafts  of 
stone  were  erected  over  the  a(|ueduct,  rising  about 
14  feet  above  the  surface  of  the  gi'ound  ;  every 
third  shaft  was  provided  with  a  door  to  aftbrd  en- 
trance to  the  interior  of  the  aqueduct  for  the  pur- 
pose of  inspection  or  repairs.  Openings  two  feet 
S(iuare  were  also  made  in  the  top  of  the  roofing  arch 
"Very  quarti'r  of  a  mile  ;  each  of  these  was  covered 


Earth  Tunnel. 


was  corn- 
then  com- 


AQUEDUCT. 


IJ 


AQUEDUCT. 


by  a  flag-stone,  and  its  position  indicated  liy  a  small 
nionument  projecting  above  the  surface  ;  these  are 
for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  entrance  or  increasing 
the  ventilation  if  necessary.  Where  the  line  of  the 
woik  was  intersected  by  streams,  culverts  were  built 
to  allow  the  water  to  pass  under  without  injury  to 
the  aqueduct. 

In  connection  with  the  reservoir  at  the  dam  is  a 
tunnel  and  gate-chamber.  The  gate-chamber  is  not 
direetlv  connected  to  the  dam  itself,  but  is  at  a  dis- 
tance of  upwards  of  200  feet.  The  water  is  con- 
ducted from  the  reservoir  to  the  gate-chamber  by 
means  of  the  tunnel  T,  which  is  cut  through  the 
solid  rock  of  the  hill,  having  its  entrani'e  above  the 
dam,  its  center  being  about  12  feet  below  the  sur- 
face of  the  water,  so  that  the  entrance  of  floating 
bodies  is  prevented.  In  winter,  when  the  reservoir 
is  frozen  over,  there  is  no  obstruction  to  the  flow  of 


water  into  the  aqueduct,  and  in  summer  the  water 
is  drawn  from  a  level  where  it  is  cooler  and  purer 
than  at  the  surface. 

The  gate-chamber  has  two  sets  of  gates,  the  one 
being  called  regulating  gates,  R,  and  the  other  guard- 
gates,  G,  G.  The  regulating  gates  are  made  of  gun- 
metal,  and  work  in  fi-ames  of  the  same  material,  fitted 
to  stone  jambs  and  lintels  ;  the  guard-gates  are  of 
cast-iron,  working  in  cast-iron  frames,  also  attached 
to  stone  jambs  and  lintels. 

The  gates  are  managed  by  means  of  wrought-iron 
rods,  having  a  screw  on  their  upper  part  working 
in  a  brass  nut  set  in  a  cast-iron  socket-cap. 

The  accompanying  view  (Fig.  297)  exhibits  a  sec- 
tion of  the  hill  through  which  the  tunnel  is  cut. 
showing  its  entrance  into  the  reservoir,  the  gate- 
house and  gates,  and  the  point  of  discharge  into  the 
channel-way  of  the  acjueduct. 


Fig.  297- 


In  the  center  of  the  dam  and  on  its  ridge  is  agate- 
house  over  a  culvert  parsing  through  the  dam.  This 
culvert  is  30  feet  below  the  surface  of  the  water 
w-hen  the  reservoir  is  full,  and  has  gates  opened  by 
rods  rising  up  into  the  gate-house.  When  the  river 
is  low,  the  water  which  is  not  carried  oft'  by  the 
aqueduct  may  be  allowed  to  pass  through  this 
culvert,  preventing  any  from  passing  over  the 
dam. 

The  bottom  of  the  water-way  of  the  aqueduct  at 
the  gate-chamber  is  11.4  feet  below  the  surface  of  the 
reseiToir,  and  154.77  feet  above  the  level  of  mean 
tide  at  Xew  York  Cit)'. 

The  aqueduct  is  divided  into  different  planes  of 
descent  from  the  gate-chamber  at  the  liam  to  that  of 
the  receiving  reseiToir  on  Manhattan  Island,  and  is 
as  follows  :  — 


Length. 


Descent 


First  plane  of  aqueduct 
Second  plane  of  aqueduct 
Length  of  pipes  across  the  Har- 
lem River 
Difference  of  level  between  the 

ends  of  tne  pipes    . 
Third  plane  of  aqueduct 
Len-rth  of  pipes  across  the  Man- 
hattan Valley 
Difference  of  level  between  the 

ends  of  the  pipes    . 
Fourth  plane  of  aqueduct 


Feet. 

26,099  72 

148,121.25 

Miles. 
4.943 
28.0.53 

Feet- 

2.94 

30  69 

1,377..3.3 

0,261 

10,7.33  14 

2.033 

2.29 
2.25 

4,10.509 

0.777 

10,680.89 



2.023 

3.86 

1.60 

1  201,117.42    38.090       43.« 


The  bight  of  the  interior  of  the  aqueduct  is  8 
feet  .5i  inches,  and  the  greatest  width  7  feet  5  inches  ; 
the  interior  having  a  sectional  area  of  53.34  S(iuare 
feet.  On  the  first  plane  the  aqueduct  is  larger,  be- 
ing 2.05  feet  higher  at  the  gate-chamber,  2.31  feet 
higher  at  2,244  feet  from  the  chamber,  and  diminish- 
ing to  the  head  of  the  second  plane,  where  it  is  of  the 
dimensions  above  stated. 


The  cun'es  used  in  changing  the  course  of  the 
aqueduct  are  generally  of  500  feet  radius  ;  in  some- 
cases  a  radius  of  1,000  feet  or  even  more  was  em- 
ployed. 

The  receiving  reservoir  is  located  between  Sixth 
and  Seventh  Avenues  and  Seventy-ninth  and  Eighty- 
sixth  Streets  in  the  upper  part  of  the  city  of  New- 
York.  It  is  1,826  feet  long  and  836  feet  wide  at  the 
top  of  the  external  walls  of  the  embankment,  having 
a  total  area  of  37  acres,  the  area  of  the  water-surface 
being  31  acres.  The  reservoir  is  divided  into  two 
divisions  by  means  of  an  embankment,  either  of 
which  may  be  used  indepentlcntly  while  the  water 
is  drawn  off  from  the  other,  in  case  of  repairs, 
etc. 

The  greatest  depth  of  water  in  the  north  division 
is  20  feet,  in  the  south,  30  feet,  and  the  total  capa- 
city of  the  whole  150,000,000  gallons.  The  aque- 
duct enters  a  gate-chamber  in  the  south  division, 
where  there  are  regulating  gates  for  discharging 
the  water  into  eithei'  division  by  a  continuation  of 
the  aqueduct  within  the  reservoir.  The  two  divis- 
ions are  connected  by  a  cast-iron  ])ipe  for  equal- 
izing the  level  of  water  in  each.  There  is  also  a 
waste  weir  for  the  escape  of  surplus  water  into  a 
sewer. 

The  embankment  is  of  earth,  protected  on  the 
•utside  bv  a  stone  wall  four  feet  thick,  the  face 
of  which' is  laid  in  mortar:  the  inside  slope  has 
a  stone  facing,  15  inches  thick,  laid  without  mor- 
tar. 

From  the  receiving  reseri-oir  the  water  is  carried 
by  iron  pipes  to  the  distributing  reservoir,  a  dis- 
tance of  2.17  miles,  with  a  fall  of  four  feet.  The  dis- 
tributing reservoir  is  436  feet  square  at  the  base  and 
425  feet  square  at  the  comers,  baring  an  area  of 
rather  more  than  four  acres,  and  a  capacity  of 
I  20,000.000  gallons. 

The  outside  walls  have  openings,  so  that  by  enter- 
ing a  door  one  may  walk  entirely  round  the  reser- 
i  voir  within  the  walls,  giving  a  greater  breadth  with 


AQUEDUCT. 


134 


ARCH. 


a  given  aniouut  of  material,  and  affording  an  o|i|)or- 
tunity  of  examining  the  work  for  the  inirjiose  of 
olmating  k'akage,  and  also  preventing  water  from 
finding  its  way  to  the  e.\terior  and  causing  injury  to 
the  wall  by  freezing.  This  open  space  rises  to  witli- 
in  about  eiglit  feet  of  the  water-line.  Inside  of  the 
wall  is  an  embankment  of  puddled  earth  faced  with 
hydraidic  masonry  15  inches  thick. 

From  the  distributing  reservoir  the  water  is  dis- 
tributed over  the  city  by  means  of  cast-iron  pipes 
of  from  36  to  4  inches  diameter. 

The  total  cost  of  the  work  was  $  8,575,000,  includ- 
ing the  purchase  of  land,  etc.,  being  within  live 
per  cent  of  the  engineer's  estimate.  In  this  the 
cost  of  the  distributing  pipes  within  the  city  is  not 
included. 

The  Washington  Aqueduct  was  built  at  the  ex- 
pense of  the  United  States  government,  for  the 
purpose  of  supplying  the  cities  of  Washington  and 
Georgetown  with  water,  and  is  distinguisheil  by 
some  bold  features  of  engineering.  The  most  re- 
markable of  these  is  the  bridge  over  Cabin  John 
Creek,  near  the  upper  termination  of  the  work,  the 
widest  spanned  stone  arch  at  the  time  of  its  con- 
struction ;  it  has  a  span  of  220  feet  and  a  rise  of  57 
feet  3  inches. 

The  bridge  over  Rock  Creek  is  also  a  peculiar  and 
noteworthy  application  of  the  results  of  modern 
science  and  mechanical  skill.  The  water  is  carried 
across  this  stream  (which  divides  the  cities  of  Wash- 
ington and  Georgetown)  by  means  of  two  arches  of 
cast-iron  pipes  of  3  feet  6  inches  interior  diame- 
ter, formed  of  sections  with  flanges  firmly  screwed 
to  each  other  and  braced  ;  upon  these  are  laid  a 
bridge  over  which  the  street  cars  pass,  and  which 
serves  as  a  public  avenue  of  communication  bet\veen 
the  two  cities.  The  span  is  200  feet,  and  the  rise 
20  feet. 

The  aqueduct  which  supplies  Madrid  with  water, 
and  h:is  a  large  surplus  for  inigation,  is  fed  from 
the  I'iver  Lozoya,  where  it  emerges  from  the  CJuavda- 
rama  Mountains.  This  work  was  constructed  under 
the  superintendence  of  Don  Lucio  del  Valle,  be- 
tween ISSl  and  1858,  and  is  47  miles  in  length.  The 
river  gorge  is  crossed  by  a  cut-stone  dam,  98  feet 
in  bight,  its  wings  abutting  upon  the  solid  rock  of 
the  hillsides.  The  artificial  lake  thus  formed  con- 
tains 100,000,000  cubic  feet  of  water.  The  cost  of 
the  whole  work  was  57,897,368  francs. 

The  "  canal,"  as  it  is  termed,  has  seven  miles  of 
subterranean  galleiies,  4,600  feet  of  aqueducts,  and 
8,600  feet  of  inverted  siphons  at  the  crossings  of 
three  valleys.  The  siphon  of  Bedonal  is  4,600  feet 
in  length.  The  transverse  section  of  the  water- 
way has  an  area  of  about  20  square  feet,  and  it  dis- 
charges (i,  600, 000  cubic  feet  of  water  per  day ; 
one  fifth  is  required  for  to\j'n  service,  the  remain- 
der being  used  in  irrigating  a  tract  of  nearly  5,000 
acres. 

The  town  service  has  45  miles  of  brick  culverts 
about  six  feet  high,  and  60  miles  of  cast-iron  pipes. 
It  supplies  35  public  fountains,  and  has  3,000  ])lugs 
for  fire  and  irrigating  purposes. 

A  novel  expedient  for  the  support  of  an  aqueduct 
across  a  densely  wooded  ravine  was  suggested  liy 
Mr.  M'Taggart,  the  resident  engineer  for  the  Kideau 
Canal  in  Canada.  In  a  part  of  the  country  trav- 
ersed by  the  canal,  materials  for  forming  an  ejn- 
liankment,  or  stone  for  building  tlie  piers  of  an 
acpieduct,  could  not  be  obtained  but  at  a  great  ex- 
pense. The  plan  consisted  of  cutting  across  the 
large  trees  in  the  line  of  the  works,  at  the  level  of 
the  bottom  of  the  canal,  so  as  to  render  them  fit  for 
supjiorting  a  (ilatform  on  their  trunks,  and  on  this 


platform  the  trough  containing  the  water  of  the 
canal  was  intended  to  rest. 

Ar'a-besque  [ar'a-besk].  1.  (An-hUccturc.)  A 
species  of  ornament,  either  painted,  inlaid,  or  carved 
in  low  relief,  employed  for  decorating  flat  surfaces. 
It  usually  consists  of  convoluted  and  intertwined 
curves,  intended  to  represent  foliage,  tendrils,  and 
openwork  ehei'ker  patterns. 

In  a  degraded  form,  vaiious  figures  of  animals, 
real  or  imaginary,  have  been  introduced  in  the  at- 
tempt to  make  it  more  consonant  with  the  later  taste 
for  florid  oniament.  The  Koran  forbids  the  repre- 
sentation of  the  human  form,  but  some  have  even 
deviated  so  far  from  the  original  designs  of  the  Arabs 
as  to  blend  satyrs,  sirens,  and  mermaids  in  the  de- 
sign. Tills  is  on  a  par  with  the  taste  which  de- 
grades consoles  into  caryatides  and  pillars  into 
atlantes. 

2.  {Boolbindiixj.)  The  Engli.sh  term  for  the  im- 
pressed ornamental  work  on  the  sides  of  cloth  and 
leather-bound  books. 

It  is  produced  by  the  pressure  of  hot  plates  or 
rollers  having  the  }iattern  engraved  on  them. 

Ar-bao'cio.  (Fabric.)  A  coarse  woolen  cloth 
made  in  .Sanliiiia  from  the  wool  of  an  inferior  breed 
of  .sheep,  ealleil  the  Xaoro. 

Ar'bal-est.  A  kind  of  cross-bow  used  formerly 
by  the  Italians,  and  introduced  into  England  in  the 
thirteenth  century.  The  arrows  shot  from  it  were 
termed  qiuirre/s. 

Ar'bor.  (Mnchitury.)  a.  An  axle  or  spindle  of 
a  wheel  or  pinion.  The  term  is  specially  used  in 
horology. 

h.  A  mandrel  on  which  a  ring,  wheel,  or  collar  is 
turned  in  a  lathe. 

Ar-cade'.  A  vaulted  avenue.  A  covered  pas- 
sage. 

A  number  of  streets  in  London  and  Paris  are  thus 
vaulted  over,  and  are  well  known  to  many  of  our  citi- 
zens ;  the  Lowtlier  and  Burlington  Arcades  of  the 
former  city,  for  instance. 

As  one  mode  of  connecting  down-town  and  up- 
town of  New  York  City,  the  arcade  sy.stem  has  been 
ju'oposed.  Even  of  this,  many  forms  have  been 
suggested.  One  is  to  form  a  sub-way,  a  main-way, 
and  an  elevated  railway. 

Ar-cade'  Rail'\»'ay.  The  upper  roadway  to  he 
supported   by  iron   columns,  and  having  gas  and 


Fig.  298. 


water  tubes  ;  the  main-way  by  masonry,  through 
which  the  sewers  and  pneumatic  dispatch  pass. 
Access  to  be  had  to  the  various  levels  by  ramps 
and  staircases. 

Arc'bou-tant.  An  arched  buttress  forming  a  lat- 
eral supjiort  Un-  the  foot  or  hauncli  of  another  arch. 

ArcbL  The  antiquity  of  the  arch,  says  Wilkin- 
son, is  traced  to  the  time  of  Amunoph  I.,  who 
reigned  1540  B.  c.  He  also  thinks  it  jirobable  that 
the  chambers  of  the  brick  Pyramids  at  Memphis, 
erected  by  tlie  successor  of  the  son  of  ('heo]is,  would 


ARCH. 


135 


ARCH. 


prove  to  be  vaulted  over  with  arches,  whieh  woukl 
carry  back  the  antiquity  of  the  arch  to  2020  B.  c. 

In   one  of    the    Egyptian   pyramids   is    an   arch 
turned   over   three    stones    which   formed    a   stone 

arched  ceiling 
Fig.  299.  to  the  sarcoph- 

agus  chamber. 
The  two  outer 
stones  were  set 
edgeways  and 
inclined  in- 
ward, having 
the  other 
placed  upon 
them,  forming 
an  arch. 

Over  these 
stones  was 
turned  a  brick 
arch,  the  ra- 
dius of  which 
was  6  feet  2 
inches,  and  the 
span  11  fe-^t. 
It  consists  of 
four  courses,  and  is  3  feet  10  inches  thick.  The  [ 
stones  beneath  were  4  feet  long,  and  15  inches  in 
breadth.  At  the  back  the  joints  were  packed  with 
chips,  and  the  whole  was  grouted  with  fluid  mortar. 
This  tomb  is  of  the  time  of  Amunopli  I.,  1540 
B  c  The  stone  arch  at  Saccara  is  of  the  time  of 
Psammeticus  II.,  600  B.  c.  The  arches  of  the  tombs 
of  Beni  Hassan  are  coeval  with  Osirtasen  II.  and  the 
Viceroy  Joseph. 

Arches  are  found  in  Chinese  bridges  of  gi-eat  an- 
tiquity and  magnitude  ;  and  as  before  shown,  those 
of  Egypt  far  autedate  the  periods  of  Greece  or  Rome. 
Arched  vaults  are  found  among  tlie  ruins  of  Nineveh. 
A  building  at  Mycente,  in  Greece,  called  "  Treas- 
ury of  Atreirs, "  has  an  interior  pointed  dome  ol  48 
feet  diameter,  and  of  about  the  same  hight,  the  sec- 
tion presenting  two  intersecting  arcs  of  about  70  feet 
radius.  The  difficulty  of  working  voussoirs  has 
been    evaded    bv   mak- 


example  of  Roman  workmanship  ;  it  is  believed  to 
have  been  constructed  more  than  five  hundred  years 
before  the  Christian  era,  and  is  yet  in  a  perfect  state 
of  preservation,  still  continuing  to  perform  its  origi- 
nal functions.  Tliat  iiei>ple  also  used  arches  as  tri- 
umphal monuments  ;  the  arch  of  Titus  was  erected 
A.  1).  SO  ;  that  of  Trajan,  A.  D.  114  ;  and  of  Con- 
stantine,  A.  D.  312.  The  Gothic  style,  which  origi- 
nated about  the  ninth  century,  and  soon  spread  over 
the  whole  of  Europe,  was  emphatically  the  style  of 
arches.  Its  special  characteristics  are  the  i-lus- 
tered  pillar  and  the  pointed  arch.  The  medieval 
masons  treated  them  with  a  boldness  and  freedom 
unknown  to  the  builders  of  Ancient  Rome. 

Their  constructions  display  an  astonishing  amount 
of  practii'al  science,  and  clearly  .show  that  their  taste 
was  equal  to  theii-  skill.  Lon'g  befoie  the  properties 
of  the  catenaiT  had  been  developed  by  Hooke,  it  is 
more  than  probable  that  they  were  known  in  prac- 
tice to  the  old  Freemasons  who  built  Henry  A'll.'s 
chapel  and  other  structures  of  similar  and  previous 
date.  The  span  and  hight  of  some  of  the  principal 
vaulted  arched  stractures  are  as  follows  ;  — 


Egyptian  Arch. 


Breadth. 


Tarquin  I. 
1st  century 
13th    " 


14th 
17th 


The  Cloaca  Maxima 

"    Temple  of  Peace 
Cathedral  of  Salisbury 

"         of  Amiens 
Westminster  Abbey 
Milan  Cathedral 
St.  Peter's,  Rome 
St.  Paul's,  London 


Fig.  300. 


Arch. 


ing  the  beds  horizontal 
throughout,  the  top  be- 
ingformed  of  aflatstone. 
The  soffit  of  each  course 
was  then  cut  to  the  re- 
quired angle  with  its  bed 
by  means  of  a  templet 
ciit  to  the  radius  of  the 
vault  (Fig.  300). 

This  form  of  arch 
is  sometimes  known  as 
the  "  Egyptian,"  and 
of  course  is  an  arch 
merely  in  name,  the  con- 
structive principle  be- 
ing entirely  different,  as 
the  stones  of  which  it 


is  c  mposed  are  only  subject  to  vertical  pressure. 

The  Greeks  did  not  allow  arches  to  appear  m 
their  -visible  architecture,  but  used  them  for  covenng 
drains  and  the  like,  as  in  the  temple  of  the  Sun  at 
Athens  and  that  of  Apollo  at  Didymos.  It  wa,s, 
liowever,  contrary  to  their  architectural  principles  to 
admit  any  but  straight  lines  into  any  visible  part  ol 
a  building,  except,  perhaps,  as  mere  ornamentation, 
thus  sacrificing  in  many  instances  convenience  to 
secure  that  severe  simplicity  of  outline  by  winch 
their  public  structures  were  i-haractenzed.  Ihe 
Romans  made  very  free  use  of  them.  The  Cloaca 
Maxima,  or  Great  Sewer,  of  Rome,  is  the  oldest  known 


For  examples  of  arches  used  in  bridge  construc- 
tion, see  Bridge. 

The  term  "arch  "  in  its  widest  signification,  is  com- 
monly understood  to  mean  almost  anything  of  a 
curved  shape  employed  for  the  purpose  of  bearing 
weight  or  resisting  pressure,  but  in  its  more  restricted 
mecdianical  sense  may  lie  defined  as  a  collection  of 
wedge-shaped  bodies  termed  vovssoiis  or  arch -stones, 
of  wliich  the  first  and  last  at  each  extremity  are 
sustained  bv  a  support  or  abutment,  while  the  inter- 
mediate ones  are  held  in  position  by  their  mutual 
pressure  and  the  adhesion  of  the  mortar  or  cement 
interposed  between  them.  The  center  voussoir  a,  in 
the  highest  piart, 

or  crown,  of  the  ^ig.  301. 

arch,  is  called  the 
keystone.  The  in- 
ferior surface  of 
the  arch,  bdfe  c, 
is  the  intrmhys,  or 
sojfit,  but  this  lat- 
ter term  is  some- 
times restricted 
to  that  part  of  the 
under  surface  in 
the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  keystone,  or  crown. 
h  d,  c  c,  are  the  fli()ik:i  of  the  arch.  The  exterior  or 
top  surface  is  called  the  cdrados,  or  back.  The  points, 
be,  where  the  intrados  meets  the  alnitments,  are 
called  the  sprinqings :  their  horizontal  distance  apart, 
the  ■■ipan  ;  and"the  distance,  ;//,  from  the  center  of 
this  to  the  center  of  the  intrados,  the  ri^e  or  height 
of  the  arch. 

The  simplest,  as  it  is  the  earliest,  form  of  arch,  is 
that  of  a  segment  of  a  circle,  generally  less  than  a 
semicircumference,  such  as  is  found  in  the  works  of 
the  Romans.  The  Gothic  architects  about  the  tenth 
century  originated  the  pointed  arch,  formed  by  two 
arcs  of  circles  described  from  dittcrent  centers,  and 
meetiiigat  the  crown.  Three  and  four  centered  arches 
were  iiSroduced  into  the  later  Gothic  architecture. 


Arch. 


ARCH. 


136 


ARCH. 


Three- Centered  Arch. 


Fig.  303. 


In   the  three-ceiiterjil 

!|ipiPIfflliP'flffl!(lrf|!l   tlH-benlorthe  CLZ 

' '     IS  was  fornu'd  by  the  cor- 

ri-s]ioiiding  opposite  mcs 
of  one  circle  having  its 
center  in  a  line  perjien- 
ilicularly  beneatli  the 
ciowu  of  the  arch,  the  ii]i- 
per  opposite  sides  to  the 
crown  being  described 
with  equal  ladii,  greater 
than  the  radius  of  the 
lower  part,  from  centei's 
at  equal  distances  on  each 
side  of  the  perpendicular  passing  through  the  crown 
flf  the  arch. 

The  four-centered  areh  was,  as  its  name  imports, 
described  from  four  centers, 
the  two  lower  centers  being 
perpendicularly  under  the 
two  upper  ones  ;  from  the 
latter  are  described  the  lower 
parts  of  the  arch  near  the 
risings,  and  from  the  former, 
with  greater  radii,  the  ujqier 
parts  to  the  crown  ;  of  this 
form  is  the  Tudor  arch,  bear- 
ing somewhat  of  a  resem- 
blance to  the  ellipse.  The 
elliptic  arch  is  employed 
largely  in  bridge  building  and 
in  the  construction  of  vaults, 
drains,  etc. 
In  Fig.  304  are  shown  some  of  the  fomis  of  arches 
employed  in  architecture. 

a.  The  Semicircular  arch,  de- 
scribing half  a  circle. 

b.  The  Segment  areh,  struck 
from  a  point  below  the  spring- 
ings. 

c.  The  Elli2itic  arch  is  not 
always  truly  elliptical,  but  is 
sometimes  formed  by  the  com- 
bination of  the  arcs  of  several 
circles. 

(/.  The  Slillcd  arch  rises  from 
points  below  its  center. 

e.  The  Horseshoe  arch  is  pe- 
culiar to  the  Moorish  or  Arabic 
style  of  architecture. 

Various  styles  of  pointed  arch- 
es were  employed  by  the  Gothic 
architects,  as  shown  in  Fig.  305. 

a.  The  Equilateral  arch  ;  so 
termed  because  the  two  spring- 
ing points  and  the  crown  of  the 

'  intrados    form     an     equilateral 
triangle. 

b.  The  Lancet  arch  is  mon- 
pointed  than  the  e(juilateral 
arch  ;  and 

c.  The  Prnji  arch  less  so. 
(l.   The  Srepni'ntal  Guf/rianvh 

is  composeil  of  two  segments  of 
circles  meeting  obtusely. 

c.  The  Ogee  arch  was  intro- 
duced at  a  later  period  of  Gothic 
architecture. 

/.   The  Tudor  style  prevailed 

during   the  close  of  this   most 

graceful  order,  and  wassonamed 

from  the  then  ruling  family  of 

Forms  of  Arches.       the  English  dynasty.       It  has 


Four-  Centered  Arch. 


Fig.  304. 


I 


a   much    flattened  arch,   low  njoldings,  and  a  pro- 
fusion (if  panelings. 


Fig.  305. 


Fig.  306. 


Gothic  Arches. 


Foiled  Archts. 

Foiled    arches,    Fig.    306, 
are  so  called   from  the  com- 
partments, imitating  the  foils 
of  a    leaf,    into    which    they 
are  divided  :  as,  — 
a,  b,  c.    Trefoils, 
d.  Cinque/oil. 
p.   Poll/foil. 
The    latter    is    princijially 
met  with  in  Saracenic  and  Komanesque  buildings. 

The  Flat  arch   (Fig.    30")    is    very  fcuerally  em- 
))loyed  in  doorways,  fireplaces,  and  window  s  of  build- 
ings; its  inti  ados  has  no 
curve,   though  the  vous-  Fig.  307. 

soirs  are  arranged  so  as 
to  radiate  to  a  center, 
anil  are  laid  in  parallel 
courses ;  where  any  con- 
siderable pressure  is  to 
be  resistecl,  it  is  usu- 
ally supjioited  by  hori- 
zontal bars  of  iron  or 
wood  laid  across  the 
opening  and  having  their 
ends    supported   in    the  Flat  Arch. 

wall  on  each  side. 

In  some  examples  of  old  date  the  voussoirs  aie 
held  up  by  indented  joints  which  fit  into  each  othei'. 
In  this  form  of  arch  it  is  Tnanifest  that  almost  the 


\ 

/ 

\\ll 

ih 

i 

ARCH. 


137 


ARCH. 


Fig.  308. 


Fireplace  of  Coniijgsburgh  Castle, 

whole  jiressure  i.s  vertical,  and  that  the  arch  is  suj; 
ported  principally  by  the  cohesion  of  the 
parts  ;  so  that  it  cannot  be  used  for  cov- 
ering any  but  narrow  openings.  As  at 
present  employed  in  brickwork,  its  princi- 
pal use  is  to  relieve  the  pressure  ou  a 
beam  or  lintel  below  it. 

Oblinue,  generally  called  skew,  arches 
have  their  axes  oblinue  to  their  faces,  and 
on  account  of  the  difficulty  of  their  con- 
struction are  seldom  employed,  unless  in 
railroad  bridges  where  the  direction  of  the 
line  of  the  road  renders  it  necessary  to 
cross  streams  obliquely  to  their  courses. 
In  such  cases  it  is  necessary  that  the  piere 
should  be  parallel  to  the  current  of  the 
stream,  in  order  to  offer  as  little  resistance 
as  possible  and  aft'ord  a  free  passage  to  the  water. 

A  bridge  arcln-il  in  this  manner  is  said  to  have 
been  built  near  Florence  as  early  as  1530,  but  their 
general  introduction  dates  no  farther  back  than  the 
era  of  the  commencement  of  railroad  construction, 
about  or  a  little  previous  to  1830. 

The  ordinary  method  of  building  a  skew  arch  (Fig. 
390)  IS  to  make  it  a  portion  of  a  hollow  cylinder, 
the  voussoirs  being  laid  in  parallel  spiral  courses,  and 
their  beds  worked  in  such  a  manner  that  in  any  see- 


I      The 


of  spirals  intersecting  at  light  angles 
the  coursing  joints,  or  those  which  di- 
vide the  stones  of  each  course,  so  that 
the  voussoirs  are  rectangular  on  the 
soffit,  except  those  i|Uoins  or  voussoirs 
on  the  faces  of  the  arch  where  the  sec- 
tion exhibited  is  elliptical. 

In  Fig.  310,  instead  of  radiating  the 
bed-joints  from  the  centei-  of  the  I'ylin- 
der,  they  are  made  perpendicular  to  the 
curve  of  the  soffit  on  the  obliipic  sec- 
tion. 

Of  the  parts  of  an  arch,  — 

The  top  is  the  extrados,  or  hack. 

The  under-side  the  in/mdos,  or  soffit. 

The  line  from  which  it  commences  is 
the  sprimjing  line. 

The  stones  of  the  arch  are  voussoin. 

The  lower  one  on  each  side  is  a  spring- 
er, or  rein. 
middle  one  is  the  keystone,    and  the  course 

Fig.  310. 


Skero  Arch. 


tion  of  the  cylinder  perpendicular  to  its  axis  the 
lines  formed  by  their  intersection  with  the  plane  of 
section  shall  radiate  from  the  axis  of  the  cylinder. 
In  this  mode  of  construction  the  soffit  of  each  stone 
will  be  a  portion  of  a  cylindrical  surface,  and  the 
twist  of  the  beds  will  lie  uniform  throughout  the 
whole  of  the  arch  ;  so  that  we  have  only  to  settle 
the  amount  of  the  twist,  and  the  stones  can  then  be 
worked  with  almost  as  great  facility  as  the  voussoirs 
of  an  ordinary  arch.  The  heading  joints,  or  those 
which  divide  the  stones  of  each  course,  are  portions 


Skew  Arch. 

the  key-course. 

The  upper  portion  is  the  vertex,  or  crown. 
Midway  between  the  croimi  and  the  springings  are 
the  haunches,  or  flanks. 

The.  sjiringers,  or  reins,  rest  on  imposts,  abutincnts, 
or  piers. 

The  extreme  width  is  the  span. 
The  rise  of  the  curve  in  the  center  is  the  versed 
sine,  or  rise. 

The  space  between  the  hnunch  and  the  outscrib- 
ing  rectangle  is  the  spandrel. 

The  joints  between  vmissoirs  are  the  abreii- 
voirs ;  which  are  perjiendicular  to  the  surface 
of  the  soffit. 

The  exposed  vertical  surface  is  the  face. 
An   Annealing  Arch  is  the  oven   in   which 
glass  is  allowed  to  cool  gradually.      See  An- 
nealing. 

An  Arabian  Arch  is  one  of  horseshoe  shape. 
The  diameter  is  less  at  the  springings  than 
above. 

A  Basket-handle  Areh  is  a  three-centered, 
low-crowned  arch. 

A  Blind  Arch  is  a  closed  arch  ;  one   which 
does  not  penetrate  the  structure.     Commonly 
employed  for  mere  ornamentation,  to  make  one 
face  of  a  building  correspond  in  character  with  an- 
other front  where  there  are  actually  arched  openings. 
A  Catenarian  Arch  is  one  in  the  form  of  an  in- 
verted catenary  curve,  or  that  which  a  chain  sus- 
pended at  each  end  naturally  assumes, 

A  Compound  Arch  has  an  archivolt  receding  in 
steps  ;  giving  the  appearance  of  a  succession  of  re- 
ceding arches,  of  varying  spans  and  versed  sines. 

A  Concentric  Arch  is  one  of  several  courses  whose 
curves  have  a  common  center.  Common  in  Normau 
and  Saxon  architecture. 


ARCH-BOARD. 


138 


ARCHED   BEAM. 


A  Diseharfjiny  Arch  is  one  wliicli  is  formed  in  a 
wall  to  protect  a  space  beneath  from  the  superin- 
.  cumhent  \veif;ht. 

An  .Ircli  11/ Eqiti/ihrium  is  one  in  which  all  parts 
are  of  .siniilai'  strength,  and  the  whole  capable  of 
standing  without  abutments. 

An  .-trch  of  Equipollcncc  is  one  in  which  the 
voussoirs  are  sustained  by  mutual  opposition  ;  the 
thrust  of  the  crown  being  transferred  from  one 
stone  to  another  till  it  reaches  the  abutments. 

A     Furnace 
Fig.  311.  Arch     is     one 

which       spans 
the   fire-cham- 
%    ber    and    sup- 
Y,    ports  a  battery 
%    of  kettles  ;  or 
»    it     may    form 
_V,    the  ceiling  and 
—  ^    roof  of  a  metal- 
lurgic  furnace, 
^  ^   —  a    inuldlincj 
furnace,  for  in- 


m///////////'m/////m 


W/WWmM  stance. 


Furnace  Arch.  A      Groincd 

Arch  is  one  in- 
tersected by  other  arches  cutting  across  it  trans- 
Tcrsely.  The 
point  of  junc- 
tionisa;/roi)t. 
An  Inflect- 
ed Arch  is  a 
reversed  or  in- 


verted arch. 

An  Invert- 
ed Arch  is  one 
with  the 
crown  down- 
wards, as  in 
the  rioor  of 
a  tunnel,  the 
space  beneath 
an  opening  in 
a  foundation- 
wall,  etc. 

A   Lancet 
Arch  is  a  narrow  peaked  arch,  which  was  much  em- 
ployed  for  windows   during  the  prevalence  of  the 
Gothic  style  of  architecture,  known  a.s  Early  English. 

A  Laminated  Arch  is  one  made  of  successive  thick- 
nesses of  planking,  bent  into  shape,  and  secured  to- 
gether by  treenails  or  otherwise.  See  Arched 
Beam  ;  Laminatkd  Auch. 

A.  Rinii/iiuit  Arch  is  one  whose  abutments  are  on 
an  inclineil  iihine. 

A  lielieriiig  Arch  is  one  on  the  spandrel  of  an 
arch,  to  distribute  and  limit  the  pressure. 

A  Skene  or  Scheme  Arch,  is  a  circular  arch  not 
over  180°. 

A  SliCW  Arch  is  one  whose  line  of  direction  is 
oblique  with  its  abutment.     See  Figs.  309,  310. 

A  Straujht  Arch  is  one  built  with  voussoirs,  which 
give  a  level  intrados,  used  as  the  head  of  an  aper- 
ture in  a  wall. 

A  Splayed  Arch  is  a  funnel-shaped  arch  ;  one 
whose  two  end  sections  are  unequal. 

A  Twecr  or  Tuyire  Arch  is  an  arched  opening 
in  a  furnace-wall  at  which  the  blast-pipe  enters. 

A  Tymp  Arch  is  the  arched  opening  at  which 
the  metal  is  discharged  from  a  smelting-furnace. 

2.     ( ifin  inij. )    An  unworked  portion  of  the  ground. 

Arch-board.  {Shiphiiildiny.)  The  part  of  the 
stern  over  the  counter,  under  the  knuckles  of  the 
stern  timbers. 


Arch-brick.      A  compass  brick,  or  one  of  wedgo 

.sli;!]"'. 

Arch-but'tress.  A  flying  buttress ;  reaching 
I'roni  the  outci'  wall  of  an  aisle  to  the  clear-story  of 
the  nave  to  form  a  lateral  support  against  the  thrust 
of  tllc  iclof. 

Arched  Beam.  (Carpentry.)  A  beam  cut,  bent, 
or  built  into  an  arched  form  to  support  a  structure, 
as  a  ceiling,  rouf,  or  viaduct. 

One  form  of  the  arched  beam  is  exeniiilitied  by 
the  roof  of  tlie  dining-room  of  the  <  'haiterhou.se 
School,  London  (Fig.  312).  This  murli-perverfed 
charity  is  well  housed,  and  the  roof  of  the  refectory 
is  formed  with  circular  ribs  in  four  thicknesses  of 
1^-inch  deal  four  inches  wide,  with  saw-cuts  half 
an  inch  in  depth  on  the  under  sides,  and  put  to- 
gether with  murine  (jlue,  on  a  cradle  center.  The 
dottftl  lines  show  the  collars,  which  are  dovetailed 
one  inch  into  the  sides  of  the  principal  rafters.  The 
principal  rafters,  being  five  inches  wide,  project  on 
one  sidi'  an  inch  before  the  face  of  the  circular  ribs, 
which  are  only  four  inches  wide.  On  the  collars 
rest  the  jiurlius  supporting  the  rafters.  The  ceiling 
joists  are  spiked  uji  to  the  circular  ribs. 

The  five  main  arches  of  the  Ousebourne  Viaduct 
of  the  Newcastle,  North  Shields,  and  Tyuemouth 
Railway,  England,  are  built  of  arched  beams  ;  three 

Fig.  312. 


Roof  over  Dinin^-Rooni  at  C/iarterlwuse  School. 


of  these  have  a  s]ian  of  116  feet  each,  and  the  oth- 
ers have  114  feet  s|ian.  The  bight  of  the  rails 
above  the  lied  of  the  stream  is  108  feet,  and  the 
width  of  the  viaduct  is  31  feet, —  26  for  a  double  line 
of  rails,  and  5  for  a  foot-path.  At  each  end  of  the 
viaduct  are  two  arches  of  masonry,  and  the  total 
length  is  918  feet.  The  two  middle  piers  are 
erected  ujion  piles  from  21  to  27  feet  in  length. 
All  the  ]iii'rs  are  of  masonry,  and  tapeied  upward, 
the  principal  being  21  feet  wide  between  the  foot- 
ings and  15  feet  at  the  springing  of  the  arches. 
The  piers  are  continued  upward,  of  reduced  dimen- 
sions, to  the  level  of  the  roadway,  the  whole  of  the 
five  main  arches,  spandreling,  and  suiiei-structure 
being  formed  of  timber.  The  radius  of  these  arches 
is  68  feet,  and  their  rise  or  versed  sine  about  33  feet. 
The  ribs  forming  the  arches  are  compo.sed  of 
planks  of  Kyanized  Dantzic  pine,  the  lengths  of 
which  vary  from  20  to  46  feet,  by  11  inches  wide 
and  3  inches  thick.  The  thickness  of  each  rib  is 
made  up  of  fourteen  planks  so  bent  as  to  form  an 
arch,  and  laid  together  so  as  to  break  joint  both 
transversely  and  longitudinally.  They  are  fastened 
together  by  oaken  treenails,  li  inches  in  diameter 
and  4  feet  apart,  each  treenail  perforating  three  of 
the  planks.  Between  each  joint  in  each  direction 
is  placed  a  layer  of  strong  brown  paper  dipped  in 
boiling  tar. 


ARCHED-BEAM  BRIDGE. 


139 


ARCHED-BEAJI   ROOF. 


The  s]iandrels  are  fonueil  of  trussetl  framing,  and 
the  platform  of  the  roadway,  wliich  is  coniposed  of 
3-ilich  planking,  is  supported  upon  transverse  beams 
laid  4  feet  apart.  The  platfuriii  is  eovereil  with  a 
composition  of  boiling  tar  and  lime,  mixed  witli 
gravel  in  applying  it,  and  thus  forming  a  coating 
impervious  to  water. 

The  arched  beam  lias  been  very  extensively  used 
in  tlie  timber  bridges  of  the  United  States.  See 
WiiiiuEN  P,i;ir>r;E  ;  Ariiied-Beam  Kuuf. 

Arched-Beam  Bridge.  A  bridge  whose  span 
eitlier  consists  of  a  compound  beam,  or  one  in  which 
such  a  beam  forms  one  element  in  the  truss,  as  in 
many  of  the  wooden  bridges  of  the  last  century  and 
the  present.     See  Wooden  Biudge. 

Compound  arched  beams  of  iron  are  also  becoming 
common,  and  many  beautiful  bridges  are  now  made 
on  tliis  principle.     See  previous  article. 

The  arched  beam  is  now  a  favorite  foim  of  bridge. 
Angle-iron  of  varying  cross-section  is  freely  used. 
See  Ii:iiN  Bridge. 

Arched-Beam  Roof.  In  the  sixteenth  century 
Philibert  de  Lorme,  a  French  architect,  invented  an 

Kg.  313. 


Fig.  316. 


De  Lornie^s  Arched  Beam. 

arched  beam  (Fig.  313)  made  of  pieces  of  timber 
which  were  cut  into  short  arcs  of  the  reipiired  circle, 
placed  edgewise,  and  bolted  together,  lireaking  joint. 
Several  roofs  in  Paris  and  London  are,  or  were,  of 
this  construction. 

It  was  a  disadvantage  of  this  plan  that  the  pieces 
were  necessarily  short,  as  they  would  otherwise  pre- 
sent a  cross  grain  to  the  strain. 

The  largest  roof  of  one  span,  in  its  day,  was  that  of 
the  Imperial  Riding-House  at  JIoscow,  built  in  1790 

Fig.  314 


Imperial  Ridtn^-House . 

(Fig.  314).     The  span  is  235  feet.     Tlie  members  of 
the  arched  beam  are  notched  together  (Fig.  315)  so  as 


Notched  Arch-Beam. 

to  prevent  slipping  on  each  other.  The  ends  of  the 
arched  beam  are  prevented  from  spreading  by  a  tie- 
beam,  and  the  arch  and  tie  are  connected  together  by 
vertical  suspension-rods  and  diagonal  braces. 

Colonel  Emt's  arched  beam  (1817)  is  constructed 
on  a  principle  differing  from  both  of  the  foregoing 
(Fig.  316>.  The  ribs  in  this  roof  are  formed  of  planks 
bent  round  on  templets  to  the  proper  curve,  and  kept 


Ifc^missj 


from  separating  by  iron  straps,  and  also  by  the  radi- 
ating stmts  winch  are  in  pairs,  notched  out  so  as  to 
clip  the  rib  between  them. 

The  principals,  wall-posts,  and  arched  rib  form 
two  triangles,  firmly  braced  together,  and  exert  no 
thrust  on  the  walls  ;  the  weight  of  the  roof,  being 
thrown  on  the  walls  at  the  feet  of  the  ribs,  and  not 
at  the  pole  plate,  peimits  the  npjier  jiortion  of  tlie 
walls  to  be  comparatively  light. 

The  Colonel  erected  a  roof  of  tliis  desciiptinn  in 
1825  at  Manic,  hear  Bayonne. 

The  principle  has  been  extensively  adopted  in 
wooden  bridges  in  the  United  States  and  in  Eu- 
rojie.     See  Wocidex  Bridge. 

The  illustration  opposite  represents  the  roof  of 
the  Union  Passenger  Depot  of  the  Xew  York  and 
Harlem  Raihvay,  projected  by  Commodore  Vaiuler- 
bilt,  and  constructed  from  the  designs  of  J.  C.  Bnek- 
hout,  C.  E.  The  roof  is  652  feet  long  and  l!i9  feet 
2  inches  between  walls.  It  is  supported  ujmn  32 
semicircular  trusses,  which  are  spaced  20  feet  4 
inches  between  centers,  exteniiing  from  a  point  2 
feet  below  the  rails  to  an  elevation  of  94  feet  from 
the  springing  line  to  the  extrados  of  the  arch.  Each 
truss  has  at  its  foot  two  tie-rods  2J  inches  in  diam- 
eter, with  a  tuni-buckle  at  the  mid  length.  The 
pitch  of  the  roof  is  formed  by  rafters  secured  to  tlie 
top  chord  of  the  arch. 

The  trusses  weigh  about  forty  tons  each,  and  were 
raised  in  sections  by  means  of  a  movable  staging 
80  feet  high,  1 60  feet  long,  and  30  feet  wide,  moving 
on  ways,  and  shifted  along  step  by  step  as  the  work 
of  raising  the  trusses  progressed.  About  8,000,000 
pounds  of  iron  were  used  in  the  structure,  10,000,000 
bricks,  20,000  barrels  of  cement. 

The  car-house  is  lighted  through  three  skylights, 
extending  over  the  entire  length  of  the  roof,  —  one  on 
the  center,  double-liitched,  and  a  single  one  on  each 
side  of  the  center,  and  having  altogether  80,000  square 
feet  of  glass,  —  nearly  two  acres.  The  north  end  is 
closed  by  an  iron  front,  the  south  end  by  the  building 
containing  the  principal  offices  of  the  Company. 
I      The  roof  covers  nearly  three  acres,  the  station  it- 


ARCHED   BUTTRESS. 


140 


ARCHITECTURE. 


self  about  four  aures.  The  station  is  designed  for 
the  u.seof  the  Hudson  River,  Harlem,  N.  Y.  Central, 
and  N.  Y.  and  Ni-w  Haven  Railways,  having  lines 
of  rail  for  eai^h  coinpany,  besides  tliose  for  the  Fourth 
Avenue  horse-ears  whieh  run  into  and  to  and  from 
this  station,  which  was  opened  for  traffic  October  7, 
1871.  The  gas-burners  of  the  building  are  lighted 
at  night  by  electricity  ;  25,000  feet  of  electric  wire 
being  used,  and  20,000  feet  of  gas-pipe.  The  144 
steam-radiators  are  heated  by  15  miles  of  steam-pipe. 

The  roof  is  ventilated  by  six  lines  of  ventiUiting 
slats  6  feet  high  and  8  inches  wide,  with  a  Z-shaped 
interval  between  the  slats. 

The  roof  of  the  St.  Pancras  Station  of  the  Midland 
Railway,  England,  covers  nearly  foiir  acres.  The 
roof  had  at  the  time  of  its  erection,  and  may  yet 
have,  the  widest  span  of  any  in  existence,  240  feet, 
and  the  space  beneath  is  unbroken  by  ties  or  braces. 
Its  style  is  subdued  Gothic,  with  segments  meeting 
at  its  crown.  The  roof  springs  from  the  platfoiin 
level,  the  principal  ribs  each  having  the  form  of  a 
four-centered  arch,  the  radii  of  the  curves  being  57 
feet  and  160  feet  respectively.  The  two  central 
curves  —  those  of  160-feet  radius  —  meet  at  an  an- 
gle in  the  center  at  a  hight  of  96  feet  above  the 
platform  level.  The  length  of  the  roof  is  690  feet, 
with  a  clear  span  of  240  feet,  covering  five  platforms, 
ten  lines  of  rails,  and  a  cab-stand  25  feet  wide,  thus 
making  a  total  area  of  165,600  square  feet.  Its 
hight  at  the  ridge  is  125  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
road.  There  are  twenty-five  principal  ribs  in  the 
roof,  29  feet  4  inches  apart  from  center  to  center, 
and  each  weighing  about  50  tons.  The  station 
walls  rise,  behiml  the  spring  of  the  principal,  the 
space  at  the  top  being  filled  in  with  open  ironwork. 

The  roof  is  glazed  about  70  feet  on  each  side  of 
the  center,  and  the  remainder  is  covered  with  slates. 

The  transverse  girders  which  support  the  floor 
of  the  station  take  the  thrust  of  the  roof.  They  are 
connected  so  as  to  form  continuous  girders  across 
the  station,  and  rest  on  the  walls  of  the  174-feet 
story  beneath.  Besides  being  tied  to  the  girders, 
the  feet  of  the  ribs  are  each  secured  by  four  3-inch 
bolts  to  an  anchor-plate  built  into  the  wall  and 
stronglv  fastened. 

Arched  But'tress.  A  flying  buttress,  or  arc- 
honfinit. 

Ar'chil.  The  extract  of  Orchilla  weed,  used  for 
dyeing,  \isually  evaporated  so  as  to  form  a  solid  mass 
like  indigo,      i'alleil  also  Oixhi/  and  Cudbear. 

Ar'chi-me-de'an  Drill.  A  drill  whose  stem 
consists  of  twisted  pinion  wire,  or  a  core  having  steep 
spirals.  A  nut  with  internal  oblique  grooves  is  re- 
ciprocated on  the  stem  and  rotates  the  latter.  A 
Persian  Diiii.i.  (which  .sec). 

Ar'chi-me-de'an  Fro-pel'ier.  A  propeller  con- 
sisting (jf  a  continuous  spiral  vane  on  a  hollow  core 
running  lengthwise  of  the  vessel.  It  is  an  amplifica- 
tion and  extension  of  the  screw.  Figure  317  shows 
it  in  horizontal  and  transverse  sections.  See  Screw 
Pkofei.i.eil. 

Ar  chi-me-de'an  Rail'way.  A  form  of  railway 
in  which  a  continuous  shaft  rotates  on  pillars  erected 
between  the  lines  of  rail,  the  shaft  haring  a  spiral 
rib  which  acts  as  a  screw  upon  a  pedestal  below  the 
car  to  jiropel  it  .along  the  track. 

Ar'chi-me-de'an  Screw.  The  invention  of  Ar- 
chimedes when  in  Egypt,  about  260  B.  c.  It  consists 
of  a  hollow  in<  lined  screw,  or  a  spiral  pipe  around 
an  inclined  axis  ;  the  lower  end  is  submerged  in  the 
water  and  the  u])per  end  discharges. 

Strabo  refers  to  a  water-raising  machine  of  this 
kind,  used  to  supply  the  garrison  of  the  Memphite 
Babylon,  on  the  Nile,  and  worked  by  150  men. 


Fig.  317 


Archimedean  Propeller. 

it  was  also  used  as  a  draining  pump  by  the  Tur- 
detani  of  Iberia  in  the  time  of  .Strabo.  This  was 
the  country  of  the  Guadalquiver.  See  Screw, 
Archimepean. 

Ar'chi-tect'ure.  The  classic  orders  are  five  : 
Doric,  Lmu;  and  Corinlhirin  (Greek-);  Tuscan  and 
Composite  {Roni'in).  The  more  modern  is  Gothic, 
which  has  several  varieties  :  Anglo-Roman,  B.  C.  55 
to  A.  D.  250  ;  Aniilo-Sfuron,  A.  D.  800  to  1066  ;  An- 
glo-Norman, 1066  to  1135  ;  Early  English  or  Point- 
'ed,  1135  to  1272  ;  rure  Gothic,  1272  to  1377  ;  Flor- 
id, 1377  to  1509  ;  Elizabethan,  1509  to  1625.  The 
subject  is  copiously  and  admirably  treated  in  niiiny 
excellent  works.  Its  interest  in  a  work  of  this  char- 
acter is  not  as  an  art,  but  as  requiring  machinery 
to  hew  and  shape  the  stones,  construct  the  fouinla- 
tions  and  the  roof,  and  also  calling  for  ingenuity  in 
providing  the  building  with  its  material  acce.ssoriesfor 
safety,  viMitilation,  warmth,  light,  and  convenience. 
The  following  are  dates  assigned  by  some  authori- 
ties for  the  buildings  mentioned  :  — 

The  Pyramids  .       (about)    B.  C.  1500 

Memnonium  ..."  1350 
Solomon's  Temple  ..."  1004 
Birs  Nimroud,  ..."  900 
Jupiter  Capitolinus  .  .  .  "  616 
Parthenon  .  .  .  .  "  438 
Pantheon  .         .  A.  D.       13 

Coliseum      .         .         .         .         "  70 

St.  Sophia  .  ..."  532 
Mosque  of  Omar,  at  Jerusalem  "  637 
Caves  of  EUora  ..."  700 
St.  Peter'.s,  Rome  ..."  1626 
St.  Paul'.s,  London       .         .  "       1710 

The  tent  is  the  original  of  the  Chinese  style. 
The  care  is  the  original  of  the  Egyptian. 
The  log  cabin  suggested  the  Grecian. 
The  aven  ue  of  trees  the  wondrous  Gothic  nave. 
The  possession  of  iron   and  various    facilities  of 


ARCHITONNEEE. 


141 


ARGAND   GAS-BURNER. 


work  have  .yet  inspired  no  one.  Some  are  anxious  to 
build  iron  liouses  as  much  like  stone  as  possible  ; 
the  most  ambitious  attempt  is  an  immense  barn  at 
Sydenham,  England,  —  an  engineering  success,  but 
not  a  work  of  inspiration. 

The  Egyptian  capitals  were  the  prototypes  of 
those  of  the  Grecian  and  Roman  orders  ;  and  the 
various  ceramic  works  of  the  Greeks  and  Etruscans 
were  strangely  like  those  of  the  Nile  people.  The 
opening  of  the  Egyptian  ports  by  Psammeticus, 
670  B.  c,  was  fortunate  for  the  nations  on  the 
northern  shore  of  the  Mediterranean. 

For  Specific  Inde-x  of  Apxhitecture,  see  M.\son's 

A.ND  Br.RKL.-lYEll's  WoKK. 

Ar'chi-ton-nere.    A  name  for  the  Ste.\>i  Gun. 

Ar'chi-trave.  (Aixhilecture.)   That  portion  of  an 

entablature  which  rests  upon  the  columns  ;  the  hntcl. 

{Carpcittrii.)     The  molding  around  a  doorway  or 

window.     The  respective  portions  are  known  as  the 

iransoemc.  arr-hiiravc,  and  cDxhilravc  jambs. 

Ar'chi-volt.  {Architecture.)  o.  A  molding  run- 
ning round  the  face  of  an  arch. 

b.  The  inner  curve  formed  by  the  voussoirs  or 
arch-stones. 

Arch'-stone.  A  wedge-shaped  stone  used  in  an 
arch ;  a  voussoir.  In  some  fui'naces  the  chamber,  or 
an  opening  thertinto,  is  covered  by  a  flat  aslilar, 
which  is  called  an  arch-stone. 

Arc'o-graph.    An  instrument  for  describing  arcs 
of  circles  without  the  use  of  centers.     A  thin  and 
pliable  strip  of  metal   whose  ends 
Fig.  318.         are   attached    to   the   wooden    bar 
may  be  sprung   into  the  required 
shape   and    then    fastened    by   set 
screws.       Unless    the    stock    have 
means  for  extension  and  contraction, 
the  range  of  arc  which  may  be  de- 
scribed will  he  but  limited.     The 
device  is  susceptible  of  many  varia- 
tions, and  is  useful  as  a  templet  or 
marker  for  many  pui'poses. 
Arcograpli.  A-re-om'e-ter.    An  instrument 

used  by  the  Spanish  Saracens  A.  D. 
1000.  It  had  a  bulb  and  stem  similar  to  a  hy- 
drometer ;  floating  in  liquid,  its  stem  was  more  or  less 
submerged  by  the  changes  in  the  density  of  the 
liquid  due  to  changes  of  the  temperature,  and  thus 
constituted  a  thermometer. 

Nicholson's  areometer  consists  essentially  of  the 
funnel  a,  the  cylinder  b,  rod  c  m,  and  the  table  or 
plate  d. 

The  instrument  is  so  arranged  that  when  set  in 
distilled  water  and  a  definite  weight  laid  upon  (/,  it 
will  sink  to  a  mark  m  made  on 
Fig.  319.  the  rod.     To  deteiTnine  the  spe- 

cific gravity  of  a  mineral,  it  is  laid 
on   the  plate  el,  when  it  will  of 
course  depress  the  instrument  in 
the    water.       Additional   weights 
must  be  added  to  bring  the  mark 
5/1  to  the  level  of  the  water,  and 
the   amount   of  these   subtracted 
from  the  standard  weight  already 
referred  to  will  be  the  weight  of 
the  mineral  in  the  air.     Call  this 
weight  p.     Remove   the   mineral 
from  the  plate,  and  place  it  in  the 
funnel  or  hollow  cone  a  ;  immersed 
in  the  water  the  areometer  will  not 
sink  quite  to  m,  say  about  to  c, 
,        the  body  losing  in  water  an  amount 
SA'    of  weight  equal  to  that  of  a  quan- 
Xicholsons  Artom.  titj'  °^  ^''^ter  of  precisely  the  same 
etiT.  volume  with  itself,  that  is,  equal  to 


that  of  the  water  displaced.  Additional  weights 
are  now  to  be  laid  on  d  until  the  level  ;/(  is  again 
reached.  This  amount,  which  we  will  call  p',  ex- 
presses the  weight  of  an  equal  volume  of  water. 
We  have  thus  ascertained  the  weight  of  precisely 
equal  volumes  of  water  and  of  the  mineral,  and  as 
water  is  the  standard  taken,  -^.  will  express  the  ratio 


body. 


Fig  320. 


of  the  two,  or  the  specific  gravity  of  tlie 

Thus,  .(,■   :  1   :  :  p   :  p',  and  .<.■  =  -j-,. 

The  areometer  of  Pappus,  the  Greek  philosopher 
contemporary  with  Theodosius  the  CUeat,  A.  D. 
379-395,  is  described  by  A  1-Khaziui  the  Saracen,  an 
eminent  writer  of  the  twelfth  century,  the  author  of 
the  "Book  of  the  Balance  of  Wisdom,"  and  sus- 
pected to  be  identical  with  the  great  Al-Hazen, 
whose  celebrity  is  associated  with  the  Cordovan 
period  of  Spanish  history.  It  was  a  graduated  brass 
tube  which  floated  vertically  in  liquid  and  indicated 
by  the  line  of  submergence  the  degree  above  or  below 
the  "  eqtiator  of  ecpiilibriuni,"  the  specific  gi'avity 
of  the  matter  weighed. 

The  surmise  of  Chev.  Khanikoff,  indorsed  by  Dra- 
per, that  Abu-Jafar  Al-Khazini  and  AI-Hazen  were 
identical  may  be  correct.  They  were  certainly  con- 
temporaries, but  the  former,  who.se  name  it  is  impos- 
sible to  find  in  any  other  part  of  the  Persian  an- 
nals, fails  in  some  respects  to  answer  for  'Abu-'Ali 
Muhammad  Bin  'al-Hasan  'Ibu  'al-Haltham,  said 
to  be  of  Basrah. 

The  book  referred  to  above  as  the  writing  of  .A.1- 
Khazini  was  composed,  as  is  seen  in  the  Dedi- 
cation, at  the  court  of  the  Salji'ike  Sultan  Sanjar, 
who  reigned  over  a  large  part  of  the  ancient  Khah- 
fate  of  Baghdad  from  A.  D.  1117  to  1157. 

The  areometer  of  Pappus  is  very  similar  to  the 
Volumeter  of  Gay  Lussac. 

G.AY  Ll'ssac's  scale  areometer  consists  of  a  cylin- 
drical glass  tube  in  the  lower 
part  of  whicha  ball  his  blo^^■n, 
and,  being  continued,  finally 
terminates  in  another  ball  c. 
The  latter  is  filled  with  shot 
or  mercury,  to  cause  the  in- 
strument to  sink  vertically  in 
distilled  water  to  a  certain 
point,  the  zero.  The  .specific 
gravity  of  a  liquid  is  ascer- 
tained by  the  depth  of  depres- 
sion, itsweight  being  equal  to 
that  of  the  liquid  displaced. 
It  is  a  fonn  of  hydrometer. 

A-re-o-stylos.  Aninter- 
coluuiuiation  of  four  diam- 
eters width. 

Ar'gand  Gas'-burn-er. 
The  Argand  Gas-burner  has 
a  circular  series  of  holes  on  the 
upper  edge  of  a  cylindrical 
chamber,  having  a  central 
aperture  to  allow  access  of  air 
to  tlie  inside  of  the  flame. 

The  jets  from  the  series  of 
holes  unite  to  form  a  cylin- 
drical flame.  The  holes  are 
aboiit  one  sixth  of  an  inch  in 
diameter,  and  when  there  are 
ten  holes  in  the  circle,  tin 
middle  opening  will  be  four 
tenths  of  an  inch  in  diameter ;  with  twenty-five  open, 
ings,  the  central  aperture  will  be  about  one  inch  in 
diameter. 

The  following  formula  is  given  for  the  number  of 
holes,  central  ajierture,  hight  of  flame  without 
smoking,  and  appropiiate  size  of  chimney  :  — 


1' 

r^/ 

^^ 

Gay  Luxsac'S  Areotneter 


ARGAND   LAMP. 


142 


ARGENTINE  GLASS. 


No.  of  • 
Apertures. 

10 
15 
20 
25 


Central  Hight  of       Diameter  of  Glass 


Openiug. 
inch. 


M 


Flame, 
ioch. 

3 

H 

2 


Chimney. 

inch. 

s 

iTT 
1-2 
TTT 
18 
IW 

Iff 


Fig  322. 


321  the  lowi'i'  section  of  the  burner  has 
an  orifice  for  the  gas,  which  is  more 
or  less  obstructed  by  the  end  of  a  screw 
whii'h  is  either  turned  directly  by 
hand,  or,  when  rertical  and  inclosed 
within  the  burner,  is  turned  by  a 
lever  projecting  through  a  slot  there- 
in. 

Ar'gand    Lamp.      Invented    by 
Argand,  a  native  of  Geneva,  about  the 
year  1784.    It  consists  of  two  concen- 
tric cylindrical  tubes  between  which 
is  fitted  the  annular  wick  used  in  this 
peculiar  burner.     The  aunulus  inclos- 
ing the  wick  is  closed  at  the  bottom, 
and  communicates,   by   a  pipe,  with  the  oil  reser- 
voir.     The   interior    tube   being    open,  free   access 
of   air   is   allowed   to  the  inte- 
rior  and  exterior  of  the    flame, 
insuring  more  eij^ual  and  perfect 
combustion. 

In  a  round  solid  wick,  burning 
any  of  the  fatty  oils,  such  as 
sperm,  a  large  proportion  of  the 
carbon,  which  in  that  class  of  oils 
is  gi-eatly  in  excess  of  the  hydro- 
gen, escapes  unconsumed  and  is 
wasted,  rising  in  the  form  of 
smoke. 

The  annular  wick  has  double 
the  surface  of  a  solid  one  of  the 
same  diameter  exposed  to  the 
contact  of  the  atmosphere,  and 
as  the  flame  is  also  thinner  its 
temperature  is  more  unifonn,  and 
the  vapor  from  the  center  of  the 
wick  is  consumed  equally  with 
that  from  its  exterior.  The  com- 
bustion is  also  greatly  aided  by 
the  draft  caused  by  the  glass 
chimney,  continually  bringing  fresh  supplies  of  oxy- 
gen in  contact  witli  the  flame  and  protecting  it  from 
currents  of  air.  The  chimney  was  the  invention 
of  L'Ange. 

Argand  died  in  180.3.  A  French  mechanic  named 
Carcel  patented  an  improvement  in  1800,  in  which 
the  oil  is  pumped  from  the  reservoir  to  the  wick  by 
])ower  derived  from  a  spring  or  by  the  ascending  eoi- 
umn  of  air  above  the  chimney.  This  is  called  the 
Mcchaiiiciil  Lamp,  and  is  used  in  the  large  lamps 
for  the  Dioptric  system  in  lighthouses. 

The  Argand  burner  as  modified  by  Fresnel  for  the 
Dioptric  system  in  lighthouses  ha,s  four  concentric 
wicks,  the  outer  one  3J  inches  in  diameter,  and  the 
gi'eat  heat  produced  is  carried  off  by  two  means,  — 
overflowing  the  wicks  with  oil,  ami  by  means  of  the 
ventilator  devised  by  Faraday.  Tlu-  oil  in  super- 
abundant quantity  is  pumped  into  the  wick-tubes 
and  flows  over  the  top.  The  ventilator  is  a  tube 
having  several  sections,  the  lower  portion  of  eaidi 
being  flaring,  and  receiving  the  upper  end  of  the 
section  below,  which  entei-s  it  a  short  distance.  The 
top  of  the  lamp-chinmey  enters  the  lower  section 
and  pi'oduces  a  great  tlraft. 

The  Argand  lam])  first  made  effective  the  Catop- 
tric system  for  lighthouses. 


Argand  Lamp. 


The   annexed    engraving  shows   the  lamji   in  its 
lower  position,  withdrawn  from  its  place  in  the  focus 
of  the  paraboloid  reflector  a 
for  trimming,    b  is  the  bum-  Fig-  323. 

er,  and  c  a  cylindrical  foun- 
tain containing  twenty-four 
ounces  of  oil.  The  oil-pipe, 
burner,  and  fountain  are  con- 
nected to  a  frame  d,  which 
is  movable  in  a  vertical 
direction  upon  guide-rods  e 
/,  by  which  it  can  be  let 
down  by  simply  turning  the 
handle  g. 

An  aperture  of  an  ellip- 
tical form,  measuring  about 
two  inches  by  three,  is  cut 
in  the  upper  and  lower  part  " 
of  the  reflector,  tlie  lower 
serving  for  the  free  egress 
and  ingress  of  the  burner, 
and  the  upper,  to  which  the 
copper  tube  /(  is  attached, 
serving  for  ventilation  ;  i 
shows  a  cross-section  and  a 
back  view  of  the  main  bar  of 
the  chandelier  or  frame  on  Argand  Lamp. 

which     the     reflectors     are 

ranged,  each  being  made  to  rest  on  knobs  of  brass, 
one  of  which  is  soldered  to  the  brass  band  /,  that 
clasps  the  exterior  of  the  reflector,  m  is  an  oil  cup 
to  catch  drii>.  A  frost  lamp  is  placed  at  this  point 
in  winter  to  keep  the  oil  in  the  wick-tube  in  a 
flowing  condition. 

The  tubular  wick -burner  (Fig.  324)  has  a  wa- 
ter-chamber B  C"  interposed  between  the  wick- 
tube  and  the  oil-res- 


ervoir, soastoprevent 
the  heating  of  the 
contents  of  the  lat- 
ter. The  wick  occu- 
pies an  annular  s[iace 
formed  by  two  con- 
centric wicks.  M 
is  the  deflector  jilate, 
and  C  I  a.  frustrum 
to  reflect  upward  the 
heat  which  ri'aches 
the  inside  of  the  tube. 
G"  is  a  perforated  floor 
to  prevent  the  con- 
duction of  flame,  on 
the  principle  of  Da- 
vy'ssafety-lamp.  The 
water  has  an  overflow 
down  the  central  air- 
tube.  A'  is  the  base 
ring  for  the  chimney. 

Ar-gent'alMer'- 
cu-ry.  .Silver  iunal- 
gam. 

Ar'gen-tan.     An 
alloy   of   nickel  cop- 
per and  zinc.     Albata 
sect. 

Ar'gen-tine.     Wljite 

Ar'gen-tine  Glass. 
havins  the  sheen  of 


Fig.  324 


Dopp^s  Argand  Lamp, 

Ger.m.\n  SiLVEii  iwhich 


metal  coated  with  silver. 
An  ornami'iital  glassware 
ilver.  It  is  the  invention  of 
Apsley  Pellatt,  and  is  formed  by  inclosing  delicate 
white  Argentine  iucru.stations  of  dry  porcelain  clay 
with  solid  and  transjiarent  glass. 

The  dry  figures  are  placed  on  a  red-hot  bulb  of 
flint  glass  and  innnediately  covered  with  a  thin  layer 
of  very  fluid  glass. 


ARGEXTOMETEH. 


143 


ARITHMOJIETER. 


The  exterior  layer  is  polislied,  and  gives 
a  silvery  brightness  to  the  wliite  figure. 

Ar-gen-tom'e-ter.  A  graduated  tube 
used  for  ascertaining  the  amount  of  silver 
in  a  solution  by  the  admission  of  a  definite 
bulk  of  chloride  of  sodium  sohition. 

Ar-gen'tum  Mo-sa'i-cum.  An  alloy, 
or  rather  amalymn,  of  tin,  bismuth,  and 
mercury,  used  for  coloring  images  of  plas- 
ter of  Paris.     Argcntuiii  Miisivum. 

Ar'gil.  Potter's  clay,  from  the  Latin 
argitlii  :  white  clay. 

Ar'go-sy.  A  merchant-ship  of  the  Med- 
iterranean ;  specially  of  the  Levant.  The 
tenn  is  now  antiquated. 

A'ri-es.  The  battering-ram,  so  called  be- 
cause the  metallic  head  of  the  beam  was 
sometimes  fa.shioned  like  the  head  of  a  ram. 
As  a  means  of  battering  walls  it  is  said  to 
have  been  invented  by  Artemanes  of  Cal- 
zomene,  a  Greek  architect,  about  441  B.  c.  It  is  de- 
scribed by  Josephus,  who  states  that  it  was  some- 
times supported  on  the  shouldei-s  of  men  who  ad- 
vanced on  a  run  ;  at  other  times  it  was'  slung  from 
a  frame,  and  operated  by  ropes. 

Philip  of  Slacedon  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  to 
place  the  frame  on  wheels,  at  the  siege  of  Byzantium. 
Plutarch  informs  us  that  Marc  Antony,  in  the  Par- 
thian war,  made  use  of  an  aries  80  feet  long.  Vi- 
tnivius  says  they  were  sometimes  106  to  120  feet  in 
length. 

A-rith-mom'e-ter.  An  instrument  for  assisting 
in  calculating.  The  most  ancient  form  is  the  Aba- 
cus (which  see).  This  has  a  series  of  wires,  the 
balls  on  which  represent  units,  tens,  hundreds,  etc., 
and  is  used  by  sliding  the  balls  on  the  wire,  to 
tabulate  the  result  of  each  successive  increment  or 
decrement  of  numbers. 

If  the  balls  were  numbered  and  several  series 
were  strung  upon  a  ring,  they  might  be  passed  con- 
tinuously in  the  same  direction,  as  the  addition  re- 
quired. 

The  Arabs,  to  whom  we  are  indebted  for  the  in- 
troduction  of  the    Indian   numerals,  termed   their 
treatises    "Sy.stems  of  Indian  Arithmetic."      The 
word  cipher  is  the  Arabic  tsnphora,  —  ' '  blank  "  or 
"void  "  ;  alluding  to  its  integral  value.     The  word 
algebra  is  also  Arabic.     The  words  chemise,  cotton, 
are  also  Arabic,  and  to  the  Arabs  Europe  is  also  in- 
debted for  the  introduction  of  the  gamient  and  the 
material.     Mohammed  Ben  Musa  wrote  a  treatise 
on  algebra  in  the  latter  part  of  the  ninth  century. 
The  Khalif  Al-Maimon  measured  a  degree  of  lati- 
tude on  the  Red  Sea  shore.     This,  when  the  teach- 
ings of  Constantinople  and  Rome  were  on  the  scale 
and  stanilard  of  Byron's  Grand  Seignoir,  — 

"  He  knew,  because  he  saw,  the  moon  was  round. 
Also  was  certain  that  the  earth  was  square."  —  Don  Juan. 

An  arithmometer  was  suggested  by  the  JIarquis 
of  Worcester  in  his  "  Century  of  Inventions,"  but 
was  not  described.  It  wa.s  adapted  for  addition  and 
subtraction. 

Sir  Samuel  Morland,  in  1672-73,  published  a 
ti'eatise  on  the  use  of  two  arithmetical  instru- 
ments adapted  for  addition  and  subtraction. 

In  Fig.  325,  instead  of  balls  on  a  wire,  a  series  of 
sectional  belts  operate  numbered  wheels,  which  are 
rotatable  in  one  direction  only.  The  numbers  on 
the  peripheries  of  the  wheels  are  exposed  at  a  row  of 
openings  in  the  case.  The  sections  of  the  belt  are 
perforated  so  as  to  be  moved  by  a  peg,  the  selection 
of  the  place  for  the  peg  being  assisted  by  a  row  of 
numbere  over  each  belt. 


Fig.  325. 


o 

o 

o                   o 

Thnus. 

B 

o 

o 

9    s    :    >i    h    4    ::    a    1       I 

o|   ojo       :      :       :       :      oldolo 

a     ?       T      ri     r.      4      .f      2     1        I 

O   i0]0|   0|   O   ]    0|   0|   0   [0;    0|    O 

9876543      2     1        ( 

o|o|olo|o|o|o|o|olo!o 

9fi7654;i21        r 

o(o|o|o|o|otojoJDJo|o 

y     8      7      fi      5     4      3      1'     1        1 

JA. 

Computing  Machine. 

The  Calculator  (Fig.   3261  has  disks  numbered  on 
their  peripheries  and  an'anged  on  a  common  axis. 

Fig.  326. 


'CaleukaoT. 


They  are  moved  by  cogs  exposed  conveniently  to  be 
operated  by  the  finger,  and  are  so  connected  that 


Ar':tli}iiomftfr. 


ARITHMOMETEE. 


144 


ARM,    AKTIFICIAL. 


Fig.  328.  the  motion  often 

cog.s  on  the  disk 
of  units  gives  tlie 
next  ili.sk  a  sin- 
gle impulse  and 
registers  ten,  and 
soon  through  the 
series.  The  re- 
sult is  visible  at 
a  slit  in  the  ease. 
Fig.  327  has 
also  the  num- 
bered disks, 
which  are  moved 
by  handles 
sweeping  in  cir- 
cular arcs.  It 
performs  the  op- 
erations of  addi- 
tion, subtrac- 
tion, multiplica- 
tion, and  divis- 
ion, the  results 
appearing  at  dif- 
ferent slits  in  the 
case.  Space  will 
not  permit  an 
exact  elucidation  of  the  mode  of  operation  of  tliis 
ingenious  machine. 

Another  form  of  arithmometer  is  that  in  which 
disks  of  varying  diameters  overlie  each  other,  anil 
communicate  motion  to  each  other  in  regular  series, 
as  in  Fig.  328,  the  units  to  the  tens,  these  to  the 
hundreds,  etc.  The  principle  is  substantially  the 
same  as  those  previously  described,  hut  the  device 
has  a  compact  appearance,  and  the  result  is  read  on 
a  dial. 

One  other  form  is  analogous  to  the  disks  of  a  gas- 
meter   register,   which   is  in  fact  an  arithmometer. 

Pig.  329. 


Disk  Arithmometer. 


Ciphering  Machine. 

See  Fig.  329.  The  different  disks  are  arranged  on 
their  separate  axes,  an<l  u.sually  have  their  numbers 
on  their  circular  fai^es.  A  revolution  of  the  unit 
wheel  gives  one  tentli  of  a  revolution  to  the  wheel 
registering  tens,  and  so  on  ;  the  numbers  of  the 
wheels  appear  at  the  series  of  openings  in  the  slit, 
and  are  read  consecutively.  In  the  gas  register  the 
impulse  is  all  imparted  to  the  unit  wheel,  and  fiom 


it  is  transmitted  througli  the  series  ;  but  in  adding 
machines  eai'h  wheel  must  have  capacity  for  inde- 
pendent rotation  to  register  thousands,  hundreds, 
tens,  and  units,  not  atlecting  those  below  it  of  lesser 
denomination,  but  each  imparting  to  the  one  above 
it  one  tenth  of  its  own  motion. 

Registering  devices  are  to  be  seen  very  perfectly 
constructed  in  steam-engines  and  printing-presses  ; 
in  the  former  to  record  the  number  of  revolutions  of 
the  shaft  for  economical  purpose  in  estimating  the 
consumption  of  steam,  the  slip  of  the  padillcs,  etc., 
and  in  the  latter  case  for  keeping  record  of  the  num- 
ber of  impressions.  See  Calculating  Machine, 
Babrage's. 

Ark.  A  flat-bottomed  boat  made  of  a  frame  and 
hoards  which  do  not  usually  overlap,  but  are  nailed 
to  the  frame  and  have  the  interstices  calked  or 
daubed. 

It  is  used  on  the  Western  rivers  to  transport  pro- 
duce, ]«'lts,  nievi'handise,  etc. 

Ar-lien-ans'e.  {Fabric.)  A  kind  of  Spanish  linen. 

Arm.  (Angle-Iron.)  1.  One  of  the  wings  or 
flanges  of  angle-iron.  The  side-arm  of  the  angle- 
iron  in  a  ship's  frame  forms  the  /«;/('H(/-surface 
to  which  the  plates  are  riveted.  The  other  arm 
is  in  the  plane  of  the  transverse  section  of  the 
vessel. 

2.  (Knees.)  One  of  the  members -or  projections 
of  a  knee.  With  timber  knees,  the  arms  are  usually 
two,  resting  respectively  against  the  beam  and  the 
shi]i's  sides.  With  iron  knees,  the  amis  may  be 
more  numerous,  and  may  embrax^e  other  sides  of  the 
object  to  which  they  appertain. 

3.  (NaiUical.)  One  of  the  projecting  members  of 
an  anchor,  terminating  in  a  fluke  or  palm  which 
takes  hold  on  the  ground. 

The  arms  unite  at  the  crown. 
The  throat,  is  at  the  junction  of  the  inner  edge  of 
the  arm  with  the  sliank. 

The  trcAid  is  that  part  of  the  shank  reach- 
ing from  the  throat  towards  the  stock,  a  dis- 
tance equal  to  the  length  of  the  arm . 
The  pee  or  bill  is  the  point  of  an  arm. 

4.  The  outer  piece  of  an  overshot  water- 
wheel  bucket.  Also  called  the  wrist.  The 
inner  piece  is  the  floor  oi'  bottom.  See 
BtTCKET. 

5.  (I'chicles.)  That  part  of  the  axle  which 
passes  through  the  huh  of  the  wheel.  The 
axlc-spinclle.  When  of  wood,  it  is  strength- 
ened by  metallic  straps  called  skeins,  and 
sometimes  by  a  conical  slieath  called  a  thiiti- 
ble-skcin. 

In  carriages  it  is  of  iron,  in  continuation 
of  the  iron  axle,  or  it  is  inserted  into  the 
end  of  a  wooden  axle.     See  Axle. 

6.  Of  a  hammer.  The  liandle  of  a  trip- 
hammer, which  receives  the  impulse  of  the 
cams. 

7.  Of  a  windmill.  The  beam  which  sup- 
ports a  sail ;  the  sail  itself ;  also  called  a 
whip. 

3.   A  .spoke  of  a  gear-wheel. 

9.  An  end  of  a  yard. 

10.  A  weapon ;  as,  side-arm,  fire-arm, 
small-ann. 

Arm,  Ar-ti-fi'cial.  Artificial  arms  are  adapted 
for  amputations  above  or  below  the  elbow,  respective- 
ly. In  the  former  case  the  movements,  in  the  most 
jierfect  artilicial  arms,  are  derived  from  tlie  motions 
of  the  stum|> ;  the  backwaril  motion  of  the  latter  ex 
tending  the  joints  of  the  prosthetic  arm  and  hand, 
and  the  forward  motion  of  the  stump  flexing  the 
said  joints.     These  motions  are  derived  from  bars  or 


ARM,   ARTIFICIAL. 


145 


ARM,   ARTIFICIAL. 


cords  whicli  connect  the  forearm  to  a  shield  on  the 
shoulder,  as  in  Ivoeller's,  or  to  bauds  on  tlie  body,  as 
in  Condell's  and  in  Uren's. 

In  these  cases  the  upper  arm  consists  of  a  socket 
to  i-eceive  the  stump  of  the  limb,  and  is  secured  by 
straps  to  the  person  ivitli  a  certain  degree  of  rigidity. 
The  anteiior  and  posterior  tendons  or  rods  have  a 
tinii  attachment  at  or  near  the  slioulder,  pass  along 
or  through  the  upper  section,  and  are  attached  to 
such  points  on  the  forearm  that,  as  one  or  the  other 
is  tightened,  the  forearm  is  Hexed  or  extended.  In 
some  cases  the  oscillation  or  the  elbow-articulation 
is  obtained  by  cords  which  have  diiector  intermediate 
attachment  to  the  forearm,  as  in  Condell's  and  Peter- 
sou's  ;  in  others  the  cords  or  bars  move  a  toothed 
wheel  which  engages  a  ])inion  on  the  elbow  axis 
and  gives  motion  to  the  forearm,  as  in  one  of  Koel- 
ler's. 

The  backward  motion  of  the  stump,  it  will  be 
apparent,  tends  to  strain  tlie  anterior  tendon,  whicli 
is  so  connected  to  tlie  forearm  behind  the  elbow- 
joint  as  to  extend  the  foreann.  The  forward  motion 
of  tlie  stump  strains  the  posterior  tendon  which 
connects  to  the  forearm  in  front  of  the  articulation, 
and  thus  Hexes  it  as  the  stump  is  moved  forward. 
Thesemotions  follow  the  natural  ones,  as,  forinstance, 
in  the  act  of  raising  the  hand  to  the  mouth  it  is 
usual  to  oscillate  the  arm  forward  on  the  shoulder  as 
a  pivot,  and  backwardly  as  the  hand  descends.  In 
the  natural  arm  the  pivotal  position  of  the  forearm 
is  varied  so  as  to  cause  the  said  arm  to  swing  in 
an  arc  which  will  bring  the  hand  to  the  required 
place,  say  the  iijouth,  for  instance  ;  in  the  artilicial 
arm,  the  motion  on  the  shoulder  is  the  generator  of 
the  motion  on  the  elbow,  and  a  certain  amount  of 
practice  and  adjustment  is  required  to  proportion 
the  parts  so  that  the  consentaneous  action  of  the 
parts  which  produce  the  compound  motion  may, 
without  apparent  constraint  or  indecision,  land  the 
hand  at  the  ol>ject.  When  the  trunk  of  a  per.son 
affords  points  of  attachment  for  the  Hexor  and  ex- 
tensor stra]>s,  the  motions  of  the  shoulder  itself, 
relatively  to  the  thorax,  and  involving  the  clavicle 
and  scajiula,  may  be  made  to  assist  in  executing  the 
motions  required. 


The  primary  motion  of  the  stump  having  been 
communicated  to  the  forearm  by  the  means  described, 
(and  the  special  devices  are  various  and  very  inge- 
nious,)  the  motions  of  the  hand  are  derived  from 
that  of  the  forearm  by  means  of  tendons,  slides,  or 
other  attachments.  The  construction  will  farther 
appear  when  considering  some  of  the  varieties  of 
artificial  arms,  though  it  will  not  be  possible  to 
afford  space  for  an  exhaustive  description  even  of 
the  sixteen  patents  which  have  been  selected  and 
are  now  betbre  the  writer. 

One  class  of  arms  does  not  receive  motion  from 
the  stump,  but  retains  the  position  at  whicli  it  is  set 
by  the  other  hand,  or  assumes  and  retains  it  by 
swinging  it  in  one  direction  or  the  other  till  it  is 
engaged  by  a  spring  latch.  Drake's,  also  Lindsay 
and  Vance's,  are  illustrations  of  the  former;  Lincoln's 
of  the  latter. 

To  secure  the  requisite  lightness  and  afford  room 
for  the  operative  devices,  artificial  arms  are  made 
hollow.  The  material  is  various,  and  some  patents 
have  been  issued  for  the  use  of  specific  materials, 
such  as  rawhide,  which  has  a  toughness  and  strenrth. 
hardly  to  be  excelled.  Vulcanite,  papier-mache, 
layers  of  fabric  alternating  with  glue,  veneers,  card- 
board, and  hollow  wooden  blocks  shaped  to  the 
natural  contour,  have  all  been  advocated  and  used. 

The  tubular  form  does  not  always  extend  to  the 
metacarpus,  and  the  fingers  especially  are  frequently 
made  of  solid  jointed  blocks,  with  tendon.s,  cartilage, 
and  ligaments.  These  prosthetic  parts  perform  the 
functions  of  their  correlatives,  as  being  the  means  of 
motion,  giving  resiliency  to  the  contact  of  the  parts, 
and  specific  connection  to  the  phalanges.  In  the 
latter  case,  the  hingeing  of  the  parts,  it  must  be  ad- 
mitted that  the  liuniau  mechanic  has  assumed  a 
hard  task  in  attempting  to  copy  the  natural  articu- 
lations, and  that  he  has  done  commendably  with  the 
materials  at  hand. 

In  Coxdell's  arm  the  loop  appendage  is  a  yoke  of 
webbing  for  the  attachment  of  the  socket  to  the 
stump,  and  for  securing  such  a  rigid  connection  to 
the  body  that  the  three  straps  proceeding  down  the 
humerus  may  be  utilized  when  the  stump  is  moved 
backward,  forward,  or  rotated,  in  producing  extension 


Fig.  330. 


10 


CttnJtWi  Anificiat  Arm. 


ARM,  ARTIFICIAL. 


146 


ARM,   ARTIFICIAL. 


anil  fli'xion  of  the  arm  and  tlie  forward  motion  of  tlie 
nietai.'ar]ius  wliieli  opens  the  phalanges.  Tlie  axis 
moves  with  the  forearm,  and  a  stud  F  thereon  atibrUs 
a  point  of  attachment  lor  the  spring  N,  wlio.se  dnty  is 
to  assist  in  extension.  The  straps  D'  If-  are  re.sjiec- 
tively  attaehed  to  the  yoke  in  prjsterior  and  anterior 
positions,  and  to  the  arm  of  the  rock-shaft  L  at  F 
anil  M  respectively.  The  draft  on  D'  acts  to  Hex, 
and  on  /)-  to  extend,  the  foreann,  by  means  of  the 
link  1>,  which  is  pivoted  to  the  forearm  anteriorly. 
Tlie  flexor  and  extensor  motions  described  apply  to 
the  forearm,  Init  do  not  involve  the  action  of  the 
hand,  the  metaeai-pus  of  which  is  hinged  by  a 
through  pin  to  the  mid-wrist.  A  post  g  is  perma- 
nently attacheil  in  the  hollow  of  the  arm,  and  a 
spring  tendon  Z  passes  from  it  to  a  point  on  the 
metacarpus  back  of  its  wrist  articulation,  so  as  to 
oscillate  it  backwardly.  This  spring  being  constant, 
the  normal  position  of  the  metacarpus  is  rearward 
and  the  lingers  and  thumb  closed.  Tlie  relation  of 
the  motion  of  these  to  that  of  the  metacarpus  will  be 
presently  described.  The  forward  motion  of  the  hand 
anil  the  opening  of  the  gras|i  are  effected  by  a  slight 
rotation  of  the  shoulder,  which  draws  upon  the  strap 
c,  oscillates  the  post  rf,  and  by  means  of  the  tendon  e 
draws  forward  the  metacarpus  extending  the  pha- 
langes. 

The  forward  portion  of  the  forearm  is  sleeved 
upon  the  butt  or  wooden  part  in  wliicli  the  post  </ 
is  secured.  By  the  partial  rotation  of  the  forward 
portion  the  ulna-radial  motion  is  given  (by  the  otli- 
er  hand),  to  vary  the  presentation  of  tlie  palm  ;  the 
tendons  which  actuate  the  metacarpus  still  main- 
taining the  same  relation,  that  is,  having  their 
points  of  attachment  thereto  at  opposite  sides  of 
the  axis  of  vibration. 

The  frame-piece  m  of  each  linger  is  pivoted  to  a 
point  on  the  metacarrius  ;',  and  the  rod  at  the  back 
of  the  hand  is  pivoted  to  the  frame-piece  and  also  to 
a  point  on  the  forearm  at  o,  so  that  when  the  meta- 
carpus is  moved,  by  the  means  previously  described, 
the  frame  m  is  oscillateil  on  its  pivot,  and  gives  the 
primary  deflection  to  the  tinger.  The  second  sec- 
tion of  the  iinger-frame  is  pivoted  to  a  point  on  the 
frame  m,  and  is  connected  by  a  link  to  a  stud  per- 
manently attached  to  the  metai.-arpus  ;  by  this 
means  is  obtained  the  adilitional  dcHcction  proper  to 
the  second  phalange.  The  additional  deflection  due 
to  the  third  phalange  is  given  by  a  rod  attached  to 
it  and  to  the  frame-piece  m.  The  same  arrange- 
ment is  adopted  for  each  finger,  and  the  action  of 
the  phalange  is  cumulative,  the  second  and  third 
phalanges  participating  in  the  motion  of  the  first, 
and  having  an  additional  motion  derived  therefrom  ; 
the  third  in  like  manner  participates  in  the  motion 
of  the  .second  and  third,  and  has  a  motion  of  its  own 
derived  from  its  predecessors.  The  proportion  of  the 
parts  of  respective  fingers  is  so  regulated  that,  in 
closing,  the  second,  third,  and  small  fingers  receive  a 
gradually  accelerated  motion  in  theorder  stated,  so  as 
to  imitate  the  natural  closure  of  the  hand,  in  which 
the  little  finger  most  nearly  apjiroaches  the  palm  and 
the  others  stand  in  receding  order. 

The  motions  of  the  thumb  are  substantially  equiv- 
alent, being  derived  from  its  diverse  points  of  at- 
tachment to  the  metacarpus  and  to  a  jioint  on  the 
foreann,  so  as  to  be  closed  by  the  backward  motion 
of  the  former,  and  conversely,  as  already  stated  in 
regard  to  the  phalanges  of  the  fingers. 

In  Fig.  331  the  slioulder-cap  is  the  basis  for  the 
movements  of  the  arm,  forearm,  wrist,  thumb,  and 
fingers.  The  strap  C  is  hinged  to  the  cap  J,  and 
connected  by  a  rod  to  the  ring  L.  The  straps  D  E 
of  the  upper  arm  are  also  hinged  to  the  cap  and  the 


lower  part  of  the  upper  arm  ;  from  the  ends  of  the 
straps  D  E  proceed  the  slotted  bars  //  ^V,  to  whose 

Fig.  331. 


Artificial  Arm. 

lower  end  the  forearm  is  pivoted.  The  three 
straps  mentioned  are  the  means  of  suspension  of 
the  arm,  forearm,  and  hand,  and  the  stump  of  the 
natural  arm  within  this  outer  skeleton  is  the  means 
of  imparting  motion  to  the  forearm,  wrist,  and 
fingei-s.  The  ring  /.,  is  connected  to  the  strap  C,  and 
hinged  to  the  forearm  behind  the  elbow -joint  ;  it 
is  guided  in  its  motions  by  the  slotted  liars  ff  JV, 
sliding  down  the  said  slots  as  the  stump  is  moved 
forward,  and  thereby  thrusting  upon  the  point  of  the 
elbow  and  ficxing  the  forearm. 

Pivoted  to  the  bars  N  N,  near  the  elbow-axis, 
are  the  bifurcated  ends  of  the  wire  Y,  which  actu- 
ates the  fingers  and  thumb,  flexing  them  as  the  arm 
bends,  by  means  of  tension  on  the  tendons  which 
juiss  through  the  metacarpus  and  then  diverge  to 
follow  the  phalanges.  By  means  of  the  lever  K, 
the  s)iring-.slide  5,  and  the  notched  slot,  the  thumb 
and  fingers  can  be  connected  to  or  disconnected  from 
thearm  and  forearm,  so  as  to  receive  motion  therefrom, 
or  otherwise  as  may  he  desired.  In  the  rotary  move- 
ment of  the  stump  the  upper  end  of  the  strap  /) 
runs  on  a  rod  attached  to  the  shield  A  under  the 
axilla. 

¥is.  3.12  is  for  amputations  above  the  elbow.  The 
shoulder-joint  is  imitated  bv  a  cap  or  collar  and  a 
hoop  which  turns  on  the  collar  by  looped  brackets, 
which  slide  u)ion  a  wire  ring  suspended  to  the  lower 
edge  of  the  collar.  The  ease  which  holds  the  stump 
is  attached  to  the  hoop  by  a  hinged  joint,  and  turns 
with  it.  The  motions  of  the  .stump,  whether  rot.ary 
or  back  and  forth,  turn  the  hoop,  and  by  means  of  a 
system  of  jointed  levers,  the  fixed  points  of  which 
are  on  the  collar,  and  the  case  for  the  stump,  motion  is 


ARM,   ARTIFICIAL. 


147 


ARM,   ARTIFICIAL. 


Fig.  332. 


Artificial  Arm. 


communic.ited  to  a  sej;- 
ment-wheel  at  the  elbow- 
joint  to  which  the  levers 
are  attachijii,  and  this 
wheel,  acting  upon  a  pin- 
ion on  the  forearm,  causes  Artificial  Arm. 
it  to  be  flexeil  and  ex- 
tended  according  to  the    motions  of  the  stump. 

The  hoop  D  D  slides  on  the  collar  of  the  artilicial 
shoulder  A,  the  two  poitions  being  bracketed  to 
a  ring  B  between  them.  The  hinge  motion  of  the 
shell  F  of  the  upper  arm  is  effected  by  the  stump, 
and  the  segment-gear  U,  being  linked  posteriorly 
to  the  shoulder-piece,  is  rotated  by  the  motions  of 
the  upper  arm,  which  tighten  or  slacken  the  said 
link-counection  R. 


In  Fig.  3.33  the  flexion  of  the  foreai-m  operates 
the  fingers,  and  the  spring  in  the  wrist  tends  to 
close  them.  To  studs  b  on  the  upper  arm  are  at- 
tached rods  0  0,  which  connect  with  a  sliding  plate 
in  the  wrist,  to  which  the  flexor  rods  ic  w  of  the 
lingei-s  are  attached.  The  elbow  connection  of  the 
rods  0  0  is  in  the  rear  of  the  elbow  articulation  of 
the  limb,  and  the  forward  motion  of  the  forearm 
draws  upon  these  rods  so  as  to  flex  the  fingers 
against  the  force  of  tlie  spring  /,  which  assists  in  the 
return  extension. 

In  each  finger  is  an  arrangement  of  rocking  rods 
by  which  a  positive  motion  is  imparted  in  consonance 
with  the  motions  of  the  slide  in  the  wrist.  The 
fork-holder  is  inserted  in  the  palm  of  the  hand,  and 
consists  of  four  elastic  flaps  which  clasp  the  end  of 
the  fork  handle.  A  certain  amount  of  rotatory  ad- 
justment (by  the  other  hand)  is  pemiitted  to  the 
wrist,  so  as  to  vary  the  presentation  of  the  palm,  in 
imitation  of  that  performed  by  the  ulna-radial  motion. 

Palmet.  gives  a  sinuous  couree  to  the  flexor 
tendons  of  the  fingers  by  means  of  sheaves,  and 
opens  the  fingers  by  means  of  extensor  tendons 
antagonizing  the  flexors  by  springs.  The  ball-and- 
socket  wrist -joint  is  held  together  by  cords. 

In  his  forearm,  the  flexor  and  extensor  tendons 
are  similarly  actuated,  but  the  closing  of  tlie  hand  is 
efl'ected  by  means  of  a  stiap  to  which  the  flexor  ten- 
dons are  attached.  The  strap  is  clamped  in  the 
flexed  position  when  required. 


Fig.  331. 


Artificial  Arm. 

In  Fig.  334  the  fore  aud  upper  arm  are  liinged 


Fig.  335. 


Ariificiai  Arm. 


ARMAMENT. 


148 


ARMILLARY  SPHERE. 


tofji'ther,  and  iirovijeil  internally  witli  a  lock-]i'atc 
to  retain  them  in  a  He.xeil  ])0.sition  wln^n  ref[uire(l. 
To  release  tlie  Ibrearni  a  projeeting  catch  is  to\iehecl, 
wliieh  ilLsensng™  t'"'  eateli-pl.ate,  allowing  the  arm 
to  .swins;.  To  i'asten  the  forearm  He.xeil,  it  is  swunf; 
forward,  when  the  lock  catelies  of  itself  The  luiml 
is  secured  on  thi*  Ibrearm,  and  it  and  the  finger.s  are 
rigiil  in  a  grasping  position.  The  thumb  shown 
in  the  smaller  ligure  has  a  constantly  acting  in- 
tei'nal  spring,  and  retains  articles  placed  in  tlie 
grasp  between  the  tluuid)  and  tingei's.  The  liand 
may  be  detached,  and  a  liook  substituted  therefor. 

In  Fig.  33.T  each  articulation  has  a  ratchet  and 
spring  pawl  attachment  whereby  any  flexion  impart- 
ed is  maintaineil  until  lived  by  a  means  which  trips 
the  triggers.  The  forearm  at  the  elbow-joint  has  a 
ratchet,  and  a  sjuing  pawl  is  pivoted  on  the  upper- 
arm  piece.  By  pressing  on  the  hack  of  the  pawl,  the 
latter  is  disengaged  and  the  forearm  freed.  By  tlie 
other  means  cited,  the  tliumb  and  lingers  are  flexed 
so  as  to  giasp  an  object,  and  are  maintained  in  their 
bent  positions  by  their  respective  ratchets  and 
paw  Is.  By  pulling  out  the  button  s,  the  cross-bar  p 
is  driven  up  and  overturns  the  rods  /,  which  will 
bring  the  fingers  back  to  their  distended  position. 

In  the  above,  the  hand  lias  necessarily  been  con- 
sidered in  connection  with  the  arm  which  actuates 
it,  and  in  some  cases  owing  to  its  being  associated 
with  an  arm  of  peculiar  construction,  although  its 
own  opei'ative  parts  had  no  necessary  connection 
with  that  specific  arm.  For  some  other  varieties  of 
hand  structure,  see  H.\NI),   AriTiFici.\L. 

Ar'ma-ment.  A  term  expressing  collectively  all 
the  cannon  and  sniall-arins,  with  their  etjuipnients, 
belonging  to  a  ship  or  fortification  ;  fre(|uently  ap- 
plied, in  a  more  restricteil  sense,  to  the  artillery  aloile. 

The  arinanient  of  ships  and  forts  has  undergone  a 
very  gi'eat  change  within  the  past  thirty  years. 
About  1840  the  :32-pounder  gun  was  nio.st  usually 
employed  both  on  shore  and  shipboard,  •24-poun(lers 
forming  no  inconsiderable  proportion  of  the  armament 
of  our  forts.  8-inch  and  even  10-ineh  guns  and  how- 
itzers were,  however,  mounted  to  some  extent  in  the 
more  important  seaboard  fortifications. 

The  armament  of  a  line-of-battle  ship  mounting 
eighty-four  guns  consisted  of  twenty-two  32-pounders 
of  57  cwt.  and  ten  S-inch  slndl-guns  of  (53  cwt.  on  each 
of  the  two  gun-decks,  and  twenty  32-pounders  of 
lighter  weight  on  the  spar-deck  ;  that  of  a  50-gun 
frigate  was  similar,  omitting  the  battery  of  one  gun- 
deck.  In  ]8.i7  a  40-gun  steam  frigate  was  armed 
with  twenty-four  9-incli  guns  on  the  main-deck  and 
fourteen  S-inch  and  two  10-inch  pivot -guns  on  the 
spar-deck  ;  11-inch  pivot-guns  were  also  introduced 
as  a  part  of  the  armament  of  steam  sloops  and  smaller 
vessels. 

Killed  or  breech-loading  ordnance  was  practically 
unknown.  The  commencement  of  our  late  civil 
war  brought  with  it  the  era  of  15-iiich  smooth-bores 
weighing  50,000  pounds,  and  at  or  .shortly  after  its 
close  20-incli  guns,  weighing  more  than  100,000  lbs. 
and  carrying  a  ball  of  1,000  lbs.,  had  been  cast.  The 
former  of  theseclasses  now  forms  the  usual  armament 
of  our  monitors.  Rifled  guns  of  calibers  up  to  10 
inches  (as  tlie  I'arrott  300-poundcr)  were  also  intro- 
duced, and  this  size  has  been  exceeded  in  Europe, 
30-ton  Armstrong  breech  loaders,  carrying  a  projec- 
tile of  600  lbs.  weight,  being  now  in  use  in  the 
English  navy,  while  North  Germany  and  otlier  con- 
tinental nations  are  little,  if  any,  behind  in  this  re- 
spect. In  the  United  States  service  great  reliance 
has  been  placed  on  the  ".smashing"  qualities  of 
round  projectiles  of  large  caliber  tired  from  .smooth- 
bore guns  when  employed  against  iron-clad  vessels, 


while  tlie  inijiression  of  European  artillerists  is  that 
they  are  comjiarafively  inelticient  in  competition 
with  elongated  projectiles  di^charged  from  riHed 
guns  ;  these  are,  accordingly,  the  only  kind  now  em- 
jdoyed  abroad  on  first-class  war  vessels,  and  appear 
to  have  almost,  if  not  entirely,  superseded  sniooth- 
liores,  with  tlie  exception  of  mortars  ill  the  amiainent 
of  lortifii-atious. 

Ar'ma-ture.  A  piece  of  soft  iron  applied  to  a 
loadstone  or  connecting  the  poles  of  a  horseshoe 
magnet. 

In  certain  forms  of  electro-magnetic  instnimcnts  a 
magnetized  nrmature  is  employed,  vhich  may  either 
be  a  permanent  magnet  of  steel  or  an  electio-mag- 
net.  The  armature  must  have  a  polarization  the 
()]iposite  of  that  of  the  magnet  and  by  its  use  the 
recoil-spring  may  be  suppressed. 

Arm  File.  A  name  irom  the  German.  A  limid 
file. 

Ar'mil.  An  ancient  astronomical  instrument. 
When  coinposed  of  one  ring  placed  in  the  jdaiie  of 
the  equator  for  deterniining  the  time  of  the  cipii- 
iioxcs,  it  is  called  an  cqiiiiwrlia!  arniil.  When  of 
two  or  more  rings,  one  in  the  plane  of  the  meridian 
for  observing  the  solstices,  it  is  called  a  sohlitiul  ar- 
niil. —  WlIEWKLL. 

The  equinoctial  armil  of  the  "  Sipiare  Porch" 
of  Alexandria  is  referred  to  by  Hi]i]iarchus  and 
Ptolemy.  A  aohtilial  aniiil  is  al.so  described  liy 
Ptolemy  (see  Whewcll,  I.  201).  These  armils  aie 
divided  into  parts  of  sixths  of  degrees  (10').  The 
reading  was  .stated  in  ]iarts  of  the  circumference. 
Thus,  Eratosthenes  stated  the  interval  between  the 
tro|iics  to  be  ^^  of  the  circumference.  Ptolemy 
used  a  part  of  a  circle,  a  quadrant. 

It  is  supposed  that  Eratosthenes  suggested  to 
Ptolemy  Euergetes  the  con.strnction  of  the  large  ar- 
milla:,  or  fixed  circular  instruments  which  were  long 
in  use  in  Alexandria.  Eratosthenes  of  Cyrene  was 
born  B.  C.  276,  and  left  Athens  at  the  invitation  of 
P.  Euergetes,  who  placed  him  over  the  library  in 
Alexandria,  where  he  remained  till  the  time  of  P. 
Epiphanes  about  B.  C.  196.  He  is  celebrated  for 
his  attempt  to  measure  the  magnitude  of  the  e.arth. 
He  discovered  the  obliquity  of  the  ecli])tic,  which 
he  made  to  be  23°  51'  20".  He  .aiscertaiiied  that 
Syeiiein  Upper Eg>-pt  (lat.  24°10'N.)wasinlhetropie, 
a  vertical  gnomon  casting  no  .shadow  at  noon  on  the 
day  of  the  summer  solstice,  and  thence  determined 
its" latitude  to  be  equal  to  the  obli.puty  of  tlie  eclip- 
tic. Observations  at  Alexandria  determined  the 
zenith  of  that  place  to  be  distant  -^^  ]iart  of  the 
circumference  of  the  earth  from  Syeiie,  the  are  of 
the  meridian  between  the  two  jdaces  being  equal  to 
7°  12',  whicli  was  measured  by  the  Ptolemies  and 
found  to  be  500  stadia.  This  gives  roughly  250,000 
■stadia  for  the  circumference  of  the  earth.  The 
Olympic  stadium  was  202j  yards.  See  Odum- 
ETF.n. 

Ar'mil-la-ry  Sphere.  An  instrument  to  illus- 
trate the  motions  of  the  heavenly  bodies.  It  was  in- 
vented bv  Eratosthenes  about  B.  ('.  255,  and  was 
employed'till  the  time  of  Tycho  Brahe,  A.  D.  1582. 
It  was  ordinarily  made  of  brass,  and  disposed  in  such 
a  manner  that  the  greater  and  lesser  circles  of  the 
sphere  are  seen  in  tluir  nntural  position  and  motion. 
It  was  ]icrhaps  the  principal  agent  in  astronomical 
observations  in  the  museum  of  Alexandria,  which 
was  founded  by  Ptolemy  Soter,  B.  C.  208,  and  was 
plundered  by  Cyril  A.  D.  415,  who  probably  thought 
the  sphere  was  some  heathenish  machine  for  invok- 
ing the  infernal  gods. 

It  was  used  by  Aristarclius,  who  first  took  the 
heliocentric  view  of  the  solar  sy.stem  ;  by  Archime- 


AKJIILLARY   SPHEKE. 


149 


ARMOR,    PERSONAL. 


(Ic3,  tlie  grand  inastrr  of  mechanics,  contcmiiora- 
'.icously  with  tlie  building  of  tlie  great  wall  of 
China  ;  liy  Eratosthenes,  the  originator  of  astronomi- 
cal geography  ;  by  Hipjiarchus,  the  father  of  mathe- 
matical astronomy;  and  by  Ptolemy,  the  astronomer, 
A.  D.  150,  whose  system  was  accepted  down  to  the 
time  of  Tyclio  Brahe,  A.  D.  15S2,  and  until  Coper- 
nicus, Kepler,  and  Galileo  revived  the  true  views  of 
Aristarchus,  the  heliocentric  theory  promulgated 
nearly  two  thousand  yeai-s  before. 

Fig.  336. 


Armiltarij  Sphere 


E. 

a. 

b. 

c. 

d. 


The  earth. 

Hour  circle. 

North  pole  of  the  heavens. 

Arctic  circle. 

Tropic  of  Cancer. 

e.    Celestial  hoiizon. 

/.    Celestial  equator. 

g.    Ecliptic. 

A.   Tropic  of  Capricorn. 

i.    Antarctic  circle. 

k.    South  pole  of  the  heavens. 

1.    Solstitial  colure  (summer). 

m.    Solstitial  colure  (winter). 

The  armillary  sphere  consists  of  a  frame  with 
-a  horizon  on  which  are  represented  the  360°,  the  re- 
gion of  the  heavens,  the  calendar,  and  the  hight  of 
the  sun  for  every  day  in  the  year.  Two  notches  in 
the  homontal  circle,  and  corresponding  to  its  uorth 
and  south  points,  receive  the  fixed  meridian,  whose 
plane  is  perpendicular  to.  and  center  coincident 
with,  that  of  the  horizontal  circle.  Within  this  me- 
ridian the  other  circles,  as  well  as  the  small  terres- 
trial globe,  may  all  be  rotated  together  on  the  com- 
mon axis  of  tlie  heavens  ami  eartli.  The  meridian 
can  be  moved  in  its  notches,  still  retaining  its  verti- 
cal plane,  and  in  this  numner  the  general  axis  may 
be  placed  at  various  angular  distances  with  the  ho- 
rizon. The  center  of  the  small  terrestrial  globe  is 
coincident  with  that  of  the  general  armillary  sphere. 
The  hour  circle  is  fastened  to  the  uorth  pole  of  the 


tixed  meridian,  and  has  a  movable  index,  which  w hen 
fastened  levolves  with  the  axis.  It  is  still  used 
in  demonstrating  astronomical  problems. 

The  armillary  spliere  of  the  Hindu  astronomers  is 
described  in  the  Sanscrit  treatise  *' Siirya-sidd- 
hiiiita,"  translated  by  Kev.  E.  Burgess,  and  jnib- 
libhedin  the  Journal  of  the  American  Oriental  Society, 
Vol.  VI.  pp.  141  -49S,  New  Haven,  1S60.  The  in- 
strument was  illustrative  of  the  positions  and  motions 
of  the  heavenly  bodies,  rather  than  for  astrononiiial 
observations;  in  this  respect  diflering  from  the 
Gre>-k,  Arab,  and  early  Europeau  instruments. 

Arming,  {\aiilkal.)  A  plug  of  tallow  in  the 
hollow  at  the  bottom  of  a  sounding  lead,  to  bring 
up  sand,  minute  shells,  infusoriae,  etc.,  from  the  bot- 
tom. 

Arm'ing-press.  {Boo/Mnding.)  A  screw  press 
having  a  [ilatiii  heated  by  gas-jets,  and  serving  to 
fix  the  gold-leaf  upon  the  book-covers  upon  which 
it  is  impres.sed.     See  BLuCKiNG-riiEss. 

Armlet.  A  clasp  or  loop  for  confining  the  sleeve 
to  the  u)iper  portion  of  the  arm.  Used  to  loop  up 
the  short  sleeve  of  children's  dresses. 

A  protecting  sleeve  of  leather  or  metal,  worn  on 
the  forearm,  and  used  as  a  shield  for  the  arm  or  as 
a  covering  for  that  portion  of  the  coat-.sleeve. 

Ar'mo-rer's  Gage.  For  verifying  the  dimen- 
sions of  the  various  [larts  of  small-arms  are  templets 
of  various  sizes  and  shapes,  rings,  and  cylindrical 
or  conical  gages  for  interior  dimensions.  200  are 
embraced  in  a  complete  set  for  the  various  amis 
made  at  the  GoveiTimeiit  armory,  of  which  about  78 
are  used  for  the  riHe-musket  alone. 

Of  these,  the  culibcr  gatjc  measures  the  diameter  of 
the  bore. 

The  dimcnxion  gages  show  the  length  of  the  barrel 
and  its  diameter  at  various  distances,  the  value  in 
inches  and  parts  being  measured  by  the  caliper  ga<!c. 

Other  gages  measure  the  proper  dimensions  of  tlie 
breech-screw  and  its  thread,  and  those  of  the  counter- 
bore  of  the  barrel  which  receives  it  ;  others,  again, 
the  form,  dimensions,  and  ]iosition  of  the  sights. 

A  separate  gage  is  required  for  the  lock-plate,  and 
for  each  separate  part  of  which  the  lock  is  composed  ; 
as  the  mainspring  gage,  sear  gage,  bridle  gage,  tnm- 
b'.er  gage,  Jmmmer  gage,  etc.  ;  alsogagesfor  the  vari- 
ous dimensions  of  the  stock,  of  the  bayonet,  and  of 
each  of  the  appendages  which  accompany  the  gun. 

The  number  of  200,  above  given,  niiglit  be  swelled 
to  several  thousand,  by  including  those  reiiuired  for 
inspecting  the  various  carbines  and  pistols  made  by 
different  parties  for  the  I'nited  States  govemment  ; 
all  which  were  made  so  that  the  parts  of  the  same 
kind  might  be  inteivlianged. 

Ar'mor,  Per'son-al.  Defensive  clothing  or  cov- 
ering for  the  body  in  battle. 

Scale  and  chain  armor  were  common  among  the 
old  Egyptians  (time  of  Rameses  III.)  and  Assyrians, 
also  among  the  Persians  and  Romans.  Dr.  Abbott's 
collection  in  New  York  contains  the  iron  helmet  and 
scale  armor  of  Sheshonk,  or  Shishak,  the  king  of 
Egypt  who  overthrew  Rehoboain,  seven  years  after 
the  death  of  Solomon.  The  scales  are  the  shape  of 
the  Egyptian  shield  round  end  downward,  and  some 
of  them  are  marked  with  the  cartouche  of  the  king. 

The  Sannatians  wore  scale  armor  of  pieces  of  horn 
or  horse-hoofs  fastened  to  a  linen  doublet. 

Goliath  was  armed  with  a  coat  of  mail  (1  Samuel 
x^^i).  It  is  frequently  spoken  of  by  Homer.  De- 
metrius, son  of  Antigonus,  had  a  coat  of  mail  made 
of  Cyprian  adamant  (perhaps  steel).  Cyprus  was 
famous  for  its  armor.  The  ancient  Scythians  had 
armor  comjiosed  of  horse's  hoofs  curiously  strung  and 
jointed   together.       Hengist  the   Saxon   had   scale 


ARMOR-PLATED  VESSEL. 


150 


ARMOR-PLATING. 


armor  A.  D.  449,  and  King  John  of  England  pos- 
sessed a  hanberk  of  rings  set  edgewise,  1200.  Tile 
cavalry  of  Henry  III.  luul  coats  of  mail.  Henry 
VII.  had  a  steel  enirass,  1500.  Since  the  intro- 
duction of  tire-ann.s  the  use  of  armor  has  been 
gradually  discontinued,  and  it  is  now  confined  to 
the  heavy  cavalry  or  cuirassiers  of  European  armies. 
As  worn  at  present,  it  generally  consists  of  a  helmet 
of  brass  strengthened  with  steel,  and  a  cuiiass  com- 
posed of  a  front  piece,  or  breast-plate,  and  a  back 
iece  strongly  laced  or  buckled  together.  The  suc- 
ess  of  the  French  cuirassiers  in  the  famous  cavalry 
»mhat  at  Eckniuhl,  ISO!),  was  in  a  large  degiee 
iwing  to  their  wearing  complete  cuirasses,  while 
he  Anstrians  were  only  provided  with  breast- 
i)lates. 

For  illustrations  and  descriptions  see  Frost's  Pic- 
torial Histories,  ami  the  Iconographic  Eucyclopiedia. 

Of  ancient  armor  some  rem;irkablc  e.xam|)les  are  to 
be  lound  in  the  tril»olites  of  the  .Silurian  age,  "a 
family  in  whose  nicely  jointed  shells  the  armorer  of 
the  Middle  Ages  might  have  found  almost  all  the 
contrivances  of  his  craft  anticipated,  with  not  a  few, 
besides,  which  he  had  failed  to  discover.  They  were 
covered  over,  back  and  head,  with  the  most  exipii- 
sitely  constructed  plate-armor  ;  but  as  their  abdo- 
mens seem  to  have  b  'en  soft  and  defenceless,  they 
had  the  ability  of  coiling  themselves  round  on  the 
approach  of  danger,  plate  moving  on  jilate  witli  the 
nicest  adjustment,  till  the  rim  of  the  armed  tail 
rested  on  that  of  the  armed  head,  and  the  creatui'C 
presented  the  appearance  of  a  ball  defended  at  every 
point.  In  sonv.)  genera,  as  in  Calymene,  the  tail 
consisted  of  jointed  segments  till  its  termination  ; 
in  others,  as  in  Illienus,  there  was  a  great  caudal 
shield,  that  in  size  and  form  corresponded  to  the 
shield  wlueh  covered  th;  head  ;  the  segments  of 
CalyniLMie,  from  the  llexibility  of  their  joints,  fitted 
close  to  the  cerebral  rim  ;  while  the  same  eii'ect  was 
produced  in  the  inllexible  shields,  caudal  and 
cephalic,  oflllicuus,  by  their  e.xact  correspondence, 
and  the  flexibility  of  the  connecting  rings,  which 
enabled  them  to  fit  together  like  two  eijual-sized 
cymbals  brought  into  contact  at  every  point  by  the 
hand."  —  Hruii  Mii.i.r.i;. 

Ar'mor-plat'ed  Ves'sel.  A  vessel  whose  ex- 
posed portions  are  protected  by  iron  plates.  The 
plating  reaches  a  certain  distance  bidow  the  water- 
line  wh:-n  in  fighting  tiiin.      See  AuMor.-P!,.\TI\(;. 

Ar'mor-plates,  Ham'mer-iug  and  RoU'iug. 
Armor-plates  may  be  I'ither  hammered  or  rolled. 
When  it  is  desired  that  tlie  armor  shall  be  of  one 
thickness  of  stout  plate  of  from  four  to  six  inches, 
hannnered  iron  seems  to  be  preferable  on  account  of 
the  increased  tenacity  conferred  upon  the  plate  by 
the  closer  interlacing  and  comlensation  by  this  pro- 
cess. Owing  principally,  however,  to  the  greater 
rapidity  with  which  rolled  plates  can  be  manu- 
factured, and  the  facility  with  which  they  can  be 
laid  together  and  bolted  so  as  to  constitute  ar- 
mor of  any  reipiired  thickness,  and  the  ease  with 
which  a  damaged  plate  can  be  replaced,  the  rolling 
process  has  been  more  generally  resorted  to  in  this 
country.  Hammered-iron  plates  are  made  from 
"  blooms,"  which  maybe  procured  from  the  forge, 
or  preferably  nr.ide  at  the  works  wdiere  the  plate  is 
forged.  Any  desc'ription  of  good  scrap  wrought-iron 
will  answer  for  this  purpose,  as  it  is  soon  converted 
into  one  homogcuieons  mass  under  the  steam-hammer. 
The  scraps  are  jiiled  into  "fagots"  of  convenient 
size,  and  placed  in  the  furnace.  After  reaching  a 
welding  In-at,  they  are  taken  from  the  furnace  by 
tongs  sus]iended  from  a  chain,  and  laid  upon  an 
anvil  under  the  steam-luunmer.     By  the  first  blow 


of  the  hammer  an  iron  rod,  one  end  of  which  is  held 
by  a  workman,  is  welded  into  the  fagot  for  the  pur- 
pose of  turning  and  mani|iulating  it  while  being 
liammered.  A  very  few  minutes'  pounding  by  the 
heavy  hammer  sultices  to  bring  the  mass  into  the 
bloom  shape,  —  a  bar  of  homogeneous  iron  some  four 
or  five  feet  in  length  and  six  inches  thick  ;  when 
sutticiently  hammered,  the  handle  is  cut  olf,  and  the 
bloom  is  ready  to  take  its  place  in  combination  with 
others  in  the  formation  of  a  jilate.  In  this  operation 
a  long  and  stout  bar  of  round  iron,  Uattened  at  one 
end,  is  used  for  supporting  tlie  ])ile,  which  is  com- 
posi'd  of  several  layers  of  blooms  laiil  in  tiers  one 
upon  the  other  transversely  ;  these  are  placed  in  the 
furnace  upon  the  flattened  end  of  the  above  bar, 
which  is  suspended  near  its  mid  length  from  a  crane, 
and  is  clasped  by  tongs  or  handles  to  enalile  the 
workmen  to  turn  and  nmve  the  mass  as  desired  ; 
when  sufficiently  heated  for  welding,  «hich  requires 
several  hours,  the  pile  is  drawn  from  the  furnace, 
swung  round  and  placed  upon  the  anvil  by  the 
crane  assisted  by  the  handles  held  by  the  workmen, 
and  subjected  to  the  action  of  the  liammer. 

When  the  blooms  are  thoroughly  welded  and  the 
pile  drawn  down  to  about  the  rei|uired  width  and 
thickness  of  the  plate,  another  pile  of  blooms  isadded, 
welded  on  fo  its  end,  ami  the  operation  thus  con- 
tinned  until  the  desired  length  is  attained.  When 
this  operation  is  completed,  the  plate  is  again  heated 
and  ]iassed  under  the  hanuner,  water  being  thrown 
U|ion  it  as  it  is  advanced  forward,  wdiich  assists  in 
removing  scale  and  cleaning  and  smoothing  the 
)ilate  ;  these  are  then  drilled  to  receiving  the  bolts 
for  fastening  them  into  jiosition  on  the  ship,  and 
afterward  bent  to  the  required  curve. 

The  operation  of  rolling  the  larger  description  of 
armor-plates  involves  a  number  of  ajipliances  not 
usual  in  ordinary  rolling-mills.  The  mass  of  iron, 
being  heated  in  the  furnace,  is  drawn  thence  by 
chains  attached  to  the  steam-rollers  and  received  by 
a  wrought-iron  car.  The  forceps  being  detached 
and  tile  chains  clear  from  the  rolls,  the  car  is  ad- 
vanced to  the  head  of  the  incline,  which  it  then 
traverses  by  its  own  weight,  and  lands  the  edge  of 
the  plate  into  the  grip  of  the  rotating  rolls.  The 
plate  is  received  on  the  other  side  of  the  rolls  by  an- 
other wrought-iron  truck.  The  rollers  being  set 
nearer  to  each  other  by  about  an  inch,  their  mo- 
tion is  reversed,  the  jilate  landed  into  their  grip,  and 
cnrrii'cl  through  to  the  otliio-  side.  This  is  repeated 
again  and  again,  setting  the  rollers  closer  between 
each  operation,  until  the  required  dimensions  are 
obtained.  Sand  is  thrown  on  the  plate  from  time 
to  time,  and  water,  which  detaches  the  scale  of  oxide. 
This  is  removed  by  sciapers.  The  plate,  being  then 
laid  upon  the  Hoor,  is  subjected  to  the  action  of 
l.l-ton  rollers,  which  levels  and  smooths  the  sur- 
face. The  dimensions  here  .stated  refer  to  the  a]ipa- 
ratus  used  in  rolling  a  15-inch  armor-plate  iu  Eng- 
land. 

Ar'mor-plating.  The  aiiplication  of  iron  for 
this  purpose  is  of  very  modern  origin.  Cast-iron 
plates  had  lieen  pi'opo.setl  long  belVire  as  a  revetment 
or  facing  for  fortifications ;  but  this  matciial  was  soon 
found  unsuitable,  on  account  of  its  biittleiiess,  and 
coiisec|Uent  liability  to  be  fractured  by  shot. 

Iron  armor  was  suggested  iu  the  United  States  in 
1812,  in  France  in  1821,  and  was  experimented 
upon  in  England  in  1827  at  the  suggestion  of  Gen- 
eral Ford,  who  ]iroposed  to  protect  Ibrtifications  by 
wrought-iron  bars. 

th'cgg's  United  States  patent,  March,  1814,  was  an 
iron-clad  bomb-proof  steam  vessel,  and  will  be  no- 
ticed presently. 


AEMOK-PLATINO. 


151 


ARMOR-PLATING. 


The  first  practical  use  of  wrought-iron  plates  as  a 
defense  for  tlie  sitles  of  vessels  appears  to  have  been 
made  by  tlie  French  durinjf  tlie  Ciimean  war. 
These  vessels,  —  floating  batteries,  as  they  were 
termed,  — tliough  they  seem  to  have  hadsuttieient  sea- 
going qualities  to  enable  them  to  navigate  the  iMedi- 
teiTanean  and  Black  Sea,  were  of  light  draft  and  ex- 
posed very  little  surface  above  water  ;  they  rendered 
very  efficient  .service,  especially  at  the  bombardment 
of  Kinburn,  in  1855,  and  their  success  proliably  led 
to  the  adojition  by  the  French  government  of  armor- 
plating  on  a  muclmiore  extended  scale  ;  "La  Gloire," 
launched  in  lS.'i9or  IStiO,  having  been  the  lirst  large 
iron-plated  ship  afloat.  Her  armor  consisted  of 
4^-inch  rolled-iron  plates,  supported  by  a  backing 
of  wood  some  three  feet  in  thickness. 

England,  with  the  determination  not  to  be  be- 
hind her  Continental  neighbor,  commenced  the  con- 
struction of  iron-clads  immediately  afterward.  The 
most  noted  of  those  lirst  built  in  England  was  the 
"Warrior,"  whosearmorwasof  4  J-inch  plates,  backed 
by  and  bolted  on  to  18 
inches  of  teak  wood  ; 
the  plating,  however, 
merely  covered  the 
midship  portion  of  the 
vessel  for  some  200  feet, 
^ I  leaving  a  large  space 
both  at  the  bow  and 
stern  of  the  vessel  un- 
protected. 

Another  class  of  iron- 
clads in  the  British 
Navy,  represented  by 
I  the  "Royal  Oak,"  were 
wooden  ships  of  the 
line,  not  originally  in- 
tended for  carrying  ar- 
mor, but  which  have 
been  covered  with  44- 
inch  iron  plates  bolted  on  to  their  wooden  Imll. 
In  one  respect  they  have  the  advantage  of  the  "  War- 
rior," their  sides  being  completely  mailed  from  stem 
to  stern,  asarethoseof  "LaGloire."  The"JIinotaur," 
and  others  of  her  class,  were  originally  constructed 
to  receive  plating.  They  are  of  very  large  size,  about 
6,650  tons,  and  are  al.so  completely  protected,  the 
plating  extending  throughout  their  entire  length,  and 
to  a  depth  of  several  feet  below  the  water-line  ;  it  is 
similarto  that  of  the  "  Warrior,"  from  4Jt  to  Cih  inches 
thick,  having,  however,  a  wooden  backing  of  but  fl 
inches,  which   is  said  to  be,   and  no  doubt  is,   too 

thin   to   insure   the 


Section  "  Wtwior^s  "  Armor. 


FiR.  333. 


"  HeratUs." 


great  rigidi;y  re- 
quired. 

The  armir  adopt- 
ed for  the  ' '  Her- 
cules," which  was 
another  tvjpical  fomi 
of  English  iron- 
plating,  consists  of 
an  outer  plating  of 
rolled  iron  S  inches 
thick,  inside  of 
which  is  12  inches 
of  wood,  li  inches  of 
iron,  and  2t;  inches 
of  wood,  in  the  or- 
der named,  and  an 
interior  iron  lin- 
ing. 

Mr.  Chalmer.s's 
system,  for  which 
he  claims  very  su- 


perior efliciency  and 
strength,  is  repre- 
sented in  the  an- 
nexed figure  ;  it  is 
composed  of  alter- 
nate layers  of  iron 
ani.1  wood,  the  out- 
er iron  plating  be- 
ing strengthened  by- 
horizontal  plates 
interposed  between 
thebeams  of  theout- 
er  layer  of  wood. 

This  armor  has 
been  severely  tested 
in  England,  and  is 
Imported  to  have 
given  very  good  re- 
sults. 

It  is  understood  that  the  "  Palisser "  bolt,  in 
which  the  shank  is  reduced  to  the  same  diameter  as 
that  of  the  smallest  part  of  the  thread,  is  now  used 
for  fastening  armor-plates  in  the  British  navy. 

The  subject  received  very  early  attention  in  this 
country,  and  as  early  as  March,  1814,  a  "  Ball-proof 
Vessel"  was  patented  by  Thomas  Gregg,  of  Fayette 
Co.,  Pennsylvania.  The  design  embraced  a  Hat 
upper  deck,  from  which  the  sides  and  ends  sloped 
outwardly  to  the  water-line,  where  the  upper  part 
of  the  vessel  was  very  broad,  overhanging  the  sub- 
merged portion  and  protecting  the  rudder  and 
means  of  propulsion.  The  gun-deck  was  nearly 
level  with  the  w"ater-line,  and  ports  were  cut  in  the 
sloping   sides.       The   external   ajipearance   of    this 


Ckalmets^s. 


Fig.  340. 


mif- 


w 


Gregs^s  Ball-proof  Vessel. 

floating  battery  seems  to  have  been  very  similar  to 
that  of  the  confederate ' '  Virginia, ' '  formerly  the ' '  Mer- 
rimac,"orsomeof  our  Western  iron-clads.  Copper  or 
iron  was  proposed  as  a  covering  foi-  the  exposed  por- 
tion. It  does  not  appear  that  a  vessel  was  ever  ac- 
tually constructed  on  Gregg's  plan,  but  the  invention 
is  interesting  as  embodying  some  of  the  features 
wdiich  were  afterwards  adopted  by  Ijoth  North  and 
South  during  the  emergencies  of  our  late  war,  and 
as  showing  that  only  some  seven  years  after  the  first 
successful  application  of  steam  as  a  motive-power  for 
vessels,  it  was  proposed  to  employ  it  as  a  means  of 
propulsion  for  iron-clad  floating  batteries. 

In  1S42  the  late  R.  L.  Stevens  commenced  at 
New  York  the  construction  of  an  iron-elad  war- 
vessel,  under  an  agreement  with  the  government, 
which  seems  to  have  never  been  completed. 


ARMOR-PLATING. 


152 


ARMOR-PLATING. 


This  vessel,  it  is  understood,  was  intended  for 
speed,  her  lines  being  very  sharp.  Her  dimensions 
have  been  stated  as  follows  :  — 


Extreme  length     . 

420  feet. 

Depth  from  fightiiig-deek 
Draft  with  coal  and  stores 
Fiyhting-Jraft 

28     " 

20    "6  inches 
.22     "6       " 

She  is  provided  with  compartments  into  which 
water  is  admitted  upon  going  into  action,  so  as  to 
sink  her  two  feet  deeper  in  the  water,  thus  leaving 
;i  lesser  exposed  surface.  These  compartments  may 
be  rapidly  emptied  by  steam-pumps.  The  side 
armor  extends  outside  of  the  hull  from  stem  to 
stern  to  a  distance  of  four  feet  bi'low  the  line  of 
fighting  draft,  and  is  ])latcd  with  34-inch  iron. 
The  armor  of  the  casemate,  whicli  is  sloping  and 
has  a  shot-pi'oof  deck,  is  composed  of  6  J-ineh  ]dating 
backed  by  14  inches  of  locust  timber,  in  which  are 
imbedded  6-inch  wrought-iron  Iwams  at  distances  of 
two  feet  from  each  other.  The  upper  deck  is  of 
l.J-inch  iron  plates  resting  on  6-in(th  wrought-iron 
girders,  filled  in  with  timber  and  lined  with  i-inch 
iron  plate.  The  guns  are  to  be  used  cii  barbette 
upon  the  topof  the  casemate,  and  are  to  be  loaded  from 
below,  by  machinery,  through  holes  in  the  deck  ;  they 
are  jiointed  from  within,  and  by  means  of  a  grad- 
uated index  within  the  casemate  each  gun  may  be 
brought  to  bear  simultaneously  on  the  same  object. 

Captain  Ericsson  designed  the  Monitor  class  of 
vessels  in  18.54,  though  the  idea  seems  to  have  lain 
dormant  till  the  times  were  propitious.  The  "Mon- 
itor" attacked  the  "  Merrimac"  March  9,  1862,  and, 
on  the  11th  of  May  following,  the  latter  committed 
suicide.  The  revolving  turret  was  invented  by  T.  R. 
Timby,  and  was  patented  by  him  in  1862.  Cajjlain 
Coles  introduced  a  modilication  into  the  British 
navy,  and  was  lost  when  the  ill-fated  double-turreted 
"  Captain  "  foundered  offCape  Finisterre,  July,  1870. 
The  "  Captain  "  had  two  large  turrets  placed  amid- 
ships, in  each  of  which  were  mounted  two  25-ton 
rilled  guns,  throwing  solid  elongated  projectiles  of 
600  pounds,  or  shells  of  proportionate  weight.  In 
the  forecastle  and  poop  were  two  or  three  guns  of 
smaller  caliber.  The  thickness  of  her  plating  varied 
from  six  to  ten  inches.  She  was  full-rigged,  had 
two  independent  screws,  engines  of  extraordinary 
power,  steering  aiiparatus  of  curious  perfection,  and 
a  picked  crew  of  500  men. 

The  original  "  Monitor"  foundered  off  Cape  Hat- 
teras  with  all  on  board. 

There  are  now  54  iron-clad  monitors  in  the  United 
States  service.  The  plating  of  the  deck  and  over- 
hanging portion  of  the  hull  usually  consists  of  five 
1-incli  iron  plates,  backed  by  and  bolted  on  to  a 
wooden  backing  some  three  or  more  feet 
in  thickness.  The  revolving  turret  is  com- 
Iposeil  of  eleven  similar  plates,  firmly  bolted 
together,  and  so  arranged  as  to  break  joints. 
As  might  naturally  be  supposed,  the  late 
war  was  fertile  in  the  production  of  de- 
vices for  the  protection  of  war  vessels,  dis- 
playing more  or  less  inge- 
nuity and  adaptability  to  that 
object.  In  the  first  and  most 
numerous  class  of  these,  so- 
lidity and  strength,  derived 
from  the  arrangement  of  the 

[^~'    ■ySjD  t'^"'nS    ""'1    backing    them, 

^"  were    principally  taken    into 

consideration  ;    while  in   the 

second   it   was    proposed    to 


deaden  the  force  of  a  ball  striking  the  armor  by 
giving  the  latter  a  considerable  degree  of  elas- 
ticity or  resiliency.^allowing  it  to  yield  and  after- 
ward return  to  its  normal  position.  Some  ex- 
amples of  eaidi  of  these  classes  will  be  given,  as 
illustrating  the  dill'erent  modes  jiroposed  in  older  to 
arrive  at  the  same  result.  These  are  arranged 
according  to  the  dates  of  the  patents.  Among  the 
first  was  that  of  F. 
CuMTEssE,  April  22,  Tig.  M2, 

1861,  who  proposed 
to  employ  convex 
rounded  shields,  par- 
tially overlapping 
each  other,  attached 
to  the  sides  of  the  ves- 
sel by  loops  and  eye- 
bolts,  for  the  purpose 
of  causing  the  ball  to 
glance  oH'  upon  strik- 
ing. 

Warden's  patent, 
Febi-uary  25,  1862,  r 
embraces  a  wrought- 1 
iron  lattice  framing, 
in  and  upon  which 
an  iron  body  is  cast,  so  that,  the  latter  being  frac- 
tured, the  pieces  would  still  maintain  their  places, 
and  ])rotect,  or  par- 
tially so,  the  side  of 
the  ship. 

Jones's   Defensive 
Armor  for  Land  and 
Water    Batteries, 
April       15,        1862. 
In      this     invention 
the  armor-plates  have 
edge  and   intermedi- 
ate flanges,  and  are  placed  in  two  tiers  having  interme- 
diate   cushions  „.     ^, 
between  them  ; 
they        rest 
against  founda- 
tion -  cushions, 
the    whole    be- 
ing  l)olted    to- 
gether   and    to 
the  casemate  or 
side  of  the  ves- 
sel     by    bolts, 
which  are  pro- 
vided with  elas- 
tic     -washer- 
cushions. 

Callender 
AND      North- 


ViardeiCs  Armor-Plating. 


Fig.  343. 


al55E 


jfu: 


5Ri 


Joneses  Armor-Plating. 


Callendn  and  Norlhrup's  Armor, 


Fig.  345 


Fig.  341. 


Ballard^s  Armor. 


t  iil^taia 


Thuiulcrer. 


Glatton, 


i-LAIE  IV. 


ARMOR  PLj 


D  VESSELS 

imerican.) 


Monitors. 


Dunderbei'iS. 


iluj  a  tor. 


Set  pag»  1 JO. 


I 


AEMOR-PLATIKG. 


153 


ARMOK-PLATIXG. 


KVv's  Defensive  Armor,  May  27,  1S62,  is  composed 
of  ribbed  jilates  wliieli  are  t'asteneil  to  interior  con- 
cave stringers  by  bolts  passing  through  the  stringers 
and  into  metallic  tubes  between  them  ;  each  plate 
has  a  lap  at  its  edge  to  fit  the  corresponding  edge 
of  the  next  plate,  to  which  it  is  riveted.  The  nuts 
are  on  the  outside. 

Ballaiid's  armor,  June  24,  1862,  consists  of  a 
series  of  inner  iron  ribs  A  A,  with  interposed 
wooden  frames  B  B,  longitudinal  covering  bars  or 
plates  C  C,  diagonal  bars  or  plates  1)  E,  and  outer 
covering  plates  F  F. 

Fij.  346. 


Fig  347. 


Holchkiss's  Armor. 

HoTCHKis.s's  "  Jletallic  Defensive  .-Vrmor"  for 
vessels  and  fortifications  is  formed  by  a  series  of 
]>lates,  in  which  the  lower  ones  over 
lap  the  higher,  so  that  when  any  one 
of  them  is  struck  by  a  projectile,  the 
projecting  edge  may  become  detached, 
glancing  the  shot  on  to  the  ne.\t  plate, 
by  which  it  is  further  deflected  and 
prevented  from  penetrating  the  armor. 
__  The  cut  represents  the  action  of  a  cy- 
lindrical bolt  whose  edge  has  impinged 
upon  one  of  the  lapping  plates  ;  the 
dotted  lines  show  the  bolt  in  a  subse- 
quent position,  in  contact  with  the 
piece  of  armor-plate  which  it  has  re- 
moved, and  glancing  upon  the  succes- 
sive plates. 

AVoou's  armor,  September  23,  1862, 
comprises  sets  of  inner  and  outer  plates, 
the   fomier  secured   to   the  vessel  by 
bolts  whose  heads  are  covered  by  the 
latter,  each  plate  in  the  one  set  having 
a  rib  which   fits   between   ribs   on   a 
plate  of  the  other  set,  the  two  plates 
TTood's  Armor,  being  connected  together  by  pins  jiass- 
ing  vertically  through  the  ribs.     Lon- 
gitudinal spaces  are  left  at   intervals  between  the 
inner  and  outer  jilates  for  the  introduction  of  wood 
or  an  equivalent  material. 

Barbitt's  armor-plating,  January  13,  1863,  for 
ships  or  batteries,  is  composed  of  wedge-shaped  bars 
laid  crosswise  to  two  other  sets  of  bars,  the  whole  be- 
ing dovetailed  together  and  filled  in  with  cast  metal. 
Montgomery's  armor,  February  10,  1863,  de- 
pends much  upon  its  resiliency  to  resist  the  im- 
pact of  projectiles.  The  outer  plates  are  notched 
into  each  other,  and  fastened  together  and  to  a 
corrugated  plate  by  a  rod.  This  corrugated 
plate  rests  against  the  outer  casing,  between  which 


Fig.  348. 


Pi    n    M     r-1    M 


4Jl 


and  the  inner 
casing  are  cyl- 
inders of  vul- 
canized rubber 
placed  perpen- 
dicularly to  the 
casings,  the 
whole  being  bolt- 
ed together. 

BuAOY'smeth- 
od  of  "  Attixing 
defensive  Armor- 
Plates,"  Jlarch 
3,  1863,  is  by  at- 
taching  them 
edgewise  to  the 
object  to  be  pro- 
tected, and  se- 
curing them  by 
means  of  bolts, 
whose  ends  pass 
into  cavities  in 
the  inner  edges 
of  the  plates,  and 
are  made  fast  by 
being  enlarged 
therein,  or  by 
being  intersected  by  transverse  apertures  through 
which  jiins  or  keys  may  be  passed. 

In     Wap- 
PICH's      sys-  Fig.  349. 

tern,  Jlarch 
3,  1863,  the 
outer  Jilates 
have  jirojec- 
tions  ])assing 
through  the 
hull  and  in- 
terior plat- 
ing, where 
the  y  a  r  e 
keyed  ;    each 

outer  plate  has  ako  projections  or  lugs  Jc,  enterint; 
the  casing  rf   to   a   certain  distance,    and  receiving 


U    U    U 
Sabbill's  Armor-Plating. 


Montgomery's  Armor. 


Fig.  350 


Fig.  351. 


Brariy's  Armor-Plating. 

the  bolts  I,  which  are 
keyed  to  the  interior 
plate  :  it  has  also  notched 
flanges,  or  bent  ends,  ]iass- 
ing  into  the  casing  ;  these 
are  employed  to  bind  the 
ends  of  the  plates  to- 
gether, and  increase  the 
stability  of  the  armor. 
The  outer  adjoining  edges 
of  the  plates  are  grooved 
for  the  insertion  of  india- 
rubber  strips,  as  at  m,  for  making  the  joints  water- 
tight.    The   port-holes    are    strengthened    by   iron 


W      "B 


v^    o     r 

Wappich'^s  Armor. 


ARMOR-PLATING. 


154 


ARMOR-PLATING. 


Fig,  352.  plates  0,  extemliiif;  ai-ouiid 

their  eilges,  and  also  by  an 
■.■lU'irulin;,'  IVaiiic  or  riiif;  r, 
bi'twccn  tlie  iiiiicr  and  out- 
er plating.  Eaeli  plate.niay 
be  so  arranged  as  to  lie 
jmslied  out,  upon  removing 
tlie  keys  A,  and  otlu'rs 
snb.stitnted.  This  system 
of  plating  is  designed  lor 
cireular  turrets,  .as  well  as 
I'or  plain  or  slightly  curved 
surfaces. 

TuFTs's  Construction 
and  Uefence  of  War  Vessels, 
March  24,  ISliS.  The  sides 
of  the  vessel  are  recesseil  by 
bending  inward  the  frame 
and  the  plating  thereon, 
thus  maintaining  the  sym- 
metry of  the  outward  form. 

Recesses  are  made  in  the 
sides,  in  wliich  the  fixtures 
in  m  arc  secured,  having 
eyes  into  which  screw-bolts 
/  /  are  hooked.  These 
screw-bolts  pass  through 
the  easing  to  the  outside 
ol'  the  straps  ;/,  where  they 
screw  into  nuts. 

Eaiis's  Defensive  Armor 
for  Marine  and  other  Bat- 
teries, July  14,  1863,  eon- 
Titjis's  Armor.  sists  oi'   inner  angle-irons, 

tlie  Hanges  of  which  [lass 
between  tlie  liorizontal  layers  of  armor-plates.  Dow- 
el-pins, inserted  in  holes  in   the  Hanges,  enter  the 

Fig.  353. 


^ 


^Z 


T 


Fig.  3.54. 


Fi-.  355. 


■  .n.,rl 


Ett<ls's  Armor. 

layers  of  armor-plating  above  and  below  them,  thus 
binding  the  whole  together.  The  plates  are  so  ar- 
ranged as  to  break  joints. 

TwiNixc's  "Means  of  Checking  and  Resisting 
Missiles,"  July  28,  18tJ3,  embraces  an  anangement 
of  successive  ]ilate3  or  layers  with  successive  inter- 
vals between,  and  with  lugs,  angle-irons,  or  jn'ojec- 
tions,  when  necessary  ;  the  mode  of  con.strueting 
the  successive  layers  and  sjiaces  between  is  by 
bending  forward  and  back  a  single  plate,  or  several 
jilates  in  layer.s,  from  llie  outside  to  the  inside,  the 
plates  being  bolted  togetlier  occasionally  at  their 
contacting  portions. 

The   arrangement  of  Dimpfel's  armor,  Aug.   4, 


1-5] 


7\iH)iiu!i's  Armor. 


■a; 


I 


"11 


■ZJ 


LA- 

Dimpfel's  Armor. 


1863,  will  be  readily  un- 
derstood   b)'   refeience    to 
the  cut.     The  ends  of  one  series  of  plates  are  let  into 
gi'oovcs  of  a  transverse  set  of  T-iron  plates,  which 

Fig.  356. 


CautlwelVs  Armor. 


are  bolted  to  the  backing, 
ration  to  either  land 
or  marine  batteries. 
Cai'dweli.'s  Con- 
struction of  Ships  of 
War.  This  invention 
was  patented  in  Eng- 
land Ajiril  10,  1863  ; 
in  the  United  States, 
January  19,  1864. 
The  design  embi'aces 
a  corrugated  iron- 
platecl  roof  with  port- 
holes in  tlie  corruga- 
tions ;  the  ]iort-shut- 
ters  are  composed  of  a 
nundier  of  separate 
plates  of  iron  or  steel 
one  aliove  another, 
and  tit  into  grooves 
in  the  edges  of  the  ar- 
mor-plates. Around 
the  vessel,  just  above 
the    water-line,  is    a 


It  is  intended  for  a 
Fig.  357. 


ppli- 


Collinx's  A  nnor. 


Ar.MOR-PLATING. 


i; 


ARMOR,  Submarine. 


jirojecting  lip,  to  which  india-rubber,  or  other  similar 
material,  may  be  attaclicJ. 

Colli  N's's  Armor  lor  .Ships  ami  Fortifications, 
April  19,  1S64,  consists  of  a  framing  of  wroiight- 
iion  tubular  ribs  B  B,  with  external  coils  of  steel 
wire  a  a,  and  surrounding  casings  of  india-rubber 
h  b.  C'omigated  plates  e  e  confine  the  tulies  to- 
gether, and  serve  as  attachments  for  the  inner  and 
outer  skins  c  d. 

CakpilNTEu's  Ship's  Armor,   May  23,   1865.     In 
this    device     the     miildle 
Fig.  ffiS.  plates,  of  steel  or  wrought- 

1  iron,  have  dovetailed  j»ro- 
i  jections  fitting  into  corre- 
.spiiiiding  grooves  in   their 
outer    facings,    which,    as 
well  as  the  inner  backing- 
plates,  are  of  chilled  cast- 
iron.    Staples  pass  through 
the  inner  and  middle  plates 
and    into    the    outer   one  ; 
Carpenter's  Armor.         the  loop  of  each  staple  is  let 
into  a  recess  in  the  siile  of 
the  vessel,   and  is   caught  by  a  bolt  which  p:»sses 
through  the  side  and  is  secured  in  the  interior. 

Th:'  following  statement  from  the  "LondouTimes  " 
contains  tlie  dimensions  of  a  number  of  English  iixin- 
clads,  with  the  tliickness  of  their  annor,  etc. 


6,221 1, 

6,109  i: 

6,109'l 
6,6ilil 
6,621,1 


Ae^Ules 
Btuck  Prince 
Warrior 
.\!pncourt 
Minouur 

\ortliumberlaniii6,621i  1 
Hector  4,aS9; 

.Valiant  l4,0i>3 

Defence  3,72J 

[Re.^istince  '3,710 


iCdleJonia 

lOccan 

jPrince  Consort 
Roval  .\lfrea 
Iloyal  Oak 
Lord  Clyde 
Lord  Warden 
Zealous 
•Bellcrophon 

iPallas 
I 

■Favorite 
'Re.<earch 

Enterprise 
;A"iper 
;Vixen 
IWater  IMtcli 

Prince  .\lbert 


4,12.: 


4,04' 
4,04.5 
4.0l» 
4,0.56 


,250 
,8.50 
,150 
.350 
,350 
,350 
800 
8J0 
6)0 
6J0 


380158 
380*58 
380' 58 
400  59 
4X)  59 
400  59 
250  5) 
280  51 
2S0  54 
2J0  54 


1,»XI273  59 


1,005273  58 
1,000  2  ?3  58 
800273  58 
8X)273  58 
4 ,0S7i  1.0,10  280  59 
4,u>574,001  280  59 
3  716'  800  252  59 
4.2461,000-300  56 


,2,372 

2,094 

1,253 

9*3 

73: 

754 

2, .529 


Iloyal  Sovereign  3,765 


Scorpion 
,Wivem 


1,85; 
1,851 


600225  50 

4)K)225  47 
200195  38 
160  190  3^ 
1  0  im  Zl 

160  W>  32 
167  162  Zi 
500240  48 

800  240  62 

3.50  220  42 
350  220  42 


3<£ 

■s 

Sti 

=  2     1 

II 

■|< 

H 

26 

4i 

21 

a 

26 

44 

31 

H 

36 

5J 

36 

5,1 

3'! 

41 

.32 

4i 

16 

4i 

16 

44 

32 

44    ' 

3^, 

«    1 

.3^ 

41 

;fi 

4V,6   1 

32 

41 

.34 

41, 5',,  6 

34 

41,31,6 

16 

'41 

12 

6 

5 

*i 

8 

4V     1 

4 

44 

4 

4 

2 

41 

2 

41 

6 

44 

6 

41 

5 

51 

4 

3,41 

4 

3,41 

Thickness  of 
Backing. 


18 

18 

18 

10 

10 

10 

18 

18 

18 

18 

Wood  ship, 

side  294  in- 
■•  29V  " 
"  294  " 
"  294  " 
"  234  " 
"  3U  " 
"  311  •' 
"    304  " 

10 

(  Wood  ship, 

(side  22    in. 

"    26    •' 

"    19    " 

"    194  " 

10 

10 

10 

13 
(  Wood  ship, 
I  side  3)  in. 
9 
9 


"The  British  naval  authorities  have  lately  tiled 
a  practical,  if  expensive,  experiment  by  anchoiiug 
their  biggest  and  newest  iron-clad,  the  "  Glatton,"  in 
Portland  harbor,  and  detailing  another  ship  to  make 
her  turret  a  target  for  600-|iound  jirojectiles.  The 
Admiralty  is  probably  satisfied  with  the  trial,  for 
although  the  turret  was  pretty  badly  damaged  it 
was  not  dis.abled.  The  experiments  will  be  contin- 
ued in  the  hope  of  finding  a  system  of  iron-platiug 
which  will  resist  any  possible  projectile,  and  a  pro- 
jectile which  will  knock  to  pieces  any  possible  sys- 
tem of  iron-plating.  "  —  English  Paper. 


This  is  of  a  piive  with  tlie  old  problem,  whi.h 
modern  slang  would  call  a  conundrum  :  "  When  an 
irresistible  body  comes  in  contact  with  an  immova- 
ble object,  what  is  the  result  ?" 

Ar'mor,  Sub-ma-rine'.  Submarine  armor  may 
be  held  to  include  all  the  devices  to  be  attached  to 
the  person  by  which  one  is  enabled  to  descend  in  the 
water,  be  pj'otected  from  exti'cme  pressure  while  sub- 
merged, be  furnished  with  vital  air  and  with  means 
for  signaling  the  persons  above  and  for  assisting  the 
ascent  to  the  surface  when  necessary.  These  devices 
have  been  used  in  connection  with  the  diving-bells, 
but  the  latter  is  not  a  necessary  auxiliary.  In  tlie 
article  on  the  diving-bell  some  instances  of  subma- 
rine amior  are  given,  but  only  as  incidentals. 

Sulnnarine  armor  has  not  as  clear  claims  to  antifj- 
uity  as  the  diving-bell,  if  wc  accept  the  accounts  of 
Aristotle  and  Jerome.  The  earliest  distinct  account 
of  the  diving-bell  in  Europe  is  ]irobably  that  of 
-Tohn  Taisnier,  (juoted  in  Schott's  Tcchnka  Curiosa, 
Nuremberg,  Ititil,  and  giving  a  history  of  the  descent 
of  two  Greeks  in  a  diving-bell,  "  in  a  very  large  ket- 
tle, suspended  by  rope,  mouth  downward  "  ;  which 
was  in  1538,  at  Toledo,  in  Spain,  and  in  the  pres- 
ence of  the  Emjieror  Charles  V. 

Beck  man  cites  a  print  in  editions  of  Vegetius  on 
War,  dated  in  1511  and  1532,  in  which  the  diver  is 
re])resented  ill  a  cap,  from  which  rises  a  long  leather 
pipe,  terminating  in  an  opening  wliich  Hoats  above 
the  surface  of  the  water.  • 

Dr.  Halley.  about  171",  made  a  number  of  im- 
provements in  the  diving-bell,  and  among  them  a 
leather  cap  for  the  head  of  the  diver,  with  windows 
in  front  for  the  eyes.  This  helmet  was  used  by  the 
diver  when  he  left  the  bell,  from  which  he  received  a 
supply  of  air  through  a  flexible  tube. 

The  essential  parts  of  submarine  armor  consist  of 
a  helmet  and  a  protection  for  the  body.  These  are 
rendered  necessary  by  the  great  ju'cssure  of  the  wa- 
ter even  at  moderate  depths.  For  instance,  at  a 
depth  little  exceeding  five  fathoms  (30  feet),  this 
jiiessure  amounts,  including  that  of  the  superincum- 
lient  atmosphere,  to  about  29  pounds  to  the  sipiare 
inch,  being  an  excess  of  some  14.7  pounds  over  that 
due  to  the  atmosphere  alone.  For  dej>ths  not  ex- 
ceeding 15  or  20  feet,  amior  for  the  body  is  not 
])erhaps  absolutely  essential,  though  very  desimble 
if  the  diver  is  required  to  remain  a  considerable 
lime  under  water  ;  this  part  of  the  apparatus  may 
be  constructed  of  leather,  vulcanized  rubber,  or  giitta 
])ercha,  or  of  metal.  The  helmet  is  almost  necessa- 
rily made  of  metal.  It  has  glass  windows  to  enable 
the  diver  to  see,  and  two  tubes.  —  one  for  supplying 
him  with  fresh  atmospheric  air  from  the  surface,  and 
the  other  for  the  eduction  of  the  exhaled  air. 
Weights  are  attached  to  the  body  of  the  diver  or  to 
the  armor,  if  the  hitter  is  not  sufficiently  heavy  of 
itself,  to  enable  him  to  exert  liis  full  power  under 
water  ;  the  human  body  being  very  nearly  of  the 
same  specific  gravitv  as  that  fluid.  A  line  is  at- 
tached to  the  "apparatus,  by  which  the  operator  is 
lowered  to  any  given  depth,  or  hauled  to  the  surface 
by  the  assistants,  and  by  which  he  can  signal  to 
tl'ieni  when  necessary  ;  for  this  purpose,  however,  an- 
other line  is  usually  employed.  Many  diflerent  con- 
structions have  been  proposed  and  executed.  One 
of  the  best  of  the  earlier  forms  was  that  of  M.  Klin- 
crert  of  Breslau,  179S,  in  which  the  helmet  was  made 
of  strong  tin,  and  the  jacket  and  dmweis  of  leather. 
Inhalation  was  made  through  a  tube  embraced  by 
the  lips  of  the  diver,  who,  by  the  expansion  of  his 
chest  at  each  inspiration,  forced  out  of  the  helmet 
into  another  tube  leading  to  »lie  surface  a  (piantity 
of  preriously  exhaled  air  precisely  equal  to  the  fresh 


ARMOR,   SUBMARINE. 


156 


ARMOR,   SUBMARINE. 


ail'  taken  into  tlie  lungs.  In  some  of  the  older  furnis 
the  helnu't  itself  was  made  large  enough  to  hold  a 
quantity  of  air  sutlirient  to  supply  the  diver  for  ii 
consideralile  length  of  time,  dilfering  little,  in  faet, 
from  the  diving-bell.  The  a|iparatus  of  Jlr.  Howe, 
1753,  consisted  essentially  of  a  eopper  tulie  huge 
enough  to  eontaiii  the 
Fig.  359.  body  of  the  diver  and  a 

limited  supply  of  air 
whieh  could  be  renewed 
from  time  to  time  by  a 
bellows  or  force-pum(i,  and 
having  windows  and  wa- 
ter-tight holes  lor  the 
arms.  These  eases  have, 
however,  been  completely 
.su]ierseiled  by  the  diving- 
bell,  and  it  tiy  the  more 
Unodern  forms  of  armor, 
^some  of  whieh  will  be 
mentioned.  .See  UlvlN'G. 
Fig.  359  shows  a  figure 
in  a  diving-dress,  attached 
to  which  is  a  reservoir  of 
eominessed  air  sufficient 
to  last  the  diver  .several 
liours.  It  is  strapped  to 
the  dress,  and  communi- 
cates with  the  intei'ior  of 
the  latter  by  a  pipe  which 
has  a  faucet.  Expansi- 
ble bags  are  attached  to 
the  shoulders,  which  are 
nnule  buoyant  by  inflation 
from  the  compressed-air 
reservoir  when  re(iuired. 
The  air-knapsack  is 
weighted  so  as  to  enable  the  diver  to  sink  to  his  work. 
T!ie  air-tube  enters  the  mask  at  a  point  over  the  ear. 
The  artist  has  made  i-ather  a  dose  ht  of  the  dress 
ami  mask,  and  the  ell'ect  is  ratlier  too  cherubic. 
In  Fig.  'Mil  is  shown  a  rcs]iirator  designed  to  be 


Dii'ing  A/'paratus. 


Ilnivfcim'; 


Mniilhjiiire  for  Difin^ 
Aji/'tirlitits 


attached   to   the   ^  ^  Fig.  360. 

helmet  of  the 
diver  whereby 
air  is  supplied 
from  a  force- 
Iiuni])  in  the  ves- 
sel which  tloats 
on  the  surface  of 
the  water.  1 1 
has  an  induction 
and  an  eduction 
valve,  which 
both  open  iu  the 
same  direction,  giving  way  respectively  to  the  blast 
of  fresh  air  and  to  the  force  of  the  exhaled  biealh. 
While  the  breath  is  being  inspired  by  tlie  diver  tlie 
iiiduelion-valve  is  o]ien  to  admit  fresh  air,  and  when 
expiration  occur.s,  the  induction-valve  is  clo.sed,  and 
the  air  passes  out  by  the  eduction-valve  and  the 
I.e.xible  tube,  which  latter  reaches  to  the  surface  of 
the  water. 

In  Fig.  361  the  diver  is  completely  incased  in  the 
armor,  whieh  has  flexible  jointed  linil}s  occnjiied  liy 
the  legs  and  armsol"  the  occupant,  and  enabling  him 
to  move  from  place  to  place  and  grasp  the  objects  of 
his  search  or  iierform  his  other  duty  in  the  (iremises. 
The  joints  of  the  limb-casings  have  articulations 
corresponding  to  tho.se  of  the  jierson,  and  are  tie.xed 
and  extende<l  by  the  natural  motions  of  the  diver. 
The  prosthetic  hands,  which  are  attached  to  the 
ends  of  the  tubular  arm-casings,  consist  of  tongs  or 
nippeiB,  operated  by  rods,  which  are  moved  by  the 
natural  hands  inside.  Tlie  liody  and  head  of  the 
person  occupy  the  chamber,  w  hieli  is  large  enough  to 
]iennit  free  motion,  and  the  clianiber  is  attached  to 
the  person  by  Viands,  and  a  girdle  about  the  loins. 
An  exterior  reservoir,  partially  encircling  the  cliam- 
bei',  contains  comiiressed  air,  which  is  admitted  to 
the  chamber  by  a  faucet,  as  the  air  may  become 
vitiated  by  breathing.  The  opening  of  another 
faucet  permits  the  vitiated  air  to  escape  through  the 
tube  which  leads  to  the  surface  of  the  water.      If  the 


Fig.  361. 


Philips^s  Submarine  Armnr, 


ARMOZIKE. 


\r, 


ARKS. 


operator  wish  to  ascend  without  assistance,  he  turns 
another  faucet,  wliich  permits  air  to  pass  from  the 
cliamber  into  a  collapsed  bag  attached  to  the  to]>  of 
the  apparatus.  As  the  hag  becomes  inflated,  it  dis- 
places water  and  renders  the  whole  apparatus  buoy- 
ant. To  descend  again,  he  closes  tlie  cock  leading  to 
the  balloon,  and  opens  another  which  allows  the  air 
to  escape  from  the  balloon,  which  is  collapsed  by 
the  pressure  of  the  water.  The  compiesscd  air  is 
intended  to  form  a  supply  foi-  the  trip,  tlie  connec- 
tion with  the  surface  consisting  of  a  lifting  and 
lowering  rope  and  the  eduction  air-pipe. 

Other  armor  for  submarine  explorations  consists 
merely  of  helmets  which  have  the  necessary  win- 
dows to  allow  the  diver  to  see  his  work,  and  aie  pro- 
vided with  induction  and  eduction  tubes  to  furnisli 
the  operator  with  a  supply  of  vital  air  and  carry  oli' 
that  which  is  vitiated. 

Some  exploring  apparatus  are  adapted  for  making 
observations  without  descending.  These  consist  of 
tubes,  telescopic  or  otherwise,  the  lower  end  being 
brought  into  near  proximity  to  the  object  ;  and  in 
one  case  —  Knight's  Eugli.sh  Patent,  about  1847  —  a 
second  tube  was  provided,  down  wliich  was  projecteil 
light  from  a  lamp  or  the  reflected  light  of  the  .sun, 
so  as  to  illuminate  the  object  whose  character  or 
position  it  was  desired  to  a.scertain. 

In  1839,  Thornthwaite  (England)  adopted  a 
waist-belt  of  india-rubber  cloth,  to  which  was  c<m- 
nected  a  small,  strong  copper  vessel  charged  with 
higldy  compressed  air.  The  belt  is  put  on  in  a  col- 
lapsed state,  and  the  diver  descends  ;  but  when  he 
wishes  to  rise,  by  a  valve  he  allows  the  compressed 
air  to  fill  the  belt,  which  increases  his  levity  and  as- 
si.sts  his  ascent. 

The  armor  used  by  Jlr.  Dean  in  1S34,  when  he 
desceiuled  to  the  wreck  of  the  lioyal  George  (sunk 
off  Spithead,  Augu.st  28,  1782),  was  coni|)osed  of  in- 
dia-mbber,  made  perfectly  water-tight,  and  having 
a  metallic  helmet  which  rested  on  the  shoulders  and 
admitted  free  motion  of  the  head.  Three  glass  win- 
dows admitted  light  and  allowed  the  diver  to  e.xam- 
ine  the  remains  of  the  shi]i.  A  flexible  tube  was 
connected  to  an  air-pumji  above,  and  admitted  air 
to  the  helmet.  A  sinking-weight  of  90  pounds  was 
attached  to  his  person. 

A  race  in  submarine  armor  took  place  in  Bo.ston 
harbor  on  the  4th  of  July,  1S6S.  The  course  was  j 
2,100  feet,  reaching  from  Long  Wharf  to  the  Ca- 
nard Docks  on  the  East  boston  side.  Each  diver 
hail  a  submerged  direction-line,  and  each  arrived 
safely,  being  accompanied  l>y  his  boat  with  its  usual 
air-pump  rigging.  The  time  made  was  17,  18^,  and 
21  minutes  respectively.      Each  received  a  prize. 

Ar-mo-zine'.  {Fubric.)  A  thin  plain  silk,  gen- 
erally black,  and  used  for  clerical  robes. 

Arms.  The  club  was  the  first  offensive  weajion. 
By  knots  and  points  it  became  a  mace  ;  an  edge  and 
a  pole  converted  it  to  a  battle-axe.  It  was  adapted 
for  thrusting  by  giving  it  a  point,  and  became  a 
pike  or  spear  ;  and  when  adapted  to  be  thrown  be- 
came a  dart  or  javelin,  which  might  be  recovered  by 
a  line,  as  among  the  JIooi-s.  .Shortened  and  ]iointcd, 
it  became  a  dagger  or  poniard,  and  by  receiving  an 
"dge  became  a  sword,  scimeter,  or  .similar  weapon. 
Pointed,  and  associated  with  a  motor  to  propel  it,  we 
see  the  arrow  and  its  bow,  which  is,  critically  con- 
sidered, a  really  beautiful  invention.     See  .AlicHEI'.Y. 

**  The  fii'st  weapons  of  mankind  were  the  hands, 
nails,  and  teeth  ;  also  stones  and  branches  of  trees,  . 
the  fragments  of  the  woods  ;  then  Hame  and  fire  ; 
were  used,  as  soon  as  they  were  known  :  ami  last-  I 
ly  was  discovered  the  strength  of  iron  and  biass.  ' 
But  the  use  of  brass  was  known  earlier  than  that  of  ] 


iion.  inasmuch  as  its  substance  is  more  ea.'y  towoi-k, 
and  its  abundance  greater."  —  Lvcektius;  d.  51li.  c. 
at.  44. 

History  commences  after  the  invention  of  the  how 
and  arrow,  and  the  Australian  race  seems  to  have 
diverged  from  the  parent  stock  before  its  intiodnc- 
tion,  as  they,  and  they  only,  do  not  possess  it. 
Thev  have  a  curious  analogue,  however,  in  their 
flexible  spears,  which  are  bent,  whi-n  adjusted  for 
throwing,  so  that  their  reaction  in  straightening 
may  increa.se  the  force  of  the  projection.  The  ]iecu- 
liar  course  of  their  flight  when  they  diil  not  straight- 
en perfectly  may  have  suggested  to  them  the  very 
uniiiue  weapon,  the  boomerang,  which  was  imported 
into  England  as  a  curiosity  perhaps  30  years  ago. 

During  the  historic  period  we  find  the  most  an- 
cient weapon  noted  in  the  Bible  is  the  sword.  It 
was  the  "  instrument  of  violence,"  as  Jacob  called  it, 
wheiewith  Simeon  and  Levi  slaughtered  the  Sheche- 
niites  (Genesis  xxxiv.  25). 

I'hineas,  the  giandson  of  Aaron,  carried  a  javelin. 
Ehud  had  a  short  dagger  (Judges  iii.  10).  David  de- 
clined Saul's  sword,  and  used  a  sling,  but  afterward 
took  the  sword  of  Goliath.  JIany  centuries  before, 
all  these  weapons  had  been  used  in  China,  India, 
A.'syiia,  and  Eg>pt. 

Pliny  ascribes  the  invention  of  the  sling  to  the 
PhaMiicians.  The  Ba'earic  Islanders  were  celeluated 
for  their  expertness  in  its  use. 

Slings  and  bows  were  employed  by  all  the  nations 
of  antiquity,  but  among  those  who  attained  the 
highest  miiitary  reputation,  as  the  Greeks  and  Ro- 
mans, were  looked  upon  merely  as  anxilinry  wea])- 
ons,  and  the  soldiers  who  used  them  were  considered 
as  an  inferior  class.  The  heavy-armed  .'oldiers,  who 
composed  the  strength  of  their  armies,  were  armed 
with  the  spear  and  sword.  The  foimer,  as  used  by 
the  Greeks,  was  some  16  or  even  IS  feet  in  length,  and 
enabled  them  to  form  a  line  of  battle  llj  men  deep,  — 
a  solid  mass  capable  of  with.staniHng  the  most  vio- 
lent shocks,  or  of  breaking  the  firmest  ranks  of  any 
enemy  who  was  not  armed  and  di^^ciplineil  like 
themselves ;  it  was,  however,  deficient  in  mobilityand 
activity.  The  Romans,  on  the  contrary,  pieferred  an 
order  of  formation  and  weapons  which  admitted  of 
greater  activity  and  allowed  more  scope  to  the  etfoits 
of  the  individual  solilier.  Besides  a  lighter  tpear, 
their  principal  weapon  was  the  pihim,  a  short  and 
massive  javelin  with  a  triangular  iron  head,  which 
was  darted  by  hand  when  within  a  few  paces  of 
their  opponents,  after  which  they  drew  their  swords 
and  advanced  lor  close  conflict.  The  Roman  foot- 
soldier's  Sttord  was  a  short,  two-edged  weajion, 
greatly  resembling  the  foot-artillery  sword  formerly 
used  in  the  United  States  Army,  and  was  adairted 
for  either  cutting  or  thrusting,  though  the  soldier 
was  instructed  to  prefer  the  latter  as  more  ellective 
and  permitting  him  to  preserve  a  better  guard  of  his 
own  pei'son. 

The  foi-mation  of  the  legion  was  in  eight  ranks, 
and  a  distance  of  three  feet  was  preserved  between 
each  file,  as  well  as  each  rank,  thus  allowing  ample 
room  for  the  maximum  effort  of  each  separate  man. 

The  offensive  arms  of  the  cavalry  were  a  javelin 
and  a  long  broadsword. 

Cavalry  does  not  seem  to  have  performed  such  an 
imiiortan't  part  among  the  Greeks  and  Romans  as  it 
did  among  the  more  Eastern  nations,  as  the  Parthi- 
ans,  whose  mounted  archers,  on  more  than  one  occa- 
sion, defeated  and  almost  annihilated  the  legions  of 
Rome. 

Noimportant  change  in  amis,  except  the  introduc- 
tion of  the  cross-bow,  seems  to  have  been  made  until 
the  introduction  of  gunpowder  ;  though  the  charac- 


ARM-SAW. 


158 


ARXOTT'S  STOVE. 


ter  of  the  forces  emjiloyi'd  underwent  a  coniidete 
revolution.  As  Eurojie  settled  down  into  the  gloom 
of  the  Midille  Ages,  diseiplineil  iinuies  beeuiiie  iin- 
knowji,  and  the  barbarous  nations  of  the  North  who 
had  overrun  it,  in  the  eourse  of  time  beeoniing 
convei'ted  into  peaceful  tillers  of  the  soil,  had  lost 
their  former  military  habits,  and  in  times  of  war 
degenerated  in  to  little  betterthan  eanii)  followers. 

Cavalry,  iuehuliug  the  knights  and  men-at- 
arms  by  whom  they  were  attended,  eonstituted 
almost  the  entire  strength  of  an  army,  and  being 
nearly  invulnerable  to  tlie  ordinary  wea|ions 
used  by  the  tbotmeu  of  that  day,  sueh  as  pikes 
and  bills,  were  capable  of  putting  to  llight  or 
slaughtering  with  impunity  many  times  their 
own  number  of  the  latter,  who  were  in  general 
destitute  of  armor  of  any  kind.  The  ijitroduc- 
tion  of  fire-arms  has  gradually  effected  an  en- 
tire change  in  the  composition  and  discipline 
of  modern  armies,  ami  though  the  lance  and 
sword  or  saber  are  still  employed,  they  are  used 
merely  as  auxiliaries.  See  Ain'iLi.Eiiy,  FiitE- 
Alt.MS,  PuoJEcTiLEs,  etc.  For  a  list  of  arms 
of  various  kinds,  cutting,  missile,  etc.,  see 
We.II'OXS. 

"  Ships'  anns  are  cannons,  carronade,  mortars, 
howitzers,  muskets,  pistols,  tomahawks,  cut- 
lasses, bayonets,  and  boarding-pikes." — Ad.mi- 

r.AI,  SMYtll. 

Arm'-saw.     Another  name  for  the  hand-saw. 

Arm'strong  Gun.  A  desciiption  of  ord- 
nance adojited  in  the  English  artillery  for  all 
lield-guns  and  many  of  larger  caliber. 

It  is  built  up  of  ditt'erent  parts,  so  disjiosed  as  to 
bring  the  metal  into  the  most  favorable  position  for 
the  strain  to  which  it  is  to  be  exposed.  See  Can- 
non. 

Fig.  362. 


and  tightening  the  gas-check  b  in  its  seat,  to  pre- 
vent any  escape  of  gas  rearwardly. 

Ai'mure.  {Fabn'c.)  A  lady's  dress-goods,  hav- 
ing a  coitnn  cliaia  and  woolen  Idling,  twilled. 

Ar'my  Wae'cn.  A  w  agon  designed  for  the  use 
of  foot-soldiers  on  the   plains,  and  so  constructed 

Tig.  303. 


Armstrong  Gun. 

The  illustration  does  not  show  the  mode  of  huild- 
inrj  up  the  gun,  but  illustrates  the  mode  of  breech- 
loading.  Tlie  inner  portion  of  the  barrel  is  made  of 
coiled  iron  or  steel,  welde<l ;  that  mode  of  construct- 
ing being  adopted  to  avail  the  tensile  strength  of  the 
metal  in  resisting  the  bursting  force  of  the  discharge. 
The  mode  of  reinforcing  dilfers  somewhat  in  the  dif- 
ferent calibers  and  styles  of  the  arm,  but  consists, 
generally  speaking,  of  a  number  of  reinforce  bands 
of  superior  strength  and  thickness,  over  and  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  charge-chamber  ami  the  parts  weak- 
ened by  the  transverse  cavity  in  wdiich  the  breech- 
block is  slipped. 

a  is  the  charge-chamber. 

h  the  gas-check. 

c  is  the  breech-block  which  slides  in  a  transverse 
slot  d.     The  breech-block  is  traversed  by  the  vent. 

e  is  a  breech-screw  having  an  axial  aperture  m, 
through  which  the  charge  is  introduced  from  the 
rear,  when  the  breech-block  c  is  withdrawn.  After 
the  cliarge  is  inserted  in  the  chamber  ((,  the  block  c 
is  replaced,  and  the  breech-screw  c  is  screwed  up, 
forcing  a  projection  on  the  anterior  face  of  the  breech 


Army  Wasion, 

that  the  men  can  quickly  jump  off  the  seats  when 
attacked,  and  spring  back  again  at  once.  The  term 
is  also  ap]>lied  to  wagons  for  stores  and  ammunition. 

Ar'nott's  Stove.  The  original  form  of  Dr.  Ar- 
nott's  stove  is  shown  in  Fig.  3li4,  and  perhajis  illus- 
trates its  ])eculiar  principle  better  than  do  the 
subsequent  modifications. 

a  b  d  represent  a  box  of  sheet-iron,  divided  by 
the  partition  3  h  into  two  chambers,  communicating 
freely  at   the  top 

and  bottom  ;  e  is  Fig.  364. 

the  fire-box, 
formed  of  iron, 
lined  with  fire- 
brick and  resting 
on  a  close  asli-jjit 
with  a  door  at  b, 
near  which  is  a 
valved  opening  ^ 
by  which  air  en-' ^ 
ters  to  feed  the  fire 
when  the  door  is 
shut ;  lis  the  door 
of  the  stove  by 
which  fuel  is  in- 
troduced ;  c  is  the 
c  h  i  m  n  e  y  - 11  u  e . 
When  the  ash-pit 
door  and  the 
stove-door  are 

shut,  the  quantity  of  air  admitted  by  the  valved  open- 
ing in  the  ash-pit  is  only  just  sufficient  to  support 
combustion,  and  only  a  small  corresponding  quantity 
of  air  can  pass  away  by  the  chimney.  The  whole  box 
then  soon  becomes  filled  with  hot  air,  or  smoke 
from  the   fire   circulating  in    it,   and   rendering  it 


The  Arnott  Stove. 


everywhere  of  as  uniform  temperature  as  if  it  were 
block  into  the  conical  seat  at  the  rear  of  the  bore,  I  full   of   hot   water.     This   circulation   takes  place. 


ARQUEBUS. 


159 


ARRASTRA. 


because  the  air  in  the  front  chamber  around  the 
fire-box,  and  wliich  receives  as  a  mixture  the  hot  air 
issuing  dirccth'  from  the  fire,  is  hotter,  and  there- 
fore sjiecifieally  lighter,  than  tlie  air  in  tlie  posterior 
chamber,  which  receives  no  direct  heat,  but  is 
always  losing  heat  from  its  sides  and  back  ;  and 
thus,  as  long  as  the  lire  is  burning,  there  must  be 
circulation.  The  whole  mass  of  air  revolves,  as 
marked  by  the  arrows,  with  great  rajiiclity.  The 
quantity  of  new  air  rising  from  within  the  fuel,  and 
the  like  quantity  escaping  by  the  flue  c,  are  very 
small,  compared  with  the  revolving  mass.  Tlie 
methods  of  regulating  the  supply  of  air  will  be 
noticed  presently. 

With  this  stove,  Dr.  Arnott,  during  the  severe  win- 
ter of  1836  -  37,  w-as  able  to  maintain  in  his  library  a 

uniform  tempcra- 
i'ig-  365.  ture  of  from  eO°to 

jl jj  ^.^^^  63°.  The  quan- 
tity of  coal  used 
(Welsh  stone- 
coal)  was,  for  sev- 
eral of  the  colder 
months,  6  lbs.  a 
day,  —  less  than 
two  cents'  worth, 
—  a  smaller  ex- 
pense than  that  of 
the  wood  used  in 
lighting  an  ordi- 
iiaiy  lire.  The 
grate  or  fire-box, 
fully  charged, 
held  a  supply  for 
twenty-six  hours. 
Another  com- 
mon form  of  this 
stove  is  shown  in  Fig.  365.  A  B  C  D  is  tlie  outer 
casing  ;  E  the  fire-box  over  which  is  a  dome  /.•,  with 
a  funnel  p,  to  carry  ott'  the  products  of  combus- 
tion ;  h  is  the  stove-door,  and  (j  the  regulator  by 
which  air  is  admitted.  The  device  for  automati- 
cally regulating  the  supply  of  air  is  described  under 
Thf.rmo.st.\t  (which  see). 

Ar'que-buse.     This  piece,  an  early  attempt  at  a 
portable  fire-arm,  had  a  massive  stock  laid  to  the 

Fig.  366. 


The  Arnott  Stove. 


Arquebuse. 

shoulder,  and  an  offset  near  the  muzzle  by  which  it 
might  be  rested  against  an  object,  to  break  the 
recoil.  It  was  fired  by  a  match.  It  was  used  in  the 
battle  of  Morat,  where  the  Swiss  defeated  Charles 
the  Bold,  1476. 

Ar-ras'tra.  One  form  of  machine  for  commi- 
nuting ore.  The  name  is  derived  from  the  Spanish 
word  meaning  "to  drag,"  and  is  indicative  of  the 
machine.  It  consists  of  a  pan  in  which  the  ore  is 
placed,  and  a  vertical  rotating  post,  to  whose  radial 
arms  are  attached  thongs  by  which  blocks  or  mullers 
are  dragged  over  the  ore  in  the  pan.  They  are 
very  common  in  Mexico,  where  they  operate  upon 
argentiferous  ores,  and,  according  to  Humboldt,  do 
excellent  work.  They  have  been  superseded  to 
some  extent  b)'  other  forms  of  grinding-mills.  See 
Am.\i.gamatixg  Mills  ;  Ore-st.\.mp  ;  Ohk-ciu^shek. 

Three  arrastras  ^ire  patented  in  the  United  States. 


Fig.  35' 


Fig.  367  lias  the  distinct  arrastra  characteristics,  and 
is  designed  for  the  reduction  of  precious  metals  from 
ores  and  tailings  :  it  ha-s  a  cast-iron  iian  provided  with 
two  flanges,  placed  on  o]iposite  sides,  ami  termi- 
nating in  a  ball-jiivot,  which  rests  in  a  cup-shaped 
liearing  on  the  frame,  by  which  means  the  arrastra 
can  easily  be  tipped  when  the  contents  are  to  be 
drawn  off.  A  cup-shaped  cavity  serves  also  as  a 
bearing  for  a  ball-pivot  at  the  lower  end  of  the 
hollow  shaft. 

In  another  form  the  circumferential  band  on  the 
inside  surface  of  the  arrastra  is  connected  with  the 

Fig.  368. 


Arrastra. 

positive  pole  of  the  battery,  and  the  metallic  radial 
gutters  are  attached  to  the  encircling  wire  connected 
to  the  negative  pole.  The  arrastras  being  filled 
with  the  pulverized  ore,  water,  ami  mercury,  the 
electric  current  is  causeil  to  pass  through  the  mass, 
and  is  intended  to  facilitate  the  separation  of  the 
metals  from  their  chemical  combinations,  and  further 
their  amalgamation  with  the  mercuiy. 

Fig.  369  is  designed  as  an  improvement  on  the 
Bertola  ilill,  October  20,  1857,  but  difl'ers  from  it 
in  the  fact  that  the  mullers /are  linked  to  the  arms 


ARRASTRA. 


160 


ARROW. 


Bertola^s  Arrastra. 


Bertola's  Mill,  1857. 


rig  369.  /,■  of  tlic    rotating- 

shaft,  so  that  rach 
is  IVci!  to  accommo- 
date itself  to  the 
material  overwhicli 
it  is  dragged.  The 
basin  in  whi<di  the 
mullers  revolve 
eonsi.sts  of  a  circu- 
lar iron  trough 
through  w  hose  cen- 
terthe  rotatingaxis 
jiasses  up,  being 
driven  by  machin- 
ery beiu'ath.  The  muUer,  in  his  former  patent,  was 
not  opei-ated  as  in  an  arrastra,  was  not  diaggeJ,  but 
was  a  i)lock  slipped  over  the  central  boss  in  the  ]>au, 
and  formed  of  an  annular  disk  from  whose  opposite 
edges  a  portion  was  removed,  leaving  concave  sides. 
The  liottom  of  the  muUer  was  grooved,  and  the  part 
removed  left  spaces  for  the  ore  on  each  side,  between 
it  and  the  basin.  It 
was  i-evolved  by  a  shaft 
above,  lowered  into  op- 
erative contact  with  it 
as  rerjuired,  and  the 
pulp  was  discharged  liy 
openings  near  the  bot- 
tom, which  were  un- 
stopped when  the  pan 
was  tilted  on  a  hori- 
zontal axis.  Openings 
above  and  at  the  bot- 
tom, respectively,  dis- 
charge the  water  and 
the  amalgam  pu'p. 
The  arrastra,  as  usually  constructed,  ami  described 
by  Phillips,  consists  of  a  circular  pavement  of  stone, 
about  twelve  feet  in  diameter,  on  which  the  quartz 
is  ground  by  means  of  two  or  more  large  stones  or 
mullers  dragged  continually  over  its  surface,  either 
by  horses  or  mules,  but  more  frequently  by  the 
latter.  The  periphery  of  the  circular  jiavenient  is 
surrounded  by  a  rough  curbing  of  wooil  or  flat 
stones,  forming  a  kind  of  tub  about  two  feet  in 
depth,  and  in  its  center  is  a  stout  wooden  post, 
firmly  bedded  in  the  ground,  and  standing  nearly 
level  witli  the  exterior  curbing. 

Working  on  an  iron  pivot  in  this  central  post  is  a 
strong,  upright  wooden  shaft,  secured  at  its  upper 
extremity  to  a  horizontal  beam  by  another  journal, 
which  is  often  merely  a  prolongation  of  theshaft  itself. 
This  upright  shaft  is  crossed  at  I'ight  angles  by  two 
strong  pieces  of  wood,  forming  four  arms,  of  whiidi 
one  is  made  sufiieiently  long  to  ailmit  of  attaching 
two  mules  for  working  the  machine.  The  grinding 
is  performed  by  four  large  blocks  of  hard  stone, 
usually  porphyry  or  granite,  attached  to  the  arms 
either  by  chains  or  thongs  of  rawhide,  in  such  a 
way  that  their  edges,  in  the  direction  of  their  mo- 
tion, are  raised  about  an  inch  from  the  stone  pave- 
ment, while  thi^  other  side  trails  upon  it.  These 
stones  each  weigh  from  three  to  four  hundred 
pounds,  and  in  some  arrastras  two  only  are  em- 
ployed, in  which  case  a  single  mule  is  sufficient  to 
work  the  machine.  Fig.  371  is  a  sectional  view  of 
a  Mexican  airastra  as  usually  constructed  ;  A  is  the 
upright  shaft ;  B,  the  arms,  to  which  the  nnillers 
C  are  attached  ;  and  D,  the  central  block  of  wood 
in  which  the  lower  bearing  works. 

Some  of  tlic  arrastras  u.sed  by  Mexican  gold- 
miners,  for  the  ]iuri)Ose  of  testing  the  value  of 
quartz  veins,  are  very  rudely  put  together,  the  bot- 
tom being  made  of  unhewn  tlat  stones  laid  down  in 


Fig.  371. 


Mfxican  Arrastra. 

clay  ;  but  in  a  well-constructed  arrastra,  intended 
to  be  permanently  employed,  the  stones  are  (  arelully 
dressed  and  closely  jointed,  ami  after  being  placed 
in  their  resjiective  positions,  are  grouted-iu  with 
hydiaulir  ci'inent. 

Ar-rest'er,  Li^ht'ning.  x\n  instrument  used  on 
telegrapli-lines,  by  which  static  electricity  of  high 
tension  (lightning)  is  discharged  from  the  line  to 
the  cartli,  to  prevent  injury  to  the  telegraph  instru- 
ments or  the  operators. 

It  consists  of  an  inteiTiosed  resisting  medium 
which  is  traversed  by  a  current  of  high  tension, 
aiul  allows  the  charge  to  pass  to  the  earth,  but 
which  opposes  the  passage  of  the  ordinary  voltaic 
current.     See  Lioht.ning  Auukstkr. 

Ar'ris.  The  external  angle  or  edge  formed  by 
the  meeting  of  two  plane  or  curved  surfaces, 
whether  walls,  or  the  sides  of  a  stick  or  stone. 

Ar'ris-fil'let.  A  triangular  piece  of  wood 
placed  under  a  lower  course  of  slates,  tiles,  or 
shingles. 

Ar'ris-gut'ter.  {Carpcntrj/.)  A  V-gutter  fixed 
to  tlii'  dri[i]ang-i'aves  of  a  building. 

Ar'ris-pie'ces.  The  portions  of  a  built  mast 
beneatli  the  hoops. 

Ar'Tis-Tvise.  Diagonally  arranged ;  said  of 
tiles  or  slates. 

Ar'row.  The  missile  which  is  projected  by  n 
bow.      liundles  of  arrows  W'ere  called  sli£iivcs. 

It  is  usually  of  reed  or  of  wood,  and  tipi>ed  with 
the  best  accessible  materials  ;  such  as  bone,  flint, 
obsidian,  metal. 

The  old  English  rale  was  to  have  the  arrow  half 
the  length  of  the  bow,  and  the  latter  the  length  of  the 
archer,  so  that  a  cloth-yard  sluift  was  used  by  a  man 
six  feet  high. 

The  holt  was  a  peculiar  arrow  adapted  to  be  shot 
from  a  cross-bow.  The  arrow  of  an  arbalest  was 
termed  a  qunrrcl. 

Immense  quantities  of  flint  arrow-heads  are  found 
in  the  Celtic  barrows  throughout  Europe.  The  ar- 
I'ow-hcads  of  the  Scythians  and  Greeks  were  of  bronze,  i 
and  had  three  llanges  like  a  bayonet ;  such  have 
been  found  at  Persepolis  and  Marathon.  The  "bar-  ■ 
barians,"  say  the  classic  writers,  tise  barbed  {adiin- 
ccc,  hrmata:)  and  poisoned  {iriicnatcc)  arrows.  The 
poison  on  the  arrow  was  called  tnxicum,  from  its 
relation  to  the  bow,  and  the  word  was  extended  to 
poison  in  general. 

The  shaft  was  of  polished  wood,  cane,  or  reed. 
The  latter  actually  gave  names  to  the  weapon,  — 
arnndo,  calamus.  The  Egyptians  used  reed  shafts  ; 
their  arrows  were  from  22  to  34  inches  in  length, 
and  are  yet  extant. 

The  monuments  show  feathered  .shafts. 

In  the  time  of  Homer,  arrows  were  sometimes  poi- 
soned. The  poi.soned arrows  of  the  Indians  of  Guiana 
are  lilown  tlirough  a  tube.  They  are  made  of  the 
hard  wood  of  the  OukarUo  tree,  are  about  the  size  of  a 


ARROW. 


161 


ARSENIC  FURNACE. 


knitting-needle  nine  inches  long,  and  mounted  on  a 
yellow  reed  four  or  five  feet  long.  One  end  is  sharp- 
ened, and  poisoned  with  woorai ;  the  rear  end  re- 
ceives a  pledget  of  cotton  to  act  as  a  piston  in  the  tube. 
The  eH'ective  mnge  is  about  forty  yards.  The  hard- 
wood spike  can  be  removed  at  pleasure  ;  twelve  or 
fifteen  such  spikes  are  carried  by  the  hunter  in  a 
little  box,  made  of  bamboo.  The  poisoned  spike  is 
cut  half  through,  at  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch 
above  the  point  where  it  fits  into  the  socket  of  the 
aiTow  ;  and  thus,  when  it  has  entered  the  animal, 
the  weight  of  the  shaft  causes  it  to  break  off,  the 
shaft  falls  to  the  ground  uninjured,  and  is  fitted 
with  another  poisoned  spike  and  used  again. 

In  like  manner  the  arrows  of  the  Bushmen, 
Africa,  often  have  the  shafts  partly  cut  through,  so 
that  they  may  break  and  leave  the  point  in  the 
wound. 

The  serrated  weapon  of  the  sting  ray  is  used  by 
the  Malays  for  heading  some  of  these  blow-arrows, 
with  the  e-^cpress  intention  that  they  might  break  off 
in  the  wound. 

The  arrow-heads  of  the  Shoshones  of  North  Amer- 
ica, said  to  be  poisoned,  are  tied  on  purposely  with 
gut  in  such  a  manner  as  to  remain  when  the  shaft 
is  withdrawn. 

A  similar  idea  is  carried  out  in  a  Venetian  dagger 
of  glass  with  a  three-edged  blade,  having  a  tube  in 
the  center  to  receive  poison.  By  a  certain  wrench 
the  blade  was  broken  off,  and  remained  in  the 
wound. 

"  In  passing  overland  from  the  Essequibo  to  the 
Demerara,"  says  Waterton,  "  we  fell  in  with  a  herd 
of  wild  hogs.  An  Indian  let  fly  a  poisoned  arrow 
at  one  of  them  ;  it  entered  the  cheek-bone  and  broke 
off.  The  hog  was  found  dead  about  170  paces  from 
the  place  where  he  had  been  shot.  He  afforded  us 
an  excellent  and  wholesome  supper."  The  wild 
tribes  of  the  Malayan  peninsula,  who  use  poisoned 
arrows,  eat  the  meat  of  animals  killed  by  these  deadly 
weapons,  without  even  troubling  themselves  to  cut 
out  the  wounded  part. 

There  is  reason  for  supposing  that  the  discovery 
of  the  various  poisons  used  for  weapons,  and  the 
practice  of  applying  them  to  such  a  purpose,  arose 
spontaneously  and  separately  in  the  various  quar- 
ters of  the  globe.  Poisoned  weapons  are  useil  by 
the  Negroes,  Bushmen,  and  Hottentots  of  Africa  ; 
in  the  Indian  Archipelago,  New  Hebrides,  and  New 
Caledonia.  They  are  employed  in  Bootan,  Assam, 
by  the  Stiens  of  Cambodia,  and  formerly  by  the 
Moors  of  Mogadore.  The  Parthians  and  Scythians 
used  them  in  ancient  times. 

The  composition  of  the  poison  varies  in  different 
races  ;  the  Bushmen,  Hottentots,  and  others,  using 
the  venomous  secretions  of  serpents  and  caterpillars. 
In  the  Bosjesman  country.  Southern  Africa,  the  na- 
tives hunt  the  puff-adders,  in  order  to  extract  the 
poison.  They  creep  upon  the  reptile  unawares,  and 
break  its  back  at  a  single  blow.  The  poison-glands 
are  then  extracted  ;  the  venom  is  very  thick,  like 
glycerine,  and  has  a  faint  aciil  taste.  This  is  mixed, 
on  a  flat  stone,  with  an  acrid  poisonous  gum,  called 
"  parki  "  ;  after  being  worked  until  it  becomes  of  the 
consistency  of  thick  glue,  it  is  spread  over  the  barbed 
head  of  the  arrow  and  for  about  two  inches  up  its 
point.  The  arrows  are  then  dried  in  the  sun.  Each 
warrior  carries  some  half-dozen  of  these  devilish 
weapons,  a  wound  from  one  of  which  is  as  deadly  as 
the  bite  of  the  adder  itself. 

In  Ceylon  the  cobra-tel  poison  is  extracted  from 

certain  venomous  snakes,  such  as  the  Cobra  de  Ca- 

pello   (from  which  the  poison  takes  its  name),  the 

Carawella,  and  the  Tic  polonga  ;  arsenic  and  other 

11 


drugs  are  added,  and  the  whole  is  "  boiled  in  a  hu- 
man skull."  Three  Kabra-goyas  {Hydrosaurus  sal- 
■valor)  are  tied  near  three  sides  of  the  fire,  with 
their  heads  toward  it ;  they  are  tormented  with 
whips  to  make  them  liiss,  so  that  the  fire  Uiuy 
blaze  !  The  froth  from  their  lips  is  added  to  the 
boiling  mixture,  and  as  soon  as  an  oily  scum  rises  to 
the  surface,  the  "  cobra-tel  "  is  complete.  Pjobably 
the  ai-senic  is  the  most  active  ingredient  in  this 
poison. 

The  Cells  are  said  to  prepare  poison  for  their  ar- 
rows in  the  following  manner  :  "  They  first  kill  a 
cow,  and  take  from  it  its  liver  ;  they  then  collect 
rattlesnakes,  scorpions,  centipedes,  and  tarantulas, 
which  they  confine  in  a  hole  with  the  liver.  The 
next  process  is,  to  beat  them  with  sticks,  in  order 
to  enrage  them  ;  and,  being  thus  infuriated,  they 
fasten  their  fangs  and  exhaust  their  venom  upon 
each  other  and  upon  the  liver.  When  tlie  whole 
mass  is  in  a  state  of  corruption,  the  women  take 
tlieir  arrows  and  pass  their  points  through  it ;  these 
are  then  allowed  to  drj'  in  the  shade." 

The  Indians  of  Choco  and  Barbacoas  use  the 
"  Veneno-derana,"  or  frog  poison,  which  is  obtained 
by  placing  a  species  of  yellow  frog,  that  frequents 
the  swamps,  over  hot  ashes,  and  scraping  off  the 
viscid  humor  that  arises.  After  thus  tortuiing  the 
frogs,  they  are  allowed  to  escape,  in  order  that  they 
may  sen-e  another  time.  "  Veneno-de-culebra,"  or 
snake  poison,  is  also  said  to  be  used  in  Choco. 

{Fortification.)  An  advanced  work  at  the  foot  of 
the  glacis,  consisting  of  a  parapet  whose  faces  form 
a  salient  angle.  It  has  communication  with  the  cov- 
ered waj'  cut  through  the  glacis. 

[Surveying. )  One  of  the  iron- wire  ])ins  employed 
in  marking  the  chainage.  One  is  placed  in  the 
gi'ound  at  the  end  of  eacli  chain. 

An  arrow  is  ten  inches  long,  with  a  loop  at  the 
up]ier  end,  and  is  all  the  better  for  a  red  flag  to  ren- 
der it  conspicuous. 

Called  also  a  chain-pin. 

Ar'3e-nio.  A  soft,  brittle,  and  poisonous  metal 
of  a  steel-gray  color.  Equivalent,  75  ;  symbol,  As.  ; 
specific  gravit}',  5.7.  It  volatilizes,  exhaling  an  odor 
of  garlic  ;  fuses  at  400°  Fah.,  and  is  easily  in- 
flamed. It  combines  with  oxygen  in  two  propor- 
tions, forming  arsenious  and  arsenic  acids.  The 
former  salt  is  As.  75,  0.  24  ;  the  latter,  As.  75, 
0.  40.  The  former  is  the  common  white  arsenic  of 
commerce,  very  poisonous,  and  a  dull  white  ]iowder, 
sp.  gr.  3.07. 

It  is  used  to  alloy  lead  for  shot-making,  causing 
the  metal  to  pour  more  readily,  and  hardening  the 
shot. 

Ar'se-nic  Fur'nace.  A  furnace  in  which  arseni- 
cal pyiites  is  decomposed  by  heat,  producing  white 
arsenic,  which  is  an  oxide  of  the  metal  chemically 
known  as  arsenious  acid,  the  arsenic  of  commerce. 
Arsenic  is  combustible,  oxidizing  so  rapidly  as  to 
burn  with  a  livid  flame,  the  fumes  being  condenseii 
in  large  chambers  which  resemble  the  successive 
stories  of  a  house.  The  floors  have  openings,  so  that 
the  fumes  traverse  each  apartment,  and  the  light 
powder  is  deposited. 

The  furnace  is  a  muffle  »»,  with  an  inclined  sole, 
and  haHng  a  fire-chamber  beneath.  The  sole  rests 
upon  brickwork  which  has  numerous  openings, 
fonning  circulatoiy  flues  d  around  the  muffle.  The 
arsenical  pyrites  is  introduced  at  the  hopper/,  and 
the  smoke  escapes  by  the  flues  1 1. 

The  condensing  chambers  have  openings  by  which 
the  collected  arsenic  on  the  respective  floors  is  re- 
moved, the  lower  chamber  being  entered  by  the 
duct  0,  which  proceeds  from  the  muffle. 


ARTERIAL  COMPRESSOR. 


162 


ARTESIAN  WELL. 


Fig.  372. 


572niJ 


Arsenic  Furnace, 

The  Jepobit  in  tlie  lowest  cliamber  is  the  purest. 

Fig   373. 


wjmV^ . . 


I 


Condensing  Chamber. 

Ar-te'ri-al  Com-pres'sor.    {Sun/iml.)    A  form 

of  toviniiciiu't  invented  by  Signoroni,  to  be  used  in  ani- 

)iutati"iis  at  the  hip  joint,  to  control  the  circulation  at 

the  groin  without  iuipeding  the  return  by  the  veins. 

Ar'te-ry  Cla'w.     {Surgical.)     A  locking  forceps 

for  seizing  an  artery. 

Ar'tery  For'ceps. 
An  instrument  for  catcli- 
ing  an  artery.  These  for- 
ceps are  made  straight, 
cuiTed,  plain,  or  rat- 
toothed,  spring-open, 
spring-shut,  or  catch. 

The  illustration  shows 
three  forms. 

Ar'te  -  ry-o  -tome'. 
A  post-nioi'teni  or  dissect- 
ing instrument,  for  slit- 
ting an  artery. 

Ar-te'sian  Well. 
Artesian  wells  are  so 
called  because  it  was 
generally  supposed  that 
they  were  first  used  in 
the  province  of  Artois, 
France.  They  apjiear, 
however,  to  have  existed 
in  Egypt  at  a  very  remote 
Artery  Forceps.  date,  and  are  said  to  be 


found  in  the  province  of  On-Tong-Kiao,  in  China, 
of  the  depth  of  from  l,500tol,800  feet.  The  jirinciple 
of  their  action  is  this:  waterpercolating  through  ]ier- 
vious  strata,  such  as  sand,  gravel,  or  chalk,  is  finally 
arrested  in  its  downward  course  by  an  impervious  stra- 
tum of  rock  or  clay,  causing  it  to  accumulati'  in  tl>e 
pervious  stratum  above  as  in  a  resen-oir,  and  wlu  n  the 
source  of  supply  is  higher  than  the  level  of  the  ground 
at  the  placewhere  the  well  is  bored,  the  water  will  rise 
to  the  surface,  or  even  considerably  above  it  ;  in  many 
cases  issuing  from  the  inoutli  of  the  well  with  sulii- 
cient  force  to  throw  a  jet  of  the  water  to  a  great 
hight,  or  admit  of  its  being  carried  high  enough  for 
distribution  to  the  upper  stories  of  buildings. 

The  term  "  artesian  "  is  only  properly  applied  to 
wells  in  which  the  water  rises  to  or  above  the  surface, 
so  that  in  case  a  large  number  are  collected  in  a  single 
neighborhood,  some  orallof  them,  jiarticularly  those 
toward  the  higher  jirrt  of  the  basin,  may  Ijccome 
converted  from  artesian  into  ordinary  wells.  In  the 
London  basin,  where  a  great  number  of  artesian 
wells  have  been  bored,  the  general  level  of  the  wa- 
ter has  been  very  much  diminished. 

It  generally  happens  that  more  than  one,  frequent- 
ly many,  water-liearing  strata  are  penetrated  before 
one  is  reached  which  has  a  sufficient  head  to  cause 
an  overflow  at  the  surface  ;  in  such  cases  others  he- 
sides  the  lower  one  may  be  made  available,  if 
thought  advisable. 

The  wells  of  the  London  basin  will  perhaps  afford 
as  good  an  illu.stration  of  the  theory  and  action  of 
artesian  wells  as  any  other  exam]>le  ;  the  character 
and  succession  of  the  beds  having  been  moie  care- 
fully studied  and  worked  out  than  almost  any  oth- 
ers where  such  wells  are  located. 

These  wells  derive  their  supply  from  the  pervious 
strata  of  the  plastic  clay  and  chalk.  The.se  stiata 
are  covered  in  part  by  the  formation  called  the  Lon- 
don clay,  which  is,  in  most  of  its  beds,  tough  ami  im- 
peimeable  to  water,  so  that  the  rain  falling  on  those 
parts  of  the  jiorous  chalk  and  other  pervious  stiata 
below  it,  which  are  not  covered  by  the  supeijacent 
impervionselay,  percolates  through  them  till  it.slartlu'r 
progress  downward  is  stopped  by  the  "gaull,"  an- 
other stratum  of  imjiervious  clay,  and  accuiuulaies 
tween  it  and  the  overlying  clay,  which  acts  as  a  cover 
to  this  vast  subterraneous leservoir  to  the  le\i'!  of  the 
line  B  A.  The  water,  reaching  points,  as  C,  at  the 
lower  levels  of  the  junction  of  the  chalk  and  clay, 
the  pervious  and  the  imper\'ious  strata,  comes  to  the 
surface  in  the  form  of  springs  which  act  as  ditchaige- 
outlets.  In  this  case  a  horizontal  line,  as  A  B, 
drawn  througli  C,  indicates  the  general  level  of  the 
water  in  the  basin,  unless  disturbed  by  faults  or 
shifts  in  the  strata  permitting  a  part  to  be  carried 
off  at  a  lower  level.  In  the  latter  case,  if  the  outlet 
had  an  area  of  capacity  for  carrying  off  an  amount 
in  excess  of  the  supply  received  from  the  clouds,  it 
would  determine  the  water-level ;  if  less,  the  level 
would  fluctuate  somewhere  between  this  lower  point 
of  discharge  and  the  line  A  B,  in  projiortion  to  the 
amount  of  rain  falling  on  the  exposed  portions  of 
the  pervious  strata. 

If  a  boring  be  made  anywhere  through  the  over- 
lying clay  beds,  it  is  evident  that  the  water  will  rise 
by  hydrostatic  pressure  until  it  has  att«ined  the 
same  level  as  in  the  chalk  beds  below,  and  if  the 
surface  of  the  ground  at  that  point  be  below  this 
level,  the  water  will  rise  to  the  surface  and  overflow 
as  at  (?  or  //,  which  it  did  a  few  years  ago  in  tlie 
valley  of  the  Thames  between  London  and  Bient- 
ford,  though  it  is  said  that  latterly  there  has  been  a:i 
average  fall  of  about  two  feet  per  year  in  the  wells 
of  the  London  basin,  so  that  in  many  of  iho.*  wells 


Plati:  \' 


ARTESIAN  WELL. 

;;ItENELLE,    PAIUS,    FRANCE. 


See  payc  1C3. 


ARTESIAN   WELL. 


163 


ARTESIAN  WELL. 


Fig.  375. 


Section  of  the  London  Basin, 


which  formerly  overflowed  the  water  is  now  raised 
ty  pumps. 

At  St.  Ouen,  jn  France,  water  is  brought  up  from 
two  strata  at  different  levels,  the  ascending  force  of 
the  water  from  the  lower  stratum  being  greater  than 

that  in  the  upper. 
Fig.  376.  This  is  effected  by 

means  of  two  pipes, 
one  within  the  oth- 
er, with  a  sufficient 
interval  between 
them  to  allow  the 
free  passage  of  wa- 
ter. The  smallest 
pipe  brings  up  the 
water  from  the  low- 
er stratum  B  to  the 
level  of  the  highe.'it 
part  of  the  fountain 
b",  while  the  water 
from  theupperstra- 
tuni,  which  does 
not  attain  so  high 
a  level,  passes  up 
through  the  outer 
pipe  to  a' ;  by  this 
means,  should  the 
water  from  the  low- 
er stratum  be  pure 
and  that  from  the 
upper  impure,  the 
former  may  be 
brought  up  and 
discharged  sepa- 
rately without  be- 
ing mingled  with 
or  contaminated 
by  the  former.  Both  the.se  streams  are  used  for 
supplying  the  canal  ba.sin  at  St.  Ouen,  which  is 
aliove  the  level  of  the  Seine. 

The  well  at  Calais  is  1,138  feet,  and  that  at 
Douchery,  in  the  .Ardennes,  France,  1,215  feet,  in 
(lipth.  The  Englisli  wells  are  of  less  depth,  vary- 
ing from  70  or  SO  to  620  feet.  The  fountains  in 
Trafalgar  Square,  London,  are  supplied  Viy  wells  of 
this  kind,  393  feet  deep.  Tliose  of  London  are  all  in 
the  chalk,  and  it  is  believed  that  by  deeper  boring, 
so  as  to  reach  either  the  upper  or  lower  green-sand 
foimations,  a  more  ample  supply  of  water  could  be 
obtained. 


WeU  of  St.  Ouen. 


The  essential  apparatus  for  boring  as  generally 
practiced  consists  of  an  auger  or  borer  attaoheil  to 
rods  (which  are  successively  screwed  on  to  eacli  other 
as  the  work  progresses,  and  which  atibnl  a  measui-e 
for  the  depth  of  the  boring),  and  tubes  of  an  exterior 
diameter  equal  to  that  of  the  well,  which  are  pu.-hed 
down  one  after  another  to  prevent  the  caWng  in  or 
filling  up  of  the  well  by  earth  or  rock.  One  r^  the 
most  celebrated  artesian  wells  is  that  at  Gieneiie,  a 
suburb  of  Paris,  which  took  nearly  seven  years  and 
two  months  of  difficult  labor  to  complete  ;  it  is  1,602 
feet  in  depth,  and  when  the  water-beai'iiig  stratum 
of  green-colored  sand  was  reached,  the  water  wns 
discharged  at  the  rate  of  upwards  of  880,000  gallons 
in  24  hours  ;  the  force  w.os  such  that  the  water  could 
be  carried  to  a  hight  of  120  feet  above  the  surface. 

The  temperature  of  the  water  from  the  depth  of 
1,802  feet  was  considerably  higher  tlian  the  ir.ean 
temperature  at  the  surface.  In  the  cellars  of  the 
Paris  Observatory,  at  a  depth  of  94  feet,  the  ther- 
mometer was  found  constantlv  to  remain  at  53°.06 
Fah.  ;  in  the  chalk,  at  a  de'pth  of  1,319  feet,  it 
marked  76°.3  ;  in  the  gault,  at  1,6.57  feet,  79°.6  ;  and 
the  water  flowing  from  the  well  has  a  uniform  tem- 
perature of  81°.8,  indicating  a  rate  of  increase  of 
1°.7  for  each  100  feet  below  the  limit  of  constant 
temperature. 

The  springs  which  supply  the  King's  Bath,  at 
Bath,  England,  have  a  temperature  of  117°,  and  the 
spring  of  Orense,  in  GalUcia,  has  a  temperature  of 
180°  Fah. 

The  artesian  Brine-well  of  Kissingen,  in  Bavaria, 
was  begun  in  1832,  and  in  1850  water  was  reached  at 
1,878  feet.  The  depth  reached  by  farther  boring  was 
about  2,000  feet.  The  water  has  a  temperature  of  66° 
Fah.,  and  issues  at  the  rate  of  100  cubic  feet  per  min- 
ute. The  ejecting  force  is  supposed  to  he  derived 
from  a  subterranean  atmosphere  of  carbonic-acid 
gas,  acting  with  a  force  of  60  atmospheres.  The 
tubings  are  concentric,  water  rising  between  the 
outer  and  middle  tubes,  passing  down  between  the 
middle  and  inner  tubes  to  the  beil  of  rock  salt,  where 
it  is  saturated,  and  then  raised  in  the  middle  tulie 
to  the  surface. 

The  artesian  well  at  Passy,  near  Paris,  is  proba- 
bly the  largest  well  of  the  kind  that  has  ever  been 
sunk.  It  is  carried  through  the  chalk  into  the  low- 
er trreen  sands,  which  were  readied  at  a  depth  of 
1,913  feet,  the  bore  finishing  with  a  diameter  of  two 
feet. 


ARTESIAN   WELL. 


164 


ARTESIAN   WELL. 


Six  years  and  nine  months  were  occupied  in  reach- 
ing the  water-beaiing  stratum,  when  the  yield  was 
3,349,200  gallons  per  Jay  of  24  hours,  subseijuently 
increased  to  5,582,000  gallons,  and  then  continued  at 
3,795,000  gallons  per  day.  Tlie  total  cost  of  the  well 
was  £  40,000.  It  was  lined  with  solid  masonry  for  a 
depth  of  150  feet,  then  wood  and  iron  tubing  was  in- 
troduced to  l,804feet  from  the  surface,  and  below  that 
there  was  a  length  of  copper  pipe  pierced  with  holes. 

The  variety  of  boring  tools  which  have  been  eni- 
)iloyi'il  in  niiiking  artesian  wells  is  very  great,  and 
the  utility  of  some  of  those  figured  and  described  in 
works  on  the  subject,  if  one  may  be  allowed  to  judge 
from  their  shape  and  appearance,  is  very  question- 
al)le.  The  mode  adopted  by  the  Chinese,  who  have 
for  many  ages  been  in  the  habit  of  boring  for  salt  or 
fresh  water  is  one  of  the  most  primitive. 

Their  wells  are  often  from  1,500  to  1,800  feet  deep, 
and  bored  in  the  solid  rock.  .\  wooden  pi]»e  fivi'  or 
si.\  inches  in  diameter  inside  is  sunk  into  the  earth, 
and  covered  with  a  stone  having  the  same  aperture 
as  the  pipe.  A  steel  tool  weighing  300  or  400  pounds, 
concave  above  and  rounded  beneath,  is  suspended 
by  a  cord  from  the  extieniity  of  a  lever  and  lowered 
down  the  tube  ;  by  leaping  on  the  end  of  the  lever, 
the  piece  of  steel  is  suddenly  elevated  about  two  feet 
and  allowed  to  fall  by  its  own  weight,  being 
Fig.  377.  partially  rotated  at  each  movement.    When 

S  three  inches  of  rock  have  been  crushed,  the 
steel  is  raised  by  means  of  a  pulley,  bring- 
ing with  it  the  material  which  has  accumu- 
lated on  its  upper  concavity. 

Should  the  attachment  of  the  steel  head 
be  broken,  another  steel  headLs  employed  to 
break  the  first,  an  operation  perhaps  requir- 
ing months.  Under  favorable  circumstances 
it  is  said  nearly  two  feet  of  rock  may  be 
penetrated  in  24  hours. 
L_j  A  modification  of  the  above  has  been  em- 

cL-ba    ployed  in  Europe,  in  which  the  upper  part 
RockDriU.of  the  tool  is  inclosed  in  a  cylinder   (see 
Fig.  377).     These  are  suspended  by  a  rope, 
the  twisting  and  untwisting  of  which  imparts  a  sutfi- 

Fig.  378. 


cient  circular  motion.  When  theapparatus  is  with- 
drawn from  tile  Ijole,  the  lower  end  of  the  tool  closes 
the  bottom  aperture  of  the  cylinder,  which  brings  up 
the  mass  of  comminuted  rock  to  the  surface. 

A  conmion  mode  of  boring  is  shown  in  Fig.  378. 
Two  men  walk  around  and  turn  the  handle  of  the 
boring-tool,  which  is  screwed  into  an  iron  rod. 
In  moderately  soft  ground  the  weight  of  the  two 
men  and  the  rotation  of  the  handle  will  cause  the 
boring-chisel  to  penetrate,  but  in  rock  it  requires  to 
be  hammered  down,  the  men  shifting  its  iJosition 
from  time  to  time  to  enable  it  to  act  on  a  fresh 
portion  of  the  rock.  This  operation  is  great- 
ly facilitated  by  susjiending  the  boring-rods  Fij;  .379. 
from  a  beam,  fi.xed  at  one  end  and  worked 
by  a  man  at  the  other,  assisting  by  its  elas- 
ticity the  ettbrts  of  those  below  in  alternately 
raising  and  depressing  the  tool  to  give  it  the 
necessary  pounding  motion.  When  the  hole 
has  by  this  means  been  opened  as  far  as  the 
length  of  the  tool  will  allow,  it  is  withdrawn, 
and  a  valved  cylindrical  auger  (Fig.  379)  in- 
troduced, which  being  turned,  the  valve  is 
opened  by  the  pressure  of  the  comminuted 
rock  or  earth  below,  and  fills  the  cylindei', 
which  is  then  withdrawn.  See  Auger  ; 
Earth-boring.  .  ;f„;,. 

For  raising  and  lowering  the  apparatus,  a  Clearer. 
tripod  formed  by  three  poles  is  erected  over 
the  mouth  of  the  pit,  from  which  a  block  and  at- 
tached tackle  is  suspended  ;  this  is  made  fast  to  a 
claw,  represented  at  Fig.  380,  which  is  passed  under 
the  shoulders  of  the  upper  rod.    When  this  is  raised 
sufficiently,  a  fork  is  passed  under  the  shouldei's  of 
the  section  below,   the  ujjjier  one  is  detached   by 
means  of  a  suitable  wrench,  and  the  lifting 
again    proceeded    with.       Instead    of    the  F'g  380. 
springing  beam,  a  windlass  is  sometimes  em- 
ployed for  giving  the  percussive  motion  to 
the  tool ;    several  turns  of   the  suspending 
rope  being  taken  around  the  windlass,  the 
friction  of  the  rope  will  be  sufficient,  when  ' 
aided  by  the  strength  of  a  man  having  hold 
of  the  end  of  the  rope,  to  prevent  it  from 
slipping  when  the  windlass  is  turned,   the 
man  taking  up  the  slack  and  aiding  the  up- 
ward motion.     When  the  whole  ajiparatus    p„^. 
is  raised  a  short  distance  in  this  way,  the  claw. 
rope  is  slacked,  and  the  apparatus  falls  with 
its  whole  weight,  penetrating  and  crushing  the  rock 
below.     The  windlass  is  kept  constantly  in  motion 
in  one  direction,  and  the  percussive  motion  is  main- 
taine<l  by  alternately  holding  fast  and  slacking  the 
end  of  the  rope. 

In  Fig.  381,  a  is  a  plan  and  elevation  of  an  auger 
used  for  boring  in  clay  or  loam,  b  is  an  "S"  chi.sel 
for  hard  rock,  c  exhibits  a  hollow  valved  auger  for 
boring  through  sand  or  bringing  up  rock  previously 
pulverized  by  the  chisel,  d  is  a  spring  reamer  for 
enlarging  a  hole  previously  bored  ;  this  is  passed 
down  through  the  )upe,  and,  on  reaching  its  bottom, 
expands  to  a  distance  regulated  by  the  screw  and 
swivel  connecting  the  two  spring  cutters,  the  cutting 
edges  of  which  are  placed  reversely.  Figs.  382  and 
383  exhibit  different  kinds  of  tools  for  earth  and 
rock. 

The  rods  frequently  break  in  boring,  and  for  raising 
the  portion  broken ofi' below,  variousdevices  have  been 
contrived,  one  of  the  most  simple  of  which  is  repre- 
sented in  Fig.  384.  It  consists  merely  of  a  worm, 
which  screws  around  the  rod,  which  is  only  retained 
by  friction  when  lifting.  This  is  only  available 
when  the  weight  of  the  broken  part  is  insuliicieiit  to 
overcome  the  friction. 


AKTESIAN^  WELL. 


165 


ARTESIAN   WELL. 


Fig.  381. 


ft 

Q 


(?0 


Welt-Boring  Toots. 

The  forms  of  boring  and  elevating  tools  which 
have  be;.'n  employed  have  been   much  modified  by 


Fig.  382. 


K\ 


^ 


n'r II- Boring  Tools. 


th:'  exp:;rienee  in  boring  the  oil-wells  of  the  petro- 
leum region.     A  great  impetus  was   given   to  the 

e.xeroise  of  in- 
genuity in  this 
line  by  the  exi- 
gencies of  this 
branch  of  in- 
dustry ;  the 
inventions  in- 
cluding boring- 
tools,  tool- 
grabs,  tool-jars, 
deixicks,  rod- 
couplings, 
reamers,  well- 
tubes  and 
c  o  u  ji  1  i  n  g  s  , 
tube  -  packing, 
"  seed  -  bags,  " 
ejectors,  and 
engines  specili- 
cally  adapted 
to  sinking  the 


Well-Borin'   Tools. 


shaft  and  laising  the  oil. 

The  boring  of  the  artesian  well  at  Belcher's  .Sugar 
lielinei-y,  St.  Louis,  was  effected  by  a  simple  wedge- 
shape  I  drill,  the  size  of  which  varied  according  to 
the  diameter  of  the  boie  ;  this  drill  was  screwed  to 


Rnrf- 


a  wrouglit-irou  bar  30  feet  long  and  about  Fig.  364. 
2i  inches  diameter,  weighing  .several  hun-  rD 
dred  (Jounds.  To  the  bar  was  sci-cwed  a  pair 
of  slips,  so  that  the  drilling  wa.s  effected  by 
the  weight  of  the  bar  alone.  To  this  weie 
fastened  the  ]ioles,  each  of  which  was  30 
feet  long.  These  were  screwed  together,  and 
were  made  of  two  pieces  of  split  hickory- 
wood  joined  and  riveted  in  the  center.  To 
the  last  pole  was  fastened  a  chain,  the  other 
enil  of  which  was  attached  to  a  spring-beam 
worked  liy  a  steam-engine  running  with  a 
speed  of  about  80  revolutions  per  min- 
ute and  having  14  inches  stroke.  The 
boring-apparatus  was  constantly  turned  by 
hand-power.  The  boring  was  commenced  in 
the  spring  of  1819,  and  continued  at  inter-  ii/ter. 
vals  till  March,  1S55.  Foi-  performing  all 
the  work  connected  with  the  boring,  the  labor 
of  four  men  was,  in  general,  daily  retpiired.  This 
well  was  finished  at  the  expii-ation  of  ^3 
months'  steady  work,  and  attained  a  depth  of  2,197 
feet,  at  a  cost  of  §10,000;  that  at  Grenel'.e,  100 
feet  less  in  depth,  was  more  than  se\en  vi'ais  in 
boring,  and  is  said  to  have  cost  about  §70,000. 
From  this  de]ith  of  2,197  feet  the  water  can  be  car- 
ried to  a  hight  of  75  feet  above  the  surface.  It  is 
a  mineral  water,  haringa  salty  taste  and  a  strong  odor 
of  sulphur,  and  possesses  great  medicinal  virtues. 

The  well  bored  at  the  county  buildings  of  St. 
Louis  Co.,  Missouri,  has  reached  a  dejith  of  3,235 
feet  without  obtaining  a  flow  of  water. 

The  artesian  wells  at  Chicago  are  700  feet  deep, 
and  discharge  about  1,250,000  gallons  daily,  with  a 
head  of  125  f'e*t  above  the  surface  of  Lake  Michigan. 
The  water  is  very  pure  and  cool  for  the  depth  from 
which  it  comes,  having  a  temperature  of  57°. 

The  well  at  Louisville,  Kentucky,  is  even  deejier 
than  this,  and  yields  a  medicinal  water  allied  in 
quality  to  the  Blue  Lick  and  Big-Bone  Lick, 
springs  of  the  same  state. 

Some  years  ago  a  boring  was  commenced  in  the 
public  square  surrounding  tlie  State  House  at  Colum- 
bus, Ohio,  with  the  intention  of  endeavoring  to 
obtain  a  head  of  water  which  could  be  carried  to  the 
upjier  jjart  of  that  building  for  its  onliiiary  supjily, 
as  well  as  in  case  of  fire,  etc.  A  depth  of  rather 
more  than  2.700  feet  was  penetrated,  mostly,  if  not 
entirel}',  through  Silurian  strata,  but  none  was 
reached  where  the  water  had  a  sufficient  head  to 
rise  to  the  surface. 

Artesian  wells  were  made  in  ancient  times  in  the 
Oasis  of  El-Bacbarich,  and  were  described  by  Olym- 
piodorus,  a  native  of  Thebes,  who  lived  in  the  lifth 
century  A.  D.  Their  d.'pth  is  said  to  be  from  200 
to  500  cubits,  and  tlie  water  issues  at  the  surface. 
They  have  been  noticed  by  Ar.igo.  A  Fn-nchman 
has  reopened  several  of  those  which  had  become 
stopped.  The  reopened  wells  are  from  360  to  480 
feet  deep. 

The  Moniieur  Algirien  gives  an  interesting  report 
on  the  uewly  bored  Artesian  wells  in  the  Sahara 
Desert,  in  the  jirovince  of  Constantine.  The  first 
well  was  bored  in  the  Oasis  of  Oued-Rir,  near  Ta- 
merna,  by  a  detachment  of  the  Foreign  Legion,  con- 
ducted by  the  engineer,  M.  Jus.  The  works  wei'e 
begun  in  May.  1856,  and,  on  the  19th  of  June, 
a  quantity  of  water,  of  1 ,  Ofifl  gallons  per  minute,  and 
of  a  temperature  of  79°  Fall,  rushed  forth  from 
the  bowels  of  the  earth.  The  joy  of  the  natives  was 
unbounded  ;  the  news  of  the  event  spread  towards 
the  south  with  unexampled  rapidity.  People  came 
from  long  distances,  in  order  to  .see  the  miracle  ;  the 
Marabouts,   with  great  solemnity,   consecrated   the 


ARTICULATOR. 


166 


ARTILLERY. 


newly  L'leiited  well,  and  gave  it  the  name  of  "  tlie 
well  of  peace."  The  second  well,  in  Temakin, 
yiehleil  9  gallons,  of  79'  temperature,  per  minute,  and 
from  a  depth  of  279  feet ;  this  well  was  called  "the 
well  of  bliss."  A  third  experiment,  not  far  from 
the  scene  of  tile  seconii,  in  the  Oasis  of  Tamelhat, 
was  crowned  with  the  result  of  33  gallons  of  water 
)i(U-  minute.  The  Marabouts,  after  having  thanked 
ill'  soldi.Ts  in  the  presence  of  the  whole  population, 
gave  them  a  banijuet,  and  escorted  them  in  solemn 
])rocBssiou  to  the  frontier  of  the  oasis.  In  another 
oasis,  that  of  Sidi-Naclied,  which  had  been  com- 
])letely  ruined  by  the  drought,  the  digging  of  "  the 
well  of  gratitude "  was  accompanied  by  touching 
scenes.  As  soon  as  the  rejoicing  outcries  of  the  sol- 
diers had  announced  the  rushing  forth  of  the  water, 
the  natives  drew  near  in  crowds,  plungeil  themselves 
into  the  blessed  waves,  and  the  mothers  bathed 
their  children  therein.  The  old  Emir  coulil  not 
master  his  feelings  ;  tears  in  his  eyes,  he  fell  down 
upon  Ills  knees,  and  lifted  his  trembling  hands,  in 
order  to  thank  God  and  the  French.  This  yields 
not  less  than  1,136  gallons  per  minute,  from  a  depth 
of  177  feet.  A  tifth  well  has  been  dug  at  Oum 
Thiour,  yielding  29  gallons  per  minute.  Here  a 
])art  of  the  tribes  of  the  neighborhood  commenced  at 
once  the  establishment  of  a  village,  planting  at  the 
same  time  hundreds  of  date-palms,  and  thus  giving 
up  their  former  nomadic  life. 

Ar-tic'u-la-tor.  1.  An  apparatus  for  obtaining 
correct  articul.itiou  of  artificial  dentures. 

The  lower  plate  is  modeled  from  the  natural  jaw, 

Fig.  385. 


Denture  Articulator. 

and  moves  on  cone-shaped  pivots  in  V-shaped  grooves 
without  hinges,  being  retained  in  position  by  elas- 
tic rul)ber  bands  or  rings.     A 
Fig.  386.  backward,  forward,  and  lateral 

motion  is  provided  for,  corre- 
sponding with  the  movements 
of  the  natural  jaw,  by  which  the 
arrangement  of  the  denture  can 
be  practically  tested  without  dis- 
turbing the  articulation.  The 
upper  plate  has  a  backward  anil 
forwaril  movement  of  two  inch- 
es, and  may  be  retained  at  any 
point  by  the  set-screw.  The 
upper  plate  has  a  ilouble  bend, 
.so  that,  when  reversed  from  the 
position  shown  in  the  cut,  an 
increase  of  one  inch  in  the  space 
is  obtained  between  the  plates, 
allowing  for  both  upper  and 
lower  dentures. 


2.  An  instrument  for  the  cure  of  stammering.  A 
tube  in  the  mouth  permits  the  passage  of  air,  when 
the  muscles  of  the  mouth  are  suddenly  closed  by 
spasmodic  action.  A  strap  around  the  throat  has  a 
[lad  whose  pressure  is  regulated  by  a  spring.  Its 
action  is  to  keep  the  glottis  open,  and  prevent  the 
spasmotlic  constriction  wdiicli  is  the  cause  of  the 
trouble  in  articulation. 

Ar-ti-fi'cial .    An  object  inntating  nature, 

such  as  an  artiticial  stem  or  Jfowcr;  sometimes  having 
a  prosthetic  purpose,  as  an  artificial  limb  or  eije. 

See  under  the  respective  heads  :  — 

.4rm,  Artificial.  Leather,  Artificial. 

Auricle  "  Leech           " 

Cork  "  Leg              " 

Ear  "  Limb 

Eye  "  Nipple         " 

Flowers  "  Nose             " 

Foot  '•  Palate 

Fuel  "  Pearis 

Gems  "  Pupil            "    ' 

Gums  "  Stone 

Hand  "  Teeth 

Horizon  "  ■      Tympanum  " 

Horn  "  Wood           " 

Ivory  " 

Ar-tiller-y.     The  word  seems  to  have  a  veiy 

extended  signification, having  been  originally  apjilied 
to  military  engines  of  every  description  capable  of 
throwing  heavy  mis.siles,  as  the  ballista,  catapult, 
etc.  Uzziah  made  use  of  them  at  Jerusalem  810 
B.  0.  They  are  described  (2  Chronicles  xxvi.  15)  as 
"invented  by  cunning  men,  to  be  on  the  towers 
and  upon  the  bulwarks,  to  shoot  arrows  and  great 
stones  withal."  The  C'liinese  claim  to  have  u.-^ed 
cannon  618  B.  c,  and  engines  for  throwing  heavy 
stones  were  used  in  Sicily  300  B.  c.  Each  Roman 
Legion  under  the  early  emperors  was  furnished  with 
an  artillery  train,  consisting  of  10  larger  and  55 
smaller  engines  for  throwing  stones  and  darts,  which 
accompanied  it  on  its  marches.  These  engines  ap- 
pear to  have  corresponded  to  the  siege  ai-tillery  of 
modern  times,  and  were  merely  employeil  in  the  at- 
tack and  defence  of  fortified  jilaces.  Their  want 
of  portability  probably  prevented  them  from  bring 
of  much  service  in  [jitched  battles  on  the  ojien  field. 
The  date  of  the  introduction  of  fire-arms  as  artil'ery 
appears  involved  in  great  obscurity.  The  nitillery 
of  the  Moors  is  said  to  date  back  to  1118  ;  from  the 
few  faint  and  imperfect  allusions  which  occur  hei'c 
and  there  in  old  writers,  it  seems  jirobable  that 
their  invention  bore  sonif*  analogy  to  rockets,  or  the 
pi'ojectile  was  self-propelling. 

The  following  are  some  of  the  dates  ascribed  to 
the  introduction  of  some  military  engines  ami  artil- 
lery:- 

CatapultinventedbyDionysius  of  Syracuse,  B.  c.  3"9 
Gunpowder  artillery  used  in  China  .  A.  u.  85 
Cannon  throwing  stones,  weighing  12  pounds, 

300  paces 757 

The   Moors  use  artillery  in   attacking  Sara- 

go.ssa         .         .         .         .         .         .         .1118 

The  Moors  use  engines  throwing  stones  and 

darts  by  means  of  fire     .         .         .         .         1157 

The  Chinese  employ  cannon  throwing  round- 
stone  shot  against  the  Mongols          .         .     1232 
Cordova  attacked   by   artillery          .         .         1280 
A  mortar  for  destroying  buildings,   etc.   de- 
scribed by  Al  Mailla, an  Arabhistorian         .     1291 
Gibraltar  taken  by  means  of  artillery        .         1308 
A  cannon  in  the  arsenal  at  Bamberg      .         .     1323 
Balls  of  iron  thrown  by  means  of  fire  used  by 
the  Mooi-s 1331 


ARTILLERY  CARRIAGE. 


167 


ASBESTUS. 


Ten  caunon  prepared  for  the  siege  of  Cam- 
bray  ....... 

The  Moors  defend  Algesiras  against  Alphonso 
XI.  by  means  of  mortars 

Four  pieces  said  to  have  been  used  by  Ed- 
ward III.  at  Crecy    

An  iron  gun  with  a  square  bore,  for  earrWng 
a  cubical  shot  of  11  pounds'  weight,  made  at 
Bruges  ...... 

Artillery  used  by  the  Venetians  at  the  siege 
of  Chioggia       ...... 

Artillery  used  by  the  Turks  at  the  siege  of 
Constantinople      ..... 

Red-hot  balls  fired  by  the  English  at  the  siege 
of  Cherbourg     ...... 

The  great  cannon  of  Mahomet  II.  employed 
against  Constantinople 

Louis  XI.  of  France  has  twelve  cannon  cast  to 
throw  metallic  shot,  for  use  as  a  siege  train. 

Bi-ass  cannon  first  cast  in  England     . 

Iron        "         "        "    "         "  .         . 

Howitzers  introiluced         .... 

Maritz  of  Genera  introduces  the  method  of 
casting  guns  solid  and  boring  them  out 

Carronades  invented  by  General  Mehille  . 
Forcontinuationof  the  subject  and  details,  seeOiiD 

NANCK  ;  MoKTARS  ;  Projf.ctiles  ;  Weapons,  etc. 
In  European  services,  aitiUery  is  divided  into 


1339 


1343 


1346 


1346 

1366 

1394 

1418 

1453 

1477 
1521 
1547 
1697 

1749 
1779 


Field  Artillery 
Foot         " 
Garrison  " 
Heavv      " 


Horse  Artillery 
Marine      " 
Siege         " 
Standing   " 


Ar-til'ler-y  Car'riage.  In  the  United  States 
service,  wrought-iron  is  now  exclusively  used  as  a 
material  for  garrison  and  sea-coast  gun-carriages. 

Experiments  have  also  been  made,  promising  a 
successful  result,  upon  wrought-iron  for  field  car- 
riages. 

The  only  field  carriages  so  called  now  used  in  the 
United  States  senace  are  those  for  the  3-inch 
rilled  and  the  12-pounder  smooth-bore  gun,  the  6- 
pounder  smooth-bore,  the  12,  24,  and  32  pounder 
howitzers  having  gone  out  of  use. 

The  term  "field  carriages  "  is  in  the  service  only 
applied  to  such  as  are  employed  as  light  artillery : 
those  adapted  for  the  4i-inch  rifled,  the  18  and  24 
pounder  smooth-bore  guns  being  denominated  siege  ; 
and  those  for  the  larger  calibers,  from  32-pounder  to 
20-inch,  and  for  the  larger  rifled  guns,  being  denomi- 
nated setucotzst  and  garrison.  The  construction  of 
field  and  siege  carriages  is  necessarily  very  similar, 
both  being  intended  to  transport  the  guns  mounted 
on  them,  as  well  as  to  attbrd  a  support  during 
firing  ;  while  garrison  gun-carriages  are  merely  in- 
tended to  subserve  the  latter  purpose,  not  requiring 
to  be  moved,  except  from  one  front  of  a  fortification 
to  another. 

The  main  wooden  parts  of  a  field  gun-carriage  are 
the  stock,  the  cheeks,  and  the  wheels. 

For  gun-carriages  which  are  intended  permanently 
to  remain  in  position,  an  additional  fixture  is  re- 
quired, —  the  chassis  ;  a  frame,  as  the  word  implies, 
on  which  the  carriage  rests,  and  by  means  of  which 
it  is  aimed  in  a  horizontal  direction,  and  upon  which 
it  is  run  backward  and  fon\ard. 

The  iron  parts  of  a  field  gun-carriage  are  very 
numerous,  the  principal  being  the  lunette  at  the  end 
of  the  stock  ;  the  trunnion  plates,  on  which  the 
trunnions  of  the  gun  rest  ;  the  cap-squares,  which 
cover  the  trunnions  and  prevent  the  gun  jumping 
off  at  the  moment  of  firing  ;  the  prolonge  hooks, 
around  which  the  prolonge  is  coiled  ;  and  the  bands 
at  the  ends  of  the  cheeks  and  around  the  axle. 


There  are  also  arrangements  for  supporting  the 
two  rammers  and  sponges,  the  worm,  and  the  ma- 
neuvering handspikes. 

Ar-tiller-y  Lev'el.  An  instrument  adapted  to 
stand  on  a  piece  of  ordnance,  and  indicate  by  a  pen- 
dulous pointer  the  angle  wliich  the  axis  of  the  piece 
bears  to  the  horizontal  plane.  By  its  means  any 
required  angle  of  elevation  is  given  to  the  piece. 

Ar'ti-mor-an'ti-co.  An  alloy  of  tin,  sul]ihur, 
bismuth,  and  copper,  made  in  imitation  of  tlie  an- 
cient jewelry.  It  resembles  gold  of  18  carats  purity, 
and  is  made  in  Italy  for  factitious  trinkets. 

Artz'ber-ger.  A  device  which  originated  on  the 
continent  of  Europe,  and  was  used  in  England  in  the 
early  part  of  the  present  century  as  an  intermediate 
between  the  piston-rod  and  the  axle  to  be  driven. 

The  power  of  the  steam-engine,  as  in  the  Grittith 
Steam  Carriage,  1S21,  is  communicated  from  the 
piston-rods  to  the  axle  of  the  driving-wheels,  through 
the  means  of  sweep-rods,  the  lower  ends  of  which 
are  provided  Kith  driving  pinions  and  detents,  which 
operate  upon  toothed  gear  attached  to  the  driving- 
wheel  axle.  The  object  is  to  keep  the  driving-pin- 
ions always  in  gear  w  ith  the  toothed  wheels,  how- 
ever much  the  engine  or  carriage  may  vibrate. 

As-bes'tus.  A  fibrous  mineral  which  may  be 
split  into  threads  and  filaments  and  resists  fire.  It 
is  also  known  as  amianthus,  or  earth-flax.  The 
name  indicates  the  substance,  or  rather  the  quality 
(in  Greek,  asbestos, — inextinguishable).  It  had  many 
uses  among  the  ancients,  ilineralogically  speaking, 
it  is  a  variety  of  hornblende  and  pyroxene,  and 
occurs  in  many  parts  of  the  world.  It  is  found  in 
great  abundance  in  a  few  localities  in  the  United 
States,  and  great  attention  is  now  directed  to  fitting 
it  for  the  uses  of  the  arts  and  manufactures. 

The  notices  of  its  uses  among  the  ancients  are 
numerous.  Herodotus  refers  to  cloth  made  of  it  by 
the  Egyptians.  Its  uses  for  paper,  napkins,  socks, 
drawers,  handkerchiefs,  are  referred  to  by  Varro,  Stra- 
ho,  and  Pliny.  Marco  Polo  mentions  it,  and  Bajitista 
Porta  speaks  of  its  being  spun  in  Venice.  Asbestus 
cerements  and  wrajpings  lor  the  bodies  of  the  dead 
previous  to  incremation  were  in  common  use  with 
those  whose  circumstances  permitted  it.  Shrouds 
of  asbestus  of  the  time  of  the  Koman  Emperors  have 
been  discovered,  and  are  in  the  museums  of  the 
Vatican  and  of  Naples.  The  Romans  dug  their 
asbestus  in  Corsica  ;   their  mica  in  Sjiain. 

Its  modern  uses  are  indicated  in  the  following 
patents,  and  the  enumeration  is  made  at  some  length, 
as  the  subject  has  been  but  lately  re^^ved,  and  one 
interested  can  in  no  other  way  so  readily  reach  the 
present  state  of  the  art, — to  borrow  the  conventional 
phrase,  which  is  as  good  as  anv  other. 

1.  Safes,  lining  for :      W.  Marr,  English,      1S.34. 

Hyatt,  several  patents.  United  States,  1869-70. 

2.  Lamp-wick  :  British  patents  : 

2071  of  1853.  145oflS57. 

2647  of  1855.  1610  of  1863. 

Lord  Cochrane,  1818. 

3.  Absorbent  in  lamps  :  Boyd,  1869. 

Beschke,  1S66. 
in  carburetors  :  Bassett,  1862. 

4.  Fire-brick  and  crucibles:  Peters,  1862. 

English  patent  2318  of  1862,  asbestos,  fire- 
clay, and  graphite. 

Lewis,  1871.  A  covering  of  asbestus  twisted 
into  a  rope  and  wound  around  a  crucible. 

5.  Packing  for  hot-air  engines  ;  Laubereau,  1859. 

for  e.xplosive  engines  :  Drake,   1865. 

for   steam  -  engines  :  Drake,    1865. 

combined  with  hair  :  Murphey,   1870. 

loose  flock  asbestus  ;  Hoke. 


ASBESTUS  STOVE. 


168 


ASH  AND  COAL  SIFTER. 


Peters,  1862. 

Selden  ami  KiJd,  1S65. 

Spencer,  1808. 

French,  1SG9. 


6.  Boiler  covering : 

Harily,  1869. 
Murphy,  1870. 
Rilev,  1871. 
M-.irfey,  18,70. 

7.  For  forming  a  radiating  surface,  as  in  gas- 
stoves,  fire-grates,  and  broilers. 

8.  In  porcelain  niannfactures,  of  teeth  especially, 
])laced  on  the  side  of  a  muffle  to  isolate  the  bis- 
cuit from  the  slide,  to  prevent  its  becoming  at- 
tached thereto  in  the  process  of  baking. 

9.  .\s  an  anti-friction  composition  for  journal- 
bearings,  pistons,  etc. 

British  patent,  2048  of  1858.  Devlin,  1860. 
Petei-s,  1862.  Devlin,  1865. 

Boitieher  :  with  soapstone  and  cotton,  1864. 
Kelly  :  with  graphite  and  iron-filings,  1S70. 
.Johns:  with  caoutchouc,  1863. 

10.  For  nnlde  1  articles  :  Whitmarsh,  1868. 

11.  For  roofing  cement  :  Johns,  1S6S. 
Kidwell,  1868.                                  Sloore,  1868. 

12.  Flooring  cement :  Whitmarsh,  18b7. 

13.  Electric  insulator;  Englishpatent,  362of  1865. 

14.  In  refrigerators  :  Hyatt,  1870. 

15.  In  ink  :  Sniilie,  1863. 

16.  For  paper  :         English  patent,  1413  of  1853, 
Johns,  1868.     Schaeffer    on    Paper,    an   old 

German  book,  describes  asbestjs  paper,  and 
contains  a  specimen. 

17.  For  coffins  —  mixed  with  clay  :  1870. 

18.  For  ropes  strengthened  with  other  materials, 

Stevens,  1870  and  1871. 

19.  For  yarn  :  separated  into  filaments  by  alkaline 
treatment,  and  then  treated  liki  wool  : 

Rosenthal's  patent,  1872. 

As-bea'tus  Stove.  A  stove  heated  by  gas  and 
having  asbestus  spi-ead  over  the  perforated  pipes,  in 
order  to  obtain  an  incaiulesccnt  mass,  which  radiates 
heat,  but  does  not  consume. 

Asbistus  is  used  for  lamp-wicks  ;  as  a  filling  for 
iron  safes  ;  for  firemen's  clothes  ;  and  in  the  labora- 
tory as  a  wrapper  for  articles  which  are  to  be  con- 
sumed to  ashes.     See  ,\sbestus. 

As-ceadlng  Let'ter.  {PrMiug.)  Capital  let- 
ters, an  1  the  small  ones  which  rise  above  the  line. 
Tb  -v  are  h,  d,  f.  h,  k,  I. 

As'ci-a.     iSiiriii-t'.)     An  axe-shaped  bandage. 

Ash'es  B-jeo'tor.  An  arrangement  on  board 
large  steam-\'eisels  to  reduce  the  labor  of  hoisting 
out  the  ashes  in  buckets. 

A  chamber  or  tube  is  formed,  rising  from  the 
stoke-holes,  and  opening  above  the  water-line  into 
the  sea.  By  means  of  a  jet  of  steam  the  ashes  are 
ilirectly  driven  from  the  engine-room  into  the  sea, 
thro.igh  the  tube,  the  arrangement  of  which  prevenis 
the  possibility  of  its  being  choked  up.  A  similar 
nivtliod  has  .also  been  adopted  on  station.ary  land- 
engin.'s  whose  Inilers  are  fixed  below  ground. 

Ash'-fur-uace.  A  furnace  in  which  the  mate- 
rials for  glass-making  are  fritted. 

Ash'lar;  Ash'ler.  {Masonry.)  I.  {a)  Rough  Ash- 
lar ;  a  block  of  freestone  as  brought  from  the  quarry. 

(h)  Smooth  Ashlar  :  a  block  dressed  ready  for  use. 

(c)  Plavc  Ashlar :  a  block  in  which  the  marks  of 
the  tool  are  dressed  out. 

{d)  Too'cd  Ashlar :  a  block  in  which  the  surface 
has  parallel  vertical  Hutes. 

(e)  Rindom-tvohd  Ashlar  ;  a  block  whose  groov- 
ings  are  irregularly  cut  with  a  broad  tool. 

(/)  Chiseled  Ashlar:  a  random  -  tooled  ashlar, 
wrought  with  a  narrow  chisel. 

((/)  Boasted  Ashlar  ;  same  as  chiseled. 

(h)  Pick  or  Uammcr-drcssed ;  it  is  known  as  C'om- 
7iion  Ashltir. 


(i)  Bastard  Ashlar  is  ashlar-work  backed  up  with 
inferior  work. 

ij)  Pointed  Ashlar ;  the  face-marking  done  by  a 
pointed  tool  or  one  veiy  naiTOW. 

(k)  Rustieattd  Ashlar ;  the  face  of  the  block  pro- 
jects from  the  joint,  the  arrises  being  beveled.  It 
may  be  rough  or  smooth-faced,  or  variously  tooled. 

{1}  Herring-bone  Ashlar  has  a  tooling  of  oblique 
flutes  in  ranks  nmning  in  alternate  directions. 

(in)  Nigged  Ashlar ;  a  building-block  dressed  with 
a  pointed  hammer. 

(n)  Prison  Ashlar ;  the  surface  is  wrought  into 
holes. 

A  smooth  face  around  the  joint  is  called  a  margin- 
draft. 

The  walls  of  the  principal  entrance  of  the  gate  at 
Thebes  are  at  their  base  not  less  than  50  feet  in 
thickness.  The  stones  are  squared  on  all  sides,  not 
merely  on  the  external  faces,  and  are  built-in  solid, 
no  rubblc-icork  being  introduced  to  fill  up  the  space 
between  the  facing  walls. 

The  faee  of  an  ashlar  is  the  front  exposed  surface 
when  built  into  the  wall. 

Flanks  ;  the  sides. 

Bed.'! :  upper  and  lower  surfaces. 

Back  ;  rear  surface; 

2.  {Ashlar.)  A  facing  of  squared  stones  or  thin 
slabs  used  to  cover  walls  of  brick  or  rubble. 

3.  [IJai-pcntnj.)  A  vertical  strut  or  quartering 
uniting  the  floor-joisting  of  the  garret  with  the 
rafters  above,  forming  the  studding  for  the  wall  of 
the  half-storii  room,  cutting  otl'  an  acute  angle 
which  may  be  utilized  for  closets. 

Ash'-leach.     A  hopper  in  which  ashes  are  placed 
while     the     soluble 
salts     are     removed  Fig-  387. 

by  lixiviation.  The 
leach  is  suspended 
upon  journals  which 
have  bearings  in  the 
standards  of  the 
frame.  The  axis  is 
at  or  about  the  cen- 
ter of  gravity,  so 
that  the  leach  may 
be  tipjied  to  dis- 
charge its  spent  con- 
tents. A  hook  and 
staple  hold  it  in  op- 
erative (position. 

Ash'  ler-ing. 
(Carpentry.)  Short 
upright  pieces  be- 
tween the  floor-beams 
and  rafters  in  gar- 
rets for  nailing  the  Ash-Ltach. 
laths   to.     This  cuts 

off  the  sharp  angles  between  the  Hoor  and  ceiling, 
givin"'  a  jnore  convenient  and  tasteful  ajjpearance 
to  the  room.      AsHL.\RING. 

Ash'-pit  A  cavity  below  the  gi-ate-bars  of  a 
furnace  fur  receiving  the  ashes. 

Ash'-plate.     The  back  plate  of  a  furnace. 

Ash  and  Coal  Sift'er.  Sifters  for  coal  are 
made  on  a  large  scale  for  nfines,  and  are  actuateil  by 
machinery,  the  object  being  to  remove  the  dust 
which  is  unsuitable  for  ordinary  stoves  and  fur- 
naces. They  consist  of  rotary  wire-screens  into 
which  the  coal  is  passed,  or  of  a  succession  of  in- 
clined screens  over  which  the  coal  passes  by  giavity, 
the  jarring  of  the  pieces  assisting  in  keeping  open 
the  meshes  of  the  screen. 

For  household  use,  as  ash-sifters,  they  assume 
several  forms,  —  rotary  screens;  reciprocating  sieves 


ASPHALT  PAVEMENT. 


169 


ASPIRATOR. 


Fig.  388. 


Rotary  Sifter. 


in  boxes ;  oscillating 
sieves  ailapted  to  tit  the 
tops  of  barrels  ;  consec- 
utive inclined  sieves, 
which  sort  the  material 
into  grades  ;  and  sifters 
adapted  to  the  ash-pits 
of  stoves  and  furnaces. 
In  Fig.  3S8  the  wire 
sieve  is  volute-shaped 
in  trausrerse  section, 
and  its  horizontal  shaft 
revolves  on  bearings  in 
a  case.  The  lid  of  the 
latter  opens  to  charge 
the  sieve  when  its  open 
mouth  is  jiresented  up- 
wardly, as  in  the  cut. 
By  revolving  in  one  di- 
rection the  contents  are 
retained  in  the  sieve^ 
except  the  dust,  which 
The  operation  completed 


Ash-Sifter. 


Fig.  390. 


falls  through  the  meshes 

the  sieve  is  revolved  in  the  other  direction,  which 

discharges  the  larger 
Fig.  389.  contents  into  a  re- 

ceptacle   placed    to 
receive  them. 

In  Fig.  389  a  cen- 
tral bearing  is  sup- 
ported by  radial  arms 
inside  the  barrel, 
and  .supports  the  cir- 
cular sieve  which  is 
oscillated  above  it. 
The  central  post  of 
the  sieve  passes 
through  a  hole  in 
the  cover,  and  a 
ci'oss-handle  above 
affords  the  means  of 
-  agitation. 

The  sifter  for 
stove-hearths  has  a 
handle  and  a  spout,  and  is  placed  below  the  hearth- 
plate  in  the  ash-pit  of  the  stove.     Its  office  is  to 

catch  the  ashes 
from  the  grate. 
It  is  vibratable 
in  place,  while 
the  hearth-plate 
prevents  the  es- 
cape of  dust. 
The  finer  por- 
tions fall  into 
the  ]ian  below, 
and  the  contents 
of  the  sieve  are 
thrown  on  the 
fire.  There  are  over  eighty  patents  on  a.sh  and  coal 
.siftei-s. 

As-phalt'  Pave'ment.  As  employed  in  Europe, 
this  is  jireitared  from  a  dark  brown  bituminous  lime- 
stone which  is  found  in  the  neighborhood  of  the 
Jura  Mountains.  This  stone  is  reduced  to  powder, 
mixed  with  mineral  tar  and  grit,  and  the  whole 
exposed  for  several  hours  to  a  strong  heat  in  large 
Ciildrons,  being  continually  stirred  until  the  in- 
gi-edients  are  thoroughly  united.  The  composition 
is  then  rnn  into  molds  forming  cakes  about  eigh- 
teen inches  square  and  six  inches  thick,  and  weigh- 
ing 125  or  130  pounds.  The  blocks  are  laid  upon 
good,  well-rammed  foundations.  They  do  not  ap- 
pear to  stand  the  wear  incident  to  a  large  city,  but 


have  been  laid  with  advantage  in  corridoi-s  and  as 
pavement  in  railroad  stations  in  Europe.  Various 
analogous  compounds  have  been  patented  in  the 
United  States  for  paving  and  rooting.  See  Pave- 
ment ;  RriuFiNo. 

As-phal'tum  Fur'nace.  Asphaltum,  or  native 
bitumen,  is  largely  used  for  pavements,  roads,  roofs, 
and  as  a  water-proof  cement.  For  pavements,  etc., 
it  is  mixed  with  sand  or  gravel,  and  laid  while  hot 
upon  a  foundation  of  broken  stones,  pebbles,  or 
gravel.  The  Seyssel  Asphalt  is  a  compound  of  a 
bituminous  limestone,  ground  fine,  heated,  mixed 
with  a  small  portion  of  tar,  and  considerable  tand. 
The  material  is  brought  from  the  Jura  Mouiitains, 
and,  for  a  while,  was  very  popular  in  Europe. 

Beds  of  mineial  ]itch  exist  m  many  ]  arts  of  the 
world,  and  are  applied  as  fuel,  to  yield  a  liquid 
lijdrocarbon,  for  paying  woodwoik,  as  cen:ent,  and, 
as  has  been  said,  foi'  roofing,  jiaving,  etc.  As  it 
requires  to  be  laid  on  while  hot,  a  portable  furnace 
(Fig.  420)  is  re<iuiied,  from  whose  boiler  it  is  ladled 


Fig.39L 


Stove-Hearth  Ash- Sifter. 


Asphaltum  Funv.ce. 


out  and  spread  in  its  warm,  plastic  condition  upon 
the  surface  to  be  treated. 

X  number  of  fui-mulas  for  compounding  the  mate- 
rial will  be  given  under  RdOFiNG  (which  see). 

In  laying  pavement,  thethickness  of  the  asphaltum 
is  regulated  by  strips  of  wood,  dividing  the  space 
into  transverse  sections.  The  material  is  spread  by 
the  shovel  or  a  wooden  spatula,  and  the  surface 
beveled  bv  a  floating  rule  which  rests  upon  the 
upper  edge  of  the  strips.  Slate  dust,  fine  sand, 
plaster  of  Paris,  etc.,  may  be  dusted  upon  the  to]). 

As'pi-ra'tor.  An  apparatus  for  passing  a  regu- 
lated supply  of  air  in  contact  with  a  contrivance 
which  deteiinines  its  chemical  character  or  its  con- 
dition, hygrometric  or  othei-nise  ;  or  for  passing 
given  quantities  of  air  in  contact  with  a  substance 
whose  changes  are  the  subject  of  observation.  A 
jar  filled  with  water  is  provided  with  a  cock,  by 
which  the  water  is  allowed  to  escape  at  a  given  rate. 
The  space  in  the  jar,  above  the  water,  is  connected 
by  a  flexible  pipe  with  the  duct  in  which  the  chem- 
ical ingredients  are  placed  or  with  the  hygrometer 
chamber.  The  uses  are  various,  and  will  rra(''.ily 
occur  to  the  expert,  in  connection  with  the  quanti- 
tative admission  of  air  or  gases  to  chemical  solutions. 


ASPIRATOR. 


170 


ASSAY  FURNACE. 


Fig  392.  ignited  tapers,  or 

organic  matters. 
Tlie  measure  of 
the  water  wliieli 
lias  ■  flowed  from 
the  jar  is  of 
course  coincident 
with  the  air 
which  has  taken 
its  place. 

The  use  of  the 
aspirator  is  rec- 
ommended in  the 
healing  of  great 
amputations,  by 
Maisonneuve, 
Surgeon  of  the 
Hotel  Dieu,  Par- 
is. The  liquids 
exuding  from  the 
surface  of  the 
wound  coming  in 
contact  with  the 
air,  poisonous 
putrefaction  en- 
sues ;  to  arrest 
this  action.  Dr. 
Aspirator.  Maisonneuve,  af- 

ter dressing  the 
wound  with  lint  saturated  with  antiseptic  liquids, 
brings  into  use  an  aspiratory  ajijiaratus  which  with- 
draws the  contaminated  air 
Jig.  393.  from    the   presence   of   tjie 

wounil. 

A  form  of  aspirator  in- 
vented by  Sprengel  is  now 
much  used  in  the  labora- 
tories in  Europe,  especially 
in  expediting  filtering. 
The  water  from  a  reservoir 
passes  in  by  the  su])ply- 
jiipe  .4,  and  drops  into  the 
discharge-pipe  0,  carrying 
with  it  a  pellicle  of  air ; 
this  is  repeated  in  quick  suc- 
cession, and  the  effect  is  to 
witlidraw  air  by  the  pipe  B, 
from  the  chamber  with 
which  the  said  pipe  is  con- 
nected. The  discharge-])ii)e 
C  is  30  feet  long.  The  vac- 
uum attained  is  said  to  be 
as  high  as  29  inches  of  mer- 
cury. 

Sprengel  used  mercury, 
which  permits  a  discharge- 
pipe  of  say  three  feet  in 
length.  Buiisen  lengthened 
the  )iipe  and  used  water. 

Guerin's  apparatus  for 
this  jiurpose  consists  of  a 
hemispherical  balloon  pro- 
vided with  three  tubula- 
SprengeVs  Aspirator.  tures,  the  central  and  lar- 
gest one  being  fitted  with  a 
manometer  of  very  simple  construction,  a  gradu- 
ated glass  tube  terminated  by  an  india-rubber  ball 
filled  with  mercury.  The  ball  is  inclosed  in  the 
balloon,  so  that  in  proportion  to  the  vacuum  efl'ected 
in  the  latter  the  former  is  dilated,  in  consequence  of 
wliich  the  mercury  in  the  tube  falls,  a  scale  showing 
the  amount  of  fall,  and  hence  also  the  degree  ol 
rarefaction  in  the  balloon.  The  second  tubulature 
receives  a  tube  communicating  with  the  receiver  of 


an  air-pump  ;  and  by  a  third,  communication  is 
effected  between  the  balloon  and  each  patient  or 
hospital  bed  by  means  of  india-rubber  tubes,  so  that 
"pneumatic  occlusion,"  as  it  is  called,  may  be  ex- 
tended simultaneously  to  all  the  patients  coiifineil  in 
the  same  surgical  ward.  There  are  stop-cocks  for 
regulating  the  degree  of  vacuum  in  the  central  ves- 
sel, and  the  part  under  treatment  is  covered  with  a 
sort  of  india-rubber  hood  which  protects  it  in  each 
case  from  the  action  of  the  external  air. 

Aspirators  are  also  used  to  prevent  the  heating 
of  gi-aiu  in  bulk,  by  causing  a  constant  circulation 
of  air  through  its  mass. 

The  aspiratoi-,  substantially  as  shown  in  Fig.  393, 
is  used  in  maintaining  a  partial  vacuum  in  the  i  on- 
densers  of  steam-engines,  vacunm-jians,  etc.,  where 
a  discharge-pipe  of  30  feet  perpendicular  length  can 
be  obtained. 

The  aspirator  is  also  used  in  picking  up  jiieces  or 
sheets  of  jiaper,  for  feeding  into  paper-folding  or 
envelope  macliiiies. 

As-pir'ing  Pump.  1.  A  pump  in  which  the 
mechanical  action  is  due  to  the  Ibrcible  ejection  of 
air  from  the  lungs.     A  suction-pump. 

2.  A  puni])  used  to  draw  air  from  a  chamber  or 
vessel.     Sec  Asi'IUATiir. 

Ass.  (Pcipcr-moking.)  A  post  in  the  bridge  of 
a  |iulp-vat  to  lay  the  mold  upon  while  the  water 
drains  from  it.     Used  in  the  hand-made  paper  work. 

As-say'.  An  operation  for  testing  the  propor- 
tion of  aiij'  metal  in  an  ore  or  alloy. 

There  are  several  modes  of  procedure  ;  — 

1.  By  specific  gravity. 

2.  By  the  touchstone. 

3.  The  wet  method,  —  by  liquid  solvents. 

4.  The  dry  methoil,  —  by  fln.xes  and  fire. 
As-say'  Bal'ance.    A  delicate  balance  used  in 

assaying.     See  H.vlance. 

As-say'  Fur'nace.    A  Fig.  394. 

furnace  with  a  chamber  or 
muffle  in  which  the  metal 
is  exposed  to  heat. 

The  furnaces  used  for  cu- 
pellation  differ  considera- 
idy  in  shape  and  mode  of 
construction  :    one  fonn  is  Cupel. 

represented  in  Fig.  395. 

The  muffle  a  is  an  oven-shaped  vessel  made  of 
baked  fire-clay,  closed  at  one  end  and  open  at  the 
other,   and 


generally 
having  also 
openings  in 
its  sides  and 
top  ;  its  in- 
ner closed  ex- 
tremity usu- 
ally rests  on 
a  ledge  or 
shelf  in  the 
furnace,  and 
its  open  end 
is  luted  to  the 
entrance  of 
the  furnace, 
and  has  be- 
fore it  a  small 
platform  on 
which  the 
hot  cupels 
(shown  on  an 
enlarged 
scale  iu  Fig. 
39  4)        can 


Fig.  395. 


Mu_ffJe  and  Furnace, 


ASSEGAI. 


171 


ASTRAGAL. 


stand  when  withdrawn  from  it.  In  this  position  it  can 
be  eiiaally  heated  in  every  jiart,  while  the  apertures 
in  the  sides  and  top  allow  a  eurrent  of  air  to  pass 
throutjh  its  interior  and  into  the  furnace  itself. 

As-se-gai'.  A  light  projectile  spear  eniidoyed 
by  thf  Kartirs. 

Aa-sem'bling.  By  assembling  is  understood 
the  act  ot  putting  in  their  respective  places  and  fas- 
tening together  the  component  parts  of  an  article 
composed  of  a  number  of  distinct  pieces,  so  as  to 
form  a  complete  and  perfect  whole  ;  as,  the  cheeks 
and  stock  of  a  guu-carriage,  with  their  connected 
parts  ;  the  lock,  stock,  and  barrel  of  a  musket,  etc. 

The  terra  is  more  peculiarly  applicable  to  the  tit- 
ting  together  parts  which  are  made  strictly  to  fixed 
shapes  and  dimensions  so  as  to  be  promiscuously  In- 
terchangeable. 

The  system  of  interchangeability  of  parts  was  first 
introduced  into  the  French  Artillery  service  by 
General  Gribeauval,  about  the  year  1765. 

Previous  to  this  time  each  part  of  a  gun-carriage 
was  mide  specially  for  that  carriage  alone,  and 
coild  not  be  used  for  repairing  any  other,  unless 
after  extensive  alterations.  Gribeauval  simplified 
the  system,  or  rather  want  of  system,  then  in  vogue, 
by  reducing  the  carriages  into  classes,  and  so  arran- 
ging many  of  the  parts  that  they  could  be  applied  in- 
discriminateh'  to  all  carriages  of  the  class  for  which 
tlu'y  were  made.  This  system  was  farther  sim[)lified 
anil  extended,  and  was  finally  applied  in  the 
United  States  arsenals  and  armories  to  all  articles 
m  ide  up  of  pieces,  the  improvements  in  machinery 
enabling  most  articles  to  be  made  accurately  to  pat- 
tern without  depending  on  the  eye  and  hand  of  the 
workman.  This  has  been  carried  to  a  very  high 
pitch  of  improvement  by  means  of  the  machinery  at 
the  Colt's  arms  factory  and  other  manufactories  of 
sraill-arms  in  this  country  ;  and  the  beauty  and  util- 
ity of  the  system,  by  which  exact  equality  of  di- 
mensions is  insured  in  every  one  among  thousands 
of  almost  microscopic  screws  and  other  small  parts, 
are  particularly  exemplified  in  the  work  of  the  Amer- 
ican watch  and  sewing-machine  companies. 

This  system  of  interchangeability  and  assemblage, 
which  by  enabling  a  large  proportion  of  perfect  and 
serviceable  articles  to  be  made  up  from  the  parts  of 
similar  articles  which  have  been  broken  or  injured 
in  use,  instead  of  permitting  them  to  be  cast  into 
the  scrap-heap,  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  triumphs 
of  modern  mechanism. 

It  has  proved  itself  capable  of  adaptation  to  large 
as  well  as  small  machinery,  ami  is  now  applied 
to  the  locomotives  of  the  Pennsylvania  Central  Rail- 
road, whose  parts  are  made  interchangeable. 

The  first  notice  in  this  country  of  this  excellent 
mode  of  manufacturing  a  number  of  articles  designed 
to  be  exactly  similar,  is  the  breech-loading  rifle  of 
John  H.  Hall,  of  North  Yarmouth,  Massachusetts, 
patented  May  21,  1811,  and  which  he  refers  to  in 
the  following  terms  in  a  letter  to  the  War  Depart- 
ment:  "Only  one  point  now  remains  to  bring  the 
rifles  to  the  utmost  perfection,  which  I  shall  attempt 
if  the  government  contracts  with  me  for  the  guns  to 
any  considerable  amount,  namely,  to  make  every 
similar  part  of  every  gun  so  much  alike  that  it  will 
suit  every  gun,  so  that  if  1,000  guns  are  taken 
apart  and  the  limbs  thrown  promiscuously  together 
in  one  heap,  they  may  be  taken  promiscuously  from 
the  heap  and  will  all  come  right." 

In  1816,  100  of  these  arms  were  made  ;  2,000,  in 
1827.  In  1836  Congress  voted  S  10,000  to  Hall, 
being  at  the  rate  of  one  dollar  per  arm  for  all  made 
on  hi-;  principle  to  date. 

As-sem'bling  Bolt.    One  used  for  holding  to- 


Astaiic  Needle. 


gether  two  or  more  removable  pieces,  as  the  cheeks 
and  stock  of  a  field  gun-carriage. 

As-sis'tant  En'gine.  An  accessory  locomotive, 
to  assist  the  ordinary  train  engine  in  ascending 
heavy  grades. 

A  donkey  engine.  A  small  engine  used  in  oper- 
ating a  large  one  for  moving  the  lever,  or  carrj-ing 
the  fly-wheel  over  a  dead-centei'. 

As-size'.  A  layer  of  stone,  or  one  of  the  cylin- 
drical blocks  in  a  column.  The  n\imber  of  assizex 
in  the  Great  Pyramid  was  203  (Ivenrick).  Several 
have  been  removed  from  the  apex,  which  now  pre- 
sents a  platform  of  25  feet  square.  The  (ussizcs  vary 
fron^  two  feet  two  inches  to  four  feet  ten  inches  in 
depth.  From  five  to  twelve  feet  is  the  common 
length  of  the  stones,  except  in  the  king's  chamlier. 

A  column  is  said  to  be  monolithic,  or  else  to  consist 
of  assizrs. 

A-stat'ic  Nee'dle.  A  magnetized  needle  whose 
jiolarity  is  balanced 

so  as  to  remove  its  Kg.  396. 

tendency  to  assume 
any  given  direc- 
tion. 

It  was  in  1820 
that  Oersted,  of  Co- 
penhagen, an- 
nounced that  the 
conducting  wire  of 
a     voltaic     circuit 

acts  upon  the  magnetic  needle,  and  thus  recalled 
into  activity  that  endeavor  to  connect  magnetism 
with  electricity  which,  though  apparently  on  many 
accounts  so  hopeful,  had  hitherto  been  attended  with 
no  success.  Oersted  found  that  the  needle  has  a 
tendency  to  place  itself  at  right  angles  to  the  wire,  a 
kind  of  action  altogether  different  from  any  which 
had  been  suspected. 

If  two  similar  magnetized  needles  are  placed  par- 
allel, but  with  their  poles  turned  in  o]iposite  direc- 
tions, and  are  susjiended  by  a  thread  without  tw  ist 
so  as  to  move  freely,  they  have  little  tendency  to 
place  themselves  in  the  magnetic  meridian. 

The  action  of  terrestrial  magnetism  upon  one 
needle  neutralizes  its  action  upon  the  other,  and 
consequently  the  needles  remain  indifl'erent.  A 
needle  of  this  description  is  called  astatic,  and  is  nsed 
in  the  construction  of  the  astalii  galvanometer. 

If  one  of  the  needles  be  jdaced  in  a  coil  of  wire  ex- 
cited by  an  electric  current,  on  the  passage  of  the 
current  the  needle  is  dettected  ;  and  its  deflections  are 
more  considerable  than  those  of  a  simple  needle,  be- 
cause there  is,  in  the  first  plac,  but  little  resist- 
ance to  overcome,  and  secomlly,  because  the  current 
acts  upon  two  needles  instead  of  one,  the  upper 
needle  being  deflected  in  the  same  direction  as  the 
lower. 

As'tel.  {Mining.)  Overhead  boarding  or  arch- 
ing in  a  gallery. 

As-tig'ma-tism  Ap-pa-ra'tuB.  (Optics.)  An 
instrument  for  detecting  tlie  presence  and  amount  of 
the  defect  in  vision  arising  from  a  certain  want  of 
symmetry  in  the  lens  or  cornea. 

It  may  consist  of  two  revolving  rings  divided  to 
5°,  each  ring  being  furnished  with  springs  to  liold  a 
cylindrical  glass  ;  a  diaphragm  fitting  in  one  ring, 
and  a  movable  slit  in  the  other.  The  object  is  to 
test  whether  the  eye  has  greater  power  to  detect  dis- 
tinct separation  between  closely  ruled  lines  in  a  ver- 
tical, or  horizontal,  or  intermediate  position. 

As'tra-gal.  (Carpcntn/.)  a.  A  small  molding 
of  a  semicircular  section  with  a  fillet  beneath  it. 

b.  One  of  the  rabbeted  bars  which  hold  tlie  panes 
of  a  window.     The  astragals  of  the  lanterns  in  the 


ASTRAGAL   PLANE. 


172 


ASTROMETER. 


Fig.  397. 


Astral  Lamp 


Stevenson  liglithouses  are  diagonal,  so  as  not  to  inter- 
ct'|pt  the  light  in  the  azimuth  which  they  sulitend. 

{Ordnance.)  An  outwardly  curved  molding. 
The  astragal  of  a  cannon  is  the  molding  at  the  front 
end  of  the  eha.se. 

As'tra-gal  Plane.  (Joinery.)  A  bench  plane 
adapteil  for  euttiiig  astragal  moldings. 

As'tra-gal  Tool.  A  wood-turning  chisel  having 
a  semicircular  concave  face,  for  turning  beads  and 
astrat';ils. 

As'tral  Lamp.  A  lamp  with  an  annular  oil  res- 
ervoir connecting  by  two  pij)es  with  the  wick  tube, 
the  latter  being  on  the 
simniiit  of  the  pedestal. 
It  is  designed  to  obviate 
the  interception  of  light 
by  the  oil  reservoir, 
which  when  placed  cen- 
trally casts  a  shade  upon 
the  table. 

In  the  arrangement 
shown  at  Fig.  397  the 
oil  is  contained  in  the 
annular  chamber  a  sur- 
rounding the  burner  h, 
which  is  of  the  Argand 
kind  (see  Augand),  and 
the  lower  part  of  the 
chimney,  and  thence  ile- 
scends  to  the  foot  of  the 
wick  through  the  two 
tubes  c  c. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the 
downward  rays  of  light 
from  tlie  burner  are  not  at  all  intercejited  in  the 
iirnnediate  vicinity  of  the  lamji,  except  by  the  two 
sn]:ill  oil  pipes,  and  that  they  are  not  inateiially  in- 
terfered with,  within  a  radius  beyond  which  the 
light  would  be  insufhcient  for  reading  or  working 
by  ;  even  this  is  obviated  in  a  considerable  degree 
by  the  ground-glass  globe  d  surmounting  the  an- 
nulus,  which  dilfnses  and  ecpializes  that  part  of  the 
light  which  is  not  cast  downward.  The  chimney  c 
assists  combustion,  and  carries  off  the  volatile  pro- 
duets  thereof 

As'tro-labe.  The  common  astrolabe  (not  the 
astrolabe  of  Ilipparchus,    used  in  determining   the 

altitudes   of  the 
Fig.  398.  stars)  is  used  for 

measuring  an- 
gles. It  is  grad- 
uated to  degrees, 
and  sometimes  to 
quarter  -  degrees. 
A  sti'ip  is  at- 
tached in  the 
direction  of  the 
diameter,  passing 
through  0'  and 
180°,  and  has  a 
tongue  by  which 
it  is  placed  cen- 
trally u)jou  the 
stand.  This  strip 
has  two  fixed 
diopters  or  sight- 
vanes.  Another 
strip  turns  about 
the  center,  one 
end  of  which  in 
the  half  -  astro- 
labe ^loth  ends 
in  the  full  astro- 
labe)     traverses 


the  graduated  limb  and  carries  other  sight-vanes. 
The  middle  line  of  this  alidade  coincides  with  the 
a.xis  of  the  sight-vanes  and  the  center,  and  is 
marked  upon  the  beveled  edge  of  the  alidade  as  an 
index.  The  diopters  are  both  ocular  and  objective, 
I'or  fore  and  back  sighting.  A  small  compass  may 
be  attached  at  the  center,  and  the  tongue  fitted  up 
with  nvit  and  screw  so  as  to  permit  the  circle  to  be 
brought  from  the  horizontal  to  the  vertical  jiosition 
for  the  purpose  of  measuring  altitudes. 

To  measure  an  angle  with  the  astrolabe,  the  latter 
is  placed  with  its  center  over  the  vertex  of  the  angle, 
and  turned  until  the  fixed  diopters  .sight  in  the 
direction  of  one  side.  The  movable  stri]i  with  its 
diopti'is  is  then  sighted  in  the  direction  of  the  oth- 
er side,  and  the  angle  contained  between  the  two 
stiips  is  read  ofi'.  Telescopes  may  be  attiiched  in 
place  of  the  alidades.  Thus  arranged,  it  becomes 
allieil  to  the  theodolite. 

Tyeho  Brahe's  Astronoinicc  Instauratec  Mechani- 
cn  gives  several  cuts  of  astrolabes.  The  astrolabes 
of  Hijiparchus,  Ptolemy,  Alhazen,  and  Tyclio  Brahe 
(lid  not  agree  in  all  particulars  of  construction. 
They  have  been  sujierseded  by  more  improved  in- 
struments. 

The  astrolabe  was  invented  to  ascertain  the  posi- 
tion of  the  sun  with  regard  to  the  ecliptic.  (Whewell.) 
The  instrunjent  as  described  by  Ptolemy  consisted 
of  circular  rims,  movable  one  within  the  other,  or 
aliout  poles  ;  and  contained  circles  which  were  to 
be  brought  into  the  position  of  the  ecliptic,  and  of  a 
}ilane  ]iassing  through  the  sun  and  the  poles  of  the 
ecliptic.     See  Ai'.millaky  Spherf,. 

The  aMrolnbon  which  Martin  Behaim  attached  to 
the  main-mast  belongs  originally  to  Hipparchus. 
AVhen  Vasco  de  Gania  landed  on  the  east  coast  of 
Africa,  he  found  the  Indian  y)ilots  at  Melind  ac- 
epmiiited  with  the  use  of  astrolabes  and  cro.ss-stafls. 

As-trcm'a-ra.  A  concave  representation  of  the 
heavens. 

As-trom'e-ter.  An  instrument  invented  by  Sir 
John  Herscliel  for  comparing  the  intensities  of  light 
of  the  stars  one  with  another  by  the  intervention 
of  a  natural  .standard,  such  as  the  moon  or  the  planet 
.Tupiter,  brighter  than  any  of  the  stai's  to  be  com- 
pared, and  giving  an  aiuount  of  light  which,  if 
not  absolutely  invariable,  varies  in  such  a  manner 
that  its  changes  are  susceptible  of  calculation.  Jupi- 
ter, being  sufficiently  bright,  and  his  light  being  in- 
creased or  diminished  only  in  proportion  to  his  dis- 
tance from  the  sun,  is  considered  as  well  adajited  tor 
the  purpose. 

The  process,  as  described  by  Sir  John,  "consists  in 
deflecting  the  light  of  the  moon  by  total  internal  re- 
flection at  the  ba.se  of  a  prism  so  as  to  emerge  in  a 
direction  exactly  coincident  with  that  of  the  unde- 
ttected  light  of  one  of  the  stars  to  be  compared.  It 
is  then  received  upon  a  lens  of  short  focus,  by  which 
the  image  of  the  moon  is  formed,  which,  viewed  at  a 
considerable  distance  by  an  observer  placed  in  or 
near  the  axis  of  the  lens,  will  apjiear  to  him  as  a  star. 
This  artificial  star  is  then  a]iproached  to  or  removed 
from  the  eye  until  its  light  is  judged  to  be  exactly 
equal  to  that  of  the  real  star,  which  lying  in  nearly 
the  same  direction  from  the  observer  will  V)e  seen 
side  by  side  with  the  artificial  one  by  the  same  eye, 
or  with  both  eyes  at  once  without  the  aid  of  a  tele- 
scope, as  in  the  ordinary  mode  of  natural  vision. 
The  distance  of  the  eye  from  the  focus  of  the  lens 
being  then  measured,  the  prism  and  lens  are  to  be 
placed  so  as  to  form  another  similar  artificial  star 
in  a  direction  nearly  coincident  with  that  of  the 
other  star  uiuler  comparison  ;  and,  another  equaliza- 
tion being  made  and  distance  measured,  it  is  obvious 


ASTRONOMICAI.   CLOCK. 


173 


ASTRONOMICAL   INSTRUMENTS. 


that  the  intensity  of  tlie  lights  of  the  two  stars,  or 
at  least  their  effects  on  the  retina  under  the  circum- 
stances of  conijiarisoii,  will  be  to  each  other  in  the 
inverse  ratio  of  the  distances  so  measured  respec- 
tively." 

The  term  "  astrometer  "  has  been  also  applied  to  an 
object-glass  micrometer,  as  well  as  to  an  instrument 
for  finding  the  lising  and  setting  of  stars  and  their 
positions. 

As-tro-nom'i  cal  Clock.  A  clock  regulated  to 
keep  regular  tiin"  ;  s/i/c/r"/,  not  vienn. 

As-tro-nom'i-cal  In'stru-ments.  The  first 
phenomenon  recordeil  iu  the  Chine.se  annals  is  a 
conjunction  of  five  planets  in  the  reign  of  Tchuen- 
hiu  (2514 -2436  B.  c).  The  record  is  verified  by 
Fr.  de  Mailla  and  others,  and  identified  with  2461 
B.  c.  Saturn,  Jupiter,  Mars,  and  Venus  were,  with 
the  moon,  comprised  within  an  arc  of  about  12" 
in  the  constellation  Pisces.  The  emperor  Yao, 
2367  B.  c,  determined  the  length  of  the  moon's 
year. 

An  orrery  is  said  to  have  been  constructed  in  the 
second  century  A.  D.  in  China  ;  the  account  states 
that  it  represented  the  apparent  motion  of  the 
heavenly  bodies  round  the  earth,  and  was  kept  in 
motion  by  water  dropping  from  a  clepsydra. 

The  helio'entric,  the  true  theory  of  our  solar  sys- 
tem, was  taught  in  .\ncient  Egypt,  and  there  Pythag- 
oras learned  it.  This  great  philosopher  perceived 
its  truth,  and  carried  it  to  .\sia  Minor,  where  it  lan- 
guished and  died.  The  Egyptian  race  were  origi- 
nally emigrants  from  Asia,  probably  Arabians,  and 
may  have  brought  their  astronomical  knowledge 
with  them.  It  is  also  possible  that  the  Chaklees 
were  participants  in  the  true  theory  many  ages  be- 
fore Greek  explorers  touched  the  borders  of  the 
Mesopotamian  nations. 

Eratosthenes  of  Cyrene,  the  Alexandrian  astrono- 
mer, set  on  foot  the  first  Hellenic  measurement  of  an 
arc  of  the  meridian,  having  its  extremities  at  Alex- 
andria and  Syene,  and  for  its  object  the  approxi- 
mate measurement  of  the  earth's  circumference.  The 
measurement  was  the  paces  of  pedestrians,  but  is  in- 
teresting as  among  the  earliest  recorJeii  instances  of 
this  broad  generalization,  where  a  philosopher  rose 
from  the  consideration  of  the  narrow  limits  of  a  sin- 
gle country  to  the  knowledge  of  the  magnitude  of 
the  entire  globe.  A  more  ancient  Chaldean  meas- 
urement is  mentioned,  the  count  being  obtained  in 
camels'  paces,  4,00(f  paces  to  the  mile,  33 J  miles  to 
half  a  degree, — circumference  of  the  earth.  24,003 
miles.    See  Comptes  Rcuius,  T.  XXIII.  p.  Sol,  1346. 

Another  measurement  of  a  degree  of  the  meridian 
was  nude  under  the  ord'rs  of  the  Khalif  Al-M,imun 
in  the  great  plain  of  Sinds-char,  between  Tadmor  and 
Kikka,  by  observers  whose  names  have  been  pre- 
served to  us  by  Ebn  Junis,  tenth  century. 

"  Each  sage  went  for  what  he  wanted  to  the 
proper  mart  of  science  :  for  not  only  Pythagoras 
studied  astronomy  at  Heliopolis,  where  it  was  jiro- 
fessed  with  the  greatest  ec'at ;  but  Eudoxus  got  his 
geometry  at  Memphis,  whose  priests  were  the  'uost 
profound  mathematicians  ;  and  Solon  was  instructed 
in  ci\-il  wisdom  at  Sais,  whose  patron  deity  being 
Minerva  (as  we  are  told  by  Herodotus  and  Strabo), 
sh-),vs  politics  to  have  been  there  in  most  request." — 
"\V.\i;Binnos's  "  Divine  Legation  of  Moses,"  Vol.  I. 
BiDk  II.,  ed.  1742. 

The  earliest  observations  in  Babylon  were  2234 
B.  c.  Of  their  instruments  we  have  no  reeoid  : 
dials  and  zodiacal  circles  probably.  The  invention 
of  the  zodiac  is  by  many  experts  credited  to  the 
E'.;vptians,  and  the  reasons  cited  are  entitled  to 
high  couaideration.     It  is  of  high  antiquity,  and  if 


pre-Egyptian  was  derived  from  the  Onentals. 
Mazzaroth,  cited  in  Job  xxxviii.  31,  32,  probably 
referred  to  zodiacal  division. 

One  of  the  earliest  instninients  on  record  is  that 
in  the  Memnonium,  the  great  palace  of  Eameses  II. 
It  consisted  of  a  golden  zodiac  or  circle  on  which 
were  engraved  the  days  of  the  year,  with  the  heliacal 
rising  and  setting  of  the  stars  by  which  each  day 
was  known.  This  golden  planisphere  was  placed 
immediately  over  the  sepulchre,  upon  a  base  365 
cubits  (547J  feet)  in  circumference,  or  about  182  feet 
in  diameter,  and  one  cubit  in  thickness.  It  was 
divided  and  marked  at  every  cubit  \vith  the  days  of 
the  year,  the  rising  and  setting  of  the  stars  according 
to  their  natural  revolutions,  and  the  signs  ascertained 
from  them  by  Egyptian  astrologers. 

Rameses  reigned  in  the  fourteenth  century  B.  c, — 
the  ccntuiT  after  the  settling  of  the  land  of  Canaan 
by  Joshua  and  the  century  before  the  Argonautio 
Expedition.  The  golden  circle  was  carried  away  by 
Cambyses  when  he  plundered  Egypt,  525  B.  c", 
about  the  time  of  Kung-fu-tze  (Confucius). 

Ptolemy  Euergetes,  246  B.  c. ,  placed  in  the 
square  porch  of  the  Alexandrian  Museum  an  equi- 
noctial and  a  solstitial  armil,  the  graduated  limbs  of 
these  instruments  being  divided  into  degrees  and 
si.xths.  There  were  in  the  observatory  stone  struc- 
tures, the  precursors  of  our  mural  quadrants.  On 
the  iioor  a  meridian  line  was  drawn  for  the  adjust- 
ment of  the  instruments.  There  were  also  astrolabes 
and  dioptras.  The  above  were  used  from  246  B.  c. 
to  A.  D.  417,  and  similar  instruments  at  Cordova, 
A.  D.  1000.  Tube^  with  sights  were  probably  used 
at  both  places  ;  lenses  being  added  in  1608. 

See  articles  under  the  following  headings  :  — 

Altarimeter.  Finder. 

Apomecometer.  Heliometer. 

Armil.  Meridian  Circle. 

Arniillary  Sphere.  Micrometer. 

Artificial  Horizon.  Mural  Circle. 

Astrolabe.  Optical  Instruments. 

Astrometer.  Orbit-Sweeper. 

Astro.scope.  Orrery. 

Azimuth  Circle.  Planetaiium. 

Azimuth  Dial.  Reflecting  Circle. 

Back-staff.  Refraction  Circle. 

Collimator.  Telescope. 

Comet-Seeker.  Tellurian. 

Compass.  Transit. 

Cosmolabe.  Universa!  Instrument. 

Dipleidoscope.  Zenith  Sector. 

Dip  Sector.  Zenith  Tube. 
Equatorial  Telescope. 

In  Europe,  the  Arabs  were  the  first  to  build 
observatories  ;  the  Giralda,  or  Towei-  ot  Seville,  was 
erected  under  the  .superintendence  of  Geber  the 
mathematician,  about  A.  D.  1196,  for  that  jmrpose. 
After  the  expulsion  of  the  Moors  it  was  turned  into 
a  belfry,  the  Sjianiards  not  knowing  what  else  to  do 
with  it.  The  same  people  mistook  the  vertical  gno- 
mons of  Quito  —  beneath  the  hue  —  for  idols,  and 
upset  them,  crossing  themselves  devoutly.  Of  the 
obelisks  of  Egypt,  the  round  towers  of  Ireland,  and 
the  gnomons  of  Quito,  the  last  is  the  least  distinctly 
phallic. 

The  native  observatory  at  Benares,  India,  is  an 
elevated  terrace,  and  will  afford  us  a  good  idea  of  the 
probable  appearance  of  the  observatories  of  Ancient 
Cbaldea  ;  of  the  Caliph  Almanza ;  of  Uleg  Beg, 
grandson  of  the  great  Tamerlane.  The  latter  is 
said  to  have  had  a  quadrant  as  high  as  the  Church 
of  Sancta  Sophia  at  Constantinoj>le. 

Sir  Robert  Barker's  description  of  the  observatoi-y 


ASTRONOMICAL   INSTRUMENTS. 


174 


ASTRONOMICAL  TELESCOPE. 


rii.  399. 


W '      --_~-~"--ili^-; 


I^'uiil'e  Obsfrvntory  at  Benares. 


of  B  'iiares  is  as  follows  :  "  We  entered  this  buililin;;, 
ail  I  went  up  a  staircase  to  the  top  part  of  it  lu-ar  the 
riv.'r  Ganges,  that  leil  to  a  large  terrace,  where  to  ni/ 
surprise  and  satisfaction,  I  saw  a  number  of  instru- 
niMits  yet  remaining  in  the  best  preservation,  stu- 
p  Mulously  large,  iuiniovaljle  from  the  spot,  ami 
b'.iilt  of  stone,  some  of  tliem  being  upwards  of 
twenty  feet  in  hight ;  and  thoii^li  they  were  said  to 
have  be>n  erected  many  hundred  years  before,  the 
graduations  and  <livisions  of  the  several  ai'cs  ap- 
psare  I  as  well  cut  ami  accurately  divided  as  if  they 
had  been  thj  performance  of  a  modern  artist.  Th  ; 
e.Yec'.ition  in  the  construction  of  these  instruments 
e.'chibited  a  matheni  itical  exactness  in  the  fi.xing, 
bsaring,  and  fitting  of  the  several  part-!,  in  tlij 
nscessary  and  sufficient  supports  to  file  very  larger 
stones  that  compose  them,  and  in  joining  and  fasten- 
ing thjm  into  each  other  by  means  of  lead  and  ii'ou 
cranp-i.  The  situation  of  the  two  large  quadrants, 
wlij*  radius  is  nine  feet  two  inches,  by  being  at 
right  angles  with  a  gnomon  at  twenty-live  degrees 
elevation,  are  thrown  into  suidi  an  oblipie  situation 
as  to  rend'r  them  the  most  diffi /ult,  not  only  to 
construct  of  s-.ich  a  magnitude,  but  to  sesure  in  the 
position  for  so  long  a  p:^riod,  and  affords  a  striking 
instance  of  the  ability  of  the  architect  in  their  con- 
struction ;  for,  by  the  sliadow  of  the  gnomon  thrown 
on  tlie  luadrauts,  they  do  not  appear  to  have  altered 
i:i  tlie  least  from  their  original  position  ;  and  so 
true  is  tlie  line  of  the  gnomon,  that,  by  appljnng  the 
eye  to  a  small  iron  ring  of  an  inch  diameter  at  one 
end,  the  sight  is  carried  through  three  others  of  the 
sam--'  dimensions,  at  the  extremity  of  the  other  end, 
distant  thirty-eight  feet  eight  inches,  without  ob- 
struction." 

The  earliest  modern  observatory  of  importance  in 
Eirope  was  erected  by  the  landgrave  of  Hesse  Cassel 
in  l.itll.  It  occupied  the  whole  upper  portion  of 
his  palace,  and  was  well  furnished  with  astronomical 
instruments.  Tycho  Brahe,  about  the  same  period, 
made  material  improvements  on  the  landgrave's  in- 
struments, and  constructed  a  quadrant  capable  of 
showing  single  minutes.  He  afterwanls  erected  an 
observatory  on  the  island  of  Huen,  under  the  pat- 
ronage of  the  king  of  Denmark  ;  it  was  furnished 
with  qualrants,  sextants,  circles,  astrolabes,  globes, 
clocks,  and  sun-<lials.  Tliese  instruments  were 
divided  to  single  minutes,  and  some  were  so  divided 
as  to  read  to  ten  seconds. 


The  royal  observatory  at  Paris  was  completed  in 
1671,  and  was  placed  in  charge  of  M.  Cassini,  after 
having  been  furnished  with  instruments  at  a  veiy 
great  expense. 

The  Greenwich  Observatory  was  erected  five  years 
later;  Flamstead,  under  the  title  of  Astronomer  Royal, 
was  its  first  superintendent. 

The  Yale  College  Observatory  was  started  in  1828, 
a  donation  made  by  Mr.  Clark  being  expended  in 
buying  a  telescope  of  Mr.  DoUond  of  London.  It 
has  a  focal  length  of  ten  feet,  and  live  inches  aper- 
ture. 

The  Williams  College  Observatory  was  the  first 
legularly  constituted  observatory  in  the  United 
State.s,  1836.  It  has  a  Herscdielian  reflector  of  ten 
feet  focus,  mounted  equatorially  ;  also  a  transit 
instnunent   ami   compensation-clock. 

The  Hudson  Observatory  of  the  Western  Reserve 
College,  Ohio,  was  built  and  furnished  in  1838, 
having  an  equatorial,  transit,  and  clock. 

The  High  School  Observatory  of  Philadelphia  was 
furnished  in  1840. 

The  West  Point  Observatory  about  1841. 

The  Tuscaloosa  Observatory  iij  1843. 

The  Washington  Clbservatory  about  1S44. 

The  Georgetown,  D.  C,  Observatory  in  1844. 

The  Cincinnati  Observatory  in  1845. 

The  Cambridge  Observatory  in  1847. 

The  Andierst  Observatory  in  1S47. 

Dartmouth,  Newark,  Shelbyville,  Ky.,  Buffa'o, 
Michigan  University,  Albany,  and  Hamilton  Col- 
lege, liave  also  observatories. 

A  good  article  on  the  astronomical  observatories 
of  the  United  States  may  be  found  in  Harjier's 
Magazine,  June,  1856.  See  also  "Observations  at 
the  Washington  Observatory,"  volume  for  184.5. 

For  more  full  details  than  in 'the  articles  named, 
see  Chambers's  Astronomy  ;  Dr.  Pearson's  Practical 
.\stronomy  ;  Loomis's  Practical  Astronomy  ;  Sinmi's 
Treatise  on  Instruments  ;  Heather  on  Mathematical 
Instruments. 

As-tro-nom'i-cal  Lan'tern.  One  with  panes 
or  slides  having  perforations  whose  relative  size  and 
po-ition  represent  stars  in  a  given  field  of  the 
heavens. 

As-tro-nom'i-cal  Tel'e-scope.  A  telescope  in 
which  the  image  is  inverted,  composed  of  a  conv.r- 
ging  object-glass  A  B,  .and  of  a  converging  eye-glass 
C  D.     Rays  of  light  falling  from  any  point  M  of  a 


ASTRONOMICAL  TELESCOPE. 


-to 


ATIIIDOMETER. 


Astronomical  Telescope. 


Fig  400.  distant    ob- 

ject M  N, 
and  falling 
^JF  on  the  whole 
surface  of 
the  object- 
glass  are  re- 
fracted into 

the  upper  point  in  the  principal  focus.  In  like 
manner  those  proceeding  from  the  point  i\'  are  re- 
fracted into  the  lower  point,  and  thus  an  inverted  im- 
age is  formed  at  the  focus  of  the  object-glass.  The 
eye-glass  is  placed  so  that  its  focus  shall  coincide 
with  the  place  of  the  image,  consequently  rays  di- 
verging from  any  point  on  the  image,  and  falling 
on  the  lens  C  D,  are  rendered  parallel  and  enter 
the  eye  at  £,  where  they  produce  distinct  vision. 

The  length  of  the  telescope  is  eijual  to  the  sum  of 
the  focal  distances  of  the  two  lenses,  and  the  mag- 
nifying power  is  equal  to  the  focal  length  of  the  ob- 
ject-ghrss  divided  by  the  focal  length  of  the  eye-glass. 
This  telescope  was  first  described  by  Kepler  in  his 
Dioplrkc,  1611,  but  does  not  appear  to  have  been 
executed  till  20  or  30  years  later. 

A  large  instrament  of  its  class  was  mounted  at 
Vork,  England,  by  Cooke.     See  Fig.  401. 
It  is  mounted  equatorially  on  the  German  princi- 

Fig.  401. 


Cookers  Teiesccpe. 


pie,  ha%-ing  a  finder  at  the  side,  as  is  usual  with  that 
class  of  instruments.  Sidereal  motion  is  communi- 
cated to  the  instrument  by  clock -woii.  Its  object- 
glass  is  25  inches  in  diameter. 

The  new  refracting  instniment  for  the  Naval  Ob- 
servatory of  Washington,  D.  C,  is  being  made  by 
Alvan  Clark,  of  Cambridgejiort,  Mass.,  and  will 
probably  be  completed  during  the  present  year(lS73). 
Its  object-glass  is  complete,  and  has  a  diameter  of 
27  inches.  It  is  the  largest  of  its  class,  and  gi'eat 
hopes  are  reasonably  entertained  of  its  jierformances. 

Large  telescopes,  equatorially  mounted,  are  in  the 
observatories  of  Cambridge,  Eng.,  Cambridge,  U.  S., 
Chicago,  Albany,  Alleghany,  and  Pulkowa,  Russia. 
The  equatorial  of  Melbourne,  Australia,  is  a  reflector. 
See  Telescope. 

As'tro-scope.  1.  An  astronomical  instrument 
composed  of  two  cones,  on  whose  surfaces  the  con- 
stellations, with  their  stars,  are  delineated,  and  by 
means  of  which  the  stars  may  be  known  ;  an  im- 
perfect substitute  forthe  celestial  globe.  — Webstf.i:. 

2.  An  astronomical  instrument  provided  with 
telescopes,  for  obsei-ving  the  stars,  invented  and  de- 
scribed by  William  Shukhard,  of  Tubingen,  in  1608. 

As-tyllen.  (Mining.)  A  small-dam  in  an  adit 
or  mine  to  prevent  the  full  passage  of  the  water. 

At-a'bai.  A  Moorish  musical  instrument  re- 
sembling a  tabor.  —  Ckoly. 

At-a-rim'e-ter.  A  philosophical  instrument 
used  in  a  fixed  observatoiy. 

Ath'a-nor.  The  original  Bose-Burnin;/  Fvnwce. 
It  was  used  by  the  old  alchemists  to  ensure  a  con- 
stant supply  of  fuel  to  a  furna?e  intended  to  keep 
up  a  continued  heat  for  many  consecutive  days. 

Alongside  the  furnace-chamber  was  a  hollow 
tower  containing  charcoal,  and  fitted  with  a  close 
cover  to  prevent  the  passage  of  air.  Tlie  lower  j^art 
communicated  with  the  fireplace,  and  as  the  contents 
of  the  latter  burned  away,  the  fuel  from  the  tower 
subsided  into  the  fireplace  and  kejit  up  the  fire. 

The  subject  has  been  am  [ilified  of  late  years.  Watt 
introduced  it  into  his  steam-boiler  funiace  about 
1767.  Many  stoves  are  now  con.structed  on  that 
principle  in  England  and  in  the  United  States. 

At  what  time  the  venerable  alchemists  first  con- 
trived the  athanor  we  do  not  know.  We  ]insume 
that  Hermes  Trismegistus,  Aristotle,  and  their  co- 
laborers  of  Egj-pt  and  Rome,  may  have  done  without 
it,  but  that  it  may  have  arisen  when  Roger  Bacon, 
Albertus  Magnus,  Paracelsus,  R.nymond  Lully,  and 
Basil  Valentine  set  about  the  search.  This  hitter  .scope 
endiraces  several  hundred  years  of  valuable  services. 

The  supply-chamber  is  teimed  a  Magazjne  (which 
see).  See  also  Smoke-consuming  Furnace  ;  Stove, 
BASE-nriiNiNG ;  Cooking-Stove,  BASE-iiur.NiNR. 

At'las.  1.  A  size  of  drawing  paper  measuring 
33  X  26  inches,  and  weighing  100  pounds  to  the  ream. 

2.  The  Indian  satin  of  commerce. 

3.  (Architecture.)  T\xi\^\,  Jtlantes.  Male  human 
fi.gures  serving  as  pillars  ;  called  also  Telamones. 
The  name  is  derived  from  an  intended  resemblance 
to  Atlas  or  Ajax.  A  somewhat  different  style  of 
figures,  ill  which  the  attitude  exhibits  the  appear- 
ance of  less  violent  exertion,  are  called  Persians. 

Female  figures  employed  for  the  like  jmrjiose  are 
termed  Caryatides. 

At-mi-dom'e-ter.  Babington's  atmidonieter 
for  measuring  the  evaporation  from  water,  ice,  or 
snow,  consists  of  an  oblong  hollow  bulb  of  glass  or 
co]iper,  communicating  by  a  contracted  neck  with  a 
globular  bulb  beneath,  weighted  with  mereurj"  or 
shot.  The  upper  bulb  is  surmounted  by  a  glats  or 
metallic  stem  graduated  to  grains  and  fractions,  on 
the  top  of  which  is  a  light  shallow  metal  pan. 


ATMOMETER. 


176 


ATMOSPHERIC  CHURN. 


For  use,  the  instrument  is  placed  in  a  vessel  of 
water  having  a  cover  with  a  circular  hole  in  it 
thiough  which  the  stem  protrudes. 

Distilled  water  is  poured  into  the  jian  on  top  until 
the  zero  on  the  stem  is  brought  down  to  the  level  of 
the  cover  of  tlie  vessel  in  which  tln^  instrument 
floats.  As  the  water  in  the  pan  evaporates  tlie  stem 
rises,  and  the  amount  of  evaporation  in  grains  and 
parts  is  indicated  by  the  scale. 

An  adjustment  for  temperature  accompanies  the 
instrument.  —  Umande. 

At-mom'e-ter.  An  instrument  to  measure  va- 
porous I'.xhahitions.     An  craporomclcr  or  hygroscope. 

It  was  invented  by  Professor  Leslie  for  deternun- 
iiift  the  late  of  evaporation  from  a  humid  surface  in 
a  given  time. 

A  thill  ball  of  porous  earthenware,  two  or  three 
inches  in  diameter,  with  a  small  neck,  has  cemented 
to  it  a  long  and  rather  wide  tube  of  glass  bearing  di- 
visions, eacli  of  them  corresponding  to  an  interna' 
section  ecpial  to  a  film  of  liipiid  that  would  cover 
the  outer  surface  of  the  ball  to  the  thickness  of  one 
thousandth  of  an  inch.  Tlie  divisions  are  ascer- 
tained by  calculation,  and  are  numbered  downward 
to  the  extent  of  100  to  200.  To  the  top  of  this  tube 
is  fitted  a  brass  ("ap,  having  a  collar  of  leather,  and 
wliich,  after  the  cavity  lias  been  filled  with  distilled 
water,  is  secured  tightly.  The  outside  of  the  ball  be- 
ing now  wiped  dry,  the  instrument  is  suspended 
out-of-doors  to  the  free  action  of  the  air.  The  quan- 
tity of  evaporation  from  a  wet  ball  is  the  same  as 
from  a  circle  havir.g  twice  the  diameter  of  the  sphere. 
In  the  atniometer  tft  humidity  transudes  through 
the  porous  surface  just  as  fast  as  it  evaporates  from 
the  external  surface,  and  this  waste  is  measured  by 
the  descent  of  the  water  in  the  stem.  As  the  pro- 
cess goes  on,  a  corresponding  portion  of  air  is  intro- 
duced into  tbe  ball  and  rises  into  tlie  tube. 

A  modified  form  of  the  atmometer  consists  of  a 
vessel  of  porous  earthenware,  having  a  given  area  of 
surface  and  filled  with  water,  Jioised  at  the  end  of  a 
balance,  and  the  loss  in  a  given  time  noted  by  weights 
on  the  other  end. 

A  thermometer  inserted  into  the  vessel  will  indi- 
cate the  tem[ierature  of  the  evaporating  liquid,  and 
would  form  a  hygrometer  on  the  principle  that  the 
degree  of  cold  generated  by  evaporation  is  propor- 
tional to  the  dryness  of  the  air. 

At-mos-pher  ic  Alarm '-Whistle.  A  whistle 
blown  by  the  air.  It  is  principally  used  as  a  nauti- 
cal alarm,  lieing  attached  to  a  buoy,  or  placed  on  a 
pile  or  Ho;iting  vessel,  to  warn  ships  from  a  shoal  or 
spit  of  land.  It  is  to  be  distinguished  from  audible 
alarms  luodnced  by  clock-work  or  other  machinery 
by  which  a  blast  of  air  is  impelled  through  a  whistle 
or  horn.  These  are  considered  under  P'oG-Alaum  ; 
Nautic.\i,  Ai.Aii.M  ;   which  see. 

C'Ar.F.Li.'s  Atmosiiheric  Alarm -Whistle,  1867,  is 
sounded  by  the  alternate  eduction  and  induction  of 
air  from  or  into  au  annular  chamber,  which  is  par- 
tially filled  with  water  and  oscillated  by  the  motion 
of  the  vessel,  assisted  by  other  power,  if  necessary. 
The  motion  may  be  made  to  work  an  air-pum]i  to 
increase  the  energy  of  the  blast,  or  its  etl'ectiveness 
may  be  augmented  by  gas,  generated  by  chemical 
action  in  the  eliamber. 

The  chamber  D  has  air-spaces  6  V  communicating 
by  valves  c  i',  on  either  side  of  the  dividing  plate  a, 
with  the  blast-whistle  J.  d  d'  are  vacuum  whistles, 
which  a;t  alternately  as  the  chamber  sways  in  one 
direction  and  the  other,  supplying  air  to  that  side  of 
the  chamber  which  is  abandoned  by  the  water.  The 
funnel  <!  is  the  means  of  supplying  the  chamber  D 
with  water.     Oil  upon  the  surface  of  the  water  in 


Fig.  402. 


CabeWs  Atmospheric  Alarm-Whistte. 

chambers  6  6' prevents  evaporation,  e  e' are  valves 
to  the  vacuum-whistle  ports.  /  is  an  air-cham- 
ber. 

At-mos-pher'ic  Chum.  A  churn  in  which  at- 
mospheric air  is  driven  into  the  milk  in  order  to 
agitate  it,  and  also  to  obtain  the  specific  elfect  of  the 
air   upon    the 

milk  in  aggre-  Kg.  403. 

gation  of  the 
olea  gi  nou  s 
globules. 

There  are 
many  modes  of 
doing  this  :  — 

1.  The  air- 
pump 

In  this  case 
the  air  is  driv- 
en by  meclian- 
ical  means  into 
and  thnmjrh 
the  milk  by 
means  of  a  pis- 
ton woi  king  in 
a  cylinder,  or 
by  a  bellows. 

In  the  ex- 
ample (Fig. 
403)  the  air  is 
driven  by  the 
bellows  C  through  the  pipes  h  I',  passes  out  at  c,  and 
is  distributed  through  tlie  milk  by  the  perforated 
diaphragm  F.  ff  is  a  vessel  in  which  hot  or  coli.l 
watiM-  may  be  placed  to  temper  the  milk.  The  bel- 
lows-handle E  is  supported  by  a  post  on  the  churn  A. 

2.  The  centrifugal  churn-dasher. 

This  is  usually  a  vertical  tube  with  radiating  arms 


Atmcspheric  Chum. 


ATMOSPHERIC   ENGINE. 


177 


ATMOSPHERIC  ENGINE. 


rig.  40*.  at  the  bottom.  As  tlie  tubular  dash- 
er is  rotated,  the  air  is  expelled  at 
the  ends  of  the  radial  amis,  a  supply 
entering  at  the  open  upjier  end  of 
the  tube. 

There  are  many  modifications  of 
this  princi|ik',  but  tliey  all  |)06sess 
this  substantive  feature. 

3.  The  i-eciprocating  ilasher. 

In  this  ease  the  tubular  dasher  has 
a  Talve  which  open.s,  on  the  upward 
motion,  to  admit  air,  and  elo.ses  when 
the  down  stroke  ejects  the  air  from 
the  tube  into  tile  milk. 

In  Fig.  404  the  dasher  is  dupli- 
cated, the  ujiper  part  being  connected 
to  the  tubular  .shalt  B  and  the  lower 
part  to  the  inner  plunger  /J^.  As  the 
tube  B  rises,  the  plunger  /descends, 
the  valve  (j  closes,  and  air  enters  at 
the  upper  valve-way  in  A.  As  the 
tube  B  descends,  the  upper  valve 
closes,  the  plunger  e.xpels  the  air 
through  the  valve-way  ",  out  at  the 
bottom  of  the  tube  and  into  the  cream. 
In  another  form  (Fig.  405)  air  at  any  desired  tem- 
perature is  forced  into  the  churn  at  a  point  near  the 

Fig  405 


Atmospheric  Oium. 

bottom  by  the  reciprocating  air-pumps,  and  has  exit 
through  the  lid.  As  a  piston  rises,  air  enters  be- 
neath it  by  the  valves  /  in  the  supply-pipe  H.  As 
the  piston  descends,  the  valve  close-s,  and  the  air  is 
delivered  into  the  cream  by  the  pipe  L.  The  action 
of  the  pistons  is  alternate. 

At-mos-pher'ic  En'gine.  Invented  by  Dr.  Pa- 
pin,  of  Blois,.  Fiance,  in  1695;  improved  by  New- 
conien,  1705,  and  Watt,  176!>.  It  was  the  first  good 
steam-engine  on  a  working  scale,  and  is  the  founda- 
tion of  the  Cornish  engine.  The  present  form  of 
the  engine  has  Watt's  improvements. 

In  it  the  steam  from  the  boiler  is  conducted  be- 
neath the  piston,  rather  allowing  it  to  rise  than  ac- 
tually lifting  it,  as  the  weight  of  the  pump-rod 
causes  the  pump-plunger  to  desceml.  The  etiective 
stroke  is  obtained  by  the  .condensation  of  the  steam 
beneath  the  piston,  when  the  pressure  of  the  atmos- 
phere on  the  latter  lifts  the  pump-rod  and  the  water. 

In  another  application  of  the  engine,  the  atmos- 
phere raises  the  pump-rod,  and  the  weight  of  the  lat- 
ter/oco'.?  up  the  water. 

The  illustration  shows  the  old  atmospheric  engine, 
12 


Neiccomen's  Atmospheric  Engine. 


in  which  water 
was  injected  into 
the  cylinder  itself 
for  the  purpose  of 
condensing  the 
steam  below  the 
piston,  in  order 
that  the  pressure 
of  the  atmos])here 
might  be  availed 
to  force  down  the 
jiiston  and  make 
an  ett'ective  stroke. 
The  piston-rod  P 
is  connected  to  one 
end  of  the  working- 
beam.  The  piston 
is  shown  as  rising 
in  the  cylinder  C, 
steam  being  ad- 
mitted to  it  by 
pijie  S  and  valve 
1'.  When  the  jiiston  has  attained  its  ma.xiniuni 
bight,  the  valve  I'  is  closed,  shutting  off  the  steam, 
and  the  valve  D  is  opened,  admitting  water  at  the 
injection-aperture.  The  water  speedily  condenses 
the  steam,  and  the  piston  is  depressed  by  the  weight 
of  the  atmosphere. 

The  water  escapes  by  the  pijie  E  to  the  cistern 
called  the  hot-iidl,  whence  it  is  drawn  for  the  sup- 
jdy  of  the  boiler.  The  valve  i^  opens  outwardly  to 
allow-  the  water  to  escape.  The  air  escapes  by  an- 
other pipe  at  the  valve-way  G. 

The  valves  of  this  engine  were  originally  in  the 
form  of  faucets,  which  were  turned  by  hand  at  tl;e 
]u'oper  times,  as  we  see  in  Worcester's,  Pa]  ins,  and 
Savery's  engines.  The  same  jilaii  was  adoiited  in 
Newconien's  until  an  ingenious  l.oy,  Hiinii  hiey  Pot- 
ter, being  placed  in  charge,  devised  in  ITlii  a  nnans 
lor  connecting  the  lever-liandles  of  the  fpigots  to  the 
working-beam,  so  that  the  motion  of  the  latter  was 
the  means  of  opening  and  closing  the  lespective 
valves  at  the  proper  times. 

To  the  engine  of  Newccnien,  Watt  added,  among 
other  improvements,  the  separate  condenser  and  the 
air-pump.      By 

the    former  he  Fig.  407. 

avoided  the 
cooling  of  the 
cylinder  at  each 
down  stroke  of 
the  piston  ;  by 
the  latter  he 
made  the  vacu- 
um beneath  the 
piston  more 
perfect. 

In     the    im- 
proved form  the 
steam  is  admit- 
ted by  pipe  .S'and  valve  B;  A 
is  tlje  cylinder  of  the  air-pump 
which  ejects  the  water,  steam, 
and  air  resulting  from  the  in- 
jection of  water  into  the  con- 
denser at  E. 

In  starting  the  engine,  the 
pistons  of  the  cylinder  and 
air-pum)i  being  both  u]i,  any  Wall's  Atmospheric  Engine. 
accumulation  of  water  at  the 

bottom  of  the  latter  is  drawn  off  by  the  faucet  F, 
which  is  then  closed.  The  valve  B  is  then  raised 
above  the  steam-pipe  ,S,  so  as  to  fill  the  cylinder, 
condenser,  and  passage  D  with  steam,  which  ejects 


ATMOSPHERIC   GOVERNOR. 


178 


ATMOSPHERIC   HAMMER. 


the  air  at  the  valve  Q.  The  slide  £  is  then  lowercil, 
so  as  to  shut  otr  the  siipiily  of  steam  ;  tlie  injection- 
faucet  /  is  opened,  discharging  water  into  the  eon- 
denser  £,  causing  both  pistons  to  descend.  This  is 
the  ert'ective  stroke  of  the  engine,  and  as  tlie  piston 
of  the  air-pump  descends,  tlie  results  of  condensation, 
together  with  some  steam  and  air,  flow  through  the 
valve-way  between  the  condenser  and  air-pump 
chamber,  to  be  ejected,  as  the  piston  A  rises,  on  the 
return  stroke.  The  rising  of  the  piston  A  closes  the 
intemiediate  valve  and  opens  the  eduction-valve  Q. 

The  latent  heat  of  steam  being  about  950",  steam 
at  212°  may  be  said  to  have  950°  latent  and  212° 
sensible  heat,  =  1162°.  Steam  mixed  with  5J  times 
its  weight  of  water  at  32°  will  raise  the  latter  to 
iicarhj  boiling  lieat,  though  the  water  requires  a 
great  increment  of  heat  to  raise  it  a  few  degrees 
more,  as  so  much  heat  becomes  latent  in  passing  to 
the  condition  of  steam. 

The  formula  for  construction  of  these  engines  is 
given  as  follows  by  Cre.sy. 

The  cylinder  has  a  diameter  equal  to  half  its  length. 

The  velocity  in  feet  per  minute  should  be  98 
times  the  square  root  of  tlie  length  of  the  stroke. 

The  stroke  of  the  air-pnmp  should  be  half  that  of 
the  cylinder,  and  the  diameter  of  the  air-piston  three 
eighths  that  of  the  .steam-piston. 

The  area  of  the  steam  passage  is  :  as  4800  is  to  the 
velocity  in  feet  per  minute,  so  is  the  area  of  the  cyl- 
inder to  the  area  of  the  steam  passage. 

To  ascertain  the  quantity  of  steam,  multiply  the 
area  of  the  cylinder  in  feet  by  half  the  velocity  in 
feet  ;  add  one  tilth  for  cooling.  This  result  divided 
by  1480  gives  the  quantity  of  water  required  to  sup- 
ply the  boiler. 

Twenty-four  times  this  quantity  of  water  is  re- 
quired for  condensation. 

The  injection-aperture  should  be  one  thirty-sixth 
the  diameter  of  the  cylinder  ;  the  conducting-pipe 
one  nintli. 

To  ascertain  the  power,  multiply  6.25  times  the 
square  of  the  diameter  of  the  (cylinder  in  inches  by 
half  the  velocity  of  the  piston  in  feet  per  minute  ; 
the  produ't  expresses  the  elfectivj  power,  or  the 
number  of  pounils  elevated  one  foit  high  per  min- 
ute ;  the  liorse-[iower  is  found  by  dividing  the  result 
by  33,000. 

At-mos-pher'ic  Gov'ern-or  .in  apparatus  for 
governing  the  motion  of  machinery  by  means  of  an 
imprisoned  body  of  air  subj<>cti'd  to  pressure.  The 
illustration  shows  one  foiin  of  apparatus  in  whicli 
the  brake-lever  D  may  be  brought  into  contact  with 
some  moving  wheel  of  tlie  nricliine  to  be  regulated. 
The  pressure  of  the  air  in  the  cylinder  A  upon  the 


Fig.  408. 


Atmospheric    Govrrnor. 

piston  C  is  the  measure  of  the  power  brought  upon 
the  brake  D.  This  pressure  niav  be  decreaserl  by 
allowing  air  to  escape  throngli  tlie  stop-cock  F,  or 
increased  by  the  action  of  the  valved  piston  B,  b'. 

At-mos-pher'ic  Ham'mer.  A  power-hammer 
driven  by  the  force  of  coin]n'es.sed  air. 

In  some  cases  the  air  is  employed  merely  to  lift 


the  hammer  ;  in  other  cases  air  is  also  employed  as  an 
adjunct  in  the  effective  stroke.  In  the  latter  case 
the  operation  is  much  like  that  of  the  steam-ham- 
mer, the  main  difference  being  in  the  substitution 
of  air  for  steam. 

In  Hague's  English  patent  some  forty  years  since, 
an  atmospheric  hammer  is  shown,  in  which  tlie 
helve  is  raised  by  the  pressure  of  tlie  atmosphere  be- 
neath a  piston  above  the  hammer-lielve,  the  air  be- 
ing exhausted  from  above  the  piston  by  means  of  a 
pump  ;  the  hammer  falling  by  its  ownweight  when 
the  air  is  admitted  above  the  pistpn. 

In  Fig.  409,  a  b  is  the  hammer  turning  upon  the 
fulcrum  at  6 ;  c  the  anvil  ;  d  a  cylinder  situated 
immediately  over  the  hammer  ;  e  the  jiiston  eoii- 
nceted  with  the  hammer  by  the  bar /and  the  slings 
g  ;  h  a  slide-valve  worked  by  the  lever  I,  which  is 

Fig.  409. 


Hague^s  Atmospheric  Hammer, 

struck  by  a  pin  on  the  bar/  when  the  piston  arrives 
at  the  top  of  the  cylinder,  depressing  the  valve  so 
as  to  shut  off  communication  with  the  air-pnmp  and 
admit  atmospheric  air  above  the  piston,  permit- 
ting the  hammer  and  piston  to  fall  by  their  own 
weight. 

Towards  the  close  of  the  descent,  the  hammer,  by 
means  of  a  line  attached  to  it  and  to  the  lever  /,  re- 
verses the  position  of  the  latter  and  of  the  slide- 
valve,  thus  re-opening  the  communication  between 
the  cylinder  and  the  air-pump,  h  is  the  ]iipe  leading 
from  the  air-pump  to  the  cylinder  ;  m  is  a  cock  for 
shutting  oft'  the  communication  with  the  air-pump 
when  the  hammer  is  not  at  work  ;  n  ii  are  spanners 
for  opening  and  shutting  the  cock. 

The  atmospheric  lianmier  (Fig.  410)  has  an  air- 
pump  and  hammer  combined  in  the  same  frame. 

e  is  the  band-wheel  which  derives  its  motion 
/]  from  the  motor,  —  steam  or  water,  as  the  case 
may  be.  v  is  the  pitman,  and  p  the  piston  op- 
erated by  a  wrist  on  the  band-wheel  c  and  condens- 
ing the  air  in  the  cylinder  o.  The  compressed  air 
is  stored  in  a  reservoir  a  h,  and  conducted  to  the 
valve-chamber. 

In  this  chamber  are  a  slide-valve  /■  and  stationary 
valve  (/  d',  the  former  opejated  by  the  valve-rod  w 
friuii  the  friction-wheels  y  d. 

Tlie  head  of  the  hammer  h  is  attached  to  a  piston 
(7,  which  works  in  the  cylinder/,  into  which  air  is 
admitted  —  like  steam  to  a  double-acting  .steam- 
engine  —  alti'rnately  above  and  below-  the  piston. 
The  friction-wheel  V  is  spline-keyed  upon  the  shaft 


ATMOSPHERIC  HAMMER. 


179 


ATMOSPHERIC  RAILWAY. 


Fig.  410. 


rod  /;  and  its  stroke  by  tlie  adjustniciit  of  the 
wrist  as  the   oraiik-shaft. 

B  is  the  standard  of  tlie  frame. 

The  hammer  (Fig.  412)  derives  tlie  decision  of  its 
blow  from  tlie    force  of 


Fig.  412. 


Atmo-pheric  Hammer. 

d,  and  is  adjustable  upon  the  latter  longitudinally,  so 
that  its  perimeter  shall  come  in  contact  with  the 
under  side  of  the  wheel  y  at  points  more  or  less  dis- 
tant from  the  axis  of  the  last-mentioned  wheei.  In 
this  way  the  valve  is  made  to  admit  more  or  less 
air  to  the  cjdinder  according  to  the  force  reiiuired 
and  the  duty  to  be  performed.  If  the  wheel  b'  be 
near  the  center  of  wheel  i/,  but  little  motion  is  im- 
parted, the  stroke  is  quick,  and  the  blow  light  ;  but 
if  the  wheel  V  is  carried  nearer  to  the  periphery  of 
the  wheel  (/,  the  hammer  is  slower  in  its  motion,  and 
11  more  forcible  blow  is  given. 
The  valve-plate  cV  rf'is  adjustable,  but  not  involved 

in   the   ac- 


Fig.  411. 


wheel  K.     The  hight  of  the  hammer  F  above  the 
anvil  is  graduated  by  the  adjustment  of  its  piston- 


Pneitviatic  Hammer. 

The  equilibrium  line  of 
shows    tliat    the  steam 


compressed  air.  The 
hammer-head  is  at- 
atched  to  a  piston  B 
moving  in  a  cylinder  F, 
the  latter  being  con- 
nected by  a  jiitman  D 
to  a  crank -wheel  E  ro- 
tated by  the  motor. 
As  the  cylinder  as- 
cends, air  enters  the 
holes  in  the  cylinder, 
and  the  air  being  com- 
pressed below  the  pis- 
ton, the 
hanniier  is 
lifted.  As 
the  cylin- 
der de- 
scends, air 
is  com- 
pressed 
above  the  piston,  and 
is  stored  up  to  produce 
a  sudden  blow,  by  in- 
stant expansion  after 
the  crank  and  con- 
necting-rod turn  the 
bottom  center. 

At-mos-pher'ic  Line 
an  indicator  card,  wliicl 
prcsMne  is  equal  to  that  of  the  atmosjihere. 

At-mos-pher'ic  Pump.  One  in  which  the  pres- 
sure of  the  air  forces  water  into  the  [ripe  lielow  the 
plunger.  The  usual  foim  of  ///V-immp,  thougli  some 
lift-pumps  elevate  the  water  from  immense  depths 
in  mines.  The  attempt  in  1641  of  a  Florentine 
pump-maker  to  make  an  atmospheiic  pumii  which 
would  elevate  water  50  or  60  feet  having  failed,  tlie 
Grand  Duke  asked  Galileo  to  account  for  the  failure. 
His  leply  was  not  to  the  purpose,  but  Torricelli  ten 
years  afterwards  explained  the  cause.  Galileo  was 
by  this  time  "in  his  grave."  Malice  had  "done 
his  worst  ....  nor  steel  nor  poison  "  could  "  touch 
him  further," 

At-mos-pher'ic  Rail'Tvay.  The  idea  of  convey- 
ing carriages  in  a  tube  by  means  of  atmospheric 
pressure  seems  to  have  originated  with  Dr.  Papin,  of 
Blois,  in  France,  about  the  end  of  the  .seventeenth 
century.  This  extremely  versatile  man  was  the  first 
to  apply  steam  to  lai.sing  a  piston  in  a  cylinder. 
He  was  the  inventor  of  the  Digester,  and  to  this  was 
first  applied  the  lever-weighted  safety-valve,  also  the 
Doctor's  invention.  The  experiments  actually  en- 
tered upon  by  the  philosopher  of  Blois,  in  the  mat- 
ter of  comjiressed  air,  were  princiiially  diiected  to 
the  transmission  of  power  thereby.  See  AlK  as  a 
Means  of  tkaxsmittino  Power. 

He  ])iaced  air-compressing  engines  in  positions 
where  the  compression  could  be  effected  by  a  fall  of 
water,  and  pipes  were  to  convey  the  air  to  the  mine, 
where  it  was  to  be  allowed  to  expand  against  a  pis- 
ton and  work  a  pump.  For  some  reason  the  project 
failed  in  its  execution,  but  has  been  more  successful 
in  other  hands. 

The  suggestion  of  conveying  goods,  parcels,  and 
passengers  by  compressed  air  appears  to  have  been 
rather  a  chancesuggestioii  than  to  have  been  seriously 
entertained,  and  it  has  been  again  and  again  rei'ived 
in   the  130  years   that  intervened   between    Papin 


ATMOSPHERIC   RAILWAY. 


ISO 


ATMOSPHERIC   RAILWAY. 


and  Medhurst,  who  again  urged  the  project  about 
1810. 

Medhurst,  in  ISIO,  published  anaccountof  "anew 
method  of  conveying  goods  and  letters  by  air,"  and 
in  1812  e.xteudeti  the  idea  so  as  to  jiroride  for  the 
transnussiou  of  passengers,  whom  he  proposed  to 
transport  at  the  rate  of  tifty  miles  per  hour.  His 
project  consisted  of  an  air-tight  tube,  containing  a 
pair  of  cast-iron  whecl-traoks  on  which  the  carriage 
has  to  run.  The  carriage  had  the  form  of  the  tube 
and  a  certain  amount  of  packing  to  prevent  the 
leakage  of  tlie  air,  which  was  condensed  behind  it 
and  formed  tlie  projielling  power. 

His  calculation  was  as  follows  :  — 

To  obtain  a  speed  of  50  miles  per  hour,  in  a  tube 
si.K  feet  in  diameter,  would  require  a  constant  im- 
pelling force  of  861  pounds  moving  at  the  rate  of  73 
feet  per  second,  eipuil  to  the  power  of  180  horses. 
Taking  the  consumption  of  fuel  of  a  steam-engine  of 
that  size  at  12  bushels  of  coal  per  hour,  three  tons 
of  goods  niiglit  thus  be  conveyed  50  miles  at  a  cost 
of  V2s.  and  at  the  speed  mentioned.  The  project 
fell  ujjon  tlie  dead  ear  of  the  public. 

Twelve  years  afterward  the  idea  was  revived  in  a 
changed  form.  Retaining  the  tube  and  carriage  of 
Medhurst,  Vallanee,  in  1S24,  obtained  a  patent  in 
England  for  his  modified  plan,  which  consisted  in 
using  a  partial  vacuum  in  front  of  the  carriage,  al- 
lowing tlie  natural  atmospheric  pressure  in  the  rear 
to  iiiijiel  the  carriage.  In  this  he  dili'ered  from 
Papin  and  Medhurst,  who  proposed  a  plenum  in  the 
rear,  and  not  a  vacuum  in  the  advance. 

Vallance's  tunnel  was  to  he  of  iron  or  vitrified 
clay,  and  he  constructed  a  short  tube  in  his  garden 
at  Brighton,  which  worked  on  the  moderate  scale 
on  wliicli  it  was  applied,  and  was  occasionally  no- 
ticed in  the  journals  of  the  day. 

So  far  all  the  inventors  have  proposed  that  the 
carriage  shall  travel  in  the  tube  in  the  manner  of  a 
jiiston.  The  ne.vt  jiroposition  introduces  a  new  fea- 
ture. 

In  1S34,  Pinkus,  an  American  citizen  residing  in 
England,  took  out  a  patent  for  an  apparatus  whie'i 
he  termed  a  Pneumatic  Railway,  ami  laiil  the  foun- 
dation of  most  of  the  successful  applications  of  the 
atmospheric  principle  w'hich  have  since  been  intro- 
duced. 

Pinkus's  patent  embraces  a  main  with  a  continu- 
ous longitudinal  .slot  on  its  upper  surface,  and  an 
elastic  gi'avitating  valve  to  fill  the  slot.  The  tube 
was  to  be  about  forty  inches  in  diameter,  laid  down 
between  a  jiair  of  rails  on  which  the  carriages  were 
to  run,  and  having  within  it  a  piston  attached  by  a 
vertical  arm  to  the  leading  carriage  of  the  train. 
The  vertical  arm  passed  through  the  slot  in  the  up- 


per part  of  the  tube,  and  displaced  the  valve  as  the 
jiiston  advanced,  the  valve  closing  in  the  rear  of  the 
arm  after  allowin"  some  air  to  enter.  The  valve 
consisted  of  a  thick  cord  saturated  with  a  composi- 
tion of  wa-\  and  tallow. 

(-'legg  patented  some  improvements  in  1839. 

The  valve  works  on  a  hinge  of  leather  or  other 
fle.\ible  material,  which  is  practically  air-tight,  sim- 


Fig.  413. 


fig.  414. 


CUgff^s  Valve  dosed. 


Cleg^^s  Vah\'  open. 


ilar  to  the  valves  commonly  used  in  air-pumps  ;  the 
extremity  or  edge  of  the  valve  is  caused  to  fall  into 
a  trough  containing  a  composition  of  beeswax  and 
tallow,  or  other  substance  which  is  solid  at  the  tem- 
perature of  the  atmosphere,  and  becomes  lluid  when 
heated  a  few  degrees  above  it. 

An  outer  flaji  of  sheet-iron  /  covers  the  leather 
valve  when  the  slot  in  the  tube  is  closed  behind  the 
colter  C,  and  is  raised  before  the  colter  by  the  ob- 
licpie  roller /),  Figs.  414,  415. 

The  tube  ..-I  was  coated  inside  with  hard  tallow, 
to  make  it  ]ierfectly  smooth,  and  the  piston  £  was 
furnished  with  a  I'od  S,  about  14  feet  long,  to  which 
were  attached  rollers  IT  H,  which  presseil  open  an 
air-tight  valve  along  the  top  of  the  tube  as  the  pis- 
ton advanced.  The  piston  was  attached  to  the  first, 
or  driving,  car  by  means  of  a  colter  t',  and  to  the 
dnving  car  was  attached  a  copper  vessel,  several  feet 
in  length,  heated  with  coke,  for  the  purpose  of  melt- 
ing tlie  composition  after  the  valve  had  been  pressed 
down  by  the  closing  roller. 

The  valve  behind  the  lifting-bar  was  held  up  for 
a  sufficient  time  by  the  rollers  H  H,  to  allow  the  air 
to  pass  in  behind  the  piston. 

The  pipe  was  divided  by  valves  into  three-mile 
sections,  a  steam-engine  working  the  air-pump  of 
each.  The  main  was  cast  in  sections  nine  feet  long, 
joined  by  an  oil  cement. 

An  experimental  line   was  laid  down  at  Worm- 


Fig.  415. 


□  □ 

nnn 


□□□□ 
nnnD 


Cleg^'s  Atniof^theric  Railway. 


ATilOSPHEEIC  RAILWAY. 


181 


ATMOSPHERIC  RAILWAY. 


wood  Scrabs  by  Clegg  and  Samuda.  The  line  was 
half  a  mile  long,  with  a  rise  of  1  in  120  for  a  part  of 
the  distance  and  1  in  115  for  the  remainder.  The 
diameter  of  the  main  was  nine  inches.  The  exhaus- 
tion was  produced  b}'  means  of  an  air-pump  37 
inches  in  diameter  and  22  inches  stroke,  worked  by 
a  conden.sing  engine  of  le-horee  power. 

This  arrangement  was  employed  from  1844  to 
1855,  on  the  line  fi-om  Kingston  to  Dalkey,  Ireland, 
IJ  miles  long.  It  is  stated  that  an  exhaustion  of 
15  inches  couJd  be  produced  in  two  minutes,  and  a 
rate  of  50  to  60  miles  an  hour  could  be  obtained. 
The  rise  is  71^  feet  in  3,050  yards. 

Tlie  diameter  of  the  main  was  15  inches.  The 
double-acting  air-pump  was  66J  inches  diameter, 
with  a  stroke  of  66  inches.  It  was  worked  by  a 
high-pressure  condensing-engine  of  34  inches  diam- 
eter and  66  inches  stroke,  working  expansively. 

The  stoppage  was  effected  by  a  powerful  brake, 
and,  if  necessary,  by  an  arrangement  operatable  from 
the  car,  by  which  the  ralve  was  opened  in  advance, 
so  as  to  destroy  the  vacuum. 

Railroad  engineers  expressed  veiy  various  opinions 
on  the  feasibility  of  the  new  project,  Brunei  and 
Stephenson  took  opposite  sides,  as  usual,  and  the 
plan  was  tried  in  South  Devonshire,  on  the  Croydon 
R-iilway,  and  elsewhere.  It  eventually  failed  by 
reason  of  complexity  and  liability  to  . 

get  out  of  order,  leakage  of  air  im- 
pairing the  vacuum. 

The  advantages  are  :  facility  in 
ascending  heavy  gi'ades,  rendering 
less  cost  necessary  in  leveling  and 
grading  ;  and  security  against  collis- 
ion. 

Another  form  of  conveying  the  mo- 
tion of  the  piston  in  the  atmospheric 
tube  was  invented  by  Pilbrow,  and 
was  intended  to  avoid  the  continu- 
ous opening  in  the  tube,  and  the 
necessity  for  the  valve  which  closed 
it  on  the  Pinkus  principle.  Pilbrow 
made  a  toothed  rack  on  the  edge 
of  his  piston,  which  rack  engaged 
with  a  series  of  pinions  in  air-tight 
boxes  attached  to  the  sides  of  the 
tube  at  short  inter\'als.  The  verti- 
cal axes  of  these  pinions  passed  up- 

Fig.  416. 


ward  through  stuffing-boxes,  and  at  the  top  were 
provided  with  other  pinions  which  geared  into  lacks 
on  the  sides  of  the  carriages.  Thus,  the  motion  of 
the  piston  rotates  the  pinions  successively  as  it 
advances  along  the  line,  and  they  comnninicate 
motion  to  the  carriage.  It  is  not  known  to  the 
writer  whether  this  device  ever  came  into  practical 
use. 

Keese  and  Nickel's  Atmospheric  Railway  (Eng- 
lish) was  designed  to  act  by  compressed  air  in  a  tube 
laidalong,  underground, between thelinesof rail.  Sta- 
tionary above  the  surface  are  certain  standards  with 
giooved  sides,  in  which  are  elastic  pipes  fed  from  the 
reservoir-pipe  below.  Beneath  the  carriage  to  be 
driven  aie  roUei-s  which  are  made  to  condense  the 
elastic  pipes  into  the  hollowed  sides,  and  the  air, 
being  admitted  in  the  rear,  expands  against  the 
]  eripheiies  of  the  dnims  lieneath  the  cariiage,  and 
forces  them  to  rotate  and  the  carriage  to  advam-e. 

Henry's  Atmospheric  Railway,  English  Patent, 
August  7,  1845,  specities  a  side  .slit  in  the  atmos- 
pheric tulie,  and  the  longitudinal  valve  closed  by 
the  jiressure  of  a  long  liag  or  hose,  inflated  with  air 
and  protected  by  a  shield  of  wrought-iron  bolted  to 
the  tube. 

The  vacuum  in  the  tube  is  produced  by  first  filling 
with  water  a  number  of  large,  close  reservoirs  con- 


Fig.  417 


PiJbrow^s  AtmosjAeric  Railtcay. 


Elevated  Raiiicay. 

nected  with  the  tube  by  pipes  and  valves,  opening 
the  comuumication  between  the  two,  and  then  allow- 
ing the  water  to  run  off. 

The  same  mode  of  producing  the  vaoiuni  was 
described  in  Aitken's  English  Patent,  Fcbruarv  24, 
1S44. 

In  another  application  of  the  air,  a  tube  laid 
throughout  the  line  is  filled  with  compressed  air, 
and  is  used  as  a  reservoir  wherefiom  coni|iressed-air 
locomotives  may  renew  their  supjily  of  air. 

This  is  suggested  in  connection  with  one  foim  of 
Elevated  Railway. 

In  one  form  (Atmospheric  Elevated  Railway),  the 
tube,  which  extends  the  whole  length  of  the  railway, 
is  filled  with  coni]iivssed  air.  for  the  supjily  of  the 
tanks  on  the  cai-s,  which  fonn  veservoii-s  for  the 
supply  of  the  air  whereby  the  aii-engines  are 
driven.  The  tube  at  suitable  intervals  has  valves 
and  discharge-pijies  for  the  supply  of  the  engines  on 
the  care. 

The  original  proposition  to  use  a  tran.sportation- 
tube  and  compression  or  exhaustion  of  air  for  the 
conveyance  of  lighter  articles  of  freight  and  lettei-s, 
has  been  ]iut  in  practice  successfully.  A  company 
was  formed,  and  a  permanent  line  laid  down  in  1S59, 
for  conveying   parcels   and   light   goods   from   the 


ATMOSPHERIC   SPRING. 


•I 

ATOMIZER. 

SYMBOL. 

OLD. 

NEW. 

Cadmiuni, 

Cd. 

56. 

112. 

Cccsium, 

Cs. 

133. 

133. 

Caloium, 

Ca. 

20. 

40. 

Carbon, 

C. 

6. 

12. 

Cerium, 

Ce. 

45.7 

91.3 

'yhloritw, 

CI. 

35.5 

35.5 

Jhi'oinium, 

Cr. 

26.1 

62.2 

Cobalt, 

Co. 

30. 

60. 

Columbium, 

Cb. 

94. 

94. 

Do]iper, 

Cu. 

31.7 

63.4 

Didymium, 

D. 

47.5 

95. 

Erbium, 

E. 

50.3 

112.6 

Fliioi-inc, 

F. 

19. 

19. 

Gluoiuum, 

GI. 

4.6 

9.2 

Gold, 

Au. 

197. 

197. 

Hijdrocjcn, 

H. 

1. 

1. 

Indium, 

In. 

56.7 

113  4 

Iodine, 

/. 

127. 

127. 

Iridium, 

Ir. 

99. 

198. 

1 1011, 

Fe. 

28. 

56. 

Lanthanum, 

La. 

46. 

92. 

Li'ad, 

Pb. 

103.5 

207. 

Lil  Ilium, 

Li. 

7. 

7. 

Jhignesiura, 

Mg. 

12. 

24. 

Manganese, 

Mil. 

27.5 

55. 

Jlercury, 

Hg. 

100. 

200. 

Jlolvbdeuum, 

Mo. 

48. 

96. 

Kioicel, 

Ki. 

29. 

58. 

Kitroqen, 

N. 

14. 

14. 

Csmium, 

Os. 

100. 

200. 

Oxygen, 

0. 

8. 

16. 

I'lilladium, 

Pd. 

53. 

106. 

J'/iosphoruSy 

P. 

31. 

31. 

riatinum, 

Pt. 

98.7 

197.4 

J^dfffSfiium, 

K. 

39.1 

39.1 

Uliodium, 

Ro. 

52. 

104. 

Jiithidium, 

Bb. 

85.4 

85.4 

liuthenium, 

Ku. 

52. 

104. 

Si-lenium, 

Se. 

39.5 

79. 

■Silicon, 

Si. 

14. 

28. 

Sih-cr, 

Ag. 

108. 

108. 

t^odium, 

Ka. 

23. 

23. 

Strontium, 

Sr. 

44. 

88. 

Sulph\ir, 

S. 

16. 

32. 

Tantalum, 

Ta. 

182. 

182. 

Ti'lhirium, 

Te. 

64. 

128. 

Terbium, 

Tb. 

37.7 

75.4 

Tlinlliiim, 

Tl. 

204. 

204. 

Thorium, 

Th. 

59.2 

118.4 

Tin, 

Sn. 

59. 

118. 

Titanium, 

Ti. 

25. 

50. 

Tungsten, 

W. 

92. 

184. 

Uranium, 

U. 

60. 

120. 

I'ltiiitdium, 

r. 

51.3 

51.3 

Yttrium, 

Y. 

30.8 

61.6 

Zinc, 

Zn. 

32.5 

65. 

Zirconium, 

Zr. 

44.8 

89.6 

Euston  Square  Station  and  the  Post-Office  in  Evers- 
holt  Street,  London,  and  an  e.xtension  was  opened 
in  1865. 

This  realizes  the  dreams  of  Papin  and  the  hopes 
of  Medhurst,  nearly  two  hundred  years  after  the 
busy  speculations  of  tlie  first  and  fifty  years  after 
the  disappointment  of  the  second. 

A  late  act  of  Congress  (1872)  appropriates  S  15,000 
for  a  pneumatic  dispatch-tube  between  tlie  Capitol 
and  the  Government  Printing-Otiice,  Wiisliington. 

The  pneumatic  dispatch-scheme  has  been  put  in 
operation  at  tlie  Crystal  Palace,  Sydenham,  England, 
to  convey  regular  passengers. 

The  tube  extends  from  the  Sydenham  entrance  to 
the  armory  near  Penge  Gate,  a  distance  of  about  a 
quarter  of  a  mile  ;  and  it  is,  in  fact,  a  simple  brick 
tunnel,  nine  feet  high  and  eight  feet  wide,  —  a  size 
that  renders  it  ca])able  of  containing  an  ordinary 
raihvay-caniage.  The  piston  is  rendered  partially 
air-tight  by  the  use  of  a  fringe  of  bristles  extending 
nearly  to  the  brickwork  of  the  tunnel  and  its  Hoor. 
A  fan  20  feet  in  diameter  is  employed  to  exhaust  or 
to  force  in  air,  and  perhaps  it  is  impossible  to  devise 
any  other  expedient  so  well  calculated  to  answer 
the  re.piired  purpose.  It  must  be  rememliered  that 
either  a  plenum  or  a  vacuum  e  [uivalent  to  .5  of  a:i 
inch  of  mercury  is  quite  sutti'ient  to  jiropel  even  a 
heavy  train  at  a  high  speed  on  a  moderately  level 
line.  In  the  present  instance  the  motive-power  is 
supplied  by  an  old  locomotive  borrowed  from  one  of 
the  railway-companies,  which  is  temporarily  mounted 
on  brickwork.  The  tires  have  been  removed  from 
the  driving-wheels,  and  these  last  put  the  fan  in 
motion  by  straps. 

The  line  is  a  quarter  of  a  mile  long  ;  a  very  small 
portion  of  it,  if  any,  is  level,  but  it  has  in  it  a 
grailient  of  one  in  fifteen,  —  an  incline  which  no 
engineer  would  construct  oa  an  ordinary  railway  ; 
and  as  it  is  not  a  level  line,  so  it  is  .not  a  straight 
one  ;  for  it  has  curves  of  only  eight  chains  radius, 
which  are  shorter  than  those  usually  found  in  exist- 
ing railways.  The  entire  distance-,  600  yards,  is 
traversed  in  about  50  seconds,  with  an  atmospheric 
pressure  of  but  2^  ounces.  The  motion  is,  of  course, 
easy  and  pleasant,  and  the  ventilation  ample,  with- 
out b;'ing  in  any  way  excessive.  See  Pneumatic 
TrnrL.Mi  riisPAi-rii. 

At-mos-pher'ic  Spring.  A  spring  formed  by 
a  confined  liody  of  air  either  operating  by  means  of  a 
cylinder  and  piston  or  by  an  air-tight  bag. 

It  has  been  suggested  for  gun-carriages,  to  take 
the  jar  of  the  recoil,  and  also  for  railroad- cars.  See 
Pnei'Matic  Spitixo. 

A-tom'ic  'Weights.  The  appended  list  of 
chemical  equivalents  differs  much  from  those  of  old- 
er and  other  authorities,  but  is  offered  as  the  best 
within  the  reach  of  the  present  writer.  It  differs  also 
from  a  short  list  of  chemical  equivalents  on  page  66. 

TABLE   OF   ATOMIC    WEIGHTS. 

Compiled  according  to  the  Latest  Determinations,  for  the  Use 

of  the  Sliff/eiits  of  the   Srhool  of  Mines, 

Colitmbia   College,  Jan.,  1872. 

BT  C.  F.  CH-\NDLER,  PH.  D. 


Hyilrogen 

=  ]. 

STMBOL. 

OLD. 

NEW. 

Oxygen, 

0. 

8. 

16. 

Aluminium, 

Al. 

13.7 

27.4 

Antiiiioni/, 

Sb. 

122. 

122. 

Arsenic, 

As. 

75. 

75. 

Barium, 

Ba. 

68.5 

137. 

Bismuth, 

Bi. 

210. 

210. 

Boron, 

B. 

11. 

11. 

Bromine, 

Br. 

80. 

80. 

At'om-i-zer.  The  atomizer  is  designed  to  re- 
duce a  liquid  into  spray  for  disinfecting,  cooling,  or 
perfuming  purposes. 

Several  difierent  modes  of  operation  are  adopted. 
One  style  consists  of  a  blast  of  air  presented  at  right 
angles  across  an  opening  in  the  end  of  a  tube  which 
communicates  with  a  supply  of  the  liquid.  This 
acts  somewhat  on  the  principle  of  the  Gitt'ard  In- 
jector, raises  the  liquid,  and  by  contact  disperses  it, 
reducing  it  to  a  fine  spray.  The  contiguous  air  and 
fluid  tubes  are  connected  to  the  vertical  or  cup  tube, 
so  as  to  be  reversible  in  relation  thereto. 

The  atomizer-tube  is  used  to  difl'use  a  cooled 
liquid  in  spray  to  render  it  more  eflective  in  absorb- 
ing the  sensible  heat  of  a  room  or  vessel.     There  are 


ATOlllZEU. 


183 


ATOMIZER. 


Fig.  418.  many     adapta- 

tions to  boats, 
gi-anaries,  hos- 
pitals, i'ruit- 
chanibei's,  and 
for  making  ice. 
In  tlie  atom- 
b.er  (Fig.  ilS) 
the  atomi2ing 
blast  is  ejected 
by  an  elastic 
bulb,  and  cross- 
es the  orifice  of 
the  tube  leading 
from  the  vessel 
of  liquid,  whose 
contents  are 
thereby  raised, 
and  driven,  in 
the  form  of 
spray,  through 
the  shield, 
which  directs  it 
upon  the  part 
where  local  an- 
iEsthesia  is  re- 
Alomizer.  quired.         The 

shield  has  a 
flaring  and  cj-lindrical  portion,  is  hinged  to  the  liq- 
uid vessel,  and  adjustable  in  relation  thereto,  and 
drains  into  the  vessel. 

In  another  apparatus  for  impregnating  the  air 
with  antiseptic  vapors,  to  prevent  infection  and 
purify  the  atmosphere  of  hospitals,  etc.,  a  trough 
holds  the  antiseptic  liquid,  such  as  tar,  carbolic 
acid,  turpentine,  etc.,  from  which  the  vapors  are  to 
be  generated.  A  frame  contains  a  numlwr  of  verti- 
cal perforated  plates,  which,  after  dip)jing  in  the 
liquid,  are  supported  in  a  raised  position,  so  as  to 
part  with  their  vapors  to  the  atmosphere. 

Fig.  419. 


Flfun/s  Atomizer, 

In  Fig.  419  the  vessel  is  supported  nn  vertical 
pivots  above  a  gas-burner,  and  contains  a  ilisinlecting 
liquid  or  perfume.  When  heat  is  applied,  the  vayior 
escapes  by  the  hollow  arms  above,  revolving  the 
vessel,  on  the  principle  of  Hero's  ffiolipile,  and  dis- 
seminating steam  and  spray  in  the  apartment.  The 
apparatus  is  supported  upon  a  pivot  erected  upon 


the  frame  of  the  Fig.  420. 

shade,  which  is 
secured  to  the' 
gas-burner  in 
the  usual  man- 
ner. The  atom- 
izer is  also 
used  in  connec- 
tion with  an  air- 
carbureting  ap- 
paratus. 

In  the  early 
and  simple  forms 
of  inhalers  the 
liquid  was  va- 
j)orized  by  heat, 
and  this  is  a 
desirable  condi- 
tion for  some 
modes  of  treat- 
ment. In  many 
cases,   however, 

the  increased  temperature  produces  injurious  effects. 
A  means  of  changing  the  liquid  into  mist,  which 
does  not  act  on  the  Giflard  jirinciple,  as  in  the 
modem  form  of  atomizer,  is  shown  in  Fig.  420. 
The  rotary  wheel  has  hollow,  radial  arms,  terminat- 
ing in  very  small  orifices,  through  which  the  liquid 
is  thrown  in  jets  by  centrifugal  action.  The 
liquid  is  ejected  against  oblique  plates  attached  to 
the  ends  oil'  the  radial  anus  of  another  wheel  which 
rotates  in  a  direction  the  reverse  of  the  fonner. 
The  contact  of  the  liquid  with  the  plates  leduces  it 
to  a  spray,  which  pen'ades  the  chamber  in  which  the 
operation  is  carried  on,  and  the  jiatient  is  caused  to 
breathe  the  mist  either  by  a  tube  or  otherwise. 

In  the  anffisthetic  instrument  for  dental  purposes, 
each  tube  is  bifurcated,  so  as  to  reach  the  inner  and 
outer  sides  of  the  jaw  simultaneously,  by  the  branch- 
es d  d.     The  straight  tube  a  carries  the  air-blast, 

Fig.  421. 


Atomizing  Wheel, 


Cutter's  Atomizer, 


and  thus  draws  a  curient  of  liquid  whose  rapid  evap- 
oration prodncescold  and  local  anaesthesia.  The  lower 
end  of  the  bent  tube  b  is  dipped  in  the  liquid,  and  it 
discharges  at  its  end,  while  the  air-tube  oc  discharges 
jnst  in  advance  of  it,  producing  a  spray  of  the  liquid. 
The  atomizer  is  adapted  for  operation  by  hand  or 
foot  bellows  (§ee  Fig.  181).  It  consists  of  a  hollow 
curved  tube,  made  of  German-silver,  one  e-xtremity 
of  which  has  an  adjustable  conical  ca)i,  while  the 
other  pa.sses  down  into  the  bottle  through  a  perfora- 
tion in  the  cork.  A  short  distance  above  the  cork 
this  tube  has  another  tube  joined  to  it  at  right 
angles,  and  which  is  attached  to  the  india-rubber 
tubing.  "Within  the  second  tube  there  is  contained 
a  capillary  one,  which  extends  from  within  a  line  or 
two  of  the  extremity  of  the  ca)i  nearly  to  the  bot- 
tom of  the  bottle,  and  beyond  the  bottled  extremity 
of  the  larger  tube.  Xear  its  uppev  extremity  this 
capillary  tube  perforates  a  cylinder  of  metal,  which 
almost  completely  occupies  the  caliber  of  the  larger 
tube,  and  would  entirely  plug  it  up  except  that  it 
has  longitudinal  grooves  upon  its  surface.     Pressure 


ATTACHED  COLUMN. 


184 


AUGER. 


upon  the  haiul-ball  forces  air  through  tliu  other  ball, 
and  so  to  the  cavity  of  the  curved  tube.  One  col- 
umn of  this  air  passes  upward  tlirough  the  tulie, 
and  tlie  other  downward  into  the  bottle.  The  up- 
ward column  passes  through  the  grooves  in  tlie  cir- 
cumference of  the  plug  into  the  cavity  of  the  cap, 
and  escapes  through  the  capillaiy  orifice  at  its  tip. 
This  column  of  air,  passing  over  the  extremity  of  the 
capillary  tube,  creates  a  vacuum  in  it,  which  is  sup- 
plied by  the  liquid  contents  of  the  bottle,  U|ion 
which  one  of  the  columns  of  air  is  pressing.  The 
other  colunm  of  air  divides  into  spray  the  drops  as 
they  issue  from  the  inner  tube. 

The  theaters  of  the  Romans  were  fitted  up  with 
numerous  concealed  pipes,  that  passed  in  every 
dh-ectiou  along  the  walls,  and  were  connected  to 
cisterns  of  water  or  to  machines  for  raising  the  lat- 
ter. Certain  parts  of  the  pipes  were  very  minutely 
perforated,  and  were  so  ari'anged  that,  by  turning 
one  or  more  cocks,  the  lii[uid  escaped  from  them, 
and  descendcil  upon  the  audience  in  the  form  of  dew 
or  extremely  tine  rain.  This  elfectually  cooled  the 
heated  air,  and  must  have  been  exceedingly  refresh- 
ing to  the  immense  multitudes,  especially  in  such  a 
climate  as  Italy. 

"  The  dining-roonn  of  Nero's  golden  house  were 
ceiled  in  such  a  manner  that  the  attendants  couhl 
make  it  rain  either  Howers  or  liquid  perfumes.  At 
one  feast  100,000  crowns  were  expended  in  perfumed 
waters."  —  Ewb.vnk's  fft/drauHcs. 

It  is  possible  that  the  Romans  extinguished  flames 
in  the  same  manner.  See  also  .Sir  William  Congreve's 
English  patents  Nos.  3201,  3606  ;  1809  and  1812. 

At-tached'    Col'umn.      (Architect  it  re.)      One 
partially  imliedded  in  a  wall.      .\n  inserted  column. 
At-tach'ment  Screw.     A  bimling  screw. 
At'tic.     .\n  ujiper  story,  when  the  ceiling  is  hor- 
izontal.    Otherwi.se  it  is  a  qurret. 

At'tle.  {Miiiinj.)  Rubbish  containing  little  or 
no  ore.     Synomyms ;  ruUle  :  a-lil/:  fdlul. 

At'wood's  Ma-chine'.     A  sci- 
Fig.  422.         entilic    apprratns    to    illustrate    the 
theory  of  accelei'ated  motion. 

It  consists  of  a  wooden  column, 
about  10  feet  high,  resting  on  a  base 
and  supporting  a  series  of  anti-fric- 
tion wheels,  which  support  a  large 
central  rolhu',  over  which  passes  a 
cord  having  equal  weights  at  each 
end,  so  as  to  be  in  ejitililirio.  By 
means  of  a  graduated  staff  at  one 
side  the  rise  of  one  and  fall  of  the 
other  weight  are  indicated  in  feet 
and  inches. 

A  small  additional  weight,  being 
added  to  one  of  the  large  weights, 
causes  it  to  descend  with  ,a  velocity 
due  to  its  excess  of  gravity  over  the 
other ;  and  this  being  very  small,  the 
motion  is  eorrespondingly  slow,  ren- 
dering the  resistance  of  the  air  in- 
appreciable, and  enabling  the  rate  of 
descent  to  be  ascertained  with  great 
accuracy. 

The  counterpoise  weights  of  this 
apparatus  enable  the  constant  accel- 
eration of  speed  caused  by  gravity 
in  a  falling  body  to  be  shown  and 
measured  within  the  space  of  a  few 
feet  more  accui-ately  and  satisfacto- 

rily  than  could  be  done  by  the  fall 

Atwood's  Machine.  o(  a  weight  not  thus  counterpoised 
from  a  considiu-able  hight. 
It  may  also  be  employed  to  illustrate  the  laws  of 


retariled  motion,  impact  of  bodies,  and  resistance  of 
lluids,  as  well  as  other  phenomena  of  a  similar  nature. 

Alhazen  the  Saracen,  A.  D.  1100,  in  his  •'  Hook  of 
the  lialanee  of  Wisdom,"  considered  the  .subject  of 
gravity,  and  asserted  that  it  diminished  with  the 
distance.  It  was  reserved  for  Newton  to  deteimine 
that  it  decreased  as  the  square  of  the  distance. 
Alhazen  dctennined  correctly  the  relation  be- 
tween the  velocities,  spaces,  and  times  of  falling 
bodies.  The  University  of  Cordova  was  the  intel- 
lectual center  of  Enrojie  in  his  ilay.  The  Khalif 
Alkamen's  library  was  so  large  that  its  catalogue 
tilled  40  volumes.  The  people  of  Cordova  could 
walk  paved  streets  at  night  10  miles  in  a  straight 
line,  by  the  light  of  ]iublic  lanijis,  when  Loudon  and 
Paris  were  dark  and  disnuil  mud-holes. 

Galileo,  bom  15d4,  considered  the  subjict  of 
acceleration  of  force,  and  determined  the  relation 
between  the  spaces  of  descent  and  the  times.  He 
used  inclined  ])laiies,  by  the  aid  of  A\hieh  he  con- 
veniently diminished  the  velocity  without  changing 
the  nature  of  the  result. 

Au'ger.  The  lirst  boring-tool  may  be  assumed 
to  have  been  an  awl  of  some  kind.  Pliny  states 
that  Dffidalus  invented  the  gimlet,  —  1240  B.  r.  It 
was  destitute  of  a  screw-point,  but  it  may  have  had 
a  hollow  pod,  and  a  ero^s-head  Ibiniing  a  handle. 
Awls  are  shown  in  Egyjitian  tombs  of  17n0  and 
1490  B.  c.  The  screw-point  was  added  to  the  gim- 
let in  course  of  time,  and,  witliin  our  own  recollection, 
the  twisted  shank,  which  makes  it  .'elf-discharging. 
This  hint  was  taken  Ircm  the  anger  juoper,  which  may 
be  called  a  magnitied  gindet,  now  that  their  sjiccific 
features  have  become  so  closely  assimilated  in  foira 
and  fum'tion.      The  anger  (/c/'ci/'o)  was  a  Greek  tool. 

The  Teredo  vinalis  is  nnich  older  still,  and  carries 
an  auger  in  his  head  ;  —  a  great  liore  he  is. 

From  the  early  descriptions,  the  auger  appears  to 
have  been  considered  a  shipwright's  tool.  It  for- 
merly had  a  curved,  sharpened  end,  and  a  concavity 
to  hold  the  chijis  ;  this  was  a  ]iod  auger.  To  this 
a  lip  was  subsequently  added  for  some  kinds  of 
boring,  and  in  course  cf  time  the  depression  gi-ew 
into  a  spiral,  which  allows  the  chips  to  escape  while 
the  boring  proceeds,  instead  of  withdrawing  the 
tool  as  the  pod  becomes  tilled. 

The  Tvistid  AiKjer  is  an  American  invention,  and 
was  made  by  Lilley,  of  Maustield,  Connei'tieut, 
about  the  beginning  of  the  present  century,  and 
afterwards  by  Gurley,  of  the  sanie  place. 


Fig  423. 


Fig   424. 


VHommedieu*s  Au^er. 


Sftettrr\^  Amrriean 
Ati^er. 


AUGER. 


18c 


AUGEB. 


Cook^s  Auger. 


Fig 


Fig.  425.  Augers  may  be  elassilied  as  au- 

gers ;  hollow  angel's ;  annular  au- 
gers ;  tajx'T  angers ;  augers  \yith 
secondary  borers,  reamers,  or  coun- 
tersinks, or  having  expansive  cut- 
ters. Auger-gages,  auger-handles, 
and  machines  for  making  angers, 
will  be  considered  separately. 

L'HoMMEDiEU's     Auger,    1809 
(Fig.  423),  has  two  pods,  two  cut- 
)  ting-lips,    a   central  screw,   and   a 
twisted  shank.     It  is  hardly  fair  to 
say  that  it  is  ]ierfect  of  its  kind,  as 
many   imiirovements   have  fol- 
'  lowed  ;  but  it  is,  on  a  smaller  scale, 
like   Stephenson's    "Rocket"    En- 
gine, the  type  of  its   cla.s3.     The 
form  of  auger  wliich  in  England  is 
called     the    "American"    pattern 
',  was  patented  by  Shetter,   March 
1 21,    1831.      It  "has  a  spiral  blade 
around  a  cylindrical  core,  and  was 
long  a  favorite.     The  "  good  work- 
men "    who    "never   quarrel    with 
their  tools"  do  not  seem  to  have 
retained  tliis  form    in  the  estima- 
tion it  once  held.     It  probably  oB'ers  more  impedi- 
ment to  the  discharge  of  the  cliips   than  does  the 
shank  made  from  a  flat  blade  twisted  into  a 
spiral.       Some   auger-shanks    have   an    in- 
crease twist  as  they  recede  from  the  point  ; 
I  this  gives  a  greater  freedom  of  discharge  by 
I  increasing  the  caliber  of  the  canal  as  the 
chips  ascend. 

In  the  auger  (Fig.  425)  the  cutting-lips 
1  commence  at  the  screw  or  point,  and  extend 
/  therefrom  nearly  at  right  angles,  until 
about  half-way  from  the  center  to  the  outer 
)  point,  and  then  curve  upward  and  forward, 
giving  a  nearly  semicircular  fonn  to  the 
I  outer  portion  of  the  lips,  which  are  curved 
'  in  the  horizontal  and  vertical  planes. 

The  auger  (Fig.  426)  permits  the  forma- 
f  tion  of    cuttiug-lips  at   any   point  ou  the 
length  of  the  siiii-al,  by  cutting  olf  the  twist 
at  any  point,  in  a  plane  vertical,  or  near- 
ly so,  to  the  axis  of  the  auger,   and  then 
Kasion's  sharpening   its  edges.     The  front   surfaces 
Au^er.    of  tlie  twist  are  concave,  and  the  rear  convex. 
The    Sfotting  Auger   cuts   laterally,   the 
work  being  fed  against  its  .side.     It  is  used  in  wood- 
mortising   and   slotting   machines.      The    twist    is 
formed  into  a  numlier  of  chisel-shaped  lips 
Fig.  427.  vising  from  the  edge  of  the  twist  and  pre- 
senting sharp  edges  in  the  direction  of  the 
bore  of  the  auger,  so  that  the  wood  may  be 
cut  laterally  if  pushed  against   the  instm- 
ment  after  the  hole  has  been  bored  to  a  suffi- 
cient depth  for  the  proposed  mortise  or  slot. 
The  end-lips  may  be  made  chisel-shaped  or 
hollow  like  a  gouge,  as  desired.     If  the  anger 
'  or  bit  be  held  in  the  rapidly  revolving  arbor 
of  a  mortising  or  boring  machine,  the  mortise 
I  may  be  cut  at  full  depth,  at  one  operation, 
by   moving  the    wood  laterally  against  the 
auger.     The  corners  of  the  mortise  are  after- 
wards cut  out  by  a  cliisel. 

HoUotc  Augers  are  used  for  fonning  tenons 

on  the  ends  of  spokes,  bedstead-rails,  chair 

Slatting  rounds  and  legs,  table-legs,   and  many  otlier 

Aiig^!-.  articles.     Those  on  a  more  extended  scale, 

wliich  allow  the  material  to  pa,ss  clear  through 

them,  are  properly  tuniing-machines,  ami  are  adapted 

for  making  scythe-snaths,  broom-handles,  etc. 


The   hollow  auger,  as  a  Fig.  428. 

tool,  operates  to  a  certain 
length  on  the  object,  after 
which  the  auger  or  the  ob- 
ject is  withdrawn.  Means 
for  measuring  the  stroke 
are  fre(iuently  found  in 
the  construction  of  the 
tool,  as  by  the  depth  of 
the  socket ;  but  other  means 
may  be  used,  and  are  known 
as  aw/er-gages. 

This  tool  (Fig.  428)  is 
adjustable  for  boring  holes 
of  different  sizes.  The  ro- 
tary lUsk  has  eccentric  slots 
acting  upon  pins  inserted 
into  the  backs  of  sliding 
cutter-heads,  so  that  they 
are  driven  out  or  drawn  in 
simultaneously,  and  fas- 
tened by  a  jam-nut,  which 
holds  them  in  the  required 
adjustment.  The  above  is 
adapted  to  be  used  as  a  bit 
in  a  brace. 

Fig.  429  has  cross-han- 
dles like  an  auger.  The 
cutting-tool  is  so  attached 
as  to  project  within  the 
opening,  and  the  size  of  the 
tenon  is  regulated  by  the 
adjustment  of  the  angular 
rest.  The  tool  has  the  usual  auger-handles,  in  which 
respect  it  differs  from  most  of  its  class.     They  are 

Fig.  429. 


Hollow  Auger. 


HoUow  Auger. 

usually  attached  to  braces  or  to  mandrels  rotated 
in  bearings  similar   to   those   of  the   lathe-head. 

A  dozen  others  might  be  cited,  but  these  are 
probably  sufhciently  descriptive.  Fig.  430. 

Annular  Augers  cut  an  annular  groove,' 
leaving  "  land"  on  the  inside  and  outside  of 
the  channel.  The  example  (Fig.  430)  is 
adapted  for  boring  cylindrical  blocks  out  of 
a  board,  the  lower  edge  of  the  tube  being 
serrated.  Fitted  inside  the  tube  is  a  cylin- 
drical plug  with  a  central  point.  On  the  re- 
duced shank  of  the  plug  is  a  spiral  spring, 
which  keeps  the  point  extended,  except  when 
pressure  is  applied  to  the  tool  in  boring. 

The  cutters  on  the  end  of  the  tube  (Fig. 
431)  make  an  annular  groove  and  leave  a  core 
of  wood  in  the  center,' the  chips  lieing  with- 
drawn continuously  by  the  .spirjil  blade  on 
the  tube.     The  cutting-lips  start  at  the  pe- 
riphery of  the  bit,   and  extend  towards  the 
center  in  concave  lines,  till  they  terminate  at    ^g 
the  inner  portion  of  the  tube,  where  their   ^3 
direction  approaches  a  line  parallel  with  the    LJl 
axis  of  the  auger.     In  a  subsequent  form  a       ' 
number  of  tulirs  are  arranged  concentrically,  j„„u/ar 
so  as  to  cut  concentric,  annular  grooves  sun-  Auger. 


AUGER. 


186 


AUGER. 


Fi^.  4.31 


Fig.  432. 


b      ^ 


p. 


Annular  Borer. 

ultaueously,  and  produce  a  nest  of  cyl- 
inders out  of  the  same  stick  or  board. 
Yet  another  form  is  found  in  the 
tool  (Fig.  432)  sometimes  known  as  a 
button-tool.      It  has  an  upiight  cen- 
ter standard,  with  a  line  feeding-screw 
on  the  lower  end.     The  cutter  i-s  at- 
Jnnalar  Auger,    taclied  to  a  radial  arm,  and  is  adjust- 
able, so  as  to  describe  the  diameter 
required  for  tile  hole.     The  cutter  is  fed  to  its  work 
by  the  thread  on  the  standard,  and  the  chips  are 

ejected  by  the 


Fig.  433. 


Kirbifs  Taper  Auger. 


curved  neck. 

Taper  Au- 
gers are  used  for 
reaming  out 
b  u  n  g  h  0 1  e  s , 
making  butter- 
priuts,  etc. 
The  center  bit 
boresahole,  and 
is  succeeded  by 
the  taper  ream- 
er, which  has  a 
throat  for  the 
chips,  cut 
througli  from 
the  eilge  of  tlie 
bit  on  one  side 
to  the  opposite 
side  of  the 
stock. 

The  Bung- 
hole  Scdmcr 
(Fig.  434)  has  a 
tapering  pod, 
and  a  cutting- 
1  i p  on  one 
side  ;  the  lower 
end  is  closed  to 
receive      the 


chips,  and  is  open  at  the  top,  except  a  bail  to  which 
the  handle  is  fastened.  On  one  side  is  an  adjustable 
gage  and  inde.\  to  determine  the  size  of  the  bore. 

The  ordinary  form  of  bunghole  borer  is  shown  in 
Fig.  435.  This  lias  a  vohite-shaped  blade  with  a 
sharpened,  salient  spiral  edge  and  a  gimlet  jioint. 
It,  like  most  of  its  class,  is  for  reaming  out  bung- 
holes  and  taps. 

Augers  are  sometimes  provided  with  secondary 
borers,  reamers,  countersinkers,  or  expansive  cutters. 

In  Fig.  436  the  reamer  or  secondary  borer  is 
formed  in  two  pieces,  and  is  clamped  to  the  auger- 
shank  at  the  reipiired  distance  from  tlie  end  of  tlie 
tool,  and  at  the  same  time  is  adjustable  to  ream  out 
a  hole  of  tlie  recjuired  diameter.  Tlie  clamp  is 
shown  separately  in  tlie  upper  portion  of  tlie  figure. 

In  Fig.   437  the  countersink  is  attached  to  the 


auger-shank  at  the 
reiiuired  spot,  but 
does  not  entirely 
surround  the 
shank,  the  opening 
correspondiiigwith 
the  twist  of  the 
shank,  so  that  the 
discharge  of  chips 
is  not  interrupted. 
In  Fig.  438  the 
plate  is  received 
into  a  longitudinal 
slot  in  tlie  auger- 
shaft,  and  one  end 
is  secured  by  a  tem- 
per-screw. A  pin, 
passed  through 


Fig.  434. 


Bunghole  Reamer. 


one  in  the  series  of  holes  in  the  shaft,  engages  a  hole  . 
in  the  oblique  series  in  the  plate,  and  determines 


Fig.  436. 


Fig.  436. 


Counter-Borer. 


Fig.  437. 


Crocker^s  Taper  Auger. 

the  radial  adjustment  and  conse-  I 
quently  the  diameter  of  hole  bored 
by  it. 

The  shanks  and  turned  cutting- 
edges  of  the  expanding  bits  in 
Fig.  439  pass  through  a  mortise 
in  the  head  of  the  tool,  and  are 
secured  to  their  adjustment  by  a 
key.  Their  radial  adjustment 
adapts  them  to  bore  holes  of  vary- 
ing sizes. 

In  Fig.  440  the  cutter  is  adjustable  eccentrically, 
and  is  held  by  a  dovetailed  groove  and  tenon.  The 
cylindrical  core  is  solid,  and  the 
center  point  is  removable.  The 
spiral  has  a  sharp  edge.  The  ad- 
justment of  the  cutter  on  its  ec- 
centric pivot  varies  its  radial 
sweep  in  boring,  and  it  is  thereby 
adapted  to  bore  a  hole  of  the  re- 
quired size,  within  tlie  limit  of  its 
capacity. 

Among  the  other  uses  of  au- 
gers  may  be   mentioned  that  of 
felling    tri'es    in    the    Mammoth 
Grove,  Calaveras  County,  Califor- 
nia.     This  grove  is  in  a  gently  BS/j 
sloping  valley,  heavily  timbered, 
situated  on  the  divide  or  ridge  be- 
tween the  San  Antonio  branch  of 
the  .Stanislaus   Hiver,  ill  latitude         Courttersink. 
38'  north  and  longitude  120°  10' 
west,   and  .'i,200  feet  above  the    level    of   the  sea; 
here,  within  an  area  of  about  eighty  acres,  and  high 
above  the  surrounding  trees  of  the  forest,  can  be  seen 


AUGER. 


187 


AUGER. 


rig.  438. 


^ 


^ 


Expanding  Auger. 


the   stately  heads  of  these  erergreen  forest  giants, 
the  Sequoia  gigarUea.    These  trees  are  now  gi-owing 
in     many     parts     of 
rig.  439.  Great     Britain     and 

France,  from  Califor- 
nia cones  or  burs,  and 
no  native  trees  are 
equal  to  them  in  the 
rapidity  of  their 
growth. 

There  are  twenty  of 
these  trees  that  will 
average  25  feet  in 
diameter  at  the  ba.se. 
One  of  the  largest  now 
standing  is  called  the 
"  Mother  of  the  For- 
est, "and  has  been  stripped  of  its  bark  116  feet  high, 
and  still  measures  in  circumference  at  the  base  84 

Fig.  440. 


Erpansihle  Auger. 


Expansible  Anger. 

feet ;  20  feet  from  the  base,  69  feet;  70  feet  from  the 
base,  43  feet  6  inches;  116  feet  from  the  ba.se,  39 
feet  6  inches  ;  circmnference  at  the  base,  including 
bark,  90  feet.  Itshight  is  310  feet,  ami  it  is  supposed 
to  be  3, 000  years  old ;  the  average  thickness  of  the 
bai-kis  11  inches,  but  in  some  of  the  trees  it  is  as 
much  as  22i  inches. 

The  "  Big  Tree,"  as  it  was  called,  contained 
500,000  feet  of  inch  lumber.  It  was  felled  by  five 
men  working  22i  days,  making  112i  days'  labor  to 
fell  one  tree.  This  tree  measure<l  92  feet  in  circum- 
ference at  the  base.  It  was  not  cut  ilown  with  axes, 
but  was  bored  do\vn  with  long  pump-augers,  and 
the  wood  remaining  between  tlu*  lioles  was  cut  otf 
with  chisels  on  the  end  of  long  sticks.  A  building, 
in  which  was  a  telegraph-office,  was  erected  on  the 
stump,  which  served  as  a  floor,  having  been  hewn 
otf  smooth.  A  bowling-alley  was  also  built  on  the 
remainder  of  the  tree,  after  a  large  part  of  it  had 
been  worked  up  into  canes  and  sold. 

The  body  of  the  "  Father  of  the  Forest "  which 


lies  half  buried  in  the  earth,  measures  110  feet  in 
circumference  at  the  base,  and  200  feet  in  length  to 
the  fiist  branch,  and,  being  hollow,  a  person  can 
walk  that  length  erect.  The  estimated  hight  of 
this  tree  when  standing  is  400  feet.  The  "  Burned 
Tree,"  prostrate  also,  is  hollow  60  feet,  and  persons 
can  ride  on  horseback  through  it  for  that  distance  ; 
it  is  97  feet  in  circumference,  and  was  330  feet  high. 
There  are  several  other  trees  of  immense  size,  and 
variously  named. 

Au'ger-bit.  A  boring-bit  with  a  twisted  shank, 
which  clears  the  chips  out  of  the  hole. 

An  auger  of  a  size  adajited  to  be  set  in  a  brace  or 
stock,  to  be  revolved  tliereby. 

Au'ger,  Earth-bor'ing.  A  tool  for  boring  holes 
in  earth  which  is  not  too  cniupact.  There  are  ipiite  a 
number  of  tliese,  varying  in  de- 
tail, but  possessing  the  same  gen- 
eral characteristics.  The  ordinary 
kind  (Fig.  441)  has  a  nearly  cir- 
cular disk,  with  a  lip  projecting 
downward,  to  scrape  up  the  earth 
which  accumulates  above  the 
blade  as  the  latter  is  rotated. 
The  blade  is  occasionally  rai.sed  to 
the  surface  to  dump  its  load. 

This  raising  to  dump  the  load 
is  a  general  characteristic  of  post- 
hole  augers,,  and  renders  the  oper- 
ation somewhat  tedious.  The  de- 
lay has  induced  arrangements  for 
enabling  the  tool  to  hold  a  laige  Post-Hole  Augir. 
amount  of  earth,  and  attempts  to 
make  its  discharge  continuous. 

In  Fig.  442  the  shaft  lias  a  point,  cutting-lips, 
and  a  floor  on  which  the  earth  is  received.  It  is 
forced  into  the  ground  by  the  screw  on  the  shank, 
which  rotates  in  a  nut  at  the  junction  of  the  legs  of 

Fig.  442. 


Earth-boring  Auger. 


the  tripod,  which  is  raised  above  the  spot  where  the 
auger  enters.  The  end  of  the  screw-shaft  is  keyed 
to  a  stirrup,  in  which  it  turns.  Above  the  stin'up 
is  a  coupling-piece,  having  inclined  projections  fitting 
in  corresponding  recesses  in  the  upper  part  of  the 
stirrup  in  such  a  manner  that  the  shaft  is  made  to 
operate  the  screw  when  lioring  a  hole  in  the  ground, 
and  a  reverse  motion  of  the  shaft  will  raise  the 
screw  out  of  the  ground  without  turning  it. 

In  Fig.  443  the  shaft  has  a  screw  point  and 
angular  \nng.s,  above  which  is  the  floor  of  the  dirt- 
chamber.  The  soil  is  scoo])ed  up  by  the  usual 
flange,  and  is  elevated  in  the  chamber  by  the  spiral. 


AUGER-FAUCET. 


188 


AUGER-MAKING   MACHINE. 


Fig.  443.  which  is  braced  by  tlie  axial  rod.  The 
cylindrical  ca.sc  is  the  mca-siire  of  its  ca- 
pacity in  witlidrawing  a  load. 

Other  inventions  niifjht  be  cited,  but 
the  above  veiiresent  all  the  varieties  ex- 
cepting' niincjr  diflerenees. 

All  these  ;ire  worked  by  hand,  and  re- 
move the  soil  by  lifting  the  tool  at  in- 
tervals from  the  hole  and  discharging 
it.  This  may  be  considered  the  normal 
character  of  a  post-hole  auger. 

There  are  numerous  devices  for  pen- 
etrating the  ground  where  the  ajipa- 
ratiis  acts  to  disintegrate  the  matter 
with  which  it  comes  in  contact :  these 
are  called  Drills,  Duiven  Well- 
TuBE.s,  Well-Boueh.s,  etc.,  and  may 
be  found  deseribeil  under  other  heads. 

The  Hrst  is  either  jarred  or  rotated 
to  grind  its  way  through  soil  and  rack, 
and  is  associated  with  devices  for  lifting 
the  detritus  l)y  sand-pump,  by  a  stream 
of  water,  or  by  the  upward  force  de- 
rived from  the  concussion  of  the  drill 
with  the  rock.       > 

The  second  consists  of  a  tube  which 
is  driven  or  screwed  into  the  earth,  and 
is  generally  intended  to  remain  as  the 
permanent  ]iump-tube  ;  for  this  purpose 
it  has  a  solid  jioint,   to  withstand  the 
contact  of  the  obstacles  which  it  is  e.v- 
pected  to  pierce  or  displace,  and  holes 
which  are  unclosed  to  admit  the  water 
after  the  wet  stratum  is  reached  ;  these 
will  lie  explained  under  their  appropri- 
ate heading. 
McMahen's       ''''"^  third  are  devices  of  a  more  ex- 
Earih-iorin'  tensive  character  than  mere  hole-diggers. 
Auger.       and  are  used  in  sinking  Artexiaii,  wells, 
oil   and   salt  wells,  and    in  boring  for 
mineral  lodes. 

Au'ger-fau'cet.  A  faucet  with  an  attached  auger, 
by  which  tlu;  necessary  hole  is  made  in  the  head  of  the 
cask.    As  soon  as  the  auger  has  about  penetrated  the 

Fig.  444. 


stave,  a  blow  is  given  to  the  auger,  wdiich  breaks  away 
the  scale  of  wood,  and  the  same  blow  settles  the  auger 
into  its  position.  The  bit  is  attached  to  the  faucet, 
and  is  projected  or  retracted  by  a  rack  on  its  shank 
within  the  faucet,  actuated  by  a  thumb-screw.  A 
frustal  projection  on  the  cap  alforils  means  for  oper- 
ating thi-  devici;  by  a  brace. 

Au'ger-gage.  A  device  to  be  attached  to  the 
shank  of  an  auger  to  limit  the 
penetration.  Tlie  countersinks 
of  some  of  the  comimund  augcM-s 
and  the  sockets  of  the  hollow  au- 
I  gers  cU'ect  the  sjirae  purpose  in 
some  cases. 

The  example  (Fig.  445)  has  a 
pair  of  bars,  secured  by  temper- 
screws  to  the  spiral  shank,  so  as  to  form  a  gage  of 
depth. 


Fig.  445 


Auger-  Gage. 


Anotlier  fonn  has  a  tel- 
escojiic  tube  attached  to 
the  shank,  hirger  in  diam- 
eter than  the  worm,  and 
adjusted  as  to  length  by 
means  of  two  temper- 
screws  whose  <*nils  bear 
against  the  spiral  shank. 

Fig.  446  is  for  making 
tenons  of  a  given  length 
on  the  ends  of  spokes, 
etc.,  and  is  adajited  for 
hollow  augers.  The  rear 
of  the  stock  has  a  thread 
traversed  by  an  adjust- 
able screw,  which,  by  eon- 
tact  with  the  end  of  the 
stick,  detemiines  the 
depth  of  the  hole  and 
consecjuently  the  length 
of  tenon  to  be  cut.  A 
jam-nut  secures  the  ad- 
justment. 

Au'ger-han'dle.  The 
tang  of  the  ;uiger  is  in- 


Fig.  446 


Gage  for  Hollow  Auger. 


serted  perpendicularly  into  its  handle,  and  the  end  is 
usually  clinched  or  riveted  on  to  a  washer.  Means 
have  been  contrived  for  making  the  auger  removable 
from  its  handle,  so  as  to  make  one  of  the  latter 
answer  for  vaiying  sizes  of  augers,  and  to  dislocate 
the  parts  for  convenience  of  stowage. 

The  devices  for  this  purpose  consist  respectively  of 
a  slotted  sleeve,  a  notched  key,  a  nut  on  the 
screw-shank,  gripjiing  jaws,  a  spring  catch. 

I'liny  (died  a.  d.  79)  reconnnends  for  auger- 
hamlles  the  wood  of  the  wild  olive,  box,  oak,  elm, 
atul  ash.      He  says  nothing  about  the  augers. 

Au'ger-mak'iug  Ma-chine'.  Augers  are  made 
by  ditlcrent  piucesses.  They  are  cast  ;  swaged  be- 
tween dies  ;  twisted  as  they  pass  through  dies  or  by 
the  successive  motions  of  the  parts  of  sectional  dies  ; 
or  they  are  grasped  by  tongs  aiul  twisted  by  the  hands 
of  a  skilled  workman,  and  afterwards  finished  be- 
tween dies. 

One  maker  casts  the  screw-auger  in  a  two-pait 
flask,  the  pattern  of  the  central  shaft  and  the  seg- 
mental spirals  being  so  divided  as  to  pernut  them  to 
be  diawn  from  the  sand  piecemeal. 

Many  of  the  inventions  in  this  line  refer  to  dies 
of  jteculiar  form,  and  successions  of  dies  of  such 
form  as  to  cause  the  blank  to  gradually  assume  the 
.shajie  rei|uired.  One  has  a  pair  of  swaging  dies,  by 
which  the  twist  is  formed  either  by  a  succession  of 
blows  or  by  drawing  through.  The  lips  are  made 
between  dies  of  the  required  form,  or  aie  bent  down 
by  an  operation  subsequent  to  the  formation  of  the 
.spiral  shank. 

Fig.  447  is  a  machine  for  turning  the  lips  of 
augers.  The  sjiiral  shank  is  clamped  lietween  the 
jaws  with  the  lips  projecting  toward  the  wrench. 
The  latter  being  advanced,  the  hub  in  its  center 
embraces  the  center  point  and  the  lijis  of  the  auger. 
The  workman  then  seizes  one  of  the  handles  of  the 
wreuch-wlicel  ami  turns  it  towards  himself,  and 
while  the  auger  is  held  straight  by  the  engagement 
of  its  center  point  in  the  axis  of  tlie  hub,  the  wrench 
bends  the  lips  into  the  required  ]»ositiun,  the  lips 
being  turned  simultaneously  and  their  shoulders 
being  left  in  the  same  line.  Fig.  1  is  a  side  eleva- 
tion ;  Fig.  2  a  hcnizontal  section  ;  Fig.  3  is  a  face 
view  of  the  wrench,  and  ¥ig.  4  is  a  view  of  the 
blank  before  the  li|is  are  turned. 

In  another  maclune  the  revolving  and  longitu- 
dinally moving  shaft  has  a  transverse  slot  in  its  end. 


AUGER-MAKING  MACHIKE. 


189 


AUGER,   SQUARE-HOLE. 


Fig.  3 


Fia.i 


in  which  the  flat  portion  of  the  blank  A  (Fig.  449) 
is  inserted,  the  sliaiik  being  held  by  a  pair  of  tongs. 


Fig.  448. 


Machine  foT  making  Augers. 

A  series  of  dies,  D  (Fig.  448),  arranged  to  clasp  and 
hold  the  auger  as  fast  as  it  is  twisted,  completes  the 
process  in  one  operation.  The  screw  C  on  the  shaft 
£  gives  an  intermittent  longitudinal  movement  to 
advance  the  blank,  which  is  twisted  by  the  contin- 
uous rotary  movement.  A  (Fig.  449)  represents  the 
blank,  which  is  forged  or  swaged  in  a  drop,  and  has 
a  longitudinal  rib  or  feather  ninning  along  its  center 
to  insure  the  requisite  stiffness  and  strength. 

The  shaft  B  (Fig.  448)  is  provided  with  a  cylin- 
der C,  having  a  screw,  or  spiral  groove,  cut  upon 
its  surface,  with  a  gaining  twist.  A  pin  secured  to 
the  frame  under  the  cam  works  in  the  gi'ooves, 
serving  as  a  nut.  The  shaft,  being  rotated  by  the 
crank  or  a  pullfv,  is  drawn  back  as  it  tunis  by 
means  of  the  screw-cam.  When  half  a  turn  is  made, 
the  first  of  the  jaws  D  D  are  forced  together  by 


means  of  the  cams  on  the  shafts  £.     The  first  pair 
of  jaws  seize  the  auger,  and,  being  the  exact  uega- 


Fig.  449. 


Aitger-tttisting  Dies  and  Blank. 


tive  of  its  twist,  hold  it  finnly  and  prevent  further 
twisting.  The  next  pair  come  (o  their  work  on  the 
next  lialf-turn,  and  so  on  until  all  the  jaws  have 
perfonued  their  office,  when  springs  under  the  jaws 
force  them  simultaneously  apart  as  the  cams  rotate 
past  their  centers.  It  will  be  seen,  by  reference  to 
Fig.  449,  that  the  faces  of  the  jaws  are  dies,  exactly 
corres]iondin,r;  to  the  twist  of  the  auger. 

Au'ger,  Square-hole.  An  auger  to  cut  square 
ItoIps  was  deseril.ied  in  the  .Tournal  of  the  Franklin 
Institute,  Philadelphia,  1826,  as  the  invention  of 
Mr.  A.  Branch,  of  New  York.  It  consisted  of  a 
twisted  auger  operating  in  a  square  socket  which 
had  a  sharp  lowej-  edge,  and  which  cut  away  the 
margin  of  the  square  hole  as  the  auger  itself  bored 
a  round  hole  in  advance. 

H.wciil'k'.s  Square-hole  Borer  (English)  was  in 
opjeration   about   the    same   time   in    London,    and 


Fig.  450. 


operated  in  a 
substantially 
simi'ar  manner, 
rt  is  a  strong 
frame,  fastened 
by  screws  b  to 
the  bench  c  ;  d 
is  an  octagonal 
socket  tapped  to 
receive  the  ver- 
tical screw  c  ;  to 
this  screw  is  at- 
tached, by  a  cir- 
cular tenon  and 
mortise,  the 
square  perforat- 
ing instrument 
/,  wliich  slides 
up  and  down 
through  a  rec- 
tangular hole  in 
a  brass  guide  g 
when  the  screw 
c  is  tunied  by 
the  cross-handle 
at  top.  The 
square  incision 
is  made  by  di- 
rect pressure 
downward,       at 

the    same   tune    that   the  center-bit   m  cuts   out  a 
round  hole,  the  chips  rising  up  and  passing  out  at 


Hancock's  Siiuart-hole  Auger. 


AUGER-TWISTER. 


190 


AUTOGENEOUS  SOLDERING. 


the  two  open  sides  of  the  square  cutter,  h  is  a 
jiiece  of  wood  beiiif;  boi'ed. 

The  detaclied  auger  is  shown  on  a  larger  scale  ; 
the  tenon  (  is  inserted  in  a  cavity  in  tlie  screw  c,  and 
made  fast  Ijy  a  cross-pin  wliich  goes  througli  botli. 
This  arrangement  allows  a  ready  suljstitution  of 
augers  of  dilferent  sizes.  The  lower  extremity  of 
the  revolving  portion  holds  the  center-bit  m,  whicli, 
owing  to  tlie  collar  n,  cannot  ascend  or  descend 
without  the  sijuare  cutter  which  cuts  out  the  angles 
beyond  the  range  of  tlie  ciieular  borer. 

The  scpiare-cutting  tool  is  a  bar  of  steel  with  a 
round  hole  drilled  out  of  the  solid,  and  the  edges  are 
formed  by  tiling  and  giinding  them  to  the  bevels, 
shown  in  the  enlarged  figure. 

MEinurr's  MueJiincfor  boring  Angular  Holes,  May 
24,  1864.  The  holes' are  bored  by  rotary  cutters; 
fixed,  anil  reciprocating  in  a  plane  at  right  angles 
to  tlie  axis  of  the  hole.  The  relatively  lixed  auger 
makes  a  round  hole,  as  usual ;  certain  cutters  which 
partake  of  the  circular  motion  have  also  a  recipro- 
cation towarils  anil  from  their  axis  of  rotation,  being 
projected  outward  and  again  retracted  four  times  in 
a  rotation,  to  cut  out  the  angles  left  by  the  round 
auger,   thus  making  a  square  hole.      See  Bouing- 

MACHIXE. 

Au'ger-twist'er.     A  machine  for  giving  the 

twist  to  blanks  for  screw-augers.     There  are  many 


Fig.  451. 


Ait^er-Tivister. 

forms  of  machines  for  this  purpose ;  in  one  the  blank 
is  pressed  between  rolls  u])ou  a  slide-rest,  which  are 
drawn  together  by  a  hand-screw.  The  blank  is 
twisted  simultaneously  with  the  action  of  the 
rollers  g  g. 

The  twist  is  regulated  by  the  rate  of  longitudinal 
motion  of  the  rest  E  upon  the  ways  of  the  lathe, 
relatively  to  the  rate  of  revolution  of  the  front  cen- 
ter «,  which  carries  the  blank.  The  degree  of  prox- 
imity of  the  rollers  ;/  </  is  determined  by  the  right 
and  left  screw  /,  which  gives  an  adjustment  of  the 
carriers  G  on  the  rest  E.  The  screw  J  is  operated 
by  the  hand-crank  shown  in  the  plan-view. 

In  another  form  the  auger-die  consists  of  a  series 

of  pairs  of  circular  metallic  plates,  sujierinipo-sed  on 

each    other,    each    plate 

Fig.  452.  having    a  peculiarly 

,<-rrn Dnn      shaped  mortise  through 

edrn,!'!! ^fflWVn  the  center,  and  provided 

also  with  projecting  and 
overlapping  studs  upon 
its  periphery.  When 
these  plates  are  arranged 
so  that  all  the  mortises 
are  in  line,  they  admit 
the  flat  bar  of  heated 
metal,  which  forms  the 
auger-blank.  The  up- 
per plate  is  then  re- 
volved, and  after  a  cer- 
tain extent  of  motion  its 
stud  engages  the  one  be- 
Auger  Die.  low  it,  which  is  moved  to 


a  corresponding  extent,  and  the  action  is  iuqiarted 
to  each  disk  in  consecutive  order,  bringing  the  Hat 
blank  into  a  regular  spiral.  The  opening  of  the 
disk-sci-tions  releases  the  auger. 

Au-get' ;  Au-gette'.  {Mining.)  A  priming-tube 
conncctnig  the  cluirge-chaniber  with  the  gallery,  or 
place  when-  the  slow-match  is  applied. 

Au'ral  In'stru-ments.    See  Acolstic  Ixsrnu- 

MKNTS. 

Au'ri-cle.  An  artificial  external  ear,  made  of 
gutta-perclia,  bleached  and  colored.  Retained  by 
hand  or  clasp. 

A\iricles  consist  of  two  trumpets  shaped  like  ram's 
horns,  and  connected  by  an  adjustable  spring  pass- 
ing over  the  crown  of  the  head.  They  are  flattened 
on  one  side  in  order  to  fit  closer.  The  mouth- 
piece, being  above  the  ear,  is  pointed  forward  ;  the 
neck,  passing  back  and  downwards  close  to  the  ear, 
tapering  towards  the  ear-piece,  which  is  made  of  soft 
rubber  or  ivory.  They  are  easily  concealed,  espe- 
cially by  ladies,  who  can  dress  their  hair  over 
them. 

The  interior  ear  is  furnished  with  the  means  of 
dealing  with  the  three  characteristics  of  sound  :  its 
tyiianum,  for  intensity  ;  its  cochlea,  for  pitch  ;  its 
semicircular  canals,  for  quality. 

Au-ric'u-lar  Tube.     A   speaking-tube  ;    either 

portable  for  the  use  of  deaf  persons,   or  between 

stories,  apartments,  or  parts  of  an 

apartment,  for  the  conveyance  of 

messages. 

Au'ri-lave.     An  ear-brush. 
Au'ri-scalp.    jVn  instrument 
for  operating  upon  or  cleaning  the 
meatus  auditorius. 

Au'ri-scope.  [Surgical.)  An 
instrument  fur  ascertaining  the 
condition  of  the  Eustachian  pas- 
sage. 

Au'rum   ful'mi-nans.     Ful- 
minate of  gold.      A  pow  der  of  gold 
and  aqua  regia.     So  called  from  the  report  it  makes 
when  exploded  by  jiercussion  or  attrition. 

Au'rum  mu-si'vum.  Sulphnrct  of  tin,  used 
as  a  liruuzi*  ]H)wdei-. 

Aus-cul-ta'tion  In'stru-ment.  An  instrument 
for  the  purpose  of  distinguishing  diseases  of  the  viscera 
by  observation  of  sounds  in  the  part  alfected.  It  is 
particularly  applied  to  the  thorax.     See   Stetho- 

.SCOl'K  ;     rLKXIMETKI!,  CtC. 

Au'tho-type.  A  type  or  block  containing  a 
fac-siniile  of  an  aiitograph.  Such  are  or  were  used 
for  franking  official  envelopes,  signatures  to  routine 
correspondence,  am!  as  labels  to  prevent  fraudulent 
imitations  of  tlu*  contents  of  the  jiaekage. 

Au-to-chrb'no-graph.  An  instiument  for  the 
instantiiuioiis  self-reiurding  or  printing  of  time. 

Au'to-clave.  A  French  stewpan,  with  a  lid 
gl'ound  on,  steam  tight.  The  lid  is  clamped  down  on 
its  seat  l>y  twisting  it  round  under  ears  on  the  side, 
or  by  means  of  a  bail  and  screw,  a  gasket  of  linen 
being  used.  It  is  a  form  of  Dr.  I'apin's  digester, 
and  slioulil  have  a  saCetv-vnlve.      See  DiOKSTlcli. 

Au-to-dy-nam'ic  El'e-va-tor.  One  in  which 
the  weight  of  a  falling  cohiiun  of  water  is  made  to 
elevate  a  smaller  coluum  to  a  higlit  aliove  the 
source  ;  and  in  which  the  changes  of  the  x'ah'es 
are  automatically  produced. 

Such  are  water-rams,  the  fountain  of  Hero,  etc. 
See  WArEi;-ELE\'.\TOR. 

Au-to-ge'ne-ous  Sol'der-ing.  The  junction 
by  fusion  of  the  joining  edges  of  metals,  without 
the  intervention  of  solder.  The  edges,  being  brought 
together  and  brightened,   are  held  under  a  jet  of 


AUTOGRAPHIC   INK. 


191 


AUTOMATON. 


burning  gas  urged  by  a  blow-pipe,  which  melts  the 
edges  so  that  they  run  together. 

Au-to-graph'ic  Ink.  Ink  suitable  for  transfer- 
ring to  stone,  writings  or  drawings  executed  in  it 
upon  prepared  pajier.     Trausfeniug  ink. 

Dry  soap 100 

White  wax 100 

Mutton  suet 30 

Shellac 50 

Mastic 50 

Lampblack         .         .         .         .         .30 

melted,  and  worked  into  an  ink. 

Au-to-graph'ic  Pa'per.  Paper  prepared  to  re- 
ceive a  drawing  or  writing  in  a  suitable  ink,  and  to 
part  with  the  same  to  the  surface  of  the  lithographic 
stone  or  zinc  plate,  in  the  process  of  transferring. 
The  paper  is  covered  witli  size,  which  resists  the 
penetration  of  the  ink  into  the  paper.  The  drawing 
or  writing  is  executed  on  the  sized  surface,  so  that 
when  the  paper  is  damped  it  may  become  detached 
from  the  ink,  instead  of  carrying  some  of  the  ink 
away  with  it,  as  it  would  do  if  the  ink  were  allowed 
to  be  partially  absorbed  by  the  paper.  The  size  is 
made  of 


Starch 

Gum-arabic 

Alum 


120 
40 
21 


This  is  spread  on  the  paper,  which  is  then  dried  and 
pressed. 

Or,  for  transfer  of  writing  to  stone,  lay  on  the 
paper  three  successive  coats  of  calves'-foot  jelly,  one 
layer  of  white  starch,  one  layer  of  gamboge.  Allow 
each  to  dry  before  applying  the  ne.xt.  Smooth  by 
passing  through  the  lithographic  press.  Write  on 
the  gamboge  surface.  In  transferring,  damp  the  pa- 
per, place  the  ink-surface  on  the  stone,  and  run  it 
through,  the  press.  The  ink  leaves  the  gamboge 
surface  and  adheres  to  the  stone. 

A  very  fair  transfer  may  be  obtained  from  a  good 
quality  of  writing  paper. 

Au-to-graph'ic  Press.  A  portable  printing- 
press  for  taking  impressions  of  autograph  signatures 
from  a  litliograpliic  stone,  or  form  of  type. 

Au-to-graph'ic  Tel'e-graph.  Invented  by  the 
Abbe  L'aselli.  An  instrumejit  fur  transmitting  auto- 
graphic communications,  accomplished  by  the  aid 
of  two  pendulums  having  a  movement  absolutely 
synchronous.  One  of  the  pendulums  carries  a  pen 
or  pencil  of  fine  platinum  wire,  in  connection  with 
the  line  and  the  line  battery,  over  the  surface  of 
the  dispatch  previously  written  in  insulating  ink 
upon  a  metallic  paper.  The  other  pendulum,  at  the 
corresponding  station,  carries  an  iron  pencil,  like- 
wise in  connection  with  the  line,  over  a  paper  pre- 
pared with  a  solution  of  the  yellow  cyanide  of  potas- 
sium. The  electric  circuits  are  so  disposed,  that 
when  the  platinum  point  in  its  pas.sage  over  the 
original  writing  touches  the  metallic  surface  of  the 
paper,  there  is  no  emission  of  current  along  the 
line  ;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  when  the  point 
touches  the  insulating  ink,  an  emission  of  current 
takes  place,  and  the  iron  point  passing  at  the  other 
end  of  the  line  over  the  prepared  paper  leaves  on  it 
a  blue  mark.  The  movement  of  the  two  pendulums 
being  precisely  equal,  the  reproduction  of  the  dis- 
patch is  absolutely  exact. 

The  same  apparatus  has  been  made  to  transmit  por- 
traits executed  in  insulating  ink  upon  metallic  paper. 

Au-to-mat'io  Fire.  The  automatic  fire  or  ex- 
plosive mixture  of  the  Greeks  was  made  from  equal 
parts  of  sulphur,  saltpeter,  aiid  sulphide  of  antimony, 
finely  pulverized  and  mixed  into  a  paste,  with  equal 


parts  of  the  juice  of  black  sycamore  and  liquid 
asjihaltum,  a  little  quick-lime  being  added.  The 
rays  of  the  sun  would  set  it  on  tire.  —  Di;.\i'f;K. 

Au-to-mat'ic  Lamp.  A  lamp  used  by  dentists 
in  the  operatign  of  vulcanizing.  When  properly 
adjusted,  the  How  of  gas  or  alcohol  is  arrested  by  a 
spring  cut-off,  released  by  the  breaking  of  a  fusible 
alloy,  and  extinguishing  the  flame  when  the  heat 
reaches  a  point  slightly  above  that  required  to  fin- 
ish the  process  of  vulcanizing. 

Au-to-mat'ic  Mal'let.  A  tool  used  by  dentists 
in  plugging  teeth.  There  are  several  forms,  but 
they  agree  in  the  delivery  of  a  blow  by  pressure  of 
the  tool  on  the  filling  of  the  tooth  cavity.  See 
Dent.^l  Hammer. 

Au-to-mat'ic  Valve.  A  valve  operated  liy  the 
fluid  in  jirogi'ess,  in  contradistinction  to  one  operated 
by  the  positive  action  of  a  pai't  of  the  machinery. 

Au-tom'a-ton.  A  machine  whose  motive- 
power  is  concealed  within  itself,  or,  as  the  term  is 
more  generally  understood,  a  machine  which  im- 
itates the  actions  of  men  or  animals,  and,  being 
moved  by  clock-work  or  other  similar  instrumental- 
ity, appecii's  to  perform  certain  acts  by  its  own 
volition.  Among  the  most  remarkable  of  anticjuity 
were  the  automatons  of  Hero  of  Alexandria,  who 
flourished  about  217  B.  c.  They  were  made  to  move, 
as  if  alive,  by  machinery  under  the  floor,  and  to 
utter  sounds  by  the  action  of  air  dii\'en  by  water 
through  small  pipes,  or  by  means  of  air  raretied 
by  heat.  His  works  are  extant  in  Greek,  and  have 
been  frequently  translated.  Tliey  contain  many 
curious  anticipations  of  modern  devices,  as  well  as 
many  curious  tricks  and  ettects  no  doubt  intended 
as  a  part  of  the  machinery  of  the  priests  to  amuse 
the  speculative  and  astound  the  ignorant.  Archy- 
tis's  flying  dove  was  made  about  4(iO  D.  r.  Friar 
Bacon's  sjjeaking  head,  1264  A.  D.  An  automatic 
coach,  horses  and  passengers,  was  made  by  C'anins 
for  Louis  XIV.  when  a  child.  Vaucanson  made  an 
artificial  duck  which  quacked,  ate,  and  drank  ;  its 
food  undergoing  a  change  simulating  digestion. 
V'aucanson  also  constructed  a  flute-playei',  1738. 
The  writing  automaton  was  a  pantogra|ih,  decep- 
tively worked  by  a  confedeiate,  1769.  The  autom- 
aton chess  -  player  was  also  a  deception,  1769. 
Maelzel  made  a  tnimpeter  in  1809.  An  automaton 
speaking  several  sentences  was  exhibited  in  London 
about  1810.     See  Brewster's  "  Natural  Magic." 

The  speaking  machine  invented  by  a  Viennese, 
exhibited  in  Europe  many  years  since,  and  lately  in 
this  country,  is  not  an  automaton,  but  is  jilayed  by 
keys.  The  thorax  is  a  bellows,  and  tlie  sounds  are 
made  by  the  passage  of  air  past  reeds  which  simu- 
late the  larynx,  and  modulated  by  artificial  tongue, 
palate,  teeth,  and  lips. 

The  drawing  automaton  constructed  by  M-  Droz, 
of  the  C'haux  de  Fronds,  was  a  figure  of  a  man  'the 
size  of  life,  operated  by  clock-work  anil  s]irings,  and 
capable  of  executing  six  ditl'errnt  drawings.  It 
used  a  metallic  style,  and  drew  on  vellum.  The 
transitions  from  one  point  to  another  were  done  by 
lifting  the  style,  without  slurring.  It  is  fully 
described  in  Dr.  Hutton's  Mathematical  Dictionary. 

M.  Malliardet's  writing  automaton  executed  four 
pieces  of  writing  in  French  and  English.  It  was 
the  figure  of  a  boy  resting  upon  one  knee  and  draw- 
ing with  a  pen  upon  paper  laid  on  a  brass  tablet. 
The  wilting  consisted  in  each  case  of  several  lines, 
and,  after  finishing  each  line,  the  figure  returned  to 
the  beginning  of  the  line  to  dot  and  cross  the  let- 
ters. 'The  hand  has  two  horizontal  and  one  vertical 
motion  ;  the'down  strokes  of  the  pen  were  made 
relatively  thicker  by  an  increase  of  pressure. 


AUTOMATON   BALANCE. 


192 


AWL. 


The  aiiiifxed  engiiwiiig  is  a  lac-simile  of  a  drawing 
executed  by  llie  automaton  of  M.  Droz. 

Fig.  453. 


Cktpid, 

Au-tom'a-ton  Bal'ance.  A  machine  for  weigh- 
ing jilaiulu't  or  I'oiii,  automatically  sorting  the 
pieces  into  /'«//  and  liijht  weight,  respectivfly.  See 
CoiN-\vi-;ii:iiiN(;  Machine. 

Au-tom'e-ter.  An  instrument  to  measure  the 
quantity  of  niiiisture. 

Au'to-phoii.  A  barrel-organ,  the  tunes  of  which 
are  produreil  by  means  of  perforated  sheets  of  mill- 
boaril. 

Au'to-phyte  Rib'bon.  A  Swiss  ribbon  printed 
by  zinr  [ilatis  wliirli  liave  been  produced  by  the 
photozuirii  inocess  from  a  real  lace  original. 

Au'to-type.  A  pliototypic  process.  The  gel- 
atine is  whipiH-d  into  a  froth  with  warm  water  and 
sugar,  skinnned,  cooled,  cut  into  blocks,  and  mixed 
with  the  pigments.  To  this  creamy  lluid  the  sen- 
sitizing agent,  bichromate  of  potash,  is  added,  and 
tlie  liquid  is  cou\-eyed  to  a  trough  in  a  room  with 
orange-colored  curtains,  where  a  traveling  sheet  of 
paper  is  covered  on  one  side  with  the  compound. 
The  ti.ssue  with  its  coat  of  sensitive  varnish  is  then 
dried,  and  a  j)ieee  of  the  required  size  is  exposed  to 
the  sun's  rays  in  connection  with  a  collodion  nega- 
tive obtaim'd  in  the  ordinar}4  manner.  The  requireil 
time  having  elapsed,  the  tissue  is  taken  out  of  the 
case  and  plunged  into  cold  water  with  its  face 
downwards  on  a  plate  of  glass,  metal,  or  another 
paper,  coated  with  a  light  solution  of  gelatine  and 
clirome  alum.  Tlie  surfaces  having  united,  the 
whole  is  plunged  in  a  bath  of  hot  water,  when  the 
parts  of  the  composition  not  hardened  by  the  action 
of  the  light  are  dissolved,  and  the  paper  slips  oH', 
the  tougher  parts  remaining  attached  to  the  plate, 
and  successive  rinsings  remove  the  cloud  of  colored 
gelatine  until  the  picture  is  free.  This  is  the  Swan 
process  of  Carbon  Printing  (which  see). 

Tlie  next  step  is  to  prepare  the  "plate"  for  the 
printing-press.  This  consists  of  a  mode  of  mount- 
ing the  carbon-print  upon  a  substratum  of  similar 
material  backed  by  a  glass  or  metallic  plate,  so  that 
the  picture  may  be  used  as  a  printing  .surface.  A 
mixture  of  gelatine,  albumen,  and  bichromate  of 
potash  is  mixed  anil  filtered.  A  sheet  of  plate-glass, 
about  half  an  inch  thick,  is  then  leveled  in  a  drying- 
box,  warmed  U)i  to  a  temperatui'e  of  100'  Fahrenheit, 
and  coated  with  the  ])re)iaration.  In  about  two 
hours  the  first  coating  is  dry.  The  second  coating 
consists  of  gelatine,  albumen,  and  bichromates,  with 
the  addition  of  a  .small  quantity  of  an  alcoholic  .so- 
lution of  resinous  gums  ;  to  this  is  added  a  soup^on 


of  nitrate  of  silver  with  a  few  drops  of  a  solution  con- 
taining an  alkaline  iodide.  After  washing  out  the 
exce.ssof  bichromate  from  the  first  coating,  the  second 
preparation  is  applied  to  the  plate,  which  is  iigain 
subjected  to  a  high  tenqierature  in  the  drying-box, 
and  becomes  thoroughly  dry  and  ready  for  use  in  two 
or  three  hours.  The  tough  "  negative  "  film  is  then 
laid  down  upon  the  plate-glass  of  the  pressure-frame, 
and  the  plate,  now  conqdetely  coated  witli  a  sensi- 
tive surface,  is  laid  upon  it.  The  whole  is  exposed 
to  the  sunlight,  and  the  progress  of  the  in-intiugcau 
be  easily  ascertained  by  looking  through  the  plate 
from  the  back.  After  exposure,  the  plates  are  well 
washed  in  cold  water,  rinsed  thoroughly,  and 
allowed  to  dry  ;  they  are  then  ready  for  the  ines-^. 
Subsequent  operations  depend  u]ion  two  sim)  le 
truths  :  first,  that  the  gelatinous  film  will  alksoili 
water  ;  and,  .secondly,  that  any  greasy  mixture 
of  the  nature  of  printer's  ink,  or  any  pigment 
prepared  in  like  fashion,  abhoi-s  the  contact  of 
water,  and  absolutely  refuses  to  adhere  to  those 
portions  of  the  plate  which  have  absorbed  tliat  finiil. 
The  success  of  the  operation  does  not  depend  upon 
the  relief  of  the  ])late,  but  on  the  faculty  of  gela- 
tine for  absorbing  water,  and  then,  as  a  niatter  of 
course,  resisting  the  impositicn  of  a  fatty  ink.  See 
Hi;i.ioTVi'E. 

Au'to-ty-pog'ra-phy.  Invented  by  George 
Wallis,  London. 

By  this  method  drawings  are  so  executed  that  they 
can  afterwards  be  impressed  into  soft-metal  jilates. 
The  drawings  are  executed  preferalily  on  gelatine 
with  a  iieculiai'  material  whiidi  is  salient  and  makes 
a  sunken  impression  in  the  plate  against  which  it  is 
driven  by  jiassing  between  a  pair  of  rollers. 

The  resulting  plate  is  printed  from  as  an 
orilinary  eojqierplate.  See  also  Molding  fko.« 
rKUisii.Mii.i:  ()  11.1  Kris:  N.\-rrnr.-iM;iNTiNG. 

Aux-il'ia-ry  or  Feed'ing  En'gine.  .Is  fitted 
to  sujiply  tulailar  boilers  with  feed-waler  when  the 
large  engines  are  not  working  and  the  ordinary  feed- 
pumps are  tln-ivfore  inactive. 

Aux-il'ia-ry  Screw.  A  screw  in  a  fully 
masti'd  \essel  ;  used  in  calms,  worT<ing  to  wind- 
waril,  or  in  emergencies.  It  is  so  rigged  as  to  be  un- 
shiinied  when  not  in  use. 

A-vant'-fosse.  (Fortification.)  A  ditch  at  the 
foot  of  till-  glacis, 

A've-ler.  A  machine  for  ridding  the  grains  of 
barley  of  their  airus  or  avds.  A  Hummelikq- 
m.\<'111m;,  wliiidi  see. 

A-ven'tu-rine.  A  fancy  glass  of  a  brownish 
color  with  gold-color  spots,  produced  by  small 
fragments  of  ciip]ier  and  iron  in  the  mass. 

A-ven'tu-rine  Glass.  This  ornamental  glass  is 
used  Ibr  weights  and  ware,  the  filings  of  metal 
giving  a  spangled  ap]iearance  ;  in  imitation  of  a  re- 
splendent variety  of  feldspar,  whose  color  arises  from 
imbedded  minute  lamellar  crystals  of  oxide  of  iron. 
It  is  jirepared  by  fusing  together  for  12  hours  a 
mixture  of  300  jiarts  pounded  glass,  40  jiarts  of 
copper  scales,  80  parts  iron  scales,  and  cooling  the 
mixture  slowly. 

A-ver-un'ca-tor.     A  long  name  for  a  pruning- 
j  .shears  with  a  long  handle,  to  which  the  fixed  blade 
is  attached  ;    the   movable  blade  is  operated  by  a 
cord  and  reopened  by  a  spring.     It  makes  a  draw- 
cut.      See  PllL'NINn-SHE.xr.S. 

A'wl.  A  (lointed,  piercing  instrument  in  com- 
mon use  ami  of  great  antiquity.  It  is  evidently 
older  than  the  needle,  which  lias  not  yet  superseded 
its  use,  tbongli  it  has  supplanted  it  in  ordinary  sew- 
ing. The  hides  which  covered  the  osier  fiiimework 
of  the  coracle  of  the  ancient  Briton,  and  the  birch 


AWL. 


193 


AWXIXG. 


bark  which  covere  the  canoe  frame  of  the  Chippewa  I  to  drive  into  wood.     The  ferrule  ou  the 
Indian,  were  and  are  sewn  into  place  by  means  of  j  end  of  the  handle  is  proWdedwith  a  hoi- 


Fig.  457. 


m  awl,  wliich  opens  the  way  for  the  thong  or  deer 
.sinews.  The  awl  is  referred  to  in  E.xodus  .x.xi.  6, 
and  Deutcrononi}- XV.  17,  where  a  Hebrew  servant 
who  refused  to  leave  his  master  when  his  sixth  year 
of  bondage  was  completed,  was  brought  to  tlie  door- 
post and  his  ear  bored  through  with  an  awl,  after 
which  he  became  a  slave  for  life.  The  Egyptian 
awl  of  the  time  of  Thothmes  111.,  contemporary 
with   Jloses,   is   shown   in   a   Theban   tomb.     The 

pointed  instrument  was  placed  in  a  nearly  spherical  ,  spring  within  the  handle,  so  as  to  assist 
handle,  to  tit  the  palm  of  the  hand.     An  awl  differs  j  in  extracting  the  awl  by  pressing  upon 


low  shank  made  sijuare.  On  the  out- 
side of  the  shank  is  a  screw-thread,  over 
which  screws  a  cap  having  a  hole  for 
the  insertion  of  the  awl.  The  flange  of 
the  awl  is  nipped  between  the  ca]>  and 
head  of  the  ferrule  and  finnly  secured. 

In  one  form  of  pegging-awl  the  socket 
gripping  the  awl  is  surrounded  by  a 
sleeve,   which  is   projected   by   a   spiral 


iC= 


PfuJcins-y'rf'il'^  and  Bodkin. 


from  a  needle  in  this,  that  one  is  attached  to  a  han- 
dle and  is  retracted,  while  the  other  jKis-ses  through 
the  article  and  carries  the  thread  which  is  attached 
to  it. 

The  sewing-machine  needle,  so  called,  is  really  an 
awl,    except    in    that 
Fig.  454.  small  class  where  the 

needle  and  its  at- 
tached thread  are  driv- 
en through  the  fabric, 
making  a  ninning 
stitch  (Smith's, 
Dales's,  and  others). 
Inmany  kinds  of  goods 
and  materials  it  would  seem  so  much  better  to  have 
the  awl  provided  with  an  eye  near  the  end.  that  it 
is  .singular  it  did  not  come  into  general  use  for  sew- 
ing machines  many  yeai-s  back.  The  idea  was  not 
new,  for  in  the  needles  used  in  packing  hampers  [a. 
Fig.  454)  the  eye  was  placed  near  the  point  as  in  a 
bodkin,  b,  and  the  twine  was  pushed  through  be- 
tween the  meshes  of  the  lid  and  the  basket,  so 
that  it  could  be  grasped  by  the  hand  without  push- 
ing the  needle  clear  through.  Tlie  iipholstery  nee- 
dle and  thatching-needle  are  ancient  and  eye-pointed. 
The  eye-pointed  needle  was  one  of  the  principal 
claims  in  the  patent  cjf  Elias  Howe,  Jr.,  which  netted 
him  so  large  a  fortune,  and  which,  originally  granted 
in  1846,  was  made  by  an  extension  to  last  to  1867. 
Awls  vary  in  shape 
with  the  purposes  for 
which  the}'  are  intended. 
The  round  awl  tapered  to 
a  point,  a,  is  used  for  a 
marker  or  scratch-awl. 
The  awl  of  a  diamond 
shape,  b,  is  used  by  har- 
ness-makers to  form  an 
opening  for  the  needles 
which  carry  the  threads. 
The  round-shanked,  bent- 
ended  awl,  c,  is  used  by 
shoemakers  to  make  a 
curved  channel,  which  is 
followed  by  the  bristle 
forming  the  point  of  the 
wax-end.  The  brad-awl, 
d,  is  used  by  carpenters  to  form  an  opening  for  brads, 
etc.     It   has  a  cylindrical   shank,   sharpened   to  a 

chisel-edge 
at  the  end. 
The  awl  c, 
used  by  wire- 
workers,  is 


Fig.  455. 


■^ 


4' 


7 


* 


the  leather. 

A  convenient  kit  of  small  tools  in- 
closed in  a  handle  is  shown  in  Fig.  458. 
The  serrated  shank  of  either  tool  is 
clasped  in  the  gripper  as  the  latter  is 
screwed  into  the  socket.  A  veceptacle  p,gging-Awl. 
in  the  large  end  holds  the  tools. 

The  awl-handle  in  Fig  459  is  a  locking  pliers, 
whose  jaws  are  adapted  to  hold  either  of  the  tools  ; 
those  not  in  use  are 
inclosed   in   the    hoi-    '  Fig.  45S. 

low  handle  when  the 
latter  is  closed.  A 
boss  on  the  end  of  the 
handle  forms  a  ham- 
mer. The  figure 
shows  an  elevation, 
open  ;  and  a  section, 
closed. 

In  Fig.  460  the  eye- 
pointed  awl  introduces  the  thread,  which  is  fed  from 
a  sjiool  concealed  mthin  the  handle. 


Aicl  and  Tools. 


Fig.  459. 


Fig.  460 


AlcUHandU. 


Lasting-Aict. 


Aids. 


Fig.  456. 


Stwing-AwL 

its  shape  renders  it  less  liable  to  split  the 


four  edges 
wood. 

The  sewing-awl  (Fig.  456)  is  used  by  workei-s  in 
leather. 

The  pegging-awl  is  straight,  and  is  strong  enough 
1.3 


A^m'er.  A  machine  for  taking  off  the  avels  or 
o !(■/!«  of  barley.     See  Hummehng-m.\chin'e. 

ATwn'ing.  A  shield  or  shade  for  protection  from 
the  rays  uf  the  sun  ;  usually  attached  to  buildings, 
and  especially  to  protect  store-fronts  and  add  to  the 
comfort  of  pedestrians.  The  ordinary  mode  of  sup- 
porting a  roll  of  canva.s,  by  means  of  rafters  resting 
against  the  building  and  upon  posts  at  the  curb,  need 
hardly  be  described.  The  canvas  is  tacked  to  a 
roller  and  is  furled  by  means  of  a  running  rope, 
being  protected,  when  furled,  by  a  pent-roof  on  the 
wall  of  the  building. 

So  far  as  ingenuity  has  been  exercised  upon  thi.s 
square,  and  |  subject  it  has  generally  been  u]>on  modes  of  lower- 
sharp  on  all  I  ing  and  winding,  having  especial  reference  to  shad- 
ing sidewalks  and  show-windows.  Some  devices, 
however,  have  been  intended  for  mndow-shades,  and 
are  modihed  in  shape  and  mode  of  operation  to  suit 
their  location. 

Awnings  of  linen  were  first  used  bv  the  Romans 


AWNING. 


194 


AXE. 


Atoning. 


in  the  tlieiiter,  wlieii  Q.  Catiilus  tlcdicatod  the 
Tenii)le  of  Jupiter,  b.  c.  69.  After  tliis,  Lentulus 
Spinther  is  said  to  liave  first  introduced  cotlun  iiwn 
ings  in  the  theater  at  tlie  Aiiollinarian  Games,  July 
6,  IS.  c.  63  ;  they  were  reil,  yellow,  and  iron-gray. 
By  aud  by,  Cffisar  the  Dietator  covered  with  awn- 
ings the  whole  Roman  Forum,  and  the  Sacred  Way, 
from  his  own  house  to  the  ascent  of  the  t'apitoline 
Hill  ;  tliis  was  46  II.  c,  and  is  said  to  have  appeared 
niorc^  wondeiful  than  tlic  gladiatorial  exhihition 
it.sdf  Afterward,  witlmut  cxliihiting  games,  Mur- 
eellus,  the  son  of  (_)ctavia,  sister  of  Augustus,  when 
he  was  ajdile  and  his  uncle  consul  the  eleventh  time, 
on  the  day  liefore  tlie  Kalends  of 
August,  .fuly  ai,  23  ii.  c,  pro- 
tected the  Forum  from  the  rays  of 
the  sun,  that  tlie  people  engaged 
in  lawsuits  nn'glit  stand  with  less 
injury  to  tlu'ir  health.  Pliny 
says  :  "  Wliat  a  change  from 
the  manners  that  prevailed  under 
Cato  the  Censor,  who  thought 
that  the  Forum  should  even  be 
strewed  rfith  I'altrops  !  " 

The  awnings  e.Ktended,  by  the 
aid  of  ropes,  over  the  amphithea- 
ter of  tlie  Enipei'or    Nero,    were 
dyed  azure  like  the  heavens,  and 
liespangled  with  stars.     The  (itri- 
itm,   or  liall  of  audience,  of  the 
Koniaii  houses,    had  an   opening 
in  tlie  middle,  which  was  covered 
in  summer  with  a  red  awning. 
In  Fig.  461  the  awning  is  rolled 
upon  a  shaft  having  permanent  liearings  in  the  box 
which  assumes  an  architectural  form  in  the  entab- 
lature of  the  slio])- 
Fig  402.  jVont.     The  hem  of 

the  awning  is  fas- 
tened to  a  bar,  which, 
when  closed,  forms 
the  architrave,  but 
which  swings  open 
when  the  awning  is 
unfurled  from  the 
roller  in  the  box, 
and  is  supjiorted  by 
jointed  extension- 
bars  from  the  pilas- 
ters of  the  store- 
front. As  the  awn- 
ing unwinds,  the 
hoisting-roiie  coils 
on  the  roller,  and 
becomes  the  means 
of  refurling. 

In  Fig.  462  the 
metallic  plates 
which  form  the  awning  are  arranged  to  lap  one  over 
another,  each  plate  being  fitted  between  guides, 
whicli  are  attached  to  the  lower  end  of  the  plate  im- 
mediately above  it.  The  plates  are  connected  to  tog- 
gles, whiidi  are  operated  by  arms  and  a  windlass,  to 
raise  and  fold  the  plates,  or  to  distend  them  into 
effective  position. 

In  the  Louver  awning  each  slat  of  the  awning  is 
pivoted  in  the  rafter,  and  is  connected  by  erank-arms 
to  a  bar  which  is  operated  by  cords,  so  as  to  act,  like 
a  Venetian  shtitter,  upon  all  the  slats  simultaneously 
and  exclude  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun,  wdiile  pennit- 
tiug  a  diH'used  or  reflected  light  to  enter  the  store. 

In  another  fonn  the  light  wooden  slats  of  the 
awning  fold  over  each  other  like  the  leaves  of  a  fan. 
The  slats  are  arranged    on   a   suitable   frame,   and 


Fig.  463. 


Louver  Atoning. 


there  are  two  pulling  cords,  one  of  which  spreads 
the  awning  and  the  other  folds  it  up. 

Fig.  464. 


llJjULiyi-LLJ 


Metallic  Atoning. 


Laztj-  Tongs-E.rtension  Atoning. 

In  Fig.  464  the  loweredge  of  theawning  is  attached 
to  the  boards,  which  are  secured  to  the  side  extensors. 
The  extensors  are  made  in 


toggle-sections,  operating 
as  lazy  tongs.  The  upper 
edge  of  the  awning  is 
coiled  on  a  roller  operated 
by  a  cord  ;  it  is  held  by  a 
pawl,  to  keep  the  canvas 
stretched.  The  spiral 
spring  acts  to  keep  the 
ann  extended. 

Fig.  46.')  shows  front 
and  tapered  side-slats, 
which  slide  one  beneath 
the  other,  beingconnected 
together  by  plates  with 
headed  studs,  which  work 
in  slotted  plates  affixed  on 
the  adjacent  slats. 

The  end-slats  collect 
like  the  folding  parts  of  a 
fan  ;  the  roof-slats  take 
jiosition  in  vertical  par- 
allel series  when  closed. 

Axe.   A  chopping  and 


Fig.  466. 


Arched  Atoning. 


felling  tool.  It  has  an  eye  by  which  it  is  attached 
to  the  helve.  The  edge  is  in  the  plane  of  the  sweep 
of  the  tool  ;  it  therein  differs  from  the  adze. 

riiiiy,  who  wrote  about  A.  D.  50,  felt  bound  to 
state  an  inventor  for  everytliing,  and  ascribed  the 
invention  of  the  axe  to  Divdalus,  of  Athens,  about 
1240  B.C.       It  is,   however,  to  be  supposed    tliat 


AXE. 


19i 


AXE. 


when  Cecrops,  three  hundred  years  before,  forsaking 
Egypt  and  leaving  civilization  behind  him,  hindcd 
in  Greece,  he  had  axes  wherejvith  to  clear  a  spot 
for  the  village  he  founded. 

About  the  year  1093  B.  c.  we  read  that  the  He- 
bi'ews  went  to  Philistia  "to  sharpen  every  man  his 
axe  "  (1  Samuel  xiii.  20) ;  and  about  89.3  B.  r.  "  the 
axe-head  fell  into  the  water  "  while  the  man  was 
chopping  (2  Kings  vi.  5).  Previous  to  these  two 
latter  dates,  and  two  hundred  years  before  the  time 
of  Diedalus,  we  find  that  the  Mosaic  law,  1451  B.  C, 
had  anticipated  the  following  sujiposed  case  :  — 

"As  when  a  man  goeth  into  the  wood  with  his 
neighbor  to  hew  wood,  and  his  liand  feteheth  a 
stroke  \vith  the  a.\e  to  cut  down  the  tree,  and  the 
head  [Helirew.  //■</«]  slippeth  from  the  helve,  and 
lighti'th  upon  his  miglibor  that  he  die,  he  shall  flee 
unto  one  of  tliose  cities  [of  refuge]  and  live." 

In  Denteionumy  .xx.  19,  it  is  forbidden  to  '■  force 
an  axe  "  against  the  fruit-trees  of  a  besieged  city, 
1451  B.  V.  Later,  so  valuable  was  .skill  in  the  use 
of  this  tool,  we  learn  that  "  a  man  was  famous 
according  as  he  had  lifted  up  axes  upon  the  thick 
trees"  (Psalms  Ixxiv.  5). 

The  axe  has  a  cutting  edge  of  steel  attached  to  a 
wrought-iron  head,  which  has  an  eye  parallel  to  the 
chord  of  the  curved  cutting  edge.  It  is  found 
among  all  nations  who  have  the  material  and  skill 
for  its  manufacture,  the  substantial  form  having 
■descended  from  the  stone  age,  when  a  withe  or 
elastic  handle  was  bent  around 
Fig.  466.  acirculardepressiononthehead, 

and  the  edge  was  sharpened  to 
the  extent  the  constitution  of 
its  material  would  bear,  or  ac- 
cording to  the  means  at  hand 
for  dressing  it ;  as  in  the  case  of 
chipping  an  edge  on  a  flint 
0  hatchet. 

The  accompanying  cut  repre- 
sents a  stone  axe  of  highly  pol- 
ished,   dark  greenstone,   found 
ivithin  a  primitive  canoe,  at  a 
dejith  of  25  feet  below  tlie  sur- 
face of  the  ground,  in  the  Valley 
of  the  Clyde,   Scotland.     The 
canoe  was  hewn  out  of  a  single 
oak,    and   was   exhumed    from 
beneath  the  site  once  occujiied 
by  an  ancient  church.    This  axe 
Primitive  Axe.        is  exactly  like  a  number  wliich 
have  been  recovered  from  the 
mounds  and  fields  of  the  West.      It  is  the   same 
weapon  termed  a  celt  by  arehieologists. 

The  axes,  fasces,  trumpets,  sacrifices,  divination, 
and  music  of  the  Romans  were  introduced  from  the 
Etrurians.  Auger  and  oracle  still  exist  in  the  land 
of  their  adoption. 

The  mention  of  the  axe  (dji/x?;)  occurs  frequently 
in  Greek  autliors.  A  crooked  one  for  shipbuilders, 
and  a  double-bladed  one  for  a  weapon,  are  also 
mentioned.  The  English  word  stale  for  an  axe- 
helve  is  derived  from  the  Greek. 

The  Roman  bipcnnis  was  a  double-bladed  axe 
with  the  eye  in  the  center,  like  some  of  our  modern 
ones.     See  Double-bitted  Axe. 

The  Egyptian  axe  was  of  iron,  steel,  or  bronze  ; 
the  color  seems  to  indicate  the  foimer  metal  in  some 
cases,  but  it  was  generally  of  bronze.  The  handle 
was  split  to  receive  the  blade,  which  was  secured  by 
bronze  pins  and  leather  thongs.  It  was  used  as  a 
weapon  in  felling  timber,  shivering  gates,  etc. 

Figure  468  shows  three  Egyptian  axes.  The  larger 
one  belonged   to   Salt's  collection,  and  is  now  in 


the  British  Museum. 
The  blade  is  of 
bronze,  13J  inches 
long  and  2J  inches 
broad.  It  is  secured 
by  silver  pins  in  a 
tube  of  the  same 
metal.  The  tube  was 
adapted  to  contain  a 
wooden  handle. 

The  other  figures 
are  of  axes  from 
Thebes. 

The  Peruvian  axes, 
chisels,  knives,  and 
awls  were  made  of  an 
alloy  of  cojiper  and 
tin."  The  bits  of 
their  axes  were  about 
the  same  shape  as 
ours,  but  the  heads 
were  inserted  in  the 
handle  instead  of  the 
handle  in  the  axe- 
head.  Iron  was  un- 
known among  them. 
Tin,  added  in  certain 
proportions  to  the  cop- 
jjer,  gives  it  the  hard- 
ness of  steel.  See  Al- 
loys :  Annealing. 

Copper  axes  with 
single  and  double 
bits  have  been  found 


Fig.  467. 


Egyptian  Axes  ( Tfubes). 


in   a   tumulus  near   Chillicothe,    Ohio.      A    small 
hole   through    the    middle   of   tlie   two-edged    axe 
indicates  that  it  was  secured  to  the  helve  by  lashing. 
Fig.  468.  Fig.  469. 


Peruvian  Knife  or  Aye, 


Egyptian  Jlxes.  The  .single-bitted  axe  is  solid  and 
well  hammered,  and  weighs  two 
pounds  five  ounces.  It  is  seven  inches  long  and 
five  broad  at  the  cutting  edge,  having  an  average 
thickness  of  two  fifths  of  an  inch.  Its  edge  is 
slightly  curved,  after  the  manner  of  modern  axes, 
and  it  is  beveled  from  both  sides.  Cojiper  chisels, 
gravers,  etc.,  are  also  found  in  the  American  mounds. 

Lubbock  states  that  the  bronze  axes,  of  the  ages 
when  that  metal  predominated,  were  all  destitute  of 
eyes  for  the  handles. 

The  follo%ving  are  various  kinds  of  axes  :  — 


Barking-axe. 

Battle-axe. 

Bill-hook. 

Brick-a.xe. 

Broadaxe. 

Cavil. 


Chip-axe. 

Cleaver. 

Double-bitted  axe. 

Felling-axe. 

Grubbing-a.xe. 

Halberd. 


AXE. 


190 


AXE. 


Hand-axe.  Side-axe. 

Hatchet.  Slate-axe. 

Jedding-axe.  Stone-axe. 

Machete.  Tomahawk. 

Pickaxe.  Zax. 

Pole-axe. 

See  the.se  in  their  alphabetical  places  in  the  body 
of  the  work. 

The /cWmjc-axe  of  the  artillery  is  of  the  following 
dimensions  :  — 


Length, 

7.25  inches. 

Width  of  top, 

3.50     " 

"  edge. 

4.75     " 

Thickness  at  top. 

0.75     " 

"          "  eye. 

1.25     " 

Size  of  the  eye. 

2.25     "      X   0.75  inches 

Handle  (hickory). 

27.         "      long. 

Weight, 

6  pounds. 

In  the  most  recent  process  for  making  axes,  ham- 
mered bar-iron  is  heated  to  a  red  heat,  cut  oil'  the 
i^equisite  length,  and  the  eye,  which  is  to  receive  the 
liandle,  punched  through  it.  It  is  then  reheated 
:ind  pressed  between  concave  dies  until  it  assumes 
the  proper  shape.  It  is  now  heated  and  grooved 
upon  the  edge  to  receive  the  piece  of  steel  which 
forms  the  shai-p  edge.  To  make  the  steel  adhere  to 
the  iron,  borax  is  used.  This  acts  as  a  soap  to  clean 
the  metal  in  order  that  the  parts  may  adhere.  At  a 
white  heat  it  is  welded  and  drawn  out  to  a  proper 
edge  by  trip-hammers.  The  next  process  is  hamnier- 
ing-otf  the  tool  by  hand,  restoring  the  shape  lost  in 
drawing  out  ;  it  is  then  ground,  to  form  a  finer  edge. 
Afterwards  it  is  ground  upon  finer  stones,  and  made 
ready  for  the  temperer.  Tlie  axe  is  now  hung  upon 
a  revolving  wheel  in  a  furnace  over  a  small  coal-fire, 
at  a  peculiar  red  heat.  It  is  cooled  successively  in 
salt  and  fresh  water,  and  then  tem- 
pered in  another  furnace,  where 
the  heat  is  regulated  by  a  ther- 
mometer. It  is  then  polished  to  a 
high  finish,  which  will  show  every 
fiaw  and  enable  it  to  resist  rust.  It 
is  then  stamped,  and  the  head  black- 
ened with  a  mixture  of  turpentine 
and  asphaltum. 

Axes  have  been  made  partly  of  iron 
and  partly  of  steel,  or  of  ditt'erent 
qualities  of  steel,  by  pouring  into  a 
mold  first  one  of  these  metals  in  a 
molten  state,  and  then  the  other  metal, 
thus  superseding  welding.  The  steel 
portion  is  cast  thick  in  the  first  place, 
and  then  drawn  under  the  hammer. 

Axes  are  cast,  rolled,  swaged  be- 
tween dies,  or  forged  with  the  ham- 
mer. 

The  portions  of  an  axe  are  known 
as  the  bit,  poll,  eijc,  and  head. 

Inserting  a  steel  bit  in  the  cleft  head  is  known  as 
steeliiui,  and  thus  are  axes  refitted  when  the  old  head 
is  worthy  of  such  repair. 

Fig.  470  shows  an  axe  with  a  head  of  iron,  cast 
into  and  around  a  steel  bit,  previously  inserted  in 
the  mold.     The  axe  is  then  finished  and  dressed. 

The  axe  (Fig.  471)  is  made  by  pouring  steel  from 
a  crucible  into  a  mold,  a  core  maintaining  the  shajie 
of  the  eye. 

In  Fig.  472  the  steel  is  bent  and  lapped  around 
the  edge  of  the  iron  portion  to  which  it  is  welded, 
instead  of  being  inserted  in  tlie  split  edge  of  the 
axe-head,  —  an  inversion  of  the  jiosition. 

The  continuous  lilank,  from  which  axe-heads  uiav 


Fig.  470. 


Fig.  471. 


Fig.  472. 


Lippincott. 


White. 


be  cut  by  a  transverse  section,  is 
made  in  two  pieces,  which  arc  hol- 
lowed to  form  the  eye,  and  have  a  Mann. 
matching  bead  ami  groove  to  fit 
the  portions  together.     The  transverse  section  (Fig. 
473)  shows  the  shape  of  an  axe  without  the  steel, 
which  is  subsequently  inserted  into  the  notch  and 
secured  by  welding. 


Fig.  473. 


Fig.  474. 


Axe-Blank. 


Lippincott. 


The  bifurcated  edges  of  the  steel  bit  in  the  example 
(Fig.  474)  are  inserted  into  a  scarf  on  each  side  of  the 
stock,  which  is  thus  made  to  lap  over  the  bit,  and  is 
welded  down  thereon,  as  in  the  left-hand  figure. 

Fig.  476. 


A:r€-Machine. 

In  the  axe-making  machine  (Fig.  475>  a  series  of 
dies  are  arranged  in  the  beii  beneath  and  the  recip- 
rocating block  above.  They  cut  off  the  blank  for 
tlie  axe-head,  and  shape  and  weld  it  while  being 
held  between  the  dies  by  means  of  a  mandrel  in  the 
hands  of  the  attendant.  At  the  side  of  the  machine 
is  a  punch  for  trinuning  the  eye  and  a  trip-hammer 
with  suitable  dies  for  trimming  the  head.  The  axe 
under  treatment  is  moved  from  one  operative  part  of 
the  machine  to  another,  and  swaged  to  fonn  by  suc- 
cessive blows. 

Fig.  476  represents  a  machine  in  which  the 
axe  is  made  by  successive  operations  between 
dies. 


AXK. 


19^ 


AXE. 


Fig.  476. 


Fig.  1 


Itg.i 


Hutchins's  Machine/or  making  Axes. 

In  this  illustration,  Fig.  1  is  a  front  elevation  ; 
Fi<j.  2  is  a  side  view  of  the  dies  p  p,  and  Figs.  3 
and  4  are  sections  of  the  dies.  Fig.  .5  is  the  iron 
blank.  Figs.  6,  7,  and  8  are  the  shapes  it  sueces- 
sively  assumes  as  it  comes  from  between  the  roUer- 
tiies  e  e  and  p  p,  and  the  bending  apparatus  z  s  t. 
The  dies,  by  successive  operations,  give  it  the  proper 
shape  on  both  sides  ;  it  is  then  placed  on  the  upper 
face  of  the  former,  which  corresponds  to  the  inner 
surface  of  the  eye.  The  head  is  gripped  by  the  jaw, 
which  is  depressed  by  a  treadle  ;  the  carriage  is  de- 
pressed by  the  crank-rod,  and  the  rollers  z  z  bring 
the  iron  to  shape. 

In  the  machine  (Fig.  477)  the  axe-heads  are  manu- 

Fig.  477. 


Axe-Blank  Machine. 

factured  by  compressing  only  one  half  thereof,  at 
each  operation,  between  dies  or  swages  of  the  re- 
quired shape  projecting  from  the  face  of  the  rolls 
in  which  they  are  set,  so  that  the  a.xe-head  can  be 
inserted  and  withdrawn  without  coming  in  contact 
with  the  rolls  ;  the  adjustable  guide  f/  is  either  at- 
tached to  the  dies  or  separate  therefrom,  for  the  j)ur- 
pose  of  applnng  the  pressure  necessaiy  to  form  the 


axe-head,  in  such  a  manner  as  to  leave 
any  excess  or  deficiency  of  iron  in  the  poll 
of  the  axe-head,  thus  securing  exact  uni- 
formity in  the  two  sides  thereof,  and 
enabling  axes  of  various  sizes  to  be  made 
from  the  same  dies  by  simply  adjusting  the 
distance  of  the  rolls  and  the  gage. 

In  another  ma- 
chine the  end  of  Fig-  478. 
a  heated   bar   is  f— 13       «         g       3      » 
inserted  into  the       jA.  j^. 
machine  ;    the       [fij  inl 
blank    cut    off ; 
the  eye  punched 
by  oval  punches, 
while  the  blank 
is  held  and  com- 
pressed   by    the 
movable  sections 
of    the   die-box, 
one  of  whose  sides 
is  sharp-edged  to 
open    the    blank 
for  the  insertion 
of  the  steel  bit. 

Fig.  478  splits 
and  opens  a  long 
bar,  so  that  it  may  be  cut 
up  into  axe-blanks  ready 
to  receive  the  steel  bit. 
The  upper  part  of  the  fig- 
ure shows  two  runs  of  rolls,  one  for  rounding  and  tli 
other  for  splitting.  The  lower  figure  shows  tli 
split  blank  A,  with  two 
prongs  c  e,  to  be  closed 
by  the  blacksmith  upon 
the  steel  bit  wliich  is  in- 
serted between  them  while 
the  parts  are  at  a  welding 
heat. 

The  axe  is  usually  fas- 
tened to  its  helve  by 
wedging  the  latter  tightly 
in  the  eye,  .splitting  the 
end   of    the   helve   for   that   purpose. 

The  eye  is  peculiarly  shaped  in  Fig.  479,  one 
edge  being  rounded,  and  the  helve  of  corresponding 
shape  is  driven  upon  it  by  a  wedge  at  the  back. 

In  Fig.  480  the  helve  has  a  metallic  strap  secured 
on  the  end,  and  this  fits  between  wedges  in  the  eye. 
A  bolt  passes  through  a  cap-piece,  and  extends 
through  the  strap  and  into  the  helves.  A  wrench 
tightens  the  bolt. 

Fig.  481  shows  a  metallic  cap  for  the  hand-hold 


Axe-Blank  Mac/tine. 


Fig.  479. 


Axe-Helve  Fastening. 


Fig.  480. 


Fig.  481. 


of  a.xes.  It  is  secured  by  a  dowel-pin,  which  pene- 
trates the  helve,  and  a  tenon  on  the  latter,  which 
enters  a  socket  in  the  cap  and  is  wedged  therein. 

Fig.  482  shows  an  axe-testing  machine.     The  axe 
to  be  tested  is  slipped  upon  the  bar  C,  towards  the 


AXIS. 


198 


AXLE. 


Fig,  482. 


Arf-  Tester, 

standard  B,  until  it  tits  tightly.     The  gage-plate  E 
is  then  allowed  to  descend  upon  the  edge  of  the  a.\e 
D,  when,  by  placing  the  eye  over  the  slot, 
the  slightest  variation  from  truth  may  be 
detected. 

Ax'is.  A  mathematical  tenn.  See 
Axle. 

Az'le.  1.  {Machineri/.)  A  shaft  or 
rod  on  which  a  pulley,  drum,  or  wheel 
is  placed. 

Axles  in  machinery  are  known  as  Live 
axles  when  conununicating power ;  asDead 
or  Blind  axles  when  running,  but  ineffec- 
tive, temporarily  or  otherwise. 

Hollow  axles  are  tubular,  as  their  name 
indicates.  They  become  s/cciv-axles  wlien 
the  tube  is  occupied  by  a  rod  or  tube 
forming  a  live  or  rfefflrf  axle,  or  a  fixed 
axis,  as  the  case  may  be. 

2.  ( Vehicles.)  The  transverse  bar  beneath  a  vehi- 
cle, upon  whose  ends  the  wheels  are  placed. 

In  the  carrio.ge-ax\e  the  wheels  rotate  on  the 
axle-spindle,  the  axle-tree  being  relatively  fixed. 

In  the  cfM'-axle  the  wheels  are  fast  to  the  axh-, 
which  rotates  therewith.  The  axle  has  bearings  in 
boxes.     See  Oar-axle. 

Carritige  and  wagon  axles  are  made  tubular  for 
.strength  and  lightness  ;  tubular  axles  are  made 
from  welded  iron  pi|]es,  .such  as  are  u.sed  for  w'ater 
andgas.  The  eiidsariMlrawn  to  a  taper  for  the  spindles, 
a  butting-ring  is  then  welded  on,  and  the  end  fitted 
with  a  plug  on  which  a  thread  is  cut  for  the  nut. 
Hollow  axles  are  also  made  by  taking  two  swaged 
lioUow  portions  and  welding  them  together.  See 
patents  of  Lewi.s,  1871,  1872. 

A  divided  axle  is  one  wliich  is  bi.seeted  at  its  mid- 
length  ;  the  pai'ts  being  coupled  or  otherw'ise,  as  the 
case  may  be. 

The  claims  to  antiquity  of  this  highly  useful 
portion  of  the  carriage  do  not  afford  much  room  for 
enlargement.  The  cart  and  the  chariot,  whatever 
may  be  their  order  of  preceilence  as  regards  time, 
alford  the  earliest  specimens.  The  details  of  early 
forms  are  comprised  in  the  axle-tree,  two  spindles, 
and  their  linch-pins.  Skeins,  nuts,  .straps,  cli])s, 
bo.xes,  bushing,  lubricators,  and  other  devices,  .seem 
to  have  been  reserved  for  tlu'  moderns.  Axles  are 
made  of  wood  or  metal  ;  in  the  former  case  the 
spindles  for  the  wheels  are  strengthened  and  pre- 


served by  metal  (see  Skeins),  and  the  axle-tree  itself 
receives  straps  and  bands,  secured  by  clips  and 
bolts,  for  the  same  purpose.  Pliny,  A.  D.  79,  recom- 
mends ash,  oak,  and  elm  for  the  manufacture  of 
axle-trees.     Sec  t'Ai;i!iAGE,  Chaiiiot,  W.vgon. 

fiv'.  483. 


^^K 


Compound  Aj:le. 

The  arms  of  the  compound  truss-axle  (Fig.  483)  are 
each  made  in  two  ]inrts  with  an  intervening  oil-space. 
One  of  the  parts  is  ]ilaced  edgewise,  vertically,  and 
the  other  flatwise,  horizontally  ;  the  two  being 
united  by  collars,  which  fonn  butting-rings,  and  by 
screw-nuts,  which  latter  also  secure  the  hubs  into 
the  axles. 

In  Fig.  484  each  end  of  the  wooilen  axle-tree  has  a 
cast-metal  sleeve,  on  the  outer  end  of  which  i& 
a  polygonally  shaped  recess,  for  a  finished  metallic 
spindle,  whose  shank  screws  into  the  end  of  the 
axle-tree.  A  collar  on  the  spindle  abuts  upon  the 
end  of  the  sleeve  and  holds  it  in  ])lace.  A  cap 
sciews  on  the  sleeve,  and  its  flange  projects  into  a 
fiice-groove  on  the  inner  end  of  the  hub.     A  similar 


484. 


\\V-\n\\\v\\\\;! 


Carria^e-Axle. 

provision  on  the  outer  nut  also  tends  to  exclude  grit 
from  the  bearing  sin-faces. 

While  most  wheels  revolve  on  the  spindles  of 
their    axles, 

others  are  fast  Fig.  486. 

to  and  rotate 
with  their  ax- 
les ;  in  the  lat- 
ter case  bear- 
ings are  pro- 
vided for  tlie 
axle  (as  in  Fig  ' 
485),  in  which 
the  parts  of  the 
divided  axh 
rotate  in  beai - 
ings  attached 
to  the  axle- 
tree.       Each 

portion    is   re-   I]        \  rVl 

ceived  in  a 
long  socket- 
piece,  bolted 
to  the  axle,  and 
is  retained  by 

a  set  screw,  whose  inner  end  passes  into  an  annular 
groove  in  tlie  |>eri]ihery  of  the  axle. 

In  one  form  of  diviiled  axle  the  tongue  is  pivoted 
to  the  front  siU-jiiece  of  the  wagon-frame,  coinci- 
dently  with  the  pivot  of  the  slotted  middle  section 


a 


y 


Divided  Axle. 


A.\LE. 


I'J'J 


AXLE-BOX. 


Fig.  486. 


Drew^s  Carriag€-Azle. 

of  the  axle-tree,  and  the  tonc;ue  is  uot  affected  liy 
the  contact  of  the  front  wheels  witli  obstructions  in 
the  road.  The  middle  section  of  the  axle-tree  iornis 
a  link  in  which  slip  the  inner  ends  of  the  two  outer 
sections,  in  which  the  axles  of  the  wheels  have  their 
hearings.  Kach  wheel  is  secured  to  its  portion  of 
the  axle,  and  each  section  of  the  axle-tree  is  secured 
hy  ho\inds  to  its  respective  end  of  an  equalizing  liar, 
which  oscillates  on  the  tongue  as  the  wheels  swerve 
out  of  their  course  or  change  their  parallelism  with 
tlie  Iiinil  wheels.  The  tongue-hounds  are  hinged  to 
their  sections  of  the  axle-tree,  so  as  to  allow  tlie 
required  vertical  motion  to  the  tongue,  which  has 
also  a  hingeiug  joint. 

Fig.  487  shows  a  means  of  securing  the  wheel  to 
the  axle.     It  is  intended  for  cliiliiren's  cai'riages,  and 


Deni>iOii^s  Carriage-Axle. 

the  fastening  is  jiot  exposed  at  the  outer  end  of  the 
hub.  A  rod  is  fitted  in  the  spindle  of  the  axle,  and 
provided  at  its  outer  end  with  a  button  eccentrically 
attached.  The  button  in  certain  positions  bears 
upon  the  outer  end  of  the  hub,  and  the  inner  end  of 
tlie  I'od  is  secured  by  a  .staple  and  key. 

The  bent  or  crank  axle  is  much  used  in  city 
drays,  its  purpose  being  to  lower  the  bed  without 
reducing  the  size  of  the  wheels.  Bringing  the  floor 
of  the  vehicle  nearer  to  the  ground  ob\'iates  lifting 
the  load  to  any  gi-eat  extent.  The  bent  axle,  to 
enable  the  bed  of  the  cart  or  wagon  to  come  near  to 
the  gi'ouud,  wliile  letaining  a  large  wheel,  is  a  com- 


mon device  in  England  in  city  and  rural  vehicles. 
One  form  of  driving  wdieel-axles  for  locomotives  is 
also  bent.  Ba<ldeley,  a  contributor  to  the  early 
volumes  of  the  Mechanic's  Magazine,  London,  advo- 
cated their  use,  and  may  have  been  the  inventor. 

Paterson  (England)  proposed  that  carriages  should 
have  axles  of  unequal  length,  so  as  to  avoid  "track- 
ing," and  thus  prevent  the  foimation  of  nits. 

A  turiiing-ayXv  is  the  fore-axle  of  a  carnage,  which 
turns  on  the  fiftli  wheel. 

A  lcading-a.^\>i  is  an  axle  of  a  locomotive,  in  front 
of  the  driving  axle  or  axles.  The  term  is  applied 
especially  to  the  English  engines,  which  are  not  sup- 
ported in  front  by  a  four-wheeled  truck,  as  with  us. 

A  trailin(j-<\\\e  is  the  last  axle  of  the  locomotive. 
In  English  engines  it  is  under  the  foot-plate. 

A  cnofi-axle  is  a  driving-axle  connected  to  the 
piston-rods  of  a  locomotive  whose  cylinders  are 
inside,  technically  speaking. 

Adriring-irlieel  axle,  or  dririiiij-axlv,  is  the  one  on 
which  the  driving-wheels  are  keyed.  The  power  is 
either  apjilied  to  cranks  on  the  axle,  or  to  wrists  on 
the  driving-\vhi'(ds  themselves. 

Ax'le-ad-just'er.  A  machine  for  trnring  an 
axle  by  straightening  out  the  bends  ;  or  one  for 
setting  the  spindle  in  proper  line  relatively  to  the 
axle-triH'.     .See  Axle-setting  Machine. 

Ax'le-arm.  The  spindle  on  tlie  end  of  an  axle, 
on  which  the  Ijox  of  the  wheel  slips. 

Ax'le-bar.  An  axle-tree  with  an  arm  at  each 
en<l  for  a  wheel. 

Ax'le-box.  Carriage  axle-boxes  are  bushings 
ibr  hubs.  Their  duty  is  to  take  the  wear  incident 
to  revolving  on  the  spindle  of  the  axle.  Some  of 
them  are  so  arranged  as  to  unite  the  wheel  to  the- 
axle  without  tln^  intervention  of  linch-pins  or  axle- 
nuts.  Others  have  rollers  to  diminish  the  frictional 
bearing  of  the  spindle  in  the  box.  Others  have 
devices  for  taking  up  lost  motion.  Other  devices 
refer  to  modes  of  casting,  securing  in  the  hubs,  re- 
newing the  bearing  surfaces,  providing  thimbles  and 
sleeves  of  soft  metal,  which  pre- 
vent the  contact  throughout  of  Fig.  488. 
the  spindle  and  its  bearing. 

In  Fig.  488  the  spindk'  lias 
])eniianent  conical   collar,    and  T" 
the  box  is  formed  in  two  por- 
tions, which  screw  together  ;  a 
groove  at  the  point  of  junction  Axle-Box. 

forming  a  seat  for  the  collar  on 
the  spindle,  and  holding  tlie  latter  in  the  hub  of  the 
wheel.  The  collar  is  intended  to  be  the  only  bear- 
ing portion,  the  hole  through  the  box  surrounding 
the  other  parts  of  the  spindle  being  made  large 
enough  to  enable  it  to  revolve  without  touching. 

Somewhat  similar  is  Fig.  483,  in  which  the  conical 
collar  on  the  spindle  B  is  used  for  the  same  pm-pose. 
The  inner  portion  of  the  box, however,  is  formed  of 

Fig.  489. 


two  semi-cylindrical  jiieces  E  E,  which  are  held  in 
place,  on  tlieir  portion  of  the  spindle,  by  a  cylindrical 
band  C,  which  slips  over  them  when  the  parts  are 
in  position.  The  segments  have  threads  cut  upon 
them,  ujmn  which  the  outer  portion  of  the  hub 
is  screwed.     The  tajiered  end  of  the  spindle  B  abuts 


AXLK-BOX. 


200 


AXLt^BOX. 


Fig-  *S0-  against    a 

conical  seat 
in  the  outer 
enil  of  the 
box.  A  hoU' 
at  this  end 
admits  oil, 
Axle-Spindle  aiid  is  then 

plugged. 
In  Fig.  490  the  spindle  of  the  axle  has  a  grooved 
collar,  whieii  occupies  the  position  of  the  usual  but- 
ting-ring. The  open  end  of  the  bo.ving  has  an  in- 
ternal tliread  screwing  upon  the  divided  nut,  which 
clasps  the  collar  on  the  .sjjindle.  The  box  and  nut 
are  keyed  together  by  a  screw,  so  as  to  run  together ; 
the  nut  clasping  the  permanent  collar,  so  as  to  keep 
till-  wheel  on  the  spindle. 

Fig.  491. 


The  axle-box  shown  in  Fig.  491  is  cast  solid 
throughout,  and  is  closed  in  front  by  a  cap.  Linch- 
pins are  attached  to  the  axle,  and  have  jnojections 
which  enter  an  interior  annular  groove  of  the  box, 
so  a-s  to  keep  the  latter  on  the  axle.  The  oil-hole 
at  the  end  of  the  box  is  closed  by  a  screw-plug  after 
oil  is  ap]iUed. 

The  axle  (Fig.  492)  has  corresponding  annular 
grooves  in  the  adjacent  far-es  of  the  axle-spindle 
and  the  box.       A  hole  in  the  huli  [ii-nnits  a    ball 


Fig.  492. 


Axle- Box 

to  be  dropped  into  this  gi-oove,  and  the  hole  is 
then  plugged.  The  ball  opposes  the  withdrawal 
of  the  box  from  the  spindle.  One  view  is  a  ver- 
tical, and  the  other  a  horizontal,  longitudinal  .sec- 
tion. 

Fig.   493  has   chilled    cast-iron    balls,   which  are 
the  means  of  uniting  the  box  to  the  spindle;  the 

Fig.  493. 


■'■'"^■' 


balls  protruding  into  grooves  in  tlie  resiwctive  parts. 
The  Hange  on  the  i-nd  of  the  spindle  has  a  notch  to 
facilitate  till-  introduction  of  the  lialls  into  the  gioovc 
of  the  ^pindln.  The  outer  groove  is  forniecl  at  the 
junction  of  the  cap  and  the  box,  which  are  .secured 
together  l)y  bolts. 


Axle- Collar ,  etc. 


Fig.  494  shows  Fig.  494. 

another  form  in 
which  a  collar  is 
turned  on  thr  in- 
ner end  of  the 
spinille,  and  in- 
.side  the  collar  is  a 
groove  occupied 
bv  an  annular 
i-aji-piece  F.  The 
i'M]p  F  is  to  be  at- 
tached to  the  in- 
ner end  of  the  hub 
J,  to  hold  it  on 
the  sjiindle  of  the 
axle.  The  lijis  d, 
on  the  inner  face 
of  the  cap,  enter 
between  the 
projections  b  on 
the  face  of  the 
hub.  The  cap  is  then  partially  rotated,  locking 
the  two  jiortions  together  ;  the  engagement  being 
maintained  by  a  spring  pin  H  in  the  hub,  which 
enters  a  perforation  in  the  cap  F.  To  detach  the 
wheel,  the  spring  pin  is  retracted  and  the  cap  loos- 
ened, permitting  the  wheel  to  be  removed  from  the 
spindle. 

The  box  in   Fig.  Fig.  495. 

495  ha-s  an  exterior 
thread  by  which  it 
is  screwed  firmly 
into  the  hub.  The 
ends  of  the  spoki's 
re.stupon  the  thread. 
The  box  is  widened 
at  its  inner  end,  so 
as  to  enclose  the  but- 
ting ring  upon  the 
axle,  and  the  Hange 
of  the  box  is  bolted 
to  an  annular  plate 

on  the  inside  of  the  butting-ring,  so  as  to  hold  the 
box  to  the  axle,  thereby  securing  the  wheel  in  place 
without  any  attaching  de- 
\-ices  on  the  outerend,  such 
as  linch-pin  or  axle-nut. 

An  axial  holt  in  Fig.  49tj 
screws  into  the  end  of  the 
.spindle,  and  its  head  rests 
against  an  annulai- washer, 
which  is  of  sufficient  diam- 
etei'  to  abut  agaiu.st  the 
end  of  the  box  and  the 
hub  also.  The  bearing  of 
the  attachment  is  thus 
upon  the  outer  enil  of  the 
spindle,  the  u.sual  butting- 
ring  on  the  axle  i.s  super- 
seded, and  the  back  of  the 
hub  removed  from  any 
contact    with     sustaining 

devices  when  the  whiad  vibrates  longitudinally  on 
its  spindle. 

In  the  axle  (ITig.  497),  friction-rolleis  revolve  in 
the  annular  chambers  of  the  box,  and  lessen  the 
friction  of  the  spindle  ;  the  latter  has  a  rolling  eon- 
tact,  instead  of  a  frictional  one. 

Thr  planetary  system  of  rollers  is  a  very  common 
dcvire,  and  a  great  favorite  among  inventoi-s.  It  is 
ajipiied  to  bearings  of  all  kinds. 

Tile  box  (Fig.  49S)  is  in  two  portions,  which  form 
conical  or  beveled  bearings  of  unequal  inclinations 
at  each  end  of  the  huli  ;  their  inclinations  being  in 


Axie-Box, 


Fig.  496. 


IV/iiu^s  Axh-Box. 


AXLK-BOX. 


201 


AXLE-OAGE. 


Antifiiction-Roller  Box. 

i-everseil  or  opposing  directions,  and  the  outer  hav- 
ing the  greater  inclination  of  the  two.     The  attach- 
ment   is   by  a 
Fig.  498.  nut  on  the  end 

of  the  spindle. 
Yig.  499 
shows  a  mode  of 
casting  axle- 
boxes  in  a  two- 
pait,  liinged, 
metallic  flask, 
the  portion  of 
the  gate  below 
the  sprue  form- 
ing the  fin  of 
the  box.  The 
box  is  cast  up- 
on a  chill  with 
a  sand  core  for  tlie  oil-chamber. 

I'lKin   the   butt-end  of  the  box   (Fig.  500)  is  an 
annular  flange  with  a  coueare  recess  formed  on  its 

Fig.  499. 


Axle-Box. 


SO    combine    the  Fig.  501. 

oil-box  with  the 
axle  and  jaw, 
that  the  oil-box 
may  !»  easily 
removed  there- 
from, for  the  pur- 
pose of  renewing 
the  packing  in 
the  rear  end,  etc. 
See  C.\K  Axle- 
box. 

Axle,  Car. 
The  bar  connect- 
ing the  opposite 
wheels  of  a  pair, 
adapted  to  sup- 
port a  railway- 
carriage,  or  rail- 
road-truck. The 
wheels  are  fast 
to  the  axle,  and 
the  latter  runs  in 
bearings  in  a3:le- 
baxes.       In    this  Car  Axh-Box. 

respect   the   car- 
axle  differs  essentially  from  the  carriage-axle,  which 
is  relatively  fixed,  the  wheels  running  upon  (7.     See 

C.\R-.\XLE. 

Axle-clip.  ( Vehicles. )  A  clevis  or  bow  which 
unites  some  other  part  to  the  axle  ;  as  the  clip  of 
the  thill  coupling.  The  axle-cap  or  strip,  and  the 
ends  of  the  jjerch-braces,  are  fastened  by  clips  to  the 
axles. 

Axle-clip  Tie.  The  cross-bar  which  unites 
and  fastens  the  ends  of  the  bow-clip  by  which  a 
can'iage-axle  is  clasped. 


.1/.*./.  u/  casting  AxU-BoJces. 

innei-  surface  ;  tin-  sharp  edge  of  the  flange  sinks 
into  thi-  wooden  hub,  and  a  metallic  nut  with  a  cor- 
responding sharp 
Fig.  600.  ^  


■^^f^^WWW^ 


Azle-Box. 


flange  is  similarly 
sunk  into  the 
other  end  of  the 
hub.  The  object 
is  a  firm  attach- 
ment of  the  box 
in  the  hub. 

A  bearing  sur- 
face, completely 
enveloping  the 
spindle,  is  either 
a  bushing  for  the  box,  or  is  allied  to  a  thimble- 
skein.  This  skein  may  be  a  cast-iron  thimble,  a 
wrapping  of  wire,  a  bearing  of  Babbitt-metal,  or  an 
infolding  plate  of  sheet-metal.     See  Axle-skeix. 

Axle-boxes  of  railway-eai's  are  differently  con- 
structed, as  may  lie  seen  by  the  example  annexed. 
They  consist  mainly  of  a  box,  bearing,  packing, 
oil-chamber,  and  removable  cover. 

Arrangements  are  made  to  facilitate  the  removal 
of  the  bearing  from  the  journal  of  the  a.xle,  for  the 
inspection  of  the  journal,  or  the  renewal  of  the  bear- 
ing, while  the  oil-box  remains  in  its  place  ;  also  to 


Stratton's  Axle-  Gage. 


Axle-gage.  A  tool  by  which  the  spindle  is  so 
adjusted  in  relation  to  the  axle-tree,  as  to  give  the 
re((uired  siring  and  gather. 

The  swing  is  adjusted  to  give  the  downward  in- 
clination, and  the  axle  is  bent  to  conform  to  this 
guide.  The  gather  is  given  by  the  adjustable 
standard. 

The  swing  is  the  outward  inclination  of  the 
top  of  the  wheel,  and  is  to  meet  the  requirements 
of  the  conical  axle,  so  that  the  bottom  edge  of  the 
spindle  shall  ride  about  horizontal.  Were  the 
spindle  destitute  of  siring,  the  wheel  would  ride 
outward,  bearing  heavily  against  the  linch  pin  or 
nut. 

The  gatlier  is  the  foi-watd  inclinarion  of  the 
spindle  relatively  to  the  general  line  of  direction  of 
the  axle-tree.  It  is  to  bring  the  forward  edge  of  the 
taper  spindle  into  a  direction  nearly  transversely 
across  the  vehicle,  so  as  to  prevent  the  riding  out 
of  the  wheel  against  the  hub,  which  would  result 
from  placing  a  wheel  on  a  conical  spindle  without 
gatlwr. 

Fig.  503  .shows  a  somewhat  different  form  of  the 
gage,  in  which  the  concave  end  of  the  sliding  gage 
is  placed  on  one  spindle,  and  the  other  spindle  set 
by  the  adjustable  bars. 


AXLE-Gl'ARD. 


202 


AXLE-MAKING   MACHINE. 


Fig.  503. 


Axle- Gage.  'K\ 

Ax'le-guard.  One  of  the  pedes- 
tals in  which  tlie  l)0.\es  of  an  axle 
play  vertically  as  the  springs  yield  and 
recoil.  Also  called  horn-plates,  jaws, 
hoiiiniiiif!^,  pcd^sfals. 

Ax'le-hook.  {Hand  Wagons.) 
A  honk  in  front  of  the  axle  for  the 
attachment  of  the  stay-chain  which 
connects  the  axle  and  the  donble-tree. 

Axle-lathe.  A  lathe  adapted  to 
tnni  axles,  shafting,  and  other  rela- 
tively long  articles  which  are  liable 
to  be  swayed  or  bent  by  their  flexi- 
bility or  by  the  pressure  of  the  cutter. 
Bearings  are  provided  at  points  be- 
tween the  lathe  centers,  and  sometimes 
the  cutters  are  duplicated  so  as  to  act 
upon  opposite  sides  simultaneously,  as 
in  Fig.  504. 

Fig.  504. 


shaped  cutters  secured  to  two  jaws,  which  a]iproach 
each  other  by  the  rotation  of  a  right  and  left  hand 
screw  in  a  fixed  rest. 

Whitwortli's  famous  lathe  is  of  this  character. 
See  DlTl'LF.X   L.VTIIE  ;   C.\R-AXLE  L.vruE. 

Ax'le  Lu'-bri-ca-tor.  A  device  for  containing 
a  supjily  of  oil  and  supplying  it  to  the  spindle  inside 
the  axle-box. 

There  are  many  forms  of  this,  some  having  reser- 
voirs of  oil  in  the  spindle,  others  in  the  box,  others 
outside.  In  some  tlie  lubricant  is  led  to  the  wear- 
ing surface  by  gravity,  in  others  by  cotton  wick,  in 
others  by  a  moving  cup.  See  CakeiAge-wheei. 
LuBRic.vroR. 

Fig.  505. 


Axle-Zathe. 

The  axle  or  shafting  is  turned  to  form  liy  suitably 


Easterns  Machine  for  making  Carriage- Assies. 


Ax'le-mak'ing  Ma-chine'.  In  Foster's  Ma- 
chi/H-  fur  tiiitkliKi  Carria'jc-A.i-hs,  a  bar  of  metal  is 
fed  into  the  machine  and  automatically  formed  into 
axles,  which  are  cut  off  as  finished.  Shaping  rol- 
lers fonn  the  journal  and  taper  the  bar  of  tlie  axle, 
and  dies  fonn  the  collar  by  lengthwise  pressure  of 
the  bar.  The  rolls  act  simultaneously  upon  oppo- 
site sides  of  the  bar,  and  have  dies  which  act  co- 
incidently  to  shape,  and  sharp  edges  to  cut  otf 
at  the  given  length.  A  jiair  of  rolls  are  arranged  to 
act  perpendicularly  to  the  die-rolls  and  in  concert 
therewith. 


Fig.  506. 


Gortiin'x  Ajrle-setting  Machine. 


AXLE-NUT. 


■20:i 


AZIMUTH   COMPASS. 


Azle-nut.  A  screw  nut  on  the  end  of  an  axle- 
spinille,  to  keep  the  wheel  in  jilace.     See  Xrx. 

Axle-pin.  A  lineh-pin,  a  foie-loek  :  a  little 
bar  p;issiiig  through  a  morti.se  m-ar  the  end  of  the 
arm,  to  hold  the  wheel  thereon. 


wood,  and  is  applied  as  a  sufli.K  to  many  words,  sucli 
as  Bridge-  Tree,  Singh-  Tree,  Double-  Tree,  Bool-  Tree, 
Chess-  Tree,  Saddle-  Tree,  etc.     See  Axle. 

Jones's   axle-trees  {English  Patent)  are   made  of 
wrought-iron,  with  pieces  of  steel  welded  beneath 


Az'le-set'tmg    Ma-chine'.     The   Axle-selling    them  near  the  ends  so  as  to  form  the  spindles.     In 


Machine  (Fig.  oOti)  is  for  st-tting  the  spindles  true  on 
the  ends  of  the  axle-trees,  giving  them  the  required 
set  and  r/ather. 

The  uprights  A  C  on  the  frame  B  are  adjustable 
by  set  screws  to  any  distance.  The  upright  C  has 
a  jointed  bar  D  projecting  from  it,  which  rests  on 
a  screw-rod  E.  This  bar  is  a  straight  edge,  to  .show 
the  taper  of  the  axle  ;  for  when  the  same  is  placed 
on  till'  uprif,'lits,  as  shown  in  the  engraving,  and  the 
stop  i^  brought  up  to  it  by  the  screw,  the  taper  will 
lie  givcu  by  the  gage  G,  shown  in  dotted  lines.  If 
the  axle  does  not  touch  the  stop  F,  it  is  too  high  on 
the  enil,  and  must  be  brought  down  by  the  black- 
smith. If  it  touches  at  the  end  and  not  at  the 
shoulder,  it  is  too  low,  and  must  be  treated  accord- 
ingly. The  axle  is  then  turned  end  for  end,  and 
the  operation  is  repeated.  The  T-end  on  the  frame 
is  to  set  the  T-foot  of  the  gage  against,  as  shown. 
Tile  angle  of  the  gage  is  obtained  by  setting  the 
gage-foot  against  the  spoke,  and  putting  the  straight 
edge  H  in  the  axle-box,  as  in  the  smaller  figure. 

Fig.  o07. 


hardening,  the  work  is  heated  by  a  forge  fire,  a 
quantity  of  prussiate  of  potash  mixed  with  carbon- 
ate of  ammonia  is  dusted  upon  the  metal,  which  is 
then  plunged  into  the  cooling  tank,  water  being  al- 
lowed to  run  upon  it  from  a  cistern.  The  prussiate  of 
potash  case-hardens  the  iron.  The  wheels  are  on  the 
wrought-iron  suspension-principle,  having  chilled- 
iron  hubs. 

Axle-tree  Fig.  509. 

Clamp.  A 
tool  for  giv- 
ing the  prop- 
er pitch  to  a 
new  axle- 
spindle,  or 
for  straight- 
ening one 
which  is 
bent. 

Ax'mins- 
ter  Car'pet. 


AxU-Tree  Clamp. 


Axk-Aajuster. 

A  more  portable  form  of  the  same  general  charac- 
ter is  shown  in  the  Axle-Adjuster  (Fig.  507).  It 
consists  of  a  bar  hooked  on  to  the  axle-tree  in  two 
places. 

The  bar  is  fastened  by  clamp  .1/and  fulcrum-block 
F.  The  eye-bolt  L  is  hooked  over  the  end  of  tlie 
spindle,  and  the  adjustment  of  the  latter  is  accom- 
Iilishcd  by  the  screw  S  and  set  nuts  J  K. 

Axle-skein.  A  band,  strip,  or  thimble  of  metal 
on  the  wooden  arm  or  spindle  of  a  carriage-axle  to 
take  the  wear  from  the  wood. 

Ax'le-sleeve.      One  placed  around  a  railway- 


Fig.  508. 


Axle-Setve. 


ear  axle  in  order  to  hold  up  the  broken  ends  if  the 
axle  should  be  fractured. 

Axle,  Tel-e-scop'ic.  An  extension  axle  to 
allow  the  ninning  wheels  of  a  carriage  to  be  slipped 
in  or  out  to  adapt  tliem  to  varj-ing  gages  of  tracks. 

Axle-tree.  The  axle,  or  transvei'se  bar,  on 
whose  emls  the  wheels  of  a  vehicle  are  secured. 

The  term  "  tiee"  indicates  that  it  wa.s  originallv  of 


A  carpet  with  a  flax  or  jute  chain 
and  a  woolen  or  worsted  filling  which 
is  formed  into  a  pile. 

The  patent  Axminster  carjiet,  ;i.s 
made  at  Glasgow,  is  made  first  as  a 
woven  fringe,  wliich  is  afterwards 
adapted  to  a  thick  flax  backing. 

The  cai'pet  is  named  from  the  town 
of  Axminster,  Devon.shire,  England, 
where  the  manufacture  was  formerly 
earned  on.  It  has  been  discontinued 
at  that  place.  It  is  of  the  Tuikey 
vaiiety.  The  linen  chain  or  wari> 
is  placed  perpendicularly  between  two  rolls  or  beams, 
one  of  which  canies  the  wai-p,  and  the  other 
the  finished  carpet.  Small  tufts  or  bunches  ot 
different  colored  worsted  or  woolen  are  tied  to  or 
fastened  under  the  war]i ;  and  when  one  row  of  these 
tufts  has  been  completed,  a  linen  weft  thread  is 
thrown  in  and  fimdy  ranmied  down.  Another  row 
of  tufts  is  then  knotted  in,  the  selection  of  color.* 
being  such  as  to  cany  on  the  ]iattern.  To  guide  the 
weaver  a-s  to  the  position  of  the  colors,  a  jiaper  de- 
sign constantly  hangs  before  him.  The  linen  chain 
and  weft  are  entirely  concealed. 

Ayr  Stone.  A  Scotch  stone,  called  "Water 
of  Ayr,  "  used  as  a  whetstone  and  in  surfacing 
metals  ]ireviuiis  to  ]ioli.^lnng. 

Az'i-mutb  Circle.  The  azimuth  circle,  as  an 
astronomical  instrument,  is  used  for  determining 
the  azimuths  of  stars.  The  azimuth  is  an  arc 
of  the  horizon  intercepted  between  the  meridian 
of  the  place  of  the  oleervation  and  the  vertical 
circle  passing  through  the  object. 
"^  Az'i-muth  Compass.  This  compass  isgiad- 
uated  in  degrees  in.^teud  of  being  divided  by 
rhumbs,  like  the  Mi(ri>ier's  Compass.  It  has 
sights  to  allow  the  angles  to  be  taken  more  accu- 
rately, and  is  designed  to  show  the  bearing  of 
objects  in  respect  to  the  magnetic  meridian. 

By  a  comparison  of  the  magnetic  azimuth  of  a 
heavenly  body  with  the  true  azimuth  as  found  by 
calculation,  the  vanation  of  the  needle  is  determined. 
The  in.strument  is  shown  in  the  accompanying  fig- 
ure. The  sight-plates  ascend  perpendicularly,  and 
their  slits  are  bisected  by  a  pei-pendicular  thread  or 
wire,  serving  as  sights. 


AZIMUTH    ClKfLK. 


204 


AZOCUTK. 


Fig.  ftlO. 


Fig.  DU. 


Azimuth  Compass. 

Tile  ring  of  tlie  gimbals  rests  with  its  pivots 
on  tile  semicircle  beneath,  the  foot  of  which  turns 
in  asocket ;  so  that,  while  the  box  remains  steady, 
the  compass  may  be  turned  around  so  as  to 
bring  the  sights  into  coincidence  with  the  sun 
or  other  object  observed. 

The  pivots  of  the  gimbals,  in  this  as-in  steer- 
ing-compasses, should  lie  in  the  same  plane  as 
the  p(jint  of  suspension  of  the  needle,  so  as  to  dim- 
inisli  the  irregular  vibration  as  much  as  possible. 

In  theinside  of  thccompass-bo.f  linesaredrawu 
pei'iieudieularly  down  from  the  points  where  the 
sight-threads  meet  the  sides  of  the  box.  These  in- 
dii:ate  the  number  of  degrees,  and  parts  of  a  degree, 
which  the  object  bears  from  the  magnetic  north  *or 
south,  on  which  account  tlie  middli'  of  the  a|iertures 
of  the  sight-vanes,  the  threads,  and  the  above-men- 
tioned lines  should  be  exactly  in  the  same  vertical 
plane  at  the  time  of  reading  otf  the  ob.servatioii. 

On  one  .side  of  the  compass-box  is  usually  a  nut 
or  stop,  which,  when  inished  in,  arrests  the  vibratory 
motion  of  the  card  while  the  observer  is  noting  the 
readiu'.;. 

Az'i-muth  Cir'cle.  The  cut  (Fig.  .111)  illus- 
trates an  eipiatorial  tlial,  according  to  Dr.  Hooker 
probably  a  JCmiifi-an'l,  or  azimuth  circle,  in  the 
observatory  at  Benares,  built  by  Jey-Sing,  Rajah 
of  Jayanagar,  upwards  of  "JrtO  years  ago. 

Dr.  Hooker  describes  the  astronomer-royal  at  the 
time  of  his  visit  as  a  "  pitiful  object,"  half  naked, 
with  a  large  sore  on  his  stomach,  who  represented 
himself  as  being  very  hungry.  Science,  it  would 
seem,  has  not  been  properly  appreciated  in  that  vi- 
cinity since  the  decline  of  the  Mohammedan  jiower. 
See  Dr.  Hooker's  Himalayan  Journals,  London,  18.55. 

The  equinoctial  and  eipiatorial  sun-dials  of  Be- 
nares are  considered  under  Dial,  where  it  will  be 
seen  that  the  former  has  a  gnomon  30  feet  long,  and 
is  ascended  by  steps  ;  each  (|uadrant  is  nine  feet 
long.  The  fact  of  the  ascent  by  steps  throws  inter- 
esting light  upon  the  passage  in  the  Second  Book  of 
Kings,  chap,  xx.,  where  tlie  "dial  of  Ahaz"  (742 
B.  c.)  is  referred  to.  White  says  that  the  Hebrew 
word  signifies  a  staircase,  and  in  this  form  doubtless 
were  the  dials  of  the  Mesopotamian  nations,  and  that 
seen  at  Damascus  by  Ahaz,  and  afterwards  copied  by 


Brass  Azim)ilh.     Benares. 

him  in  the  one  set  up  in  .lernsalem.  See  A.stiuj- 
NOMICAI.  In.sthUMKNts,  where  the  large  dial  of  Be- 
nares, referred  to  by  Dr.  Hooker,  is  sliowii  on  the 
eleA'ate<l  terrace  on  the  left.  Very  remarkable  and 
interesting  are  these  relics  which  carry  us  back  to 
the  old  times  when,  and  the  old  means  whereby,  the 
astronomers  of  Ciialdea  and  Egypt  observed  the 
heavens.  When  we  consider  their  great  discoveries, 
and  recollect  that  they  were  destitute  of  lenses,  as 
well  as  of  means  for  minute  and  accurate  gi'aduation 
of  instruments,  we  may  well  hold  them  in  high  re- 
spect.    See  Ahmii,  ;  AiniiLLAiiY  SriiERE. 

The  sun-dial  of  Delhi  was  also  used  as  an  observa- 
tory, and  is  described  by  White,  of  the  East  Indian 
Military  Staff,  as  "a  large  circular  Imilding,  having 
a  number  of  openings  or  windows  in  the  walls,  and 
a  pillar  or  gnomon  in  its  center.  Each  of  these 
windows  had  an  appropriate  astionomical  term,  ami 
at  night  the  jiosition  of  the  heavenly  bodies  was  de- 
fined by  the  window  or  house  in  which  it  might  be 
seen  by  a  ])erson  stationed  at  the  )iillar  ;  and  during 
the  day  the  time  was  regulated  fiom  the  particular 
window  through  which  the  sun  shone  on  the  gno- 
mon." The  gnomon  cast  a  shadow  on  the  circular 
wall,  which  was  graduated  for  that  purpose.  See 
Dial. 

The  (jnoi)iim  erected  by  the  astronomer  Uleg  Beg, 
in  1437,  at  Samarcand,  had  a  hight  of  175.89  feet.. 

Az'i-muth  Di'al.  An  azimuth  dial  is  so  called 
becau.se  tlie  shallow  marks  the  sun's  azimuth.  The 
stile,  or  gnomon,  is  perpendicular  to  the  plane  of  the 
horizon. 

Azogue.  A  Spanish  ship  fitted  for  carrying 
ipdcksilver. 


BABBITT-METAL. 


iU.") 


BACK-FLAP. 


B. 


Bab'bitt-met'al.  An  alloy,  consisting  of  9  parts 
of  tin  and  1  of  copper,  nsed  for  journal-boxes ;  so  called 
from  its  inventor,  Isaac  Babbitt,  of  Boston  (patent, 
1839).  Some  variations  have  been  made,  and  among 
the  published  recipes  are 

Copper  .....  1  1 
Regidus  of  antimony  .  .  .15 
Tin  .         .         .         .         .       10       50 

Another  recipe  substitutes  zinc  for  antimony. 

The  term  is  commonly  applied  to  any  white  alloy 
for  bearings,  as  distinguished  from  the  box-metal  or 
hrassi^s  in  which  copper  predominates. 

Bab'bitt-ing-jig.  ^.Unchincrii.)  A  tool  used 
in  babbitting  the  shafts  and  journals  of  machines. 
It  holds  the  parts  —  of  a  harvester,  for  instance  — 
in  their  respective  positions,  and  also  in  proper  rela- 
tion to  their  boxings,  so  that  the  anti-friction  metal 
may  be  run  around  each  of  the  journals  in  succes- 
sion. 

Ba'by-jump'er.  A  cradle,  basket,  or  sling  in 
which  a  cliild  is  suspended.  The  suspensory  cord 
is  usually  adjustable  a.s  to  length,  and,  being  elastic, 
peiTuits  a  saltatory  motion. 

BaTjy-T^alk'er.  A  go-cart.  A  frame  traveling 
on  casters,  and  used  to  support  an  infant  while 
learning  to  walk. 

Bac.  1.  (Xaiifical.)  A  broad,  flat-bottomed  feiry- 
boat,  adapted  for  conveying  horses  and  carriages,  and 
usually  navigated  by  a  rope  fastened  on  each  side  of 
the  stream. 

•2.  (Brewing.)  A  cistern  with  a  perforated  metallic 
bottom,  used  for  straining  the  hops  from  the  beer 
previous  to  its  entrance  into  the  cooler.  Also  written 
bncK: 

Back.  The  part  of  an  object  against  which  the 
back  of  a  person  leans,  as  of  a  chair,  carriage,  etc. 

The  rear  portion  of  an  object. 

The  upper  part  of  a  thing,  as  of  an  arch,  hand- 
rail, saw,  etc. 

1.  (Forging.)  A  cast-iron  plate  foiming  the  back- 
wall  of  a  forge,  and  through  which  the  blast  enters 
by  a  titijerc. 

When  the  back  consists  of  an  iron  cistern,  it  is 
called  a  water-back. 

When  it  consists  of  a  chamber  in  which  the  air- 
blast  is  heated,  it  is  a  heating-back. 

2.  (Bookbinding. )  The  part  to  which  the  sides  of 
the  cover  are  attached,  and  which  receives  the  letter- 
ing- 

3.  (Architecture.)     a.  The  rear  surface  of  a  wall. 
6.  The  rear  wall  of  a  fireplace. 

c.  The  extrados  of  an  arch  or  vault. 

d.  The  rear  part  of  a  stone  or  a.shlar,  parallel  with 
the/ac'«  or  exposed  surface. 

4.  (Cork-cicltiiig.)   The  burnt  side  of  a  slab  of  cork. 

5.  (Brewing,  etc.)     A  vat  or  cistern. 

a.  Water-back :  a  supply  cistern  in  a  brewery,  etc. , 
containing  water  for  mashing. 

6.  Under-back :  a  cistern  below  the  mash-tun,  which 
receives  the  tcort  therefrom. 

c.  Hop-back  :  a  cistern  below  the  copper,  which  re- 
ceives the  infusion  of  malt  and  hops  from  the  latter. 

d.  Jack-back :  the  same  as  hop-back. 

e.  (Glm-making. )  Settling-buck ;  a  cistern  in  which 
a  solution  of  glue  from  the  kettle  is  received  and  kept 
warm  till  the  impurities  have  time  to  settle. 

/.  (Distilling.)  Wash-baek  :  a  cistern  or  vat  in 
which  the  wort  is  fermented  to  form  wash  for  distil- 
lation. 


gr.  Spirit-back :  the  cistern  which  receives  the 
spii-it. 

In  this  sense  the  word  is  nearly  allied  to  beck  ;  as 
a  dye-beck  or  soap-beck  in  a  dye-house.     See  Beck. 

6.  (Carpentry.)  a.  The  upper  surface  of  a  hand- 
rail ;  the  under  side  is  the  breast. 

b.  The  same  distinctions  apply  to  the  ribs  of  domes 
and  rafters  of  roofs. 

c.  The  back  of  a  window  is  the  wainscoting  below 
the  .sash-frame  and  extending  to  the  floor. 

d.  The  upper  edge  of  a  saw  as  opposed  to  the  edge 
which  is  sen-ated. 

7.  (Mining.)  a.  The  part  of  a  lode  nearest  to  the 
surface. 

b.  The  scround  between  one  level  and  another  is 
the  back  of  a  level. 

8.  (Shipbuilding.)  a.  The  convex  surface  of  a 
compass-timber. 

b.  Figuratively,  the  keel  and  keelson  of  a  ship. 

c.  A  timber  bolted  on  behind  the  sternpost. 

9.  (Nautical.)  a.  To  buck  an  anchor:  to  place 
a  small  auxiliarj'  anchor  ahead  of  the  one  from  which 
the  ship  rides. 

b.  To  back  a  sail:  to  brace  a  yard  so  that  the 
wind  blows  in  front  of  it. 

c.  To  back  astern  :  to  give  the  vessel  sternway. 

d.  To  back  a  rope  :  to  put  on  a  preventer  to  take 
a  part  of  the  strain. 

e.  To  back  the  worming:  to  fill  the  crevices  be- 
tween the  strands,  to  bring  the  surface  flush  and 
even,  ready  for  serving. 

Back-ac'tion  Steam-en'gine.  One  in  which 
the  connecting-rod,  pitman,  and  crank  arc  so  arranged 
as  to  take  up  but  little  longitudinal  space.  The  cross- 
head  on  the  end  of  the  piston-rod  is  connected  by 
]iarallel  side-bars  to  a  cross-tail,  which,  by  a  back- 
wardly  reaching  pitman,  is  connected  to  the  crank 
of  the"  propeller  engine.  One  of  the  side-bai-s  passes 
above  the  crank,  and  the  other  below  it.  Being  used 
for  propeller  engines,  the  crank  and  shaft  nuist  be 
amidships 'and  the  engine  and  appurtenances  lie  upon 
the  floor  athwart-ship.  "Juniata"  and  ten  sister 
vessels  of  the  United  .'States  navy  are  of  this  class. 

Back-bal'ance  of  Ec-cen'tric.  (Steam.)  The 
weight  tLxed  to  the  back  of  an  eccentric-pulley  for 
the  purpose  of  balancing  the  weight  of  the  pulley  on 
till-  shaft. 

Back-bal'ance  of  Slide-valve.  (Steam.) 
The  weight  fixed  at  the  extremity  of  the  valve-lever 
for  balancing  the  weight  of  the  slides. 

Back-band.  (Saddlery.)  The  band  or  strap 
which  passes  over  the  back  of  the  hoise  and  meets 
the  belly-band  ;  the  two  unite  to  girth  the  horse. 

Back-cen'ter.  (Turning.)  The  point  on  the 
back  or  dead  spindle  of  a  lathe  which  supports  that 
end  of  the  work.  The  front-center  is  on  the  live- 
spindle  in  the  head-stock.  It  is  set  up  by  the  back- 
center  serrtr.      .See  L.A.THE. 

Back-cloth.  (Calico  Printing.)  The  cloth  sus- 
taining the  fabiic  in  one  form  of  calico  printing. 

Back-cut'ting.  (Civil  Engineering.)  Earth  ob- 
tained for  a  canal  bank,  when  the  excavated  earth 
does  not  suffice. 

Back'er.  (Slating. )  A  narrow  slate  laid  on  the 
back  of  a  broad,  square-headed  slate,  at  the  spot 
where  a  course  of  slates  begins  to  diminish  in  width. 

Back-flap.  [Joinery.)  The  leaf  of  a  window- 
shutter  which  folds  inside  the  casing,  and  is  concealed 
when  closed. 


BACK-FRAME. 


206 


BACK-SAW. 


Back-frame.  {Rope-making.)  .\  wheel  for  turn- 
ing the  irjiif/irs  of  ii  rope-making  maeliine.  The 
whirU-rs,  to  whieli  tlie  end.s  of  the  strands  are  con- 
nected, are  stocked  in  the  centers  of  tlie  pinions 
a  a  a,  which  roll  arouinl  inside  the  internally  geared 
ring  b,  as  tlie  frame  e  d  I'otates.  The  frame  c  it,  with 
its  three  annular  gears  h  h  b,  and  their  respective 

Fig.  612. 


Back-Frame. 

wheels  f  a  a  a,  are  revolved  so  that  the  wheels  / 
mesh  with  the  internal  cogs  of  the  annular  gear  c,  caus- 
ing the  wheels aaa  o( each  system  to  rotate  on  their 
a.xes,  and  thereby  twist  the  yarns  into  strands  ;  to 
remlce  around  each  other,  and  thereby  lay  up  their 
three  strands  into  a  rope  ;  while,  at  the  same  time, 
the  three  systems  revolve  around  each  other,  and  lay 
up  the  three  rojpes  into  a  hawser  or  larger  rope. 

Baok-gam'mon.  A  game  of  chance  and  skill, 
played  liy  two  persons,  with  lifteen  men  each  upon  a 
board  having  twelve  black  and  twelve  red  points. 
It  is  a  Welsh  game,  and  is  said  to  have  an  antiquity 
of  a  thousand  years.  Rameses  and  liis  Ladies  played 
checkers.     Chess  came  from  India  ;  so  did  cards. 

Backgammon  is  mentioned  by  Chaucer,  Shake- 
speare, and  Bacon  as  "playing  the  tables,"  —  a  name 
by  which  it  was  then  known. 

Back-gear.  (Turning.)  The  set  of  variable 
speed  gear  wheels  in  the  headstock  of  a  power- 
lathe. 

Back'ing.  1.  (Masonry.)  The  coursed  masonry 
ne.xt  to  the  extrados  of  an  arch,  and  resting  thereon. 

2.  (Fabric.)  The  web  of  coarser  or  stronger  mate- 
rial at  the  back  of  such  goods  as  velvet,  plush,  satin, 
Brussels  carpet,  etc. 

3.  (Printing.)    Printing  the  second  side  of  a  sheet. 

4.  (Type..)  Filling  in  the  back  of  an  electrotype. 
See  Backino-vf. 

5.  (Ship.)  The  rear  support  of  an  armor-plate. 
This  is  of  timber,  from  twice  to  four  times  the  thick- 
ness of  the  armor,  with  or  witliout  an  inner  skin, 
about  one  eighth  the  thickness  of  the  armor-plates ; 
sometimes  supported  by  vertical  frames. 

Compound  backing  consists  of  alternate  layers  of 
wood  and  iron,  in  the  usual  proportion  of  4^  wood  to 
4  jilate-iron.     See  Ai!Muu-pl.\ting. 

Back'ing-boards.  (Bookbinding.)  Tliose  be- 
tween wliiili  a  lunik  is  grasped  to  be  laid  in  the  press 
while  \}\f  b  i,k  is  rounded.     See  Cutting-pre.ss. 

Back'ing-ham'mer.  (Bookbinding.)  The  book- 
binder's hamuier  for  rounding  the  back  of  a  book. 


Back'ing-off.  (Spinning.)  The  retrograde  mo- 
tion i>r  tin-  iiiule  wlien  it  recedes  from  the  creel  and 
draws  the  yarn  from  the  spools.  Its  jmtting,  run- 
ning-in,  or  going-in,  is  the  motion  towards  the  creel 
when  the  winding  takes  place  on  the  spindles  of  the 
mule.      See  Mui.E. 

Back'ing-up.  1.  (Engraving.)  Removing  a 
hollow  or  mark  from  the  face  of  a  plate  by  blows 
from  the  peen  of  a  hanmier  applied  to  the  back,  the 
face  being  laid  on  an  anvil  or  stake.  This  mode  is 
used  by  engravers  in  obliterating  lines  too  deep  to  be 
treated  by  the  scraper  or  buriiLsher. 

2.  (Type.)  The  process  of  fortifying  with  type- 
metal  the  back  of  the  thin  electrotype  plate  which  has 
been  deijosited  on  the  face  of  tlie  mold  obtained  from 
the  form  of  type. 

The  back  of  the  copper  shell  receives  a  thin  coat- 
ing of  tin,  and  is  then  placed  face  downward  in  a 
shallow  iron  dish  in  wliich  it  is  secured  by  rods.  The 
dish  is  then  suspended  from  a  crane  and  swung  over  a 
bath  of  molten  metal.  When  it  has  acquired  the  tem- 
perature of  the  bath,  a  quantity  of  type-metal  is  dipped 
up  and  poured  over  the  back  of  the  copper  plate,  form- 
ing a  solid  backing.  A  planing-maehine  reduces  the 
backing  to  an  even  thickness,  bringing  the  whole  to 
a  thickness  of  say  one  seventh  of  an  inch. 

Back'ing-up  Flange.     (Muehincry.)     A  collar 
on    a   iiijie    liy    which 
the   latter   is  held  to  Fig  513. 

its  bearings  or  seat. 

Back-joint.  Such 
a  one  as  that  fonned 
by  a  rabbet  on  the  in- 
ner side  of  a  chimney- 
jamb  to  receive  a  slip. 

Back -lash.  The 
reaction  or  striking 
back  of  a  piece  of  ma- 
chinery, wheel,  piston, 
etc.,  when  the  power 
makes  a  temporary 
pause,  or  a  change  of 
motion  occurs.  It  is  a  consequence  of  bad  fitting  or 
wear,  and,  in  the  latter  case,  indicates  that  the  parts 
should  be  set  up.  The  gib,  cotter,  and  strap  of  the 
pitman  connection  are  an  instance  of  provision  for 
said  readjustment. 

In  .some  cases  springs  are  arranged  to  keep  the 
parts  in  positive  contact,  so  that  no  reflex  motion 
occurs,  to  be  taken  up  suddenly  when  the  power  is 
again  ajqilied. 

Back-link.  (Stcum-Engine.)  One  of  the  links 
in  a  yiaiallel  motion  which  connect  the  air-pump  rod 
to  the  beam. 

Back-pup'pet.  (Lathe.)  The  standard  which 
holds  the  l)aik -center  of  a  lathe  on  which  one  end 
of  the  work  lests.     See  Lathe. 

Baok-pres'sure  Valve.    (Hydraulics.)    A  ball 
or  clack-valve  in  a  ^ipe, 
which  instantly  assumes  '*' 

its  place  u]ion  its  seat 
when  a  refle.x  or  back 
pressure  occurs. 

The  figure  with  the 
arrow  shows  the  normal 
condition  ;  the  other  fig- 
ure shows  the  valve  on 
its  seat. 

Back-rope.   (Xauti- 
cat.)     One  of  the  ropes 
connecting  the  lower  end  of  the 
the  sbiii's  bead. 

Back-sa'w.  A  saw  whose  web  is  stiffened  by  a 
metallic  back  of  greater  substance ;  as,  a  tenon  saw. 


Bacicing-up  Flange. 


Bucfc- Pressure   Valve, 
dolpliin-striker  with 


BACK-SIGHT. 


207 


BAG  AXD  srooy. 


Back-sight.  1.  (Fire-arms.)  The  war  sight 
of  a  gun.  It  may  be  of  various  forms.  In  the  okl- 
fashioned  arms  intended  for  round  balls,  it  was 
merely  a  notch  in  a  knob  or  plate  near  the  breech 
of  the  gun,  the  proper  elevation  to  be  given  being 
estimated  by  the  marksman.  As  the  eti'eetive  range 
scarcely  exceeded  250  to  300  yards,  this  could  be 
done  with  sufficient  accuracy  by  an  expert  marks- 
man ;  but  with  the  introduction  of  the  elongated 
bullet,  giving  ranges  of  1,000  yards  and  upward,  it 
became  necessary  to  seek  some  more  efficient  means 
of  securing  the  proper  range  at  these  long  distances, 
so  that  the  bullet  might  not  either  pass  over  or  fall 
short  of  the  object.    For  this  purpose  was  introduced 


Fig.  515 


Back-Siglits. 


the  rear-sight  (a,  Fig.  515),  consisting  of  an  upright 
slotted  branch,  which  was  jointed  to  a  seat  on  the 
barrel  of  the  gun,  or,  in  some  instances,  on  the  small 
of  the  stock  in  reir  of  the  barrel.  A  notched  slider 
on  the  upright  branch  could  be  elevated  as  desired, 
and  by  elevating  the  muzzle  of  the  gun  until  this 
notch  and  the  front-sight  were  in  line,  any  range 
within  the  limit  of  projection  of  the  piece  could  be 
attained. 

This  sliding  sight  has,  in  the  United  States  ser- 
vice, been  superseded  by  the  leaf-sight  (f>.  Fig.  515), 
which  is  more  compact  and  less  liable  to  derange- 
ment.     Also  called  Folding-Sight. 

Other  back-sights,  especially  those  fir.st  introduced 
in  Southern  Germany,  have  been  made  very  differ- 
ent in  form  from  those  described  ;  one  variety  (c. 
Fig.  515)  being  permanently  fixed  perpendicularly 
to  the  barrel,  and  ha'ving  notched  holes  at  proper 
bights  through  which  to  sight,  and  another  (rf. 
Fig.  515)  being  segmental  in  shape,  and  moving 
circularly  in  a  direction  longitudinal  to  the  barrel 
through  a  stud  fixed  thereon. 

.\nother  form  of  back-sight  (e.  Fig.  515)  vertically 
adjustable  for  range,  and  attached  to  the  stock,  has 
a  graduated  spring-piece  slipping  within  a  vertical 
slot  in  the  small  of  the  stock,  and  is  adjusted  as  re- 
quired. Its  spring  retains  it  in  jilace,  or  it  may  be 
clamped  by  a  set-screw  or  lowered  below  the  line  of 
the  hind-sight  on  the  barrel. 

2.  (Lereliiig.)  The  reading  of  the  leveling-staff ; 
taken  back  to  a  station  which  has  been  passed.  Read- 
ings on  the  forward  staff' are /ore-sights. 

Back-staff.  (Opfies.)  A  peculiar  sea-quadrant, 
invented  by  Cjiptain  DaWs,  1590.  It  has  a  graduated 
arc  of  90°  united  to  a  center  by  two  radii,  with  a  sec- 
ond arc  of  smaller  radius,  but  measuring  6°  on  the  .side 
of  it.  To  the  first  arc  a  vane  is  attached  for  sight ; 
to  the  second,  one  for  shade  ;  at  the  vertex  the  liori- 
zontal  vane  has  a  slit  in  it.     The  back  of  the  ob- 


server is  turned  towards  the  sun  at  the  time  of  obser- 
vation.     (Admiral  Smiith.) 

It  is  now  superseded  by  instraments  of  more  mod- 
ern type,  such  as  the  reflecting  quadrant  and  sextant. 

Back-stay.  (Shipbuilding.)  One  of  the  guy- 
ropes,  just  abaft  the  shrouds,  extending  from  all 
topmast-heads  to  the  sides  of  the  ship,  to  stay  the 
masts.  They  are  attached  to  back-atatj  stools,  which 
are  detached  channels  or  chain-wales. 

Back-strap.  (Saddlery.)  The  strap  passing 
along  the  back  of  the  horse. 

In  wagon  harness  it  extends  from  the  upper  luime- 
slrap  to  the  crupper ;  or,  in  the  absence  of  a  crupper, 
to  a  point  of  junction  with  the  hip-straps. 

In  carriage  harness  it  extends  from  the  gig-saddle 
to  the  ernpper. 

Back-sw^ord.  A  sword  with  one  sharp  edge,  in 
contradistinction  to  one  which  has  two  edges  through- 
out the  whole  or  a  portion  of  its  length. 

Back-tool.  (Bookbinding.) 
A  fillet,  roller,  or  other  hand-  Fig.  516. 

tool  for  dry-tooling  or  gilding 
the  backs  of  books. 

Back'w^a-ter.  (Hydraulic 
Engineering.)  Water  reserved 
at  high  tide  for  scouring  a 
channel  or  harbor  by  discharge 
at  low-tide.     See  Flfshixg. 

Bad'ger  Plane.  (.loin  ing. ) 
A  panel  plane  whose  mouth  is 
cut  on  the  skew,  and  from  side 
to  side,  so  as  to  work  up  close 
to  a  corner  in  making  a  rabbet 
or  sink'ing. 

Ba-dig'eon.  A  cement  for 
stopping  holes  and  covering 
defects  in  work. 

Statuary's:  plaster  and  free- 
stone. 

Joiner's :  sawdust  and  glue ; 
whiring  and  glue  ;  putty. 

Cooper's  :  tallow  and  chalk.  Bach-Tool. 

Stone  -  mason's :    wood  -  dust 
and  lime  slaked  together,  with  stone-powder  or  si- 
enna for  color,  and  mixed  with  alum-water  to  the 
consistence  of  paint. 

Ba'e-tas.  (Fabric.)  A  plain  unchecked  woolen 
stuff',  manufactured  in  S]>ain  and  Portugal. 

Baft,  Baft'as,  Baf' fe-tas.  (Fabric.)  a.  A  blue 
or  white  cotton  goods,  used  in  the  African  trade. 

h.  A  kind  of  East  Indian  cotton  piece-goods. 

Bag  and  Spoon.  (Hydraulic Engineering.)  An 
imidement  used  in  dredging  for  river  sand. 

Fig.  517 


i     'I 


It  is  a  hoop  of  iron  with  a  steel  lip,  and  has  one 
edge  pierced  with  holes,  for  the  attachment  of  a 
leather  bag  by  lacing.  The  spoon  is  suspended  by 
a  chain,  and  has  a  long  handle  by  which  it  is  guided. 


BAGASSE  DRYEB. 


208 


BAGASSE  FURNACE. 


Being  sunk  in  position,  it  is  diawn  along  the  bot- 
tom, hoisted  hy  a  crane,  and  dumped  into  a  lighter 
or  mud  barge.     The  Iwg  i.s  perforated  for  the  eseape 
of  water.      The  rut  shows  the  bag  overboaid,   and  j 
about   to  \v  sunk   to  the  bottom  by  means  of  the  j 
pole. 

Ba-gasse'  Dry'er.  Bagasse  is  crushed  cane  as 
it  comes  from  the  mill,  deprived,  to  a  great  extent, 
of  its  juice  and  saccharine  matter  ;  also  of  the  leaves, 
which  are  stripped  from  it  previous  to  grinding. 
According  to  Wray,  good  mills  only  extract  from  70 
to  75  per  cent  of  the  saccharine  matter  which  analy- 
sis shows  to  be  present  in  the  cane,  and  the  remain- 
der, after  the  water  is  evaporated,  joins  with  the 
liber  and  other  carbonaceous  matters  to  form  a  fuel, 
coal  and  wood  being  very  expensive  In  sugar-cane 
regions. 

The  bagasse  is  sometimes  carted  to  the  field,  to  be 
dried  by  the  sun,  but  a  number  of  United  States 


patents  have  been  granted  for  apparatus  for  drying 
it  by  artifii'ial  lieat.  Other  furnaces  are  constructed 
merely  for  burning  it  to  get  rid  of  it.  Vast  piles  of 
it  accumulate  round  the  niill-liouses. 

In  Mehuick's  jiatent  of  April  10,  1815,  the  ba- 
gasse is  transferred  to  an  inclined  chute,  whence  it 
is  taken  by  an  endless  apron,  which  passes  around 
reels  or  drums,  and  conducts  it  through  a  series  of 
three  heati'd  compartments,  linally  depositing  it  on 
a  plate  or  platform  in  front  of  the  furnace,  or  other 
convenient  position. 

Another  form  of  the  Bagasse  Dryer  consists  of  an 
inclined  o]ien-euded  cylinder,  having  a  steam  jacket 
and  hollow  bolts,  through  which  escapes  the  water 
evaporated  from  the  cane.  The  steam  is  introduced 
through  hollow  trunnions,  and  the  dryer-tube  is  ro- 
tated by  pinion  and  annular  gear,  as  shown  in  the 
figure.  The  material  is  fed  in  at  the  upper  end,  and 
works  gradually  to  the  lower  end,  where  it  forms  a 


Fig.  518. 


Bagasse  Dryer, 


pile  of  ary  stutf,  and  is  forked  into  the  furnace  be- 
neath the  sugar-pans  and  the  engine  which  runs  the 
establishment. 

Ba-gasse'  Fur'nace.  A  furnace  for  consuming 
the  bagasse  (or  megass),  the  cane  remaining  after  the 
pressure  of  the  saccharine  juice  therefrom.  It  gen- 
erally consists  of  a  kiln  or  large  chamber  with  a  flue 
to  the  furnace-space  beneath  the  boilers  which  make 
steam  for  the  cane-mill. 

The  principal  reason  for  burning  it  is  to  get  rid 
of  it,  as  it  accumulates  around  the  sugar-house  and 


JUL 


Fig.  519. 


of  the  bagasse  and  fuel  thence  passes  beneath  the 
boilers  which  drive  the  sugar-mill,  and,  in  some  sugar- 
Fig.  520. 


Bagasse  Furnace. 

becomes  quite  a  nuisance.  By  dint  of  making  a 
roaring  fire,  it  may  be  consumed,  and  perhaps  add 
something  moie  to  the  fire  than  it  subtracts  by  the 
evaporation  of  its  water.  The  example  (Fig.  519) 
shows  it  as  dumped  in  a  pile  upon  the  grating  above 
the  fire.     The  lieat  resulting  from  the  combustion 


Bagasse  Furnace. 


houses,  heat   the  vacuum-pans,   defecatore,   surface- 
evaporators,  and  run  the  pumping-engiiies. 


BAG-CLASP. 


209 


BAGGAGE-CHECK. 


Fig.  520  shows  a  fumace  for  burning  the  cane- 
refuse,  and  the  relation  of  the  fiiriiaoe  proper  a  to 
tlie  discharge-apron  b  of  the  cane-niill,  the  feeding 
devices  c  c  and  the  furnace  d,  of  the  steam-hoilers. 
The  bagasse  does  not  pass  beneath  tlie  boilers,  but 
the  flame  of  the  fumace  a  is  carried  into  b  through 
the  flue  e,  and  additional  air  is  admitted  beneath 
the  grating  of  d  by  dampers  in  the  ash-jiit. 

Bag-clasp.  A  clamp  or  cincture  for  closing  the 
mouths  of  bags.     See  B.^g-fastener. 

Bag-fast'en-er.  A  device  for  clamping  or  tying 
the  mouths  of  bags  below  the  hem.  A  substitute 
for  a  bag-string. 

A  number  of  different  modes  are  shown  in  the 
illustration,  and  will  be  briefly  described. 


Fig.  521. 


Saf,  Fasteners. 


a.  A  sheet-metal  ta/;,  with  a  curved  taperirg  slot, 
is  permanently  attarh?d  to  one  end  of  the  string. 
The  other  end  of  the  string  becomes  jammed  in  tin- 
slit. 

b.  The  metallic  t-ig  attached  to  one  end  of  the 
string  has  a  thimble  in  which  the  othe'.  end  of  the 
string  is  jammed  by  a  wedge. 

c.  Cue  end  of  the  string  has  a  permanent  ring. 
The  other  end  is  rove  through  an  ey.det  in  itse'.f, 
and  jams  against  the  ring. 

d.  One  loop  is  ])ernianently  attached  *.o  a  .slotte  1 
lever.  The  latter  is  rove  through  the  other  loop  and 
turned  over  beyond  the  dead-C'?nter,  fM  as  to  jam  the 
loop  against  the  standing  part. 

e.  The  standing  end  is  rove  through  two  holes  in 
the  tag,  and  fonns  a  loop  which  jams  down  upon  the 
point  end  of  the  cord. 

/.  The  point  end  is  jammed  between  two  pivoted, 
cogged  sectors. 

g.  The  perforated  leather  tag  is  riveted  to  the  bag, 
and  the  thong  is  rove  through  the  holes  so  as  to  bind 
tightly. 

A.  One  end  of  the  cord  is  knotted  to  the  loop  of 
the  wire.  The  other  end  is  passed  round  the  bag 
tud  jammed  between  the  jaws. 

i.  A  pair  of  hinged  clasps  whose  free  ends  interlock. 

j.  A  spring  de\nce,  acting  in  the  manner  of  a 
brooch  ;  a  spring  pin  engaging  a  catch. 

k.  A  lever  attached  to  one  end  of  the  cord  engages 
>  loop  on  the  other  end,  and  is  thrown  over  to  cany 
Ihe  loop  to  a  curved  iX)rtion,  which  holds  it  securely. 

7.  Similar  to  the  last,  but  haviug  a  means  of  ad- 
justment. 

U 


A  device  some- 


Fig.  522. 


Bag-fil'ter.     {Sugnr-Bejinhig.) 
times  used  in  clearing  saccha- 
rine solutions  of  feculencies 
and  impurities  mechanically 
suspended  therein. 

In  one  form  the  juice  is  al- 
lowed to  pass  through  a  series 
of  copper-wire  sieves  of  grad- 
ually increasing  fineness  be- 
fore reaching  the  flannel  bag; 
perhaps  the  more  usual  fonn 
is  that  in  which  the  sieves  are 
replaced  by  the  series  of  ver- 
tical flannel  strainers  arranged 
in  a  lower  chamber,  having 
a  stopcock,  into  which  the 
juice  is  admitted  from  a  com- 
partment above. 

The  example  consists  of  a 
sirup-cistern  S,  in  whose  floor 
are  short  pipes  of  conical  fonn, 
to  which  flannel  biigs  /  are 
tied.  The  juice,  passing  down 
each  of  the  Jiipes,  distends  the 
bags,  and  drips  down  their 
outer  surfaces,  collecting  in 
the  chamber  below,  whence  it  is  drawn  by  a  faucet. 

Bag-frame.  The  metallic  frame  to  which  the 
leather  or  cloth  part  of  a  cai7>et-bag  or  valise  is 
secured,  serving  to  imjiart  stili'ness  and  aflbrd  nieaus 
of  attachment  for  the  handle  and  lock. 

Fig.  523- 


Bag- Frame. 

Eag'gage-check.  A  tag  or  label  to  he  attached 
to  a  trunk,  to  indicate  its  destination  ;  usually,  also, 
its  [loint  of  departure,  and  frecjuently  the  name  of 
the  railway  company  attaching  the  said  check. 

The  devices  are  numerous. 

«  (Fig.  524)  shows  a  check  or  label-holder  of  two 
metallic  portions  which  form  a  frame  for  the  inclosed 
card,  on  which  is  inscribed  the  name  of  the  place  of 
destination.     This  is  used  also  for  niail-b:igs. 

6  is  a  lock-up  case  for  a  number  of  such  cards, 
either  of  which  is  exposed  at  the  opening  as  may  be 
reipiired. 

c  has  two  series  of  ntmibers  on  wheels,  and  the 
places  of  departure  and  destination  are  indicated  by 
nmnbers  agreeing  with  the  schedule  of  stations. 

d  has  the  places  of  departure  and  destination  on 
the  respective  sides.  Either  of  the  readings  may  be 
hidden  by  the  strap  which  is  rove  through  the  loop 
at  the  other  end  from  that  of  its  attachment  to  the 
check.  On  the  return  trip,  the  other  side  of  the 
check  is  exposed  by  the  inverse  reeving  of  the  strap. 

e  has  a  disk  with  a  circumferentially  numbered 
margin.  A  number  agi'eeing  with  the  schedule-num- 
ber of  the  station  for  which  the  baggage  is  bound  is 
exposed  at  the  opening  in  the  plate.  By  an  arrange- 
ment of  the  strap,  the  latter  is  made  to  hold  the 


BAGGALA. 


210 


BAG-MACHINE. 


ilisk,  so  as 
JiKiire. 


to  secure  the  required  presentation  of 


Fig.  624. 


VjS^y 


Ji-fnk  I  o 


Baggage-  Checks, 

f  has  the  series  of  station-numbers  in  a  row  ;  the 
strap  is  so  rove  tlirough  the  slots  as  to  indicate  the 
station  (29)  at  wliich  tlie  baggage  is  to  be  put  off. 

f/  is  a  metallic  case  inclosing  a  card  with  the  num- 
bers of  the  stations  printed  thereon.  A  punch-mark 
indicates  the  station  of  destination  (14  in  the  il- 
lustration). The  strap  holds  the  parts  of  the  case 
together,  being  rove  through  the  loops. 

A  has  a  dial-plate  and  pointers,  which  indicate  the 
station  of  departure  and  destination. 

i  is  a  metallic  disk  with  radial  slots  and  corre- 
sponding nnmbers.  The  strap  is  so  rove  through  the 
slots  as  to  give  the  required  indication. 

Bag'ga-la.  {Nautical.')  A  two-masted  Arabian 
vessel,  frequenting  the  Indian  Ocean.  A  dhow.  The 
capacity  is  I'rom  200  to  250  tons. 

Bag'ging.  (Fabric.)  1.  A  coarse  fabric  made 
of  old  ropes,  hemp,  etc.,  for  covering  cotton-bales. 

2.  The  gunny-cloth  of  India  is  made  from  jute. 
In  Bengal,  from  one  or  two  species  of  Corchoms ;  in 
Bomliay  and  Madras,  from  the  Crotalaria  juncca. 

Bag-hold'er.  A  contrivance  to  hold  up  a  bag 
with  the  mouth  open  ready  for  filling.  There  are 
many  I'orms,  —  some  adapted  for  large  gi'ain-bags, 
others  of  a  smaller  size  for  Hour,  seeds ;  still  smaller, 
for  ordinary  groceries  and  counter  use. 

a  has  a  platform  on  which  the  sack  stands,  and  its 
weight  spreads  the  horns  within  anil  distends  the 
mouth  of  the  sack. 


b  has  a  liolder  adjustable  as  to  hight,  and  a  hop- 
per to  whicli  the  mouth  of  the  bag  is  attaclied. 
c  has  clasjiiug  bars  operated  by  a  foot-trigger. 

Fig.  525. 


Bag-HoVler. 


Bag-lock.  a.  A  peculiar  form  of  lock,  used  for 
satchels,  etc.,  frequently  merely  a  ]iadlock.  There 
are  many  varieties, — snap-latches,  clasps,  thumb  and 
key  bolts,  etc.  In  the  illustration  are  shown  se\-eral 
varieties,  which  do  not  require  explicit  description. 

Fig.  526. 


/(QBHi^|g')( 


Bag  Locks. 


b.  A  lock  for  mail-bags,  usually  some  form  of  pad- 
lock, seal-lock,  or  shackle. 

Bag-ma-chine'.  .\  machine  for  making  bags 
of  ]iapei  or  textile  fabric.  The  term  is  usually  ap- 
plied to  machines  which  make  jiaper-bags  for  sales- 
men's and  domestic  uses.  In  some  of  these  the  pa]ier 
is  handled  as  in  an  envelope-machine,  blanks  of  a 
certain  size  and  shape  being  pi'cviously  cut  out  ; 
these  are  fed  one  at  a  time  to  the  machine,  either 
automatically  or  by  hand,  and  are  gummed,  folded, 
and  delivered  in  a  pile.  In  other  machines,  the  pa- 
per is  made  u]>  into  a  liollow  tube,  like  a  stove-pipe, 
and  is  fed  to  the  machine  which  makes  an  oblii|ue 
cut,  forming  a  flap  which  doubles  over  to  close  the 
bottom  of  the  bag  at  a  subsequent  operation.     See 

P.\PER-E.\G  M.\CHINE. 

Looms  are  constructed  specially  for  making  seam- 
less bags,  having  a  circular  sJicd  for  that  purpose. 
After  making  the  length  of  two  bags,  the  sheds  are 
united,  so  that  the  tubular  portion  is  closed  and  a 
single  web  of  double  thickness  is  formed.  A  coujde 
of  inches  of  this  is  enough,  and  by  a  transverse  mid- 
way cut  this  double  portion,  thus  divided,  forms  the 


BAG-NET. 


211 


BAIL-SCOOP. 


closure  of  two  bag-bottoms.  The  double  bag-length 
of  the  tubular  portion  is  also  transversely  divided 
midway,  the  cut  forming  the  mouths  of  two  bags. 

Bag-net.  (Fishinij.)  A  landing-net,  or  net  bag- 
shapid,  for  sweeping  a  stream,  or  to  be  set  in  a 
stivam  to  ct.  .ch  fish. 

Bag'nette.  {.Architecture.)  A  small  molding,  like 
the  astragal.  When  enriched  with  foliage,  it  is  called 
a  ckaphJ  :  when  plain,  a  hmd. 

Bag'pipes.  An  ancient  Greek  and  Roman  in- 
strument. The  leathern  bag  receives  air  through  a 
valveJ  tube  from  the  lungs  orabellows,  andis  squeezed 
by  the  arm  to  drive  the  air  into  the  pipes,  which  are 
operated  by  the  performer.  The  ba.ss  pipe  is  called 
the  drone,  and  the  tenor  or  treble  pipe  the  chanter. 
It  is  now  considered  a  Scotch  or  Irish  musical  in- 
strument, though  Xero  is  reported  to  have  solaced 
his  gentle  mind  with  its  strains.  Foi-merly  common 
throughout  Europe,  it  is  now  nearly  restricted  to 
Scotland,  Ireland,  parts  of  France,  and  Sicily. 

It  is  the  common  country  instrument  of  the  Pun- 
jaub.  The  Sikh  instrument  rather  resembles  the 
Italian  pfiferari  than  the  pipes  of  the  Scottish  High- 
lander. 

"  After  dinner  we  had  a  fellow  play  well  upon  the 
bagjiipes,  and  whistle  like  a  bird  exceeding  well." — 
Pepijss  Diary,  May,  1661. 

Its  notes  are  remarkable  for  power  rather  than 
sweetness,  and  reipiire  uncommon  skill  in  the  per- 
former to  render  them  even  moderately  pleasing  to 
a  cultivated  ear,  unless  from  the  force  of  habit  or 
the  associations  connected  with  the  instrument.  De 
guitibiis  lion  est  dispuiandmn,  —  the  Komans  flaTored 
their  sausages  with  asafetida. 

Pipers  are  still  attached  to  the  Highland  regiments 
in  the  Biitish  service. 

The  antifpiarian  notices  of  the  instrument  are  in 
the  Mitsurgia  of  Luscinius,  1536,  and  in  "  Don 
Quixote." 

Fig.  527. 


Baspipes. 


The  Irish  bagpipe  was  originally  the  same  as  the 
Scotch,  but  they  now  differ  in  having  the  mouth- 
piece supplied  by  the  bellows  A,  which,  being  filled 
by  the  motion  of  the  piper's  arm,  to  which  it  is  fas- 
tened, fills  the  bag  £  :  whence,  by  the  pressure  of 
the  other  arm,  the  wind  is  conveyed  into  the  chanter 


C,  which  is  played  on  by  the  fingers  like  the  com- 
mon pipe.  By  means  of  a  tube  the  wind  is  conveyed 
into  drones  a  a  a,  which,  being  tuned  at  octaves  to 
each  other,  produce  a  kind  of  cronan  or  bass  to  the 
chanter. 

The  lower  cut  represents  the  improved  or  union 
pipes,  the  drones  of  which,  tuned  at  thirds  and  fifths 
by  the  regulator,  have  keys  attached  to  theiu  so  as 
to  produce  chords,  parts  of  tunes,  or  whole  tunes, 
even  without  using  the  chanter.  Both  drones  and 
chanter  may  be  rendered  quiescent  by  stop.s. 

Bag-pump.  (Hydraulics.)  A  form  of  bellows- 
pump  iu  which  the  valved  disk 
a,  which  takes  the  place  of  the 
bucket,  is  connected  with  the 
base  of  the  barrel  by  an  elastic 
bag  distended  at  intervals  by 
rings.  It  is  described  by  Dr. 
Piobinson  in  his  "  Jlechanical 
Pliilosophy."  It  is  much  older, 
however,  than  this  work,  and 
has  been  invented  again  and 
again,  from  time  to  time. 

Bag-reef.  (Xautical.)  The 
lowest  reef  of  a  sail. 

Bags.  (Porcelain.)  The  flues 
in  a  porcelain  oven  which  ascend 
on  the  internal  sides  and  enter 
the  oven  at  elevated  points,  so 
as  to  heat  the  upper  part.     See 

OVE.S. 

Bag-tie.  See  B.\G-F.4.STE>rEE. 

Bag-weigh'er.  A  form  of 
steelyard  adapted  for  this  pur- 
pose.     See  STF.ELV.iRD. 

Bail     The  arched  handle  of  Ba?-Pu7np. 

a  kettle  or  bucket,  to  which  it  is  usually  connected 
by  loops  called  ears,  on  the  latter.  The  ends  are 
usually  bent  around  the  ears,  so  as  to  be  permanent, 
though  loosely  attached ;  but  sometimes  the  hail  is 
jointed,  and  adapted  to  be  hooked  to  the  ears  as  oc- 
casion may  require. 

The  bails  of  common  wooden  buckets,  such  as  are 
used  in  the  house  or  sugar-camp,  have  their  hooked 
ends  inserted  into  perforated  metallic  plates,  or  cars, 
which  are  tacked  to  the  staves. 

The  crane-ladle  of  the  foundry  has  a  bail;  the 
smaller  ladles  have  cnitched  handles. 

Bails.  (Xautical.)  The  frames  that  support  the 
awning  or  tilt  of  a  boat. 

Eajl-scoop.  A  scoop  or  pivoted  trough,  designed 
for  draining  bofiies  of  water. 

That  shown  in  the  cut  was  contrived  by  llr.  W. 
Fairbaim,  and  is  adapted  to  be  worked  by  the  single- 
acting  Cornish  engine. 

The  scoop  S  turns  on  a  center  at  C ;  its  other  end 
is  connected  at  E  to  the  end  of  the  engine-bKim  B, 
supported  on  a  suitable  foundation  /'.  Z>  is  the 
drain,  and  X  the  level  of  the  water  in  the  river  or 
place  of  discharge.  The  stroke  of  the  engine  raises 
a  weight  suspended  from  the  beam  and  depresses  the 
end  JR  of  the  scoop,  into  which  water  is  admitted 
through  the  upwardly  opening  valves  F.  The  weight 
then  descends  by  its  own  graWty,  elevating  the  im- 
mersed end  of  the  scoop  sufficiently  to  discharge  its 
contents  into  the  water  at  L.  The  dip  may  be  regu- 
lated by  shifting  the  connecting-rods. 

The  scoop  is  made  of  boiler  plate-iron,  and  is  25 
feet  long  and  30  wide,  with  two  partitions  across  it 
to  strengthen  the  sides  and  afford  bearings  for  the 
valves.  Seventeen  tons  of  water  can  be  raised  at 
each  stroke  b}-  this  machine,  and  with  an  engine 
of  60-horse  power  it  will  do  a  duty  equal  to  three 
pounds  of  coal  per  horse-power  an  hour. 


BAIT-MILL. 


•212 


BALANCE. 


Fig.  529. 


Fatrbnim''s  Batl-Scoop. 

Bait-miU.  A  machine  used  by  the  "  Bank  " 
fi.shiTiii '11  lor  cutting  lish  into  bait.  It  is  an  oblong 
woolIl-u  hoK,  staniliiig  on  one  end,  and  contains  a 
roller  armed  with  knives,  and  turned  by  a  crank  on 
the  outside. 

It  reseihbles  in  form  and  operation  a  saiisage-cnt- 
tini,'  nriehine,  but  delivers  a  coarser  ])roduct. 

Baize.  {Fulirii?.)  A  coarse  woolen  fabric  with  a 
long  uaj),  principally  used  for  covering  tables,  screens, 
etc.     First  made  at  Colchester,  England,  in  16(i0. 

"  Bought  me  a  new  black  baize  waistecoate,  lined 
with  silk." —  Pcpi/s,  1663. 

"Sir  Thomas  Clilibrd  talked  much  of  the  plain 
habits  of  the  Spaniards  :  how  the  king  and  lords 
themselves  wear  but  a  cloak  of  Colchester  bayze, 
and  the  ladies  mantles,  in  cold  weather,  of  wliite 
ll.uincU  ;  and  that  the  endeavours  frequently  of  set- 
ting up  the  manufactory  of  making  these  stnlfs  there, 
have  only  been  prevented  by  the  Inquisition." — Ibid., 
February,  1667. 

Ba-la-lai'ka.  {.Vusk.)  A  musical  instrument  of 
tie-  lundour  kind,  of  very  ancient  Sclavonian  origin. 
It  is  in  common  u.se  both  with  the  Russians  and 
Tartars,  According  to  Niebuhr,  it  is  also  frequent 
in  Egypt  and  Arabia.  The  body  of  it  is  an  oblong 
semicircle,  about  si.v  inches  in  length,  with  a  neck 
or  finger-board  of  two  feet.  It  is  played  on  with  the 
tin;.;ers,  like  the  bandour  or  guitar,  but  has  only  two 
wires,  one  of  which  gives  a  monotonous  bass,  and  by 
the  otlier  the  air  is  produced. 

Bal'ance.  The  word  balance  is  applied  to  many 
things  :  .so:ne  in  rel'erence  to  their  resemblance  to 
the  oscillating  beam  of  the  scales,  such  as  the  bal- 
ance-beam or  xcorkimj-beam  of  some  forms  of  steam- 
engines;  the  balance-handle  of  a  table-knife,  which 
is  weigliteil  to  lift  the  blade  from  the  table-elotli  ; 
the  ba'ancc-beam  of  a  crane  whose  jib  is  poised  on 
the  post  ;  the  balance,  or  pivoted  beam  of  one  form 
of  electrometer ;  the  bn'ance-tlwrmometcr,  which  is 
poised  on  a  stem,  and  is  thrown  out  of  e(]uipoise  by 
fluctuations  in  the  length  of  the  column  of  contained 
mercury. 

The  balance-coclc  of  a  watch  affords  a  bearing  for 
th.'  u]i])er  pivot  of  a  watch-balance. 

The  balance-plale  and  balance-ring  are  parts  for 
sustaining  the  upper  ])ivot  of  a  watch-balance.  They 
diir-r  in  sliape,  but  that  is  their  function. 

The  balance-sprinr/  is  the  hair-spring  which  gives 
the  recoil  motion  to  the  oscillating  bahince-u-hcel, 
whose  pulsations  determine  the  rate  of  movement  of 
the  timekeeper. 

The  balance-verge  is  the  arbor  of  the  balance,  and 
carries  the  pallets  which  act  upon  the  scape-wheel 

The  balancc-iccight  is  a  shifting  weight  to  poise 
the  balance,  or  a  counterweight  to  balance  the  weight 
of  other  attached  parts,  as  in  the  driving-wheel  of 


a  locomotive,  etc.  ;  or  a  weight  to  partially  coun- 

terlialance  the  weight  of  a  valve,  and  enable  it 

to  !"■  lifted  more  readily. 

The  electric  balance  is  a  form  of  electrometer. 
The  hi/tironielric  balance  is  a  form  of  hygrome- 
ter, in  which  the  absorption  of  moisture  destroys 

the  eipiipoise  of  a  Ijalanced  beam. 

The  Injdrostatic  balance  is  a  modification  of  the 

ordinary  balance,  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining 

specific  gravities. 

The  steam -balance  is  the  ordinary  safety-valve 

which  has  a  weighted  lever.     It  was  invented  by 

the  illustrious  Dr.  Papin,  of  Blois. 

The  torsion-balance  is  a  delicate  electrometer, 

in  which  a  horizontal  bar  is  suspended  from  a 

wire  which  is  twisted  by  the  magnetic  attraction 

or  re[iulsion. 

The  specific-gravity  balance  was  due  to  the  dis- 
covery of  Archimedes. 

The  •■  Book  of  the  Balance  of  AVisdom,"  by  Al- 
Khazini,  of  the  twelfth  century,  is  a  treatise  on  the 
specific-gravity  balance,  which  he  credits  to  Archi- 
medes, narrating  the  story  of  Hiero  and  the  Syra- 
cusan  goldsmith  ;  and  which,  as  he  says,  "  is  founded 
upon  geometrical  demonstrations,  and  deduced  from 
physical  causes,  in  two  points  of  view  ;  1.  As  it  im- 
jilies  centers  of  gravity,  which  constitute  the  most 
noble  and  elevated  ilepartuient  of  the  e.xaet  sciences, 
namely,  the  knowledge  that  the  weights  of  hea\y 
bodies  vary  in  proportion  to  the  difi'erences  in  ilis- 
tance  from  a  ])oint  in  common,  —  the  foundation  of 
the  steelyard  ;  2.  As  it  implies  a  knowledge  that  the 
weights  of  heavy  bodies  vary  according  to  dill'eience 
in  rarity  or  density  of  the  liquids  in  which  the  Ijody 
weighed  is  immersed,  —  the  foundation  of  the  balance 
of  wisdom."  The  book  of  the  Saracenic  philoso|iher 
was  translated  by  Chev.  Khanikolf,  Russian  Consul- 
General  at  Tabriz,  Persia  ;  and  an  English  transla- 
tion is  in  the  sixth  volume  of  the  "Journal  of  the 
American  Oriental  Society,"  New  Haven,  1860. 

In  connection  with  the  subject  of  the  great  relative 
weight  and  accepted  theory  of  the  value  and  purity 
of  gold,  the  pious  Moslem  enters  the  following  pro- 
test :  — 

"When  the  conunon  people  hear  from  natural 
philosophers  that  gold  is  the  most  equal  of  bodies, 
and  the  ore  which  has  attained  to  perfection  of  ma- 
turity at  the  goal  of  completeness,  in  respect  to 
eciuilibriuni  [stability  of  character,  under  circum- 
stances wdiich  dissolve  or  destroy  other  metals],  they 
firmly  believe  that  it  has  gradually  come  to  tliat  per- 
fection by  passing  through  the  forms  of  all  [othei] 
bodies,  so  that  its  gold  nature  was  originally  lead, 
afterwards  became  tin,  then  brass,  then  silver,  and 
finally  reached  the  perfection  of  gold  ;  not  knowing 
that  the  natural  philosophers  mean,  in  saying  so, 
only  something  like  what  they  mean  when  they 
speak  of  man,  and  attribute  to  him  a  completeness 
and  an  equilibrium  in  nature  and  constitution,  — 
not  that  man  was  once  a  bull  and  was  changed  into 
an  ass,  and  afterwards  into  a  horse,  and  after  that 
into  an  ape,  and  finally  became  man." 

This  has  been  wrongly  quoted  ;  it  is  not  fair  to 
call  Al-Khazini  a  Darwinian. 

The  balance  of  Archimedes  was  a  beam,  with  bowds 
suspended  from  fixed  points  at  each  end,  and  a  mov- 
able weight  adjustable  on  one  arm  of  the  beam,  which 
was  graduated  from  the  fulcrum  to  the  point  of  sus- 
pension of  one  of  the  bonds.  By  adjustment  on  the 
arm,  the  weight  was  made  a  counterpoise  equal  to 
the  ditiereuce  between  the  weights  in  the  respective 
bowds. 

The  balance  of  Mohammed  Bin  Zakaziya  differed 
from  that  of  Archimedes  by  the  introduction  of  the 


BALANCE. 


213 


BALANCE. 


indicator-needle  attached  to  the  beam,  and  called  by 
the  Ai-abs  the  toii'jao,  and  by  the  substitution  of  a 
morable  suspended  scale  for  the  movable  weight  to 
balance  the  difference  between  scales.  Both  were 
described  and  exhibited  by  Al-Khazini  in  his  work 
above  referred  to. 

1.  The  original  form  of  weighing  scales  was  prob- 
ably a  bar  suspended  by  the  middle,  and  with  a 
board  or  shell  suspended  from  each  end,  one  to  con- 
tain the  weight,  and  the  other  the  matter  to  be 
weighed.     Paits  of  the  original  picture  (Fig.   530) 


Fig.  530. 


Egypt  an  Scalfs. 

are  defaced  by  time, as  indicated.  An  ancient  Eg\p- 
tiin  balance,  consisting  of  a  wood>^n  beam  and  a 
piece  of  lead  at  the  end  for  a  weight,  was  found  at 
Sakkarah. 

In  early  times,  before  the  coinage  of  money,  the 
precious  metals  were  weighed  out,  and  the  duty  of 
weighing  was  regulated  by  the  municipality,  antl 
attended  to  by  public  weighers,  as  we  see  in  the 
Egyptian  monuments  and  read  in  classic  literature. 

Abraham  paid  for  the  land  he  bought  in  silver, 
wei'fhmg  it  out  to  Ephron,  400  shekels  of  silver. 

The  soni  of  Jacob  also  paid  for  the  wheat  they 
bought  in  Egypt  at  a  given  price  in  metal,  weighed 
out  to  the  officers  of  Joseph. 

For  the  early  uses  and  gradual  improvement  in 
th^  production  of  coin,  see  Coin'AGE. 

The  "  balance "  of  the  Bible  was  similar  to  that 
of  Egvpt,  the  ends  of  equal  length,  and  the  beam 
suspended  by  its  mid-length.  The  frequent  refer- 
ence to  false  and  unequal  balance  shows  that  the 
lever-balance  on  the  "steelyard"  principle  was  un- 
known to  them. 

The  lever  of  unequal  lengths  on  each  side  of  its 
point  of  susfiension  affords  a  convenient  mode  of 
iletermining  weights  of  various  objects  with  but  a 
single  weight,  the  object  being  suspended  from  the 
end  of  the  shorter  arm,  while  the  bob  is  shifted 
along  the  graduated  longer  arm  until  it  forms  an 
e.Kact  counterpoise  for  the  object  weighed.  Tliis  is 
c  lUed  the  s'teh/nrd,  probably  from  its  material  and 
former  length  in  Englaml,  and  is  also  known  as  the 
Homan  Balance  {Stntcra).     See  Steelyard. 

Balances  for  delicate  operations,  such  as  those  used 
iu  a-ssaving  and  chemical  manipulation,  are  made 
with  extreme  care.  The  beam  should  be  as  light 
as  possible  consistent  with  inflexibility :  for  not  onlv 
the  inertia,  but  also  the  friction,  is  increased  in  pro- 


portion to  the  weight,  and  the  sensibility  consequently 
diminished.  A  cylinder  of  steel  passing  at  right  an- 
gles through  the  center  of  the  beam  fonns  the  axis  ; 
and  its  extremiries,  ground  into  sharp  edges  on  the 
lower  side,  serve  as  the  points  of  support.  The  two 
edges  must  be  accurately  in  the  same  straight  line, 
and  turn  on  smooth  planes  of  agate  or  polished  steel, 
carefully  leveled.  The  pans  should  likewise  be  sus- 
pended from  the  extremities  of  the  beam  by  agate 
planes  resting  on  knife-edges.  A  needle  or  tongue 
is  usually  attached  to  the  beam,  pointing  directly 
upward  or  downward,  when 
the  beam  is  hoiizontal,  fen- 
the  purjjose  of  indicatii.g 
the  delations  of  the  beam 
from  the  horizontal  [o^i- 
tion,  on  a  giaduated  scale. 
It  is  better,  however,  to 
bring  the  arms  to  temii- 
nate  in  points,  and  to  jilace 
a  divided  scale  behind  each. 
In  this  way  the  slightest 
deviation  of  the  beam  will 
be  rendered  e\ident,  if  the 
zeros  of  the  scales  be  placed 
exactly  in  the  same  level. 
The  scale  is  indispensable, 
because  the  balance,  if  veiy 
sensitive,  would  require  a 
long  rime  to  come  to  jest ; 
r/  c^S   ^^^  ^^  ^*  known  to  be  poised 

^(/^■,      C^  when  the  excursions  of  the 

^' 2i^    needle  on  both  sides  of  the 

3^  zero  of  the  scale  are  equal. 
\  In  order  to  preserve  the 
knife-edges,  the  beam,  when 
not  in  use,  is  supported  on 
rests.  Props  should  also  be  placed  under  the  pans 
when  loading  or  unloading  the  balance.  The  whole 
apparatus  must  be  placed  under  a  glass  case,  to  pro- 
tect it  from  the  disturbing  influences  of  currents  of 
air. 

The  sensitiveness  of  a  balance  constructed  with 
due  care  may  be  carried  to  almost  inconceivable 
extent. 

Analytical  balances  are  usually  made  to  carry  1,000 
grains  in  each  pan,  and  to  turn  with  the  -^g^  part 
of  a  giain. 

There  are  several  large  balances  in  use  in  the  Eng- 
lish mint,  calculated  to  weigh  from  1,000  to  5,000 
ounces  Troy.  Some  of  them  t\irn  with  -j's  of  a 
grain,  when  loaded  with  1,000  ounces  in  each  scale, 
or  with  joootijo  part  of  the  weight. 

Fig.  531. 


5=3 


Coin  Balance. 
To  the  mode  of  suspending  the  beam  and  the  scales 


BALANCE. 


n4 


BALANCE-BOB. 


more  attention  has  probaUy  been  directed  than  to 
any  otliLM'  part  of  tlie  balance. 

01'  some  of  the  European  balances,  — 

Fox's  beam  has  pivots,  the  conical  ends  of  wliich 
play  in  hollow  agate  cones  of  larger  angle. 

Of.utlino's  beam  is  coated  with  plutinmn  or  pal- 
ladium, tlie  knife-edges  and  planes  being  of  agate, 
and  the  instrument  proof  against  acid  fumes.  The 
knife-edges  are  let  into  dovetailed  notches  in  tlie 
beam.  Tlie  beam  is  graduated,  so  that  .small  differ- 
ences of  weight  can  be  determined  by  placing  a  small 
platinum  wire  weight  on  one  of  the  divisions  of  the 
graduated  beam. 

Stkinueil  suspends  the  beam  by  wires  or  silk 
cords.  In  another  of  Steinheil's,  the  beam  carries 
two  small  steel  spheres  in  the  middle,  resting  on  a 
steel  plane,  and  a  sphere  at  either  end,  upon  which 
rest  tlie  plane  or  slightly  convex  spheiical  surfaces 
of  the  plates,  from  which  the  pans  are  suspended. 

Among  the  modes  of  delicately  adjusting  the  parts 
to  obtain  perfect  ei|uiUbrium  may  be  cited  :  — 

In  DoVEii'.s  the  tinal  adjustments  in  the  direction 
of  the  length  of  the  beam,  and  in  a  direction  perpen- 
dicular to  it,  are  affected  by  a  cut  at  each  end  of  the 
beam,  making  an  angle  of  45°  with  the  axis  of  the 
beam,  and  capable  of  being  widened  by  a  screw. 

In  the  American  balance  the  socket  in  which  one 
of  the  extreme  knife-edges  is  fixed  moves  in  a  slit  in 
the  direction  of  the  lengtli  of  the  beam,  and  is  ad- 
justed liy  means  of  two  screws. 

In  OKiiTLiNfi's  the  adjustment  of  the  distance  of 
the  extreme  knife-edge  from  the  middle  knife-edge 
is  effected  liy  a  vertical  cut  in  the  metal  of  the  beam, 
capable  of  being  slightly  widened  or  contracted  by 
screws. 

Among  the  modes  of  checking  the  oscillation  of 
the  pans  may  l)e  msntioned  Dolberg's,  which  con- 
sists of  hair-brushes  turning  on  a  handle,  and  as- 
cending till  tlie  ends  of  tlie  brashes  touch  the  under 
side  of  the  pan.  Tlie  mode  of  obtaining  quiescence 
of  the  pan  in  the  periodical  intermittence  of  the 
coin-weighing  apparatus  is  by  a  depressed  ivory  point 
above  and  an  agate  point  beneath. 

In  Fox's  balance  the  beam  is  brought  to  zero  by 
the  attraction  of  a  magnet. 

The  sensitiveness  of  a  balance  depends  (after  fric- 
tion has  been  reduced  to  a  minimum),  first,  on  the 
proximity  of  the  center  of  gravity  to  the  point  of 
suspension  on  which  the  beam  swings  ;  and  the  cen- 
ter of  gravity  must  be  directly  below  the  point  of 
suspension.  Secondly,  on  the  f:ict  that  all  three 
knife-edges  are  in  the  same  plane,  to  prevent  the 
farther  lowering  of  the  center  of  gravity  when  the 
beam  is  loaded.  Tliirdly,  on  the  rigidity  of  the  beam, 
to  prevent  a  similar  lowering  by  springing. 

See  Faraday's  "Chemical  Manipulations"  for  sug- 
gestions in  construction  and  management  of  delicate 
balances  used  in  quantitative  analysis. 

See  also  CoiN-WEiGHiNO  Machi.n'E  ;  Counter 
Sc.\LES;  MlciiOMETEiiB.\L.\.\CE  ;  Pi,.\tformSc.\les  ; 
Si'iiiNG  B.\L.\NOE  ;  Steelyard  ;  Weighing  Ma- 
chine. 


Fig.  532. 


ed  of  two  weighted  arms,  oscillating  on  a  vertical  axis. 
The  clock  of  Henry  de  Wick,  made  in  1379  for 
Charles  V.,  had  a  balance  of  this  description.  The 
balance,  so  far  as  watches  are  concerned,  is  a  wheel 
driven  in  one  direction  by  the  mainspring  acting 
through  the  train  of  gearing,  and  returned  by  the 
force  of  the  hair-spring.  While  watches  of  the  va- 
rious kinds  have  balances,  their  escapements  gener- 
ally constitute  their  distinguishing  features  by  which 
they  are  named  and  known.     See  Escapement. 

In  regulating  a  watch,  the  length  of  the  beat  of 
the  balance  is  increased  or  shortened  to  make  the 
watch  go  slower  or  faster.  This  is  done  by  letting 
out  or  taking  up  the  hair-spring.  See  H.\IK-SPIIING  : 
CoMPENs.vrioN  Balance. 

The  clock  or  watch  balance  consists  of  — 

The  rim. 

Verge ;  spindle  or  arbor. 

Spring  ;  which  gives  the  recoil  movement. 

Segulator ;  determines  the  length  of  spring  in- 
volved in  the  movement. 

Cock :  att'ords  a  bearing  for  the  upper  pivot. 

Potancc ;  a  step  for  the  lower  pivot. 

Pallets :  the  plates  on  the  verge,  which  engage  the 
scape-ichccl. 

3.  (Elcclricity.)  A  tenn  applied  to  a  device  for 
measuring  the  resistance  of  an  element  of  an  electric 
circuit.     Also  known  as  a  Bridge. 

Bal'ance,  Al-loy'.  Robert's  Alloy  Balance  is 
intended  for  weighing  those  metals  whose  ]n'opor- 
tions  are  stated  decimally,  being  constructed  on  the 
principle  that  weights  in  cquilibrio  are  inversely  as 
their  distances  from  their  points  of  support. 

The  point  of  suspension,  «,  of  the  balance  is  ad- 
justed until  the  arms  are  respectively  as  the  two  stated 
proportions,  — say  17  tin  to  S3  copper.    The  half  of 

Fig.  533. 


Chronoyneter  Balance. 


2.  (Horology.) 
The  oscillating  or 
pendulum  wheel 
of  a  watch,  which 
gives  the  pulsa- 
tions. Its  a.xis  is 
the  verge. 

In  the  earliest 
clocks  it  was  in 
the  form  of  a  bal- 
ance, and  not  of  a 
wheel.    It  cousist- 


Rober^s  Alloy  Balance. 

the  beam  is  divided  into  50  equal  parts,  numliered 
from  the  one  end,  and,  the  point  of  suspension  being 
adjusted  proportionally,  the  weight  ic  is  brought 
to  a  position  where  it  enables  the  beam  of  the  empty 
balance  to  stand  in  cqnilibrio.  A  quantity  of  copjier 
being  then  placed  in  the  scale  suspended  from  the 
short  ann  will  be  balanced  by  the  proportionate  (pian- 
tity  of  tin  in  the  other  scale.  See  table  in  Alloy,  for 
converting  fractions  of  apoundtodecimal  proportions. 

Bal'ance-bar.  {Hydraulic  Engineering.)  A 
heavy  licam  bolted  to  the  miter-post  of  a  canal-lock 
gate,  and  resting  upon  the  heel-post  of  the  same.  It 
extends  over  the  wharf  or  pier  wlien  the  gate  is  closed, 
and  has  two  uses,—  it  forms  a  lever  by  which  the  gate 
is  swung  on  its  pintle,  and  it  partially  balances  the 
outer  end  of  the  gate. 

Bal'ance-bob.  A  weight  on  the  inner  end  of  a 
working-beam,  to  counterbalance  the  weight  of  the 
plunger-piston.     The  balance-bob  of  the  Wicksteed 


BALANCE-BRIDGE. 


21; 


BALAXCE-GATE. 


engine  of  the  East  London  water-works  is  a  recepta- 
cle of  ballast,  weighing  about  89,600  iiounds. 

Balance-bridge.  A  lifting  bridge  with  a  coun- 
terpoise.    A  l-i-\.s(T'LE  Bridge,  which  see. 

Bal'ance-crane.  A  crane  having  two  amis,  one 
of  wliich  is  provided  with  ari'angements  for  counter- 
poising, in  whole  or  part,  the  weight  to  be  raised  by 
the  other. 

The  following  is  a  description  of  that  employed 
by  Stevenson  in  the  erection  of  the  Skenyvore  Light- 
house. 

a  6  is  a  portion  of  a  cast-iron  pipe  or  pillar  erected 
in  the  center  of  the  tower,  and  susceptible  of  being 
lengthened  as  the  tower  rose,  by  means  of  additional 
pieces  of  pillar  let  in  by  spigot  and  faucet  joints.  On 
this  pillar  a  frame  of  iron  Wiis  placed,  capable  of  re- 
volving freely  round  it,  and  carrying  two  trussed 
arms  and  a  double  train  of  barrels  and  gearing, 
worked  by  men  standing  on  the  stages  S  S,  wliich 


revolved  round  a  b,  along  with  the  framework  of  the 
crane  from  which  they  hung.  On  the  one  aim  hung 
a  cylindric  weight  of  cast-iron,  }F,  which  could  be 
moved  along  it  by  means  of  the  gearing,  so  as  to 
increase  or  diminish  by  leverage  its  efl'ect  as  a  coun- 
terpoise ;  and  on  the  other  was  a  roller  E.  The 
roller  was  so  connected  with  the  weight  on  the  oppo- 
site arm  as  to  move  along  with  it,  receding  from  or 
approaching  to  the  center  pillar  of  iron  in  the  same 
manner  as  the  weight  did.  From  the  roller  hung  a 
sheave,  over  which  a  chain  moved,  with  a  hook  B 
at  the  end  for  raising  the  stones.  When  a  stone  was 
to  be  raised,  the  weight  and  the  sheave  were  drawn 
out  to  the  end  of  the  arras  at  P  of  the  crane,  which 
projected  over  the  outside  of  the  walls  of  the  tower  ; 
and  they  were  held  in  their  places  by  simply  locking 
the  gearing  which  moved  them.  The  second  traui 
of  gearing  was  then  brought  into  play  to  work  the 
chain  which  hung  over  the  sheave,  and  so  to  raise 


Fig.  531. 


Balancf 'Crane  used  at   Skerryvore. 


the  stone  to  a  hight  sufScient  to  clear  the  top  of 
the  wall.  WTien  in  that  position,  the  first  train  of 
gearing  was  slowly  unlocked,  and  the  slight  decliv- 
it}'  inwards  from  the  end  of  the  arms  formed  an  /?i- 
clined  plane,  along  which  the  roller  carrying  the 
sheave  was  allowed  slowly  to  move  (one  man  using 
a  break  on  the  gearing  to  prevent  a  rapid  run),  while 
the  first  train  of  gearing  was  slowly  wound  by  the 
others,  so  as  to  take  up  the  chain  which  passed  over 
the  sheave,  and  thus  to  keep  the  stone  fram  descend- 
ing too  low  in  proportion  as  it  approached  the  center 
of  the  tower.  When  the  stone  so  raised  had  reached 
such  a  position  as  to  liang  right  over  the  wall,  the 
crane  was  made  to  turn  round  the  centre  column  in 
any  direction  that  was  necessary,  in  order  to  bring 
it  exactly  above  the  place  where  it  was  to  be  set ; 
and,  by  working  either  train  of  gearing,  it  could  be 
moveil  hori2ontally  or  vertically  in  any  way  that  was 
required. 

Bal'ance    E'lec-trom'e-ter.      An  instrument 


liaving  the  poised  beam  of  the  ordinary  balance,  and 
adapted  to  estimate,  by  weights  suspended  from  one 
arm,  the  mutual  attraction  of  ojipositely  electrified 
surfaces. 

In  H.\RRis's  electrometer  the  beam  is  suspended 
from  an  insulated  post ;  one  scale,  carmngthe  weight, 
has  its  seat  upon  a  post ;  the  other  scale  is  a  disk 
which  is  suspended  above  a  similar  disk  electrized 
by  connection  with  a  charged  Leyden  jar.  Henley's 
quadrant  electrometer  has  a  pendulous  pith-ball 
whose  deflections  are  measured  by  a  graduated  arc. 

Bal'ance-frames.  {SkipbuHding.)  Those  frames 
of  a  ship  which  are  of  equal  area  and  equally  distant 
from  the  shiip's  center  of  gravity. 

Bal'ance-gate.  (Hydraulic  Enejincering.)  A 
form  of  flood-gate  which  has  a  vertical  shaft  as  a  cen- 
ter. As  the  leaves  on  each  .side  of  the  pintle  are  of 
equal  area,  a  very  small  power  is  necessaiy  to  open 
them  in  wliichever  direction  the  water  may  be  press- 
ing.    By  giving  a  preponderating  area  to  the  inner 


BALANCE,  HYDROSTATIC. 


216 


BALANCE-WHEEL  FILE. 


leaves  of  the  gate,  they  may  be  made  self-opening 
or  self-closing  as  the  current  sets  in  or  out  of  a  chan- 
nel. In  this  form  they  are  commonly  used  as  sluice- 
gates in  Holland. 

Fig.  535. 


Balance-  Gates, 

Bal'ance,  Hy'dro-stat'ic.  See  Specific-Grav- 
ity Hai.antk. 

Bal'auce-lev'el.  (Suroet/ing.)  An  instrument 
suspcniU'd  liy  a  ring.  Wlicn  in  cfjuilibrium,  two 
siglits,  projierly  fitted  to  the  instrument,  show  the 
line  of  level. 

Bal'ance-knife.  {Cutlery.)  A  tahle-knife,  of 
wliiili  llic  lilailc  and  handle  counterbalance  each 
other,  so  that  the  blade  may  not  touch  and  soil 
tile  cloth. 

Bal'auce-reef.  (Nauliccd.)  In  a  square  sail, 
a  diagonal  reef-band  from  the  outer  head-earing  to 
the  tack.  In  a  fore-and-aft  sail,  it  extends  from  near 
the  outer  point  of  the  upper  horizontal  reef-band  to 
a  point  liigher  a\i  at  the  inner  edge  of  the  sail. 

Baraiice-rynd.  {Mill.)  An  iron  bar  stretch- 
ing aiross  the  eye  of  the  runner,  and  by  whicli  it  is 
poised  on  the  top  of  the  spindle.  In  the  illustration, 
/  is  the  spindle  of  the  runner  ;  B  the  cock-head, 
on  which  the  halance-rtjnd  F  F  i^  poised.  The  lat- 
ter has  a  capacity  for  rocking  back  and  Ibrtli  on  the 


Fig.  536. 


Balance- Rynd, 


spiuillc  to  a  given  extent,  as  the  runiur  iinds  its  ad- 
justment on  the  bed-stone.  The  driving-block  D  D 
sits  on  the  scjuare  of  the  spindle,  and  the  driving- 


lugs  C  C  bear  in  the  slots  of  the  balance-rynd,  and 
drive  the  stone  when  the  spindle  /is  rotated. 

Bal'ance-sec'tion.  {Shipbuilding.)  One  of  a 
pair  of  vertical  cross-sections,  one  near  each  end  of 
the  vessel,  which  are  designed  after  the  midship  sec- 
tion and  leading  water-line. 

Bal'ance  Ther-mom'e-ter.  A  thermometer 
poised  on  an  a.vis,  and  liaving  ether  and  mercury  in 
the  respective  ends.  When  an  unusual  heat  occ\n's, 
the  ether  is  expanded,  and  drives  the  mercury  far- 
tlier  towards  the  end,  which  tips  the  instrument  and 
sounds  an  alarm.     A  form  oi fire-alarm. 

Another  form  oi  balance  thermometer  is  an  inverted 
tube,  whiidi  acts  as  a  countei-poise  to  a  window,  reg- 
ister, or  damper.  The  upper  end  of  the  tube  has  an 
air-bulb,  the  lower  end  of  the  stem  containing  mer- 
cury, into  a  cup  of  wliich  the  end  is  submerged.  As 
the  temperature  increases,  the  air  expands,  displaces 
the  mercury,  the  tube  rises,  and  the  window  or  damper 
is  moved.  The  converse  operation  takes  place  when 
the  temperature  falls.      See  Theumometeu. 

Bal'ance -valve.  A  valve  of  any  character  in 
wliicli  steam  is  ai-lmitted  to  both  sides,  so  as  to  render 
it  more  readily  operated  by  relieving  its  pressure  upon 
the  seat.  Tlu'  balance  puppet-valve  has  two  disks 
of  slightly  dillering  diameter,  and  placed  on  a  single 
stem ;  the  steam  being  admitted  between  the  two,  or 
above  and  below  the  upper  and  lower  disk  respec- 
tively. The  slight  dift'ei'ence  in  size  is  in  favor  of  the 
pressure  of  the  valve  on  the  seat. 

The  object  is  to  secure  a  large  opening  without 
gi'cat  i-esistani-e. 

Bal'ance-vise.  (  Watchmaking. )  A  small  tail- 
vise,  used  liy  watchmakers. 

Bal'ance-wheel.  In  horology  this  signifies  the 
ratcliet-fiiinied  scape-wheel  in  the  old  vertical -movc- 
virnt  watch.  Its  teeth  are  acted  upon  by  the  pallets 
of  the  verge  .S, 

wliich    is   the  Fig.  63T\ 

axisorspindle  ^. 

of  the  balance 
t',  and  the  lat- 
ter, in  its  os- 
c  i  1 1  a  t  i  0  n  , 
makes  the 
time-beat, act- 
ing as  the  pen- 
dulum in  a 
clock. 

The      term 
balance-wheel 

is  sometimes  applied  to  the  balance  C,  wliich  acts  as 
tlie  measurer  of  time,  and  balances  or  regulates  the 
rate  by  api  dying  its  pulsations  to  intermit  the  action 
of  the  spring.  So  the  term  balance-wheel  has  grad- 
ually been  conferred  upon  tly-wlieels  which  confer 
regularity  of  motion  to  the  machinery  to  which  they 
are  applied. 

The  term  balance  is  derived  from  its  oiiginal 
form,  consisting  of  weighted  arms  ujion  an  oscillating 
axis,  and  having  a  semblance  to  the  beam  of  the  bal- 
ance when  it  oscillates  on  its  pivot  or  bearings.  This 
was  the  form  of  the  balance  in  Henry  de  Wick's 
clock,  constructed  for  Charles  V.,  in  1379. 

Bal'ance--wheel  En'gine.  (Horology.)  An 
instrumint  for  Ibrming  tlie  ordinary  balance-wheel 
of  a  watch,  which  consists  of  a  four-spoked,  full- 
rimmed  wheel  of  steel,  and  is  made  of  a  steel  disk 
from  which  the  segments  are  punched  out,  the 
cros.ifd  irhcel  being  finished  by  a  file. 

Barance-wheel  File.  (Horology.)  Or  Swing- 
wheel  File.  A  file  adai>te<l  to  cut  out  the  sectors 
from  the  circular  steel  plate,  which  forms  the  blank 
for  the  balance-wheel. 


Balance-  Wyteel. 


BALCOXET. 


217 


BALE-TIE. 


Bal  co-net  A  low,  ornamental  I'ailing  to  a  door 
or  window,  projecting  but  slightly  beyond  the  sill  or 
threshold. 

Bal'co-ny.  1.  (Architecture.)  A  projecting  stage 
or  platfonn  on  the  outside  of  a  liuilding,  usuaUy  sup- 
ported by  consoles  or  columns,  and  furnished  with  a 
rail  or  other  enclosure. 

2.   [ShipirrUihting.)     The  stem  gallery  of  a  ship. 

Bal'da-chin.  (ArdiUcclure.)  A  canopy  supported 
by  colurajis,  and  raised  over  altars,  tombs,  etc. 

Bale.  A  bundle  of  stray,  hay,  or  other  material, 
put  up  in  compact  form  for  transportation  or  storage. 

Many  ingenious  devices 

for  putting  up  forage  ra-  

tions  and  cut-stutf  for  feed 
have  been  devised  from 
time  to  time,  especially 
since  the  United  States 
military  stations  have  been 
so  widely  established. 

The  bale  1  is  made  up 
of  a  roll  or  rolls  of  hay  or 
straw,  laid  in  coils,  and 
fastened  by  cords  or  wires 
crossing  it  longitudinally 
at  right  angles. 

in  2,  the  top  and  bottom 
of  the  bale  are  covered  by 
transverse  strips  A  A, 
curved  so  as  to  shed  water, 
and  the  edges  are  protect- 
ed by  longitudinal  strips 
BB. 

3  shows  a  cylindrical  bale,  having  a  central  hol- 
low b  extending  from  end  to  end.  The  ends  arc 
strengthened  by  segmental  strips  d  d,  which  protect 
the  edges,  leaving  the  body  of  the  bale  ojien  to  free 
Tcntilation.  Longitudinal  ties  c  c  bind  the  whole 
together. 

Fig.  538. 

Tin.  1. 

-  ^^  Fig.  2. 

T 


elastic  brushes,  heckles  for  flax-brakes,  and  is  split 
into  splints  for  plaiting  like  straw. 

Strips  of  hahen  have  been  aggregated  by  pressure, 
moisture,  and  heat,  so  as  to  become  agglutinated,  and 
thus  fonu  larger  articles,  such  as  walking-canes. 
Kortright's  English  Patent,  1841. 

Artificial  baleen  is  made  in  Germany,  and  consists 
of  rattans  impregnated  with  a  strong  black  varnish. 
It  is  called  ivalhsine. 

Ba-leine'.  A  movable  scaffold,  employed  in  France 
to  fiLilitate  the  tipping  of  the  wagons  in  railroad 
embankments. 


Fig  539. 


^^,!f,  'r^,^,..yf'V/^//!i;>^ 


Bales. 

Ba-leen.'  The  plates  of  fibrous  material  with  a 
bristly  f.iiii<e,  which  depend  from  the  upper  jaw  of 
the  rii/kl  whale  (Balccna  m)jsliceiiis).  Tliere  are  about 
200  of  these  plates  on  each  side  of  the  mouth  in  the 
outer  row.  These  are  from  10  to  15  feet  in  length, 
and  about  one  foot  broad  at  their  base.  An  inner 
TOW  of  smaller  subsidiary  plates  is  arranged  oblique- 
ly. The  material  is  called  wliaJchnne :  but  the  word 
is  quite  inappropriate,  as  it  is  not  of  the  nature  of  bone. 

The  material  is  used  for  the  ribs  of  umbrellas,  stif- 
fening for  corsets,  for  chimney  and  street  brooms, 


Baleine. 

It  consists  of  two  trussed  beams,  which  are  laid 
with  raOs  along  the  top,  one  end  resting  on  the 
ground  at  the  conmiencenient  of  the  embankment, 
or  at  the  battery -head  of  an  embankment  in  course 
of  formation  ;  the  other  end  of  the  balciiu  rests  on  a 
wheeled  carriage,  or  an  auxiliary  railway,  the  rails 
of  which  are  taken  up  at  one  end  as  the  other  pro- 
gresses. When  a  car  is  tipped  at  the  battery-head, 
the  contents  are  discharged  between  the  rails,  and  it 
is  pushed  to  the  other  end  of  the  balcinc.  The  same 
plan  is  followed  with  the  rest  of  the  loaded  cai-s  un- 
til the  bnlfinr  is  full.  The  empty  cai-s  are  then  coup- 
led and  withdrawn  by  the  locomotive. 

Bale-tie.  A  device  for  fastening  the  ends  of  the 
hoops  by  which  bales  of  cotton  are  held  in  compact 
form. 

The  annexed  cut  shows  29  of  these  devices,  which 
are  .selected  from  a  much  larger  number,  to  illustrate, 
not  only  the  devices  tliem.selves,  but  also  the  num- 
ber of  inodes  in  which  so  apparently  smaU  a  problem 
mav  be  solved. 

The  name  and  date  are  simply  given,  as  the  con- 
struction and  operation  will  be  generally  understood 
without  special  explanation. 

a.  SAE.4.TIER   (English),    1796. 


b.   Blaiu 

1802. 

C.     BUF.CK 

1807. 

d.  Smith 

1849. 

e.    McCo.MB, 

June    15,  1856. 

/.  Broad, 

1850. 

q.    SWETT, 

Oct.     23,  1866;  reissuedMav 7,72. 

h.   JIc('o.MB, 

1850. 

i.    Cook, 

March    2,  1858. 

k.  Brodie, 

"       22,  1859. 

I.    Beard, 

Oct.      16,  1866. 

BALE-TIE. 

w 

JoKDAN, 

AllR. 

28, 

1870 

n. 

Muriuis, 

April 

6, 

18 '.9 

0. 

Adams, 

Feb. 

20, 

1872 

P- 

Peyton, 

July 

18, 

1871 

9- 

Leckv, 

Oct. 

29, 

1807 

r. 

Sechlek, 

March  19, 

1807. 

s. 

Shefpaud 

Aug. 

22, 

1871 

t. 

Lattixo, 

Dec. 

18, 

1866 

11. 

Onions, 

June 

5, 

1860 

V. 

Lee, 

Oct. 

16, 

1866 

w. 

MiLLIGAN, 

Nov. 

ti, 

1866 

X. 

Meiuutt, 

April 

10, 

1866 

V. 

QlTANT, 

Oct. 

28, 

1S6J 

McCoiiB, 

Jan. 

29, 

1861. 

a'. 

Seavek, 

Oct. 

23, 

1866. 

V. 

McCoMB, 

(( 

23, 

1866 

c'. 

Wailey, 

(( 

9, 

1866 

d' 

GUIDLEY, 

" 

23, 

1866 

218 


BALL. 


Fig.  510. 


—  #> 

.is^Sfc^at. 

...^^a^sl 

5fi 

Bale-  Ties. 

In  connection  with  the  subject  of  ties  for  bales  may- 
be nientioneil  the  devices  for  baling  cut  hay,  anil  for 
haling  feed  and  forage  rations,  to  condense  their  bulk 
for  transportation.  Tln>  latter  are  especially  intended 
for  military  and  emigrant  purposes. 

One  plan  is  briefly  as  follows  :  — 

The  hay  is  carried  by  an  endless  apron  to  a  rotary 
cutter  driven  by  power,  and  which,  cutting  past  a 
fixed  blade,  chops  the  hay  into  pieces  of  from  three 
fourths  of  an  inch  to  one  and  a  half  inches  in  length. 
After  this  it  passes  through  a  winnowing  apparatus, 
wliich  abstracts  all  dust  and  dirt  therefrom,  and  then 
between  crushing-rollers,  which  crush  it  flat  and  ren- 
der it  soft  and  flexible  ;  in  this  condition  it  is  jjlaced 
in  a  strong  press  and  compressed  into  a  bale  of  great 


solidity  and  compactness,  which,  when  propeily 
hooped  or  banded,  is  ready  for  transportation.  By 
these  means  the  size  of  bale  for  a  given  weiglit  of 
hay  is  materially  reduced,  while  the  thorough  re- 
moval of  dust,  etc.,  and  the  softening  of  the  mate- 
rial fiom  the  crushing  to  which  it  has  been  subjected, 
increase  its  value  for  feeding  purposes. 

The  bales  contain  about  nine  cubic  feet,  and  weigh 
200  pounds. 

In  baling  forage  rations,  a  feed  of  corn  is  placed  in 
a  feed  of  hay,  and  the  whole  condensed  into  the 
shape  of  a  large  brick. 

Baring-ma-chiue'.  (Uydraidk  Eiu/inceriiu].) 
An  apparatus  consisting  of  a  square  bucket,  sliding 
on  a  nearly  vertical  rabbeted  beam,  dijiping  at  its 
lower  position  into  the  water  in  the  hold  or  ditch, 
and  discharging  its  contents  upon  deck. 

The  bucket  has  a  Hap-valve  at  bottom,  which  opens 
when  it  reaches  the  water.  It  is  hoisted  by  means 
of  tackle.  When  the  bucket  reaches  the  top,  a  ]iai't 
of  the  slide  tilts  over  and  tips  the  bucket,  which  dis- 
charges its  contents.     See  also  B.\il-sc'oop. 

Bal'ing-press.  A  press  for  condensing  fibrous 
articles  of  considerable  bulk  into  a  compact  form,  (or 
the  purpose  of  shipment. 

It  essentially  consists  of  a  bed,  inclosing  sides, 
and  a  head,  jilaten,  or  follower,  operated  by  means 
of  screws,  toggles,  beaters,  rojje  and  pulley,  or  by 
other  mechanical  devices,  as  will  hereafter  appear. 

The  varieties  may  be  thus  enumerated,  and  will 
be  considered  in  their  alphabetical  position  under  the 
following  heads  ;  — 

1.  Screw  press.  7.   Double-acting  press. 

2.  Toggle  press.  8.  Windlass  press. 

3.  Beater  press.  9.   Hack  and  pinion  press. 

4.  Revolving  press.       10.   Reiuessing  press. 

5.  Hydraulic  press.       11.   Rolling-pressure  press. 

6.  Portable  press. 

Other  minor  varieties  and  sub-varieties  might  be 
cited  were  there  any  object  in  multiplying  defini- 
tions. 

Ba-lise' ;  Ba-lize'.  A  timber  frame  raised  as  a 
beacon  or  lanilmark. 

Balk.  1.  (Caiycnlry.)  a.  A  squared  timber, 
long  or  short,  suitable  fot  a  bcnm  in  a  frame,  a  tic 
in  a  truss,  a  cjirchr  in  a  floor,  a  sill  in  a  building,  or 
for  a  shore  or  chock  when  of  shorter  proportions. 
Baulk  ;  Bauk  ;  Bawk. 

b.  A  large  timber  in  a  fi'ame,  trestle,  truss,  or  floor. 

c.  A  whole  timbei'.  Technically,  over  13  inches 
square.     Half-timber  is  6^  inches  square. 

2.  (Militarii  Engineering.)  A  longitudinal  timber 
of  a  ponton -bridge. 

Ball.  1.  (Games.)  A  sphere  of  ivory,  wood,  etc., 
used  in  billiards,  bagatelle,  crwiuet,  and  other  games. 

Balls  for  playing  are  made  of  various  sizes  and  ma- 
terials, according  to  their  intended  purpose.  That, 
pei'haps,  most  familiai'ly  known,  is  ordinarily  com- 
posed of  an  interior  core  of  india-rubber,  usually,  if 
not  always,  made  up  of  strips  wound  into  spherical 
form,  around  which  is  wound  woolen  yarn,  the  whole 
being  covered  with  leather.  JIany  are  also  made 
wholly  of  india-rubber,  and  hollow. 

Billiard-balls  are  made  of  ivory,  that  substance 
combining  in  the  highest  degree  the  required  quali- 
ties of  resiliency  and  durability.  Ten-jiin  balls  are 
of  lignum-vita;.  Bo.xwood  is  pi-eferred  for  croquet- 
balls.     See  also  IvoiiY,  artificial. 

The  game  of  ball  is  mentioned  by  Homer  (Oih/s- 
scy,  viii.  372),  and  was  credited  by  Plato  to  the 
Egyptians,  among  whom  it  was  known  in  the  twelfth 
dynasty,  say  2000  B.  c. 

The  Athenians  erected  a  statue  to  Aristonicus  on 
account  of  his  skill  in  ball-playing. 


BALLAHOKE. 


219 


BALLAST   CAR. 


Foot-ball  is  very  much  iu  vogue  among  the  Amer- 
ica!] Indiaiis,  large  parties  of  whom  participate  in 
tile  sport.  Its  practice  among  the  Indians  of  the 
Plains  is  well  described  in  Catlin's  "  North  Amer- 
ican Indians." 

Tenuis  was  played  in  England  in  the  sixteent.h 
century.  The  tennis-court  at  St.  Janres's  was  erected 
in  1676.  This  game  was  for  many  years  a  favorite 
amusement  with  the  nobility  of  England  and  France. 

The  invention  of  billiards  is  ascribed  to  Delvigue, 
1571.     "We  find  cricket  first  mentioned  in  1719. 

Croquet  was  introduced  into  England  fi-om  Ger- 
many in  1S30  ;  its  pojiularity  in  America  hardly 
dates  hack  more  than  a  decade. 

2.  (Projectiles.)  A  missile  to  be  projected  from  a 
fire-arm,  c.  g.  a  bullet  or  cannon-ball.  These  are  made 
of  lead  for  small-arms,  and  of  cast-iron  for  cannon, 
though  in  countries  where  copper  was  plentiful  and 
iron  scarce,  as  in  South  America  and  ile.'cico,  the  for- 
mer metal  was  employed,  even  when  imported  cast- 
iron  cannon  were  used.  The  lack  of  tin,  and  per- 
haps want  of  skill,  forbade  the  people  of  those  coun- 
tries to  cast  bronze  ordnance,  though  they  could 
make  copper  shot. 

Weight  of  Cast-iron  Balls. 


A  joint  formed  by  a 
.511. 


Diameter  in 

Weight  in 

Diameter  in 

Weight  in 

luclies. 

Pounds. 

Inches. 

Ponnds. 

1 

.1377 

6i 

42.34 

IJ 

.'268 

7 

47  23 

It 

.41H 

71 

52  46 

1} 

.737 

71 

58.09 

2 

1.10 

7} 

64  09 

2t 

ID'S 

8 

70  60 

2t 

2.1.5 

8i 

77.31 

2| 

2  81 

Si 

84.56 

3 

371 

St 

92  21 

31 

4.71 

9 

100  33 

3 

5.90 

91 

10S93 

^ 

7.26 

9.* 

lis  05 

4* 

8..S1 

n 

127.62 

41 

10.53 

10 

13r70 

4; 

12  51 

101 

ll-!.23 

*J 

141-5 

I'H 

1.59.51 

5' 

17.21 

10} 

171.06 

6i 

19.92 

11 

183  27 

5* 

22  89 

111 

19))  05 

5i 

26.17 

IH 

209  42 

6 

29.71 

lU 

223  33 

61 

as  61 

12 

233.M 

6i 

37.81 

3.  (Printing.)  A  dabber  for  inking  type  or  calico- 
printing  blocks.  Its  mission  is  nearly  ended  in  either 
capacity.  It  consists  of  a  piece  of  buckskin  stutfed 
with  wool  so  as  to  form  a  ball,  and  furnished with  a 
handle.  The  corre^onding  device  used  by  the  en- 
graver in  spreading  etching-ground  is  called  a  clctb- 
bcr. 

4.  (Fabrics.)     A  round  cop  of  thread  or  yarn. 

5.  (ilctal-icorking.)  A  spherical  tool  for  cutting  ; 
such  as  those  for  excavating  bullet-molds,  carious 
teeth,  etc. 

6.  (Metallurgy.)  A  loop  (Fr.  loupe;  Ger.  luppe) 
or  mass  of  iron  gathered  into  a  lump  iu  a  piiddling- 
furnaee,  and  in  a  condition  fit  for  the  squeezer  or 
tilt-hammer. 

7.  {Mac/liner)/.)  a.  A  spherical  valve,  operated 
by  the  passing  fluid,  and  limited  as  to  its  extent  of 
motion  by  a  cage,  or  by  the  size  of  the  chamber. 

b.  One  portion  of  that  universal  joint  which  con- 
sists of  a  ball  gripped  by  a  box  and  ring. 

8.  (Horological.)  The  weight  at  the  bottom  of  a 
pendulum,  sometimes  called  the  bob. 

Balla-hore.  (XniUicnl.)  A  West  India  schooner 
■with  fore  and  aft  sails  only  ;  the  foremast  rakes  for- 
ward, the  mainmast  aft. 


.^ 


Sall-anil-Socktt  Joint. 


Ball-and-sock'et  Joint. 

ball  working  in  a  hollow  cup 
or  socket,  which  allows  it 
free  motion  in  eveiy  direc- 
tion within  certain  limits. 
See  ITxivERS.iL  JoiXT. 

Bal'last  1.  (Rail  way 
Engineering.)  Gravel,  bro- 
ken stone,  or  cinders  placed 
beueathandaround  the  sleep- 
ers of  a  railroad  track,  form- 
ing a  solid  bed  which  will  not 
retain  water.  Drainage  must 
be  provided  below  the  bal- 
lasting. In  England,  where 
it  is  also  called  metal,  two- 
feet  bed  of  ballast  is  deemed 
sufficient,  no  water  being  al- 
lowed to  stand  within  a  depth 
of  four  feet  below  the  rails. 

Ballast  has  four  duties  to 
perform  :  — 

a.  To  distribute  the  bear- 
ing over  the  surface  of  the 
earthwork. 

b.  To  confine  the  track  in 
place. 

c.  To  permit  tb-ainage  of  the  surface. 

d.  To  afl'ord  a  certain  degree  of  elasticity.  A  solid 
rock  sub-way  is  too  unyielding, and  injures  the  loll- 
ing stock.  Burned  clay  is  a  fair  material.  Cinders, 
shells,  and  small  coal  are  also  used  in  certain  lo- 
calities. 

2.  (A'autical.)  Weight  in  the  bottom  of  a  boat 
or  the  hold  of  a  vessel,  to  keep  it  upright  in  the 
water,  and  prevent  its  being  ujjset  by  the  force  of 
the  wind  or  the  weight  of  its  top-heimpcr. 

On  board  vessels  of  war  pig-iron  is  generally  em- 
ployed for  ballast ;  that  of  the  British  navy  consists 
of  iron  pigs  of  about  300  pounds  each. 

Means  have  been  provided  for  using  water  as  bal- 
last. Its  evident  convenience,  both  as  to  accessibil- 
ity and  facility  of  removal,  have  induced  considerable 
pains  to  be  incurred  in  devices  for  containing  it. 

The  employment  of  water-tight  bags  has  been  sev- 
eral times  attempted.  These,  when  empty,  are  stoied 
away  in  large  boxes,  and  when  required  are  spread 
out  in  the  hold  and  filled  by  a  connecting  hose. 
There  are  evident  objections  to  this  mode. 

Iron  tanks  have  been  built  into  the  ship,  occupy- 
ing positions  on  the  floor,  and  at  the  stem  and  stern 
next  to  the  dearl-wooel. 

Tanks  made  by  two  bulkheads  across  the  vessel  have 
also  been  used.  These  are  made  of  such  a  size  that 
they  may  be  used  for  coals  or  cargo  when  the  ballast 
is  not  recpiired.  The  reservoir,  whatever  form  it 
may  have,  must  be  quite  full,  to  prevent  the  swa.sh- 
ing  of  the  water,  and  the  bulkhead  tank  has  been 
found  difiicult  to  fill  and  keep  tight. 

The  plan  suggested  by  Grantham,  of  Liverpool,  — 
a  di.stinguished  authority  on  the  subject,  —  is  spe- 
cially adapted  for  siiips  carrying  coal,  where  little 
or  no  back  freight  is  to  be  "had.  See  Grantham's 
"  Iron  .Ships,"  Weale's  Series. 


Bal'last  Car 
or    Wagon. 

(Bail way  En- 
gineering.) A 
dumping-car  for 
transporting  bal- 
last for  the  road- 
bed. 

In  the  illustra- 
tion is  seen  the 


Fig  542. 


Ballast  Car  (English  form). 


BALLAST-ENGINE. 


220 


BALLING-TOOL. 


English  form,  having  a  capacity  for  dumping  to  the 
ivar  or  towards  i.'ither  side.     See  Dumping-Car. 

Bal'last-en'gine.  1.  (Hydraulic  EiujiHeerimj.) 
A  ilri'ilging-iiwchiiie  for  raising  shingle  from  the  bot- 
tom of  a  river  for  ballasting  vessels. 

2.  (Ciiiil  Etujuiccriiig.)  A  steam-engine  employed 
iu  e.\cavating  and  shoveling  gravel  for  ballasting  a 
road-bed. 

Bal'last-heav'er.    (ffi/drauHc  Engineering.)    A 

dr''il,'iiig-i)rirliiin'  lor  raising  ballast  from  a  river-bed. 

Ballasting      (Engineering.)      a.   Tlie  gravel  or 

brolci'U  sto;ii',   known   as   metal,   which   forms   tlie 

roa  1. 

b.  The  material  beneath  and  around  the  sleepers 
of  the  nerni'tneitt  ir'Hf  of  a  railroad.     See  B.\LL.\s'l'. 

Bal'last-light'er.    (Xautical.)    A  barge  for  con- 
veyiir,'  lpill.i»t  to  a  vessel. 
Bal'last-shov'el.    (Nautical.)    A  square-bodied 

and  s- n-]ioiutrd  iiou  shovel. 

Ball-cal'i-ber.     A  ring-gage  for  testing  the  di- 

ani'ti-r  of  i;uii-.'.hot  on  lioard  ship. 

BaU-cart'ridge.     For  small-arms  ;  powder  and 

ball  in  an  envelope.     In  contradis- 

tinetion    to   6/aiii"- cartridge.      See 

Cai;i|!I1»;k. 

Ball-cast'er.  A  caster  for  fur- 
niture, I'tc,  having  a  sphere  or  ball 
instead  of  a  common  roller  at  bot- 
tom. 

Ball-oock.  A  faucet  which  is 
opened  en'  closed  by  means  of  a  ball 
floating  on  the  surface  of  the  water 
in  the  vessel,  allowing  the  cock  to 
remain  open  until  the  water  has 
attained  a  certain  hight,  when  it 
is  Ajlosed  by  means  of  a  rod  con- 
nection with  the  rising  ball,  fall- 
ing again  as  water  is  withdrawn 
from  the  vessel.  It  constitutes  an 
autouiatic  arrangement  for  keeping  the  water  at 


Ball-  Caster. 


Fig.  5«. 


certain  hight.  It 
is  useful  incisterns, 
watei'-backs,  boil- 
ers, etc.,  where  the 
supply  is  constant, 
the  demand  inter- 
mittent. 

Ball-gud'geon. 

A  pivot  of  a  splier- 

„„_    ,  ieaU'oiinwliichiier- 

nuts  lateral  dellec- 

tion  of  the  arbor  or  shaft,  while  retaining  the  pivot 

in  its  soi-ket. 

BaU'iag  Fur'nace.  (Metalliirgii.)  A  furnace  in 
wliich  /)(7f..<  01-  fiijut.1  of  iron  are  heated  so  as  to  form 
balls  for  rolling.  In  t\\t  puddling -furnace,  pig-iron 
is  boiled  to  drive  otf  certain  impurities,  and  the  iron 
therein  is  formed  into  balls  by  tlie  ruhhle  or  paddle 
of  the  puddler,  so  as  to  be  ready  for  the  shingling- 
himmer  or  the  sipieezer  which  drives  the  slag  from 
tlie  bloom.  At  the  same  heat  the  iron  may  be  rolled 
ami  become  a  merchantable  article  of  bar-iron  ;  but 
with  some  qualities  of  iron,  and  for  the  produrtion 
of  the  liner  varieties  of  bar  and  sheet  iron,  the  bar 
from  the  first  rolling  is  cut  up  by  tlie  shears,  and 
made  into  piles  or  fagots,  which  are  reheated  to  form 
ba'ls  ibr  re-rolling. 

The  furnace  resembles  a  puddling-furnace,  with 
the  exception  that  it  is  not  designed  for  stirring  and 
puddling,  but  the  pilct  or  fagots  are  laid  upon  the 
floor  of  the  reverlieratiug  chamber,  and  are  there 
lieated  without  running  together,  each  being  with- 
drawn as  it  attains  tlie  required  condition.  The 
bottom  is  made  up  from  time  to  time  with  sand.    It 


is  not  a  mere  reheating,  but  the  action  of  the  fire 
and  the  a<lmission  of  regulated  cpiantities  of  air  re- 
move certain  impurities  which  have  resisted  the  ))re- 
vious  opiTations. 

BaU'iug-guu.  An  instrument  for  administering 
medicine  rolled  into  balls  to  hor.ses.  It  consists  of 
a  partially  exhausted  tube,  on  the  end  of  which  the 
ball  is  held  by  pressure  of  air,  and  from  which  it  is 
released  by  a  piston  when  the  ball  is  fairly  within 
the  esoiihagus. 

Eall'ing-i  ron.  (Farricnj.)  A  hook  for  clearing 
a  horses  li'.t  from  the  balls  of  snow,  etc.,  retained 
by  tlh-  sho,-s. 

Bairing-ma-chine'.  (Cotton  ilanufaclare.)  A 
machine  on  »  hich  cotton  thread  is  wound  into  balls. 


rig.  545. 


Balling-Mach  ine. 


The  ball  a  is  made  on  a  rotating  spindle  b,  or  on  a 
paper  cap  or  cover  placed  thereon,  around  which  a 
steel  rod  c  spins  rapidly,  carrying  the  thread  ami 
building  it  up  on  the  spindle.  This  interior  core 
(cap)  forms  a  support  for  the  ball,  and  receives  on  its 
closed  end  the  ticket,  number,  and  maker's  name. 

The  size  of  the  ball  is  regulated  by  the  eye  ;  the 
number  to  the  jiound  varies  from  16  to  liOO. 

The  spindles  have  independent  stop-motions,  g,  so 
that  when  a  thread  breaks  any  one  or  more  may  be 
stopped.  The  thread  comes  otf  a  bobbin,  and  passes 
through  the  hollow  spindle  of  tlie  Hyei'  e,  whose  axis 
of  rotation  is  oliliquc  with  that  of  the  spindh'  /',  so  that 
the  thread  is  laid  on  spirally,  the  spindle  e(nitinually 
rotating  so  that  the  thread  has  an  advancing  or  re- 
ceding coil,  according  to  the  direction  of  motion  of 
the  spindle.  The  gearing  by  which  the  parts  are 
driven  is  sufficiently  shown  in  the  cut,  and  needs 
no  special  description.  The  figure  shows  one  set  of 
parts,  but  the  machine  has  a  long  parallel  series  of 
ball-winders  in  a  row  on  a  single  Irame.  The  upper 
figures  show  the  ball  attached  to  and  detached  from 
its  spindle,  respectively. 

It  was  invented  by  M.  L  Brunei.  When  he  vis- 
ited the  inills  of  Strutt,  in  Derbyshire,  about  1805, 
he  said  he  "observed  they  had  adopted  my  [his] 
contrivanci'  for  winding  cotton  into  balls." 

BaU'ing-tool.  (MeiaUurgg.)  A  tool  for  aggre- 
gating the  iron  in  a  puddling-furnace,  to  fit  it  for 


BALI.ISTA. 


221 


BALLOOJSr. 


conveyance  to  the  tilt  or  squeezer.     A  rabble  (Fr. 
ruble). 

Bal-lis'ta.    (Weapon.)    A  machine  used  aneient- 
h'fortlirow- 
Fig.  646.  ing  darts  or 

stones. 

The  name 
is  ajiplied  to 
twoditl'crent 
machines. 

One  resem- 
bles the  cat- 
apult in  the 
mode  of  ob- 
taining the 
power,  and 
the  other  is 
a  cross-bow 
on  a  large 
scale,  with  a  tackle  to  draw  the  bowstring. 

a.  The  more  ancient  ballista  had  a  vibrating  arm, 
which  was  drawn  back  against  the  tension  of  cords 
made  of  human  hair,  hoi-se-hair,  or  catgut.  When 
drawn  back  to  its  full  scope,  it  was  suddenly  released, 
and  its  head  came  with  a  violent  blow  against  the 
ends  of  the  darts  arranged  on  a  table  above  and 
pointed  towards  the  eueiuy. 

Fig.  517. 


Ballista. 


Ballhlic  Pendulum. 


b.  The  other  ballista  was  a  cross-bow,  arranged 
upon  a  standing  frame  (Fig.  546).  The  stiing  was 
retracted  by  a  tackle,  and  was  cast  loose  by  some 
device,  projecting  a  dart  or  a  stone,  as  the  case"  might 
be.  The  dart  or  stone  lay  upon  a  table,  and  was 
adjusted  against  the  string  "before  casting  off. 

Bal-lis'tic  Pen'du-lum.  This  instrument  is 
designed  to  determine  the  velocity  of  projectiles  of 
cannon  and  small-arms.  It  was  invented  by  Eob- 
bins  about  1760,  and  described  by  him  in  his  tract 
on  Gunnery.  It  has  been  improved  by  Hutton  and 
Gregory,  in  England  ;  Piobert  and  Jlorin,  in  France ; 
and  Mordecai,  in  the  Tnited  States. 

The  original  instrument  consisted  of  an  iron  bar 
suspended  by  a  transverse  axis,  and  having  a  block 
of  wood  strengthened  with  iron  plates  to  receive  the 
impact  of  the  ball.  On  being  struck,  the  block 
swung  like  a  peiululun>,  and  pulled  a  ribbon  through 
an  orifice  in  the  fi.xed  framework.  The  length  of 
the  ribbon  witlidrawn  is  considered  equal  to  the 
chord  of  the  arc  of  vibration. 

The  use  of  the  pendulum  depends  upon  the  dy- 
namical fact  that  if'  a  body  of  small  mass  impinge 
with  great  velocity  upon  a  much  larger  body  at  rest, 
and  the  two  bodies  after  impact  move  on  together 
with  a  velocity  which  can  be  easily  measured,  the 
masses  of  the  two  bodies  being  given  the  whole  mo- 
mentum after  impact  is  known  ;  and  as  this  is  the 
momentum  of  the  smaller  body  before  impact,  the 
velocity  with  which  it  struck  the  larger  body  can 
be  determined. 

As  now  used,  the  block  consists  of  a  cast-iron  case 
or  mortar,  partially  filled  with  hags  of  sand  or  a  block 
of  lead.  It  is  suspended  by  wrougbt-iron  bars  from 
an  axis  \vorking  on  knife-edges  in  V-grooves,  and 
the  arc  of  vibration  is  measured  on  a  copper  arc  by 
an  index  carrying  a  vernier. 

The  arc  of  vibration  being  ascertained,  the  follow- 
ing points  must  be  known,  in  order  to  calculate  the 
velocity  of  the  ball  on  striking  :  — 

1 .  Tile  respective  weights  of  the  ball  and  pendulum. 

2.  The  distance  of  the  centers  of  oscillation  or 
percussion  from  the  axis  of  suspension. 

3.  The  distance  of  the  center  of  gravity  from  the 
axis  of  suspension. 

4.  The  angular  velocity  of  the  pendulum  cfter 
impact. 

The  upper  figure  represents  the  pendulum  for 
small-arms  ;  the  lower  one  for  ordnance. 

The  gun  itself  has  been  swung  on  a  pendulum, 
and  its  arc  of  recoil  measured  to  furnish  datum  for 
estimating  the  force  of  the  discharge. 

It  is  also  used  to  determine  the  quality  of  powder. 
See  also  Eprouvette. 

The  Chronoscope  and  Elcetro-Ballistic  apparatus 
afford  more  perfect  means  of  determining  the  point 
sought.     See  Chronoscope  :  Elkctro  Ballist.a.. 

Ball-le'ver.  A  lever  having  a  ball  affixed  at  one 
end  as  a  weight,  which  closes  tlie  plug  of  a  cistern 
when  the  water  has  risen  sufliciently.  See  Ball- 
cock  . 

Ballon.  1.  {Chemical. )  A  large  glass  receiver 
in  the  forai  of  a  hollow  globe,  appertaining  to  a  set 
of  chemical  apparatus. 

2.  (Xautical.)  A  long,  brigantine-rigged  vessel, 
used  in  Siam,  and  made  out  of  a  single  tnmk. 

Bal-loon'.  1.  A  bag  or  envelope  of  silk  or  other 
thin  textile  fabric,  around  which  is  a  netting  of 
small  rope  or  cord,  from  which  is  suspended  a  car 
or  basket.  Tlie  balloon  is  provided  with  a  valve, 
controlled  by  a  rope  within  reach  of  a  person  in  the 
car,  to  allow  the  gas  by  which  the  balloon  is  inflated 
to  escape  when  it  is  desired  to  descend. 

Galien,  of  Avignon,  wrote  on  aerostation  in  1575  ; 


BALLOON. 


222 


BALLOON. 


but  tliu  discovery  of  hydrogen  made  by  Cavendish, 
in  England,  seemed  to  offer  a  feasible  mode 'of  ac- 
coniiilishing  the  object,  and  its  use  was  suggested 
for  that  inirjiose  by  Dr.  Black,  in  1767,  who  ascer- 
tained that  a  light  envelope  tilled  with  this  gas  would 
ascend. 

Jig.  548. 


Balloon. 

'  The  first  machine  by  which  an  ascent  was  made 
into  the  ujiper  regions  of  the  atmosjihere  was  invented 
and  constructed  by  the  bi'others  .Stephen  and  Joseph 
Montgolfier,  paper-manufacturers  at  Annotay,  near 
Lyons,  France.  After  e.xpeiimenting  unsuccessfully 
with  hydrogen-gas,  they  tried  heating  the  air  con- 
tained in  the  balloon  by  means  of  a  tire  in  its  open 
mouth,  and  in  June,  1783,  a  captive  balloon  was  by 
this  means  caused  to  ascend  over  2, 000  yards.  Novem- 
ber 21, 1783,  Pilatre  ile  Rozier  and  the  Marquis  d'.'^r- 
landes  ascended  in  a  lialloon  of  this  kind,  reaching  a 
hight  of  3,000  feet,  and  landing  nearly  six  miles  from 
where  they  arose.  December  1  of  the  same  year,  MM. 
Charles  and  Robert  ascended  in  a  balloon  inflated 
with  hydrogen-gas,  alighting  in  an  hour  and  ^hree 
quarters  at  a  spot  about  25  miles  from  Paris,  whence 
they  had  set  out,  and  attaining  an  elevation  of  about 
9,700  feet.  After  this,  balloon  ascensions,  both  in 
France  and  England,  became  comparatively  fre(iuent. 
The  English  Channel  was  crossed  by  a  balloon  ;  and 
in  making  a  similar  attempt,  Pilatre  de  Rozier  and  a 
companion  named  Romain  were  killed.  Tliey  had 
employed,  in  conjunction  with  a  hydrogen-lialloou, 
a  niontgoltiere  or  hre-balloon  below  it,  and  on  reach- 
ing a  considerable  hight,  the  expansion  of  the  gas 
caused  it  to  flow  downward  directly  upon  the  fire, 
inflaming  the  whole  apparatus,  which  was  speedily 
consumed,  precipitating  the  aeronauts  to  the  earth. 

Balloons  were  introduced  into  the  French  armies 
.at  an  eaily  period  during  the  wars  of  the  Revolution, 
and  were  used  at  the  battles  of  Liege,  Fhnirus,  1794, 
and  at  the  sieges  of  Maintz  (XLayence)  and  Ehren- 
breitstein,  where  they  were  found  particularly  use- 
ful, as  only  by  such  means  could  operations  in  the 
elevated  citadel  be  observed. 

"The  French  armies  are  attended  with  a  new  spe- 


cies of  reconnoitering  engineers,  whose  duty  it  is  to 
do  everytliing  relative  to  the  preparation  and  use  of 
balloons.  The  person  who  mounts  in  the  balloon 
is  furnished  with  paji^T  and  pencils  of  diHerent  col- 
ors. The  marks  are  made  according  to  a  system 
agreed  on  beforehand,  and  the  paper,  after  being 
marked,  is  attached  to  a  small  rod  like  an  arrow, 
one  enil  of  which  is  loaded  and  pointed,  so  that  it 
strikes  in  the  ground  and  stands  upright."  —  Annual 
Jic'jlsfcr,  1794. 

Balloons  Were  also  employed  by  the  French  in  the 
Italian  campaign  of  1859,  at  Solferino  ;  and  subse- 
quently, dviring  our  own  civil  war,  a  small  corps  of 
balloonists  was  attached  to  the  Army  of  the  Potomac. 

The  celebrated  French  chemist.  Gay  Lussac,  in  1804 
reached  the  hight  of  23,040  feet,  ancf  carried  up  with 
him  the  necessary  means  for  making  scientific  obser- 
vations on  the  character  and  properties  of  the  atmos- 
phere at  that  great  hight.  This  was  for  many  years 
considered  the  most  remarkable  balloon  ascent  ever 
made,  both  in  regard  to  the  hight  attained  and  the 
observations  made.  The  gi'eat  tenuity  of  the  atmos- 
phere in  those  elevated  regions  is  said  to  have  atfected 
M.  Lussac  to  such  a  degi'ee  that  his  system  never 
fully  recovered  from  it.  An  English  aeronaut  named 
Glaisher,  it  is  said,  has  recently  succeeded  in  reach- 
ing the  hight  of  seven  miles.  He  was  lendered  seri- 
ously ill,  and  was  supposed  to  have  burst  some  blood- 
vessels. 

Charles  Green  introduced  the  practice  of  inflating 
balloons  with  ordinary  illuminating-gas,  making  his 
first  ascension  with  this  medium  on  the  day  of  the 
coronation  of  George  IV.,  1820.  llluminating-g,a,s, 
besides  being  much  cheaper  than  hydrogen,  has  the 
advantage  of  being  more  easily  retained  within  the 
envelope  on  account  of  its  greater  density. 

In  1836,  Jlessrs.  Holland,  JLason,  and  Green  as- 
cended from  London  in  a  balloon  of  85,000  feet 
capacity,  taking  with  them  a  ton  of  ballast,  a  fort- 
night's provisions,  extra  clothing,  etc.  They  land  d 
next  day  in  the  duchy  of  Nalssau,  having  made  a 
voyage  of  aliout  500  miles. 

In  June,  1859,  Jlr.  Wise,  the  well-known  Ameri- 
can balloonist,  ascended  from  St.  Louis  and  landed 
in  Jeti'erson  County,  N.  Y.,  having  traveled  about 
1,150  miles. 

Gilford's  captive  balloon,  noted  as  one  of  the  fea- 
tures of  the  Paris  Exposition  of  1867,  was  93  feet  in 
di.ameter,  having  a  capacity  of  421,161  cubic  feet; 
weighed  6,000  pounds,  the  netting  and  guy-ropes 
weighing  4,000  pounds  additional.  It  was  inflated 
with  pure  hydrogen-gas,  and  the  car  accommodated 
twenty-five  persons.  The  roiJe  by  which  it  was  held 
tapered  graclually  towards  its  lower  end,  so  that  in 
case  of  parting  it  would  break  near  the  ground,  and 
not  endanger  bystanders.  It  was  wound  round  a 
drum  turned  by  a  steam-engine.  The  cost  of  the 
balloon  with  its  "appurtenances,  including  inachineiy, 
was  over  .545,000. 

M.  Dupuy  de  Lome  attempted  a  few  years  ago  the 
construction  of  a  navigalile  balloon  of  consider- 
able dimensions.  In  order  to  maintain  its  |ierma- 
nence  of  form,  a  large  balloon  was  provided  with  two 
interior  suspended  tubes,  whose  open  lower  ends  com- 
municated with  the  air  ;  a  small  interior  balloon 
with  valves  was  placed  inside  of  the  larger  one,  and 
by  its  greater  or  less  inflation  compressed  the  tubes 
more  or  less,  causing  the  contained  gas  to  rise  or  fall, 
so  as  to  cause  a  uniform  tension  of  the  surrounding 
gas  contained  in  the  larger  h.^Uoon.  The  longer  di- 
ameter of  this  latter  was  parallel  to  its  axis  of  motion, 
and  the  ajiparatus  was  to  be  propelled  by  a  screw 
attached  to  the  car  and  operated  by  hand-power. 
The  rudder  was  a  triangular   sail  att.ached  at  its 


BALLOON. 


223 


BALLOT-BOX. 


lower  edge  to  a  pivoted  hoiizontal  yard  beneath  the 
car,  near  its  rear,  and  operated  by  a  rope  at  each 
end,  extending  to  tlie  steersman's  seat. 

Tlie  British  military  authorities  assume  that  a 
hight  of  100  fatlioms  at  a  distance  of  600  fathoms 
from  an  enemy  aH'ords  an  ample  Held  of  view.  Cam- 
eras arranged  so  as  to  include  the  whole  horizon, 
enable  tlie  country  to  be  pliotogi'aphed,  and  tele- 
graph-wires, which  can  be  paid  out  as  fast  as  the 
balloon  sails,  afford  communication  with  the  earth 
or  with  another  balloon. 

Experiments  made  at  Tours  show  that  at  a  higVt 
of  1,000  to  1,200  yards  the  silk  envelope  of  a  bal- 
loon could  be  penetrated  by  bullets,  but  that  the 
escape  of  gas  w;is  so  slow  that  with  a  favor.able  wiml 
the  balloon  might  reach  several  miles  before  falling. 
At  2,700  yards  the  best  shots  failed  to  penetrate  the 
silk  ;  and  this  elevation  is  therefore  considered  the 
miximum  necessary  to  insure  safety. 

The  late  Prussian  and  French  war,  and  especially 
the  siege  of  Paris,  gave  rise  to  the  most  business-like 
and  systematic  use  of  balloons  on  record.  The  man- 
ufacture is  thus  described  by  a  newspaper  coiTcspond- 
ent :  — 

"  The  type  of  the  balloons  constructed  by  M.  Godard 
for  the  Postal  Administration  is  entirely  spherical. 
The  proportions  are  as  follows:  Diameter,  16  yards; 
superficies,  about  836  square  yards  ;  volume,  6,316 
cubic  yards.  The  stuff  employed  is  a  strong  glazed 
cambric,  oiled  and  varnished.  With  machinery,  forty 
thicknesses  of  this  cambric  arecutoutatonetime.  Af- 
ter this  operation  these  strips  are  sewed  together  with 
a  double  waxed  white  thread,  and  the  balloon  is  re- 
peatedly rubbed  with  oil,  in  order  to  secure  its  imper- 
meability. A  valve  in  strong  wood  is  set  into  the 
upper  pole  of  the  balloon ;  this  valve  is  closed  by  india- 
rubber  springs.  A  long  cord  is  attached  to  this  valve, 
and  traverses  the  lower  pole,  enabling  the  aeronaut 
to  regulate  the  descent  of  the  balloon.  A  network 
of  tarred  twine  envelopes  the  balloon.  To  the 
extremity  of  this  net  a  wooden  hoop  is  adjusted, 
to  sustain  the  wicker-work  basket,  which  measures 
about  3  feet  in  width  and  ii  in  length.  Benches 
are  provided  for  six  persons.  Around  the  basket  the 
sand-bags  and  dispatch-bags,  with  three  hundred 
yards  of  rope,  are  ranged.  This  latter  provision  is 
intended  for  throwing  out  to  drag  on  the  ground  and 
diminishing  the  speed  on  descending. 

"  The  weight,  when  filled  with  ordinary  burning- 
gas  is  about  a  ton,  comprising  sL\  hundred  pounds  of 
sand-bags,  three  persons  weighing  about  150  pounds 
each,  and  1,000  pounds  of  dispatches.  It  requires  ten 
days  for  the  manufacture  of  each.  The  cost  of  each 
is  §1,200." 

Carrier-pigeons,  also,  were  much  used  by  the  Pa- 
risians during  the  Prussian  investment  of  that  city. 
The  Hying  messengers  who  have  their  homes  in  Paris 
alforded  the  means  of  communicating  with  the  be- 
leaguered city.  The  use  of  carrier-pigeons  is  very 
ancient.  On  a  temple-wall  in  Egj-pt  there  is  a 
sculpture  of  the  time  of  Rameses  II.  (1297  B.  c. ), 
representing  that  monarch  proceeding  in  regal  state 
to  assume  the  crown  of  Upper  and  Lower  Egypt  ; 
and  in  the  procession  a  priest  is  seen  releasing  from 
a  basket  four  carrier-pigeons,  to  announce  the  ti- 
dings to  distant  points. 

Ovid  relates  that  Taurosthenes  announced  to  his 
father  in  ^Egeria,  by  a  pigeon  stained  purple,  that 
he  had  obtained  the  prize  at  the  Olympic  games. 
Brutus  used  pigeons  for  communicating  with  the  in- 
habitants of  Modena,  during  its  siege  by  Marc  Antony. 
AVlien  Ptole!nais  in  Syria  was  invested  by  the  French 
and  Venetians,  and  was  about  to  surrender,  a  carrier- 
pigeon,  bearing  a  message  from  the  Sultan,  was  cap- 


tured ;  the  missive  containing  promises  of  assistance 
was  removed,  and  one  substituted  in  which  the  Sul- 
tan expressed  no  hope  of  being  able  to  assist  them. 
The  surrender  was  immediate.  Pigeons  were  of  great 
use  to  the  Dutch  during  the  siege  of  Leydeu,  so 
bravely  resisted  by  the  Prince  of  Orange. 

The  air-car  is  a  proposed  form  of  balloon,  inflated 
with  gas  to  secure  lightness,  and  traveling  upon  wires 
stretched  from  pillars  upon  a  definite  route.  Two 
pairs  of  wires  are  needed,  —  one  pair  for  each  side  of 
the  car,  —  and  the  upper  and  under  wires  of  the 
respective  pair  run  in  the  grooved  peripheries  of  the 
car-wheels,  which  are  rotated  by  a  steam-engine  on 
board.  The  car  is  cigar-shaped,  and  has  sails  to  be 
used  with  favoring  winds.  The  device  for  passing 
the  posts  is  ingenious,  but  does  not  differ  substan- 
tially from  the  mode  of  hanging  the  tracks  of  caster- 
wheels  for  sliding  barn-doors. 

Signals  have  been  made,  and  notices,  etc.,  have 
been  distributed,  by  means  of  balloons.  One  was 
invented  by  Mr.  Sheiiherd,  and  used  in  the  Arctic 
regions  in  the  search  for  Sir  John  Franklin.  The 
arrangement  consisted  of  a  number  of  printed  pack- 
ets of  oiled  silk  or  paper,  upon  which  directions  were 
printed,  stating  the  latitude  and  longitude  of  the 
exploring  ships,  where  they  were  going  to,  and  the 
points  at  which  provisions  had  been  left.  These 
were  attached  at  proper  intervals  to  a  long  slow- 
match  made  of  rope  dipped  in  niter ;  and  as  the  bal- 
loon traveled  over  the  country,  the  match  burned 
gradually  away,  releasing  the  jiackets  consecutively, 
and  distributing  them  over  a  wide  extent  of  country. 

Other  devices  were  also  adopted  for  the  same  pur- 
pose, and  are  described  under  Signals. 

2.  [Architecture.)  a.  A  mold  at  the  base  of  a 
column. 

b.  A  round  globe  at  the  top  of  a  pillar. 

3.  (Glass.)     A  glass  receiver  of  a  spherical  form. 

4.  (Fabric.)  A  cylindiical  reel  on  which  sized 
woolen  yarn  for  warp  is  wound,  in  order  to  be  dried 
by  rapid  revolution  in  a  steam-heated  chamber.  The 
yarns  are  guided  by  passing  between  the  teeth  of  a 
separator  or  rarel,  which  is  a  toothed  instrument 
like  a  rake,  between  whose  teeth  the  j'arns  pass. 
This  acts  as  a  guide  in  distributing  the  yarns  over 
the  length  of  the  reel. 

The  yarns  are  wound  from  the  balloon  on  to  the 
beam  of  the  loom. 

Bal-loon'-jib.  (Kautical.)  A  triangular  sail, 
used  in  a  cutter,  and  hauled  up  to  the  topmast -head. 
Sometimes  called  a,  jib-topsail. 

Bal-loon'-net.  (Fabric.)  A  variety  of  woven 
lace,  in  which  the  weft  threads  are  twisted  in  a  pe- 
culiar manner  around  the  warps. 

Bal'lot-box.  A  box  in  which  balls  or  beans 
indicating  a  negative  or  affirmative,  or  slips  contain- 
ing the  names  of  candidates  for  office,  are  deposited. 

Ballot-boxes  of  the  ordinary  construction  afi'ord  no 
security  from  fraud,  except  the  honesty  and  attention 
to  duty  of  the  receivers  of  ballots. 

To  guard  against  the  improper  placing  of  tickets 
in  the  boxes,  they  have  been  made  of  glass,  so  that 
the  interior  might  be  open  to  the  inspection  of  the 
bystanders,  and  any  surreptitious  introduction  of 
tickets  therein  at  once  discovered. 

The  ballot  was  used  in  ancient  times.  It  has  been 
suggested  that  of  this  character  was  the  Urim  and 
Thummim  spoken  of  in  Exodus  xxviii.  30  :  — 

"And  thou  [Moses]  slialt  put  in  the  breastplate  of 
judgment  the  Urim  and  the  Thummim,  and  they  shall 
be  upon  Aaron's  heart  when  he  goeth  in  before  the 
Loril  :  and  Aaron  shall  bear  the  judgment  of  the 
children  of  Israel  upon  his  heart  before  the  Lord 
continually." 


BALI-OT-BOX. 


BALL-TURNING   LATHE. 


The  conjecture  that  white  and  black  stones  were 
contained  in  tlie  pocket  beliind  the  breastplate,  and, 
being  taken  out  by  the  high-priest  in  consultation, 
gave  affiiniative  and  negative  answers  respectively, 
is  not  suppiirti'il  liy  tlie  weight  of  authority.  It  is 
rather  supjiosed  that  images  re]>resenting  respective- 
ly Ur,  light,  and  Thorn,  perfection,  were  placed  in 
the  bi'castplate,  and  in<licated  by  a  certain  luminos- 
ity, or  by  a  failure  to  respond,  an  alKrmative  or  a 
negative  answer  to  the  question  projiounded.  Such 
imager  emblematical  of  truth,  wei'e  used  in  ancient 
pjgypt,  Greece,  Home,  and  also  in  China,  as  well  as 
among  the  Hebrews.  The  image  was  suspended  by 
a  cord,  so  as  to  lie  over  the  heart  of  the  judge  and 
tlie  liigh-priest.  Aaro7i  became,  in  a  certain  sense, 
a  judge  in  the  matters  of  conscience  or  religious 
polity  which  were  submitted  to  him.  See  Adam 
Clark's  commentary  on  Exodus  x.wiii.  30. 

Ovid,  in  his  "Metamorphoses,"  lib.  xv.  verse  41, 
as  rcndereil  by  Dryden,  says  :  — 

"  A  custom  was  of  old,  and  still  remains, 
■    ^\'hi(;h  lify  or  death  by  sutTragos  ordains  : 

White  stones  and  black  within  an  urn  are  cast; 
The  first  absolve,  h\xtfale  is  in  the  last." 

In  the  pronuse  to  the  Church  of  riiiladelphia, 
also  ;  — 

"To  him 
that  over- 
coineth  will  I 
give  ....  a 
white  stone, 
and  in  the 
stone  a  new 
nams  writ- 
ten, whielmo 
manknoweth 
.save  he  tliat 
receiveth  it." 
—Rev.  ii.  17. 

While  was 
tlie  emblem 
of  purity, 
pardon,  ac- 
ceptance, 
choice,  tri- 
unipli,  ac- 
cording   to 

the  occasion.  By  white  stones  judges  indicated  their 
verdict,  tlie  people  voted  their  sullVages  ;  and  a  white 
stone  was  to  the  con([ueror  in  the  public  games  the 
token  of  his  triumph.  Such  a  wliilc  stone  was  in- 
scribed witli  the  name  of  the  conqueror,  and  entitled 
him  to  be  maintained  for  life  at  the  public  expense. 
The  Athenian  magistrates  were  chosen  by  lot.  Black 
and  wdiite  beans  were  placed  with  the  names  in  the 
urns,  and  the  names  drawn  out  with  a  white  bean 
were  elected. 

The  Ussarce  hnspUalcs  seem  to  have  been 
particularly  referred  to  in  the  verse  in       _f^^  F 
Revelation.     Tliese  were  a  sort  of  tally  ; 
two  jiieces  of  stone,  bone,  wood,  oi'  ivory 
were  engraved  with  some  common  device, 
and  a  piece  was  kept  by  each  of  the  two  parties  con 
trading  a  league  of  mutual  friendship  and  assistance 
Such  were  handed  down  in  the  respective  families, 
and  guaranteed  to  the  holders  all  the  accommoda- 
tions and  olRces  of  friendsliip  wdieii  visiting  at  the 
house  of  the  holder  of  tlie  other  portion.    Plautus  re- 
fers to  the  custom.    See  Adam  Clark  in  his  comments 
on  til's  passage,  and  the  authors  rel'erred  to  by  him. 

Secret  voting  was  practiced  by  the  ancient  Greeks 
and  modern  Venetians,  from  the  latter  of  whom  we 
derive  tlie  levm  "ballot."  A  tract,  "  Tlie  B^-nelit  of 
the  Ballot,"  was  published  by  Marvell  in  1693. 


Fig.  549. 


Ball-peen  Ham'mer.  A  metal-worker's  haiu- 
nier  witli  a  spherical  peen. 

Ball-screw^.  An  implement  for  extracting  bul- 
lets from  the  barrel  of  a  gun  in  cases  where  it  would 
be  dangerous  or  impossible 
to  expel  tliem  by  tiring.  It 
is  screwed  on  to  the  end  of 
the  ramrod,  which,  being 
turned,  causes  the  screw- 
threaded  |)ointed  end  of  the 
ball-screw  to  enter  the  bul- 
let, which  is  then  withdrawn 
by  pulling  the  ramrod.  The 
common  tbrm  is  shown  at  a. 
Fig.  549. 

Witzleben's    ball-screw,  , 
b,  lias  two  jaws  with  sharp- 
edged  interior  shoulders,  con- 
stituting a  jiortion  of  a  con- 
cave screw-thread,  which  enters  the  bullet  to  prevent 
it  from  slipiiiiig  from  the  grasp  of  the  jaws. 

Ball-train.  (Metal-working.)  A  set  of  rolls  for 
rolling  puddler's  halls  into  bars.  The  word  train 
siguihes  that  more  than  one  pair  is  used,  the  first 
being  crushing  rolls  and  the  second  finishing.     The 


Ball-Screws. 


Fig.  550. 


Ball-  Train. 

result  of  the  action  of  the  two  is  Jar-iron.   See  Roi.L- 

I.Nfi-MILL. 

Ball-trol'ly.  A  small  iron  truck,  used  in  con- 
veying the  balls  of  puddled  iron  from  the  puddliiig- 
furuace  to  the  tilt-hammer  or  stpieezer. 

Ball-turn'ing  Lathe.     .V   wood-turner's  lathe 

Fig.  551. 


BaU-Tuming  Lalke. 


BALL-VALVE. 


225 


BAND-COUPLING. 


for  spherical  ohjects,  which  are  held  in  a  chuck  on 
the  live-spindle,  while  the  tool  has  an  adjustment 
in  a  horizontal  arc  whose  center  is  coincident  with 
that  of  the  ball. 

The  block  from  which  the  ball  is  turned  is  sup- 
ported at  one  end  only.  Tl'.e  cliucks  are  jierforated, 
and  the  tool  is  mounted  on  a  swing-rest  liaving  a 
vertical,  lateral,  and  a  longitudinal  adjustment  in 
its  socket,  and  also  a  horizontal  swinging  movement 
across  the  axis  of  the  mandrel.  K  is  the  rest  on 
which  the  tool-holder  J  swings.  The  duty  of  the 
hammer  H  F  is,  Xo  knock  the  finished  balls  out  of 
the  chuck. 

Ball-valve.  A  valve  of  spherical  shape,  occupy- 
ing a  liullow  segmental  scat  ;  raised  by  the  pas- 
sage of  tile  fluid,  and  descending  by  gravit}'.  See 
Back-pressuke  Valve. 

Ball-vein,  (ilinituj.)  A  species  of  iron-ore, 
found  in  loose  masses  of  a  circular  form,  containing 
shining  putides. 

Bal-mor'aL  1.  {Fabric.)  A  striped  woolen  stuff, 
deri\ing  its  name  from  Balmoral  Castle  in  Scotland. 

2.   A  sort  of  ladies'  boot,  lacing  in  front. 

Bal'ne-um.  A  vessel  filled  with  some  heated 
substance,  as  sand  or  water,  in  wliich  a  thing  is 
placed  for  treatment  that  requires  a  more  gentle  heat 
than  the  naked  fire. 

Bal'sa.  (Xautkal.)  A  raft  used  on  the  coast  of 
South  America,  consisting  of  two  inflated  seal-skins, 
which  aie  fastened  together  at  one  end  to  form  the 
prow,  and  separated  abaft  by  means  of  a  plank. 
Flexible  tubes  for  inflation  are  within  reach  of  the 
navigator,  who  replenishes  the  bags  as  they  require. 
The  raft  is  floored  with  sticks  and  mattins,  and  pro- 
pelled by  a  double-bladed  paddle.  It  is  landed  on 
the  shore  by  the  descending  breaker,  and  immediately 
secured,  to  prevent  its  being  drawn  back  by  the  re- 
treating wave.  It  carries  three  passengers  besides 
the  navigator. 

The  Cata:ii.\rax  (which  see)  is  often  called  by 
this  name. 

Bal'us-ter.  (Joinery.)  A  small  pillar  support- 
ing a  hand-rail,  coping,  balcony,  or  terrace.  A  row 
of  such  makes  a  bahistrndc.  They  are  usually  cast 
hollow,  or,  wlien  solid,  are  turned  out  of  stone  or 
wood.  Tlie  balusters,  hand-rails,  and  base  are  some- 
times made  of  swaged  sheet-metal. 

Bal-us-trade'.  A  hand-rail  with  its  supporting 
balustei's,  such  as  that  of  a  terrace,  parapet,  balcony, 
stairca.se,  altar,  chancel,  or  inclosure. 

Bal'us-tre.  (Fabric. )  A  superior  variety  of  gold 
clotli,  munufactured  at  Vienna. 

Bal-za-rine'.  (Fabric.)  A  light  mixed  material 
of  wor>ted  and  cotton  for  ladies'  dresses. 

Band.  1.  (Vehicle.)  A  circular  collar,  hoop,  or 
strap,  such  as  that  on  a  nave  ;  a  hub-band  ;  an  a.xle- 
band. 

2.  (Architecture.)  a.  A  narrow,  flat  projecting 
surface.  When  narrow,  it  is  a  fillet ;  wider,  it  is  a 
facia. 

b.  The  leaden  came  which  holds  the  lozenge-shaped 
panes  in  the  old-fasliioned  casement  windows. 

3.  {Fire-Arms.)  One  of  the  metallic  sleeves  which 
bind  the  barrel  to  the  stock  of  a  musket,  etc. 

4.  (Bookbinding.)  a.  One  of  the  cords  at  the  back 
of  a  book  to  wliich  the  thread  is  attached  in  sewing. 
Though  now  a  cord,  it  was  formerly  a  flat  band,  and 
hence  the  name.  It  usually,  in  the  better  forms  of 
binding,  makes  a  raised  (irojection  on  the  back,  and 
in  large  blank-books  is  formed  by  glueing  strips  of 
mill-board  or  leather  across  the  back.  In  a  fine 
bre\iary  of  the  fourteenth  century,  in  J.  S.  Griii- 
nell's  collection,  it  is  a  thick,  roundi-d,  white  leather 
cord  secured  to  beechwood  side-boards. 

15 


b.  The  head-band  serves  as  a  finish  to  the  top  and 
bottom  of  the  sheets,  and  helps  to  keep  the  upper 
and  lower  parts  of  the  back  in  shape  when  the  book 
is  closed. 

5.  (Husbandri/.)  A  bundle  of  eight  or  ten  stalks 
of  wheat,  or  other  small  grain,  used  to  bind  a  gavel 
of  the  grain  into  a  sheaf. 

Corn-shocks  are  bound  with  stalks,  or  with  string, 
linn-bark  (linden  or  bass),  or  rye-straw. 

String  or  wire  is  the  usual  band  on  the  automatic 
binding  apparatus  of  reaping  and  binding  machines, 
but  a  bunch  of  straw  out  of  the  sheaf  is  used  in  some 
machines.  • 

6.  (Machinery.)  A  flexible  connection  between 
pulleys,  generally  endless,  but  sometimes  attached 
by  its  respective  ends  to  reciprocating  sectors,  or  a 
sector  and  slide. 

Bands  may  be  classed  as  belts,  cords,  or  chains. 

A  belt  is  generally  flat  and  thin,  and  requires  a 
nearly  cylindrical  pulley. 

A  cord  is  usually  circular  in  section,  and  made  of 
catgut,  raw-hide,  twisted  fibers,  or  wire.  It  requires 
a  grooved  pulley. 

A  chain  consists  of  links  or  jointed  bars,  and  re- 
quires a  grooved,  notched,  or  toothed  drum. 

7.  A  cincture,  strap,  or  cord,  with  a  means  of 
fastening  the  ends  together,  and  used  to  confine  the 
materials  of  a  bale,  truss,  or  bundle.    See  B.\LE-TIE. 

Baud'age.  (.'iurgicat.)  A  strip  or  piece  of  fabric, 
cotton,  linen,  or  woolen,  or  an  elastic,  knitted,  or 
shirred  fabric  for  wrapping  any  part  of  the  body. 
They  are  applied  to  dress  fractured  or  lacerated  parts, 
for  the  comjiression  of  bloodvessels  and  the  retention 
in  tlieii'  natural  situations  of  protruding  or  displaced 
parts. 

Thej-  are  simple  or  compound. 

They  are  named  from  their  purposes,  as  — 

Uniting,  dividing,  exjxlling,  relMning,  compress- 
ing, suspeiisory,  varicose-rein,  fracture,  catamenial. 

They  are  named  from  their  iorms,  as  — 

The  axia,  like  an  axe. 

The  spica,  like  an  ear  of  wheat. 

The  capistrum,  a  split  cloth  bandage  to  support 
the  lower  jaw. 

The  chiustcr,  a  cross-shaped  bandage  for  stopping 
hemoiThages  from  the  temporal  artery. 

The  i-taiUd  bandage,  made  from  a  single  split 
cloth,  and  also  known  as  Galen's. 

The  figure  8,  the  T,  the  letter  D,  the  stellated,  or 
star-shaped,  the  circular,  the  spiral,  the  reversed, 
the  IS-tailed,  etc. 

They  are  also  named  from  the  materials  with  which 
they  are  treated,  as  starch,  dextrine,  plaster  of  pans, 
etc. 

Ban-dan'na.  (Fabric.)  An  India  silk,  printed 
in  one  color  with  white  spots  or  ornaments  made  by 
the  resist  or  the  disehttrijing  process.     Bandannois. 

In  the  resist  process,  the  spots  are  printed  with  a 
composition  to  resist  the  dye  by  which  the  ground- 
color is  given.  Subsequent  washing  then  removesthe 
dye  from  tlie  s]JOt,s,  the  ground-color  remaining  intact. 

In  the  discharging  process,  the  whole  handkerchief 
is  dyed  of  one  color,  and  is  then  printed  in  spots 
with  a  composition  which  discharges  the  dye  at 
those  points,  so  that,  in  washing,  the  spots  come  up 
white. 

One  mode  of  making  the  white  spots  in  bandanna 
goods  is  by  causing  a  solution  of  chlorine  to  perco- 
late down  through  the  red  clotli  in  points  circum- 
scribed and  defined  by  the  pressure  of  leaden  pattern- 
plates  in  a  hydraulic  press,  thereby  discharging  the 
color  in  certain  ]>laces. 

Band-coup'ling.  A  device  for  uniting  the  two 
ends  of  a  band.    This  may  be  a  pair  of  ferrules,  with 


BAND-CUTTING  MACHINE. 


226 


BAND-SAW. 


a  ball  and  socket  respectively,  a  hook  and  eye,  strap  i 
hinges  with  a  ]>intle,  etc.     See  Belt-Cotpling.  i 

Band-cut'ting  Ma-chine'.  (AijricuUurc.)  An  ( 
attachmi'nt  to  a  Ihrasliing-niaehino  to  cut  the  hands 
ot  the  sheaves  as  they  are  thrown  upon  the  feed- 
board.  The  band  being  cut,  the  sheaf  is  spread  out 
and  then  pushed  head  loreniost  into  the  Wtz-ou/,  wlieuee 
it  passes  between  the  cylinder  and  the  concave,  each 
of  which  is  toothed. 

In  England,  they  prefer  to  save  the  straw  in  a  less 
mangled  condition,  and  feed  in  sideways ;  the  beaters 
being  biu-s,  not  teeth. 

Banrf-driv'er.  A  tool  used  in  correcting  irregu- 
larities in  the  liauds  of  machinery. 

Band'ed  Col'uma.  {Architecture.)  One  hav- 
ing cini'tures  at  intervals. 

Bau'de-lore.  A  toy  illustrating  the  effect  of 
gravity  in  producing  a  rotary  motion.  It  consists 
of  two  disks,  with  a  deep  groove  between  them,  on 
which  is  a  winding  cord.  The  latter  being  coiled  in 
the  groove,  the  bandelore  is  dropped,  unwinding  the 
cord-;  at  the  end  of  its  stroke,  the  rotary  motion  be- 
ing continued,  it  rewinds  on  the  cord  in  the  opposite 
direction,  and  climbs  to  nearly  its  original  bight.  By 
a  little  humoring  and  motion  of  the  hand,  it  may  be 
made  to  rewind  the  whole  length  of  cord. 

Band'ing-plane.  (JVood-workUu).)  The  Jaiif?- 
vuj-plaiic  is  allieil  to  the  gages,  and  is  intended  for 
cutting  out  grooves  and  inlaying  strings  and  bands 
in  straight  and  circular  works,  as  in  the  rounded 
corners  of  piano-fortes  and  similar  objects.  It  bears 
a  general  resemblance  to  the  plow,  but  also  has  the 
double-pointed  seorer  of  the  grooving-plane.  Tlie 
central  plate  of  the  plow  is  retained,  so  as  to  furnish 
a  guide  for  tlie  central  positions  of  the  router  and 
cutter,  which  are  inserted  so  as  to  meet  at  an  angle 
of  about  80'  between  two  short  portions  of  the  central 
plate.  The  whole  of  the  parts  entering  the  groove 
are  compressed  within  tlie  space  of  one  inch,  to  pass 
through  curvatures  of  small  radius.  A  flexible  steel 
fence  is  attached  to  the  plow  by  two  stays  at  its  ends, 
wliile  to  the  central  part  is  attached  a  screw  adjust- 
ment to  confer  upon  the  fence  any  required  cui'va- 
tnre,  convex  or  concave. 

Band'ing-ring.  (Hnl-m'tking.)  Runner -down. 
A  ring  passeil  over  the  boily  of  a  hat  while  on  the 
block,  so  that  its  edge  shall  impinge  upon  the  brciih 
of  the  band,  and  form  the  brim  at  light  angles  to 
the  crown  in  the  process  of  blocking. 

Band'let.  (Architecture.)  A  small  fillet  or  mold- 
ing. 

Ban'dore.  (Mime. )  An  ancient  stringed  instru- 
ment resembling  a  lute  ;  referred  to  in  Pepys's  "Di- 
ary," 1662,  —  "and  music  with  a  bandore  for  the  base ." 

Band-pul'ley.    {ilachincnj.)    A  flat-faced  wheel 
fixed  on  a  shaft  and 


Fig.  .S52. 


Two-Part  PuUey. 


driven  by  a  band. 
1 1  is  connected  either 
immediately  or  me- 
diately through  oth- 
er pulleys,  with  any 
power  which  drives 
machinery. 

The  illustration 
shows  a  two-]  lart  pul- 
ley, having  flanges, 
connected  by  bolts 
and  nuts,  on  the  hub 
and  rim.     A  drum. 

Band'rol.  1. 
(Archilectiire.)  A 
form  of  spiral  mold- 
ing in  Gothic  archi- 
tecture.    Bandrule. 


2.  {Nautical.)  A  little  streamer  from  a  mast- 
head. 

Band-saTV.  The  band-saw  consists  of  an  endless 
steel  belt  running  over  wheels  and  revolved  continu- 
ously. It  is  pliable,  so  as  to  conform  to  the  laces 
of  the  wheels,  and  is  serrated  on  one  edge.  The  ends 
are  joined  by  solder  and  by  neat  clamps.  Arrange- 
ments are  m:ule  for  straining  the  saw  Ijy  regulating 
the  relative  distance  of  the  wheels  ;  this  adjustment 
also  permits  the  machine  to  take  in  saws  of  dirt'erent 
lengths.  One  advantage  of  the  band-.saw  over  the 
reciprocating  saw  is,  that  there  is  no  lost  time  in  its 
operation,  and  no  eflbrt  required  to  keep  the  work 
to  the  table,  as  the  action  of  the  saw  tends  to  this 
result.  There  is  no  need  of  a  pump  or  blower  to 
clear  away  the  sawdust,  as  it  is  carried  continually 
downward. 

In     the      machine  Fig.  553. 

shown  there  are  sev-  /'~\_ 
eral adjustments:  one  \_/; 
by  weighted  arm  a, 
for  raising  the  boxing 
of  the  upper  wheel, 
and  thus  straining 
the  saw  ;  another  by 
wheel  b,  for  laising 
or  lowering  the  table 
c,  on  which  the  work 
is  placed  ;  a  wheel  d, 
by  which  the  saw- 
guide  c  is  raised  or 
lowered,  to  bring  it 
into  the  vicinity  of 
the  upper  surface  of 
the  work  ;  a  wheel 
/,  by  which  the  ta- 
ble is  inclined  when 
the  work  is  to  be 
sawed  to  a  level. 

In    the    band-saw 
represented  liy  P"ig.  554,  the  standard  A  supports  a 
frame,  on  which  is  an   upright  sliding-block  and 

Fig.  554. 


Band- Saw. 


Band- Saw. 

arm  .sustaining  a  horizontal  shaft  running  in  boxes. 
On  this  shaft  is  hung  the  upper  wheel  B,  which,  by 


BAND-WHEEL. 


227 


BANK. 


means  of  the  screw  aud  hand-wheel  C,  can  be  ele- 
vated or  lowered  as  the  length  of  the  saw  demands. 
The  lower  portion  of  the  frame,  under  the  table, 
supports  the  lower  shaft  and  wheel,  which  is  driven 
by  the  pulleys  D.  The  two  wheels  have  a  liange, 
against  which  the  back  of  the  saw  bcare,  and  the 
faces  of  tlie  wheels  are  covered  with  vulcanized  rub- 
ber resting  on  a  bedding  of  strong  cloth.  This  gives 
sutticient  adhesion  to  the  saw  to  insure  its  action  as 
a  belt  without  slipping. 

From  the  front  of  the  upper  frame  depends  a  ver- 
tical bar  E,  sliding  in  boxes,  to  which  it  may  be 
secured,  at  any  bight  required  to  accominodate  the 
stutt'  to  be  sawed,  by  tlie  thumb-nuts  /'.  On  the 
lower  end  of  the  bar  is  a  guide  G,  having  four  sides 
with  recesses  of  varring  depth,  to  accommodate  the 
various  width  of  dillerent  saws.  This  guide  is  in 
two  parts,  held  together  by  a  screw-bolt,  and  gradu- 
ated in  the  distance  of  their  faces  by  means  of  the 
screw-bolt  and  a  four-pronged  spring.  The  saw  runs 
at  the  rate  of  4,000  feet  per  nimute. 

In  the  English  practice,  tlie  minimum  diameter  of 
band-saw  pulley  is  set  at  30  inches ;  but  for  wider 
saws  the  diameter  must  be  increased  :  thus  saws  of 
2  inches  to  3  inches  wide  ought  not  to  be  worked 
over  pulleys  of  less  than  42  inches  in  diameter,  and 
for  a  blade  6  inches  wide  the  pulleys  should  be  70 
to  SO  inches. 

Band-'wrheel.  (Macliuurry.)  This  is  sometimes 
termed  a  pulley,  —  a  term  which  has,  however,  par- 
ticular relation  to  tackle.  The  band-wheel  has  a 
nearly  flat  or  a  grooved  face,  according  to  the  shape 


Band-WhetU 

of  the  band.  If  it  be  flat,  the  face  of  the  pulley  is 
slightly  rounded  so  as  to  keep  the  band  from  run- 
ning oiir.  If  the  band  be  round,  the  pulley  is  grooved 
to  retain  it,  as  in  the  wheel  on  the  mandrel  of  the 
common  foot-lathe. 

Ban'gle.    1.  (Xautica!.)    The  hoop  of  a  spar. 

2.  An  ornamental  ring,  worn  upon  the  arms  or 
ankles  in  Asia  and  Africa. 

Ban'gra.  (Fabric.)  A  coarse  Indian  cloth, made 
from  thi'  fiber  of  a  gigantic  stinging-nettle. 

Ban'is-ter.  1.  (Architecture.)  Originally,  hal- 
uslcr.  One  of  the  vei-tical  supports  of  a  hand-rail 
on  a  balcony  or  staire.  Also  the  ha7id-rnil  itself. 
"He  ascended,  holding  on  by  the  banisters." 

The  baluster  has  a  curved  outline,  and  is  frequently 
provided  with  a  base  and  cap,  or  ornamental  mold- 
ings, while  banisters  may  be  plain  or  square. 

2.  -\  broad  central  upright  in  a  chair-back. 

Ban'jo.  1.  (^fusic.)  A  five-stringed  musical  in- 
strument having  a  head  and  neck  like  a  guitar,  and 
a  body  like  a  tambourine,  consisting  of  a  circular 
frame  overwhich  sheepskin  ori>archment  is  stretched ; 
it  is  of  almost  univeisal  use  among  the  negroes  in  the 
Southern  States.  Its  simplicity,  and  the  ease  with 
which  it  is  made  and  played,  no  doubt  made  it  such 
a  general  favorite  among  them.   Its  thrumming  sound 


has  a  near  resemblance  to  the,  tan-lam  of  the  Afri- 
cans and  the  Orient.  The  latter  is  a  lizard's  skin 
stretched  over  a  gourd ;  a  tambourine,  a  sort  of  drum. 

The  guitar  appears  in  the  sculptures  of  ancient 
Egi."pt  and  Ximroud,  and  is  much  used  in  modem 
Oriental  countries. 

In  the  kcriiuiiijeh,  or  Syrian  fiddle,  the  bridge- 
piece  is  supported  upon  the  parchment  cover  of  the 
body. 

2.  (iVajrftca?.)  The  brass  fi-ame  in  which  a  screw- 
propeller  is  hung  for  hoisting. 

Bank.  1.  (Cutton,  etc)  A  creel  for  holding  rows 
of  bolibins  ;  a  coppiny-plalc  or  coppiinj-rai/^ 

2.  (G/iiss.)     The  floor  of  a  glass-melting  furnace. 

3.  (Music.)  A  bench  of  keys  of  a  stringed  or  wind 
instrument.    Generally  applied  to  organs  which  have 

Fig.  556. 


IttJ 


Double  Bank. 


several  key-boards  or  banks  of  keys  belonging  to  the 
different  aggregated  organs,  which  combine  to  form 
an  instrument  of  great  power. 

Such  instruments  are  made  up  of  a  choir  organ,  great 
organ,  and  swell,  to  which  may  be  added  a  pedal  or- 
gan or  fool-keys,  for  acting  on  the  larger  pipes.  Each 
of  these  is  adapted  for  particular  effects  :  the  choir 
organ  for  light  and  solo  parts  ;  the  great  organ  for 
powerful  effects  ;  the  stccll  for  crescendo  and  diviviu- 
cndo  effects.  Each  has  its  key-board,  one  rising 
above  another  in  front  of  the  performer,  and  all 
within  convenient  reach. 

The  keys  are  thus  airanged  in  three  banks  or  tiers 
in  the  case  described,  and  tlie  keys  of  one  bank,  by 
a  suitable  device  which  may  be  thrown  in  or  out 
of  action  as  desired,  may  be  coupled  to  the  conespond- 
ing  keys  of  another  bank,  so  that  the  pressure  on 
one  is  communicated  to  the  other,  to  give  the  com- 
bined effect  with  a  single  manipulation. 

Church  reed-organs  on  a  smaller  scale  and  of  por- 
table size  are  frequently  double-banked,  the  keys  of 
one  bank  being  concerned  in  the  use  of  a  powerful  set 
of  stops,  and  those  of  the  other  with  other  stops  of  a 
more  mellow  and  moderate  tone.    See  Stoi'  ;  OitGAN'. 

The  organ  of  S.  Alessandro  in  Colonna,  at  Ber- 
gamo, built  by  Serassi  in  17S2,  has  four  banks  of 
kevs  and  100  stops.  The  first  and  second  bank  be- 
long to  the  great  organ  and  choir  organ  ;  tlie  third 
is  connected  by  mechanism,  which  passes  under- 
ground to  a  distance  of  115  feet,  to  a  third  great 
organ  in  another  part  of  the  church  opposite  the 
fii-st. 

The  claviers  of  the  Continental  European  churches 
are  frequently  fi-xed  in  a  detached  upright  console, 
at  which  the  "organist  sits  facing  the  altar  and  con- 
gregation, so  as  to  be  able  to  watch  the  service  and 
introduce  the  music  at  the  projier  times. 

4.  (Mining.)  The  face  of  the  coal  at  which  miners 
are  working. 

5.  (yaulical.)  a.  One  tier  of  oars  in  a  galley. 
When  a  galley  is  propelled  by  rowei-s  seated  on  two 
or  more  tiers  of  benches,  one  above  another,  the  gal- 
ley is  said  to  be  doubk-bankcd,  triple-bnnkcd,  etc. 

b.  A  seat  for  rowers  in  a  galley  ;  a  thwart. 


BANK-ALARM  TELEGRAPH. 


228 


BANQUETTE. 


Cuiniiimi  galleys  huve  25  banks  on  a  side,  one  oar 
to  a  bank  and  foiu'  men  to  an  oai'.  Galcasses  have 
32  banks  on  a  side,  and  six  or  seven  rowei-s  to  a  bank. 

c.  An  oar  is  sintilc-biinked  wlien  it  is  rowed  by  one 
man.  An  oar  is  douhlr.-hanked  wlien  pulled  by  two 
men,  as  the  captain's  barge.  This  term  is  also  some- 
times applied  when  sepai-ate  oars  are  pulled  by  two 
men  sitting  on  the  same  seat. 

ti.  (Print inc/.)  a.  A  wooden  table  for  holding  the 
paper  to  be  fed  to  the  hand-press.  The  paper  is 
slipped  off  the  bank  on  to  a  slanting  board  ealled 
tile  horse,  from  whence  it  is  taken  sheet  by  sheet. 

b.  The  support  of  the  moving  carriage  of  a  print- 
ing-press. 

Bank-a-larm'  Tel'e-graph.  An  apparatus  for 
conveying  to  a  direetor's  room,  or  police,  notice  of 
surj'eptitious  entering  of  the  bank,  or  for  conveying 
regular  notices  of  "  .\11  's  well." 

Bank'er.  1.  {BricklaijUij.)  A  bench  used  by 
bricklayers  in  dressing  bricks  to  a  shape  suitible 
for  skew  or  gaged  work,  domes,  niches,  etc.  On  one 
end  of  it  is  a  grit-stone  called  a  rubbing-stone,  and 
on  other  jiortions  is  room  for  operating  upon  the 
Uricks  with  the  tin-saw,  by  which  kerfs  are  made  in 
the  bricks  to  the  depth  to  which  they  are  to  be  hewn. 
An  axe  is  used  for  dressing  off  the  surface. 

2.  {Fine  Arts.)  A  modeler's  bench.  It  is  about 
30  inches  high,  and  has  a  to|i  30  inches  square.  On 
this  is  a  circular  platform  which  turns  on  wheels,  so 
that  the  figure  can  be  revolved  to  expose  any  portion 
to  the  light. 

3.  (Nautical.)  A  vessel  in  the  deep-sea  cod-fish- 
ery on  the  NewfouniUand  Banks. 

4.  A  seat  cushiou. 

Bank'ing.  1.  (E) graving.)  Raising  a  wall  of 
wax  aro\uul  an  etching  on  a  plate,  to  fonn  an  em- 
banUment  to  hold  the  acid  used  in  biting-in.  See 
Etching. 

2.  {Stcam-Engincrring.)  Banking  up  the  fires 
consists  in  raking  them  to  the  bridge  of  the  furnace, 
and  then  smothering  them  with  cinders  and  small 
coal,  the  draft  being  at  the  same  time  checked. 
By  this  means  the  lires  are  kept  in  a  state  of  languid 
combustion,  but  are  ready  to  burn  up  briskly  again 
when  steam  is  wanted  at  short  notice,  the  red-liot 
mass  lieing  then  broken  up,  raked  forward,  ajid  the 
draft  readmitted. 

The  fire  is  said  to  be  drawn  forward  when  fuel  is 
added  and  the  draft  turned  on. 

Bank-uote.  A  promissory  note  issued  by  a 
bank,  and  intended  to  circulate  as  currency. 

Chinese  paper  money  was  issued  about  A.  D.  1100. 
"  Blest  paper  credit,"  as  Byron  says.  Genghis  Khan 
issued  pa[ier  money,  but  all  his  power  conld  not  give 
it  a  purchasing  value  above  fifty  per  cent  of  its 
face. 

In  "The  Book  of  the  Balance  of  Wisdom,"  by 
Al-Kliazini,  a  learned  Arab  of  the  twelfth  century, 
occurs  the  remark  that,  in  the  first  division  of  his 
book,  are  "added  chapters  on  exchange  and  the  mint, 
in  connection  with  the  mode  of  proceeding,  in  gen- 
eral, as  to  things  salable  and  legal-tenders." 

The  Bank  of  England  commenced  business  at 
Grono's  Hall,  Poultry,  London,  in  1695.  No  notes 
were  issued  under  £  20. 

Notes  of  £5  were  issiu^d  in  1793. 

Bank-note  En-grav'ing.  The  chief  object  in 
the  maiuifacture  of  bank-notes  is  to  render  forgery 
impossible,  or  at  least  easy  of  detection.  This  is 
sought  to  be  effected  by  peculiarity  of  paper,  design, 
and  printing  ;  or  by  a  combination  of  these  means, 
as'  is  done  in  the  Bank  of  England  and  other  banks. 
The  mechanical  design,  however,  has  chiefly  been 
relied  on  for  security.     1 1  has  been  the  constant  aim 


to  make  the  impression  such  as  to  render  the  genu- 
ine note  readily  distinguishable  by  the  jiublic  for  its 
high  art,  and  to  the  bank  officials  by  secret  peculiar- 
ities in  its  execution.  Until  about  1837,  copper- 
plate printing  was  the  only  process  in  use  for  bank- 
notes. In  that  year,  however,  Peiikins  effected  his 
valuable  improvements  in  practical  engraving.  In 
1855,  electrotype  printing  was  introduced  in  the 
Bank  of  England  by  Mr.  tlmee,  and  since  that  time 
the  notes  have  been  produced  by  surt'ace-printing  by 
the  electrotype. 

The  design  is  engraved  in  relief  on  separate  pieces 
of  metal,  —  copper,  biass,  and  steel.  From  the  ag- 
gregated pieces  a  matrix  is  obtained  by  electro-dejio- 
sition,  and  from  this  a  ])late  is  obtained  by  the  same 
means.  When  backed  and  mounted  the  plate  is 
used  for  surface-printing. 

In  America  and  in  the  Bank  of  Ireland,  the  plates 
are  jirepared  according  to  Perkins's  method.  The 
se]iarate  designs  forming  the  complete  bank-note  are 
first  engraved  by  hand  on  separate  steel  blocks,  which 
are  afterwards  hardened,  and  are  preserved  as  per- 
manent patterns  not  to  be  printed  from.  These 
engravings  are  transferred  to  the  steel  rollers  under 
heavy  pressure,  the  rollere  being  afterwards  har- 
dened and  used  as  dies  to  impii'ss  the  engraving  upon 
the  printing-plates.  The  engraved  plates  for  print- 
ing the  bank-note  are  made  of  soft  steel,  and  are 
never  hardened  after  being  engraved.  Being  of  large 
size,  —  20  inches  by  16  inches,  — they  would  most 
probably  lose  their  flatness  in  hardening.  Another 
reason  for  not  liardening  the  plates  lies  in  the  fact 
that,  when  worn,  the  soft  plates  are  easily  repaired 
by  re-application  of  the  rollers  thereto. 

The  printing-])late,  when  receiving  its  fir.st  im- 
pression from  the  master  roller  or  die,  is  fixed  upon 
the  table  of  a  strong  press,  fi'om  which  a  pressure  of 
10,000  ]iounds  can  be  obtained,  the  ])ressure  being 
ri'gulateil  as  re(iuired  by  means  of  a  weighted  lever. 
The  position  of  two  register-) loints  in  the  jilate  is 
accurately  noted  by  means  of  a  micrometer  micro- 
scope, and  registered  in  a  book  kept  for  the  pur- 
pose The  master-roller  is  then  passed  over  the 
plate  by  the  machine  under  the  heavy  jiressure,  be- 
ing very  steadily  guided  by  a  special  jiaivdlel-motion 
arrangement.  The  table  is  provided  with  complete 
adjustments  of  peculiar  delicacy,  ami  the  j)ressure 
of  the  engraving  roller  upon  the  p'ate  is  not  pro- 
duced by  the  roller  descending  upon  the  plate,  but 
by  the  table  being  raised  u]i  to  the  roller. 

When  a  plate  reipiires  renewing,  it  is  again  fi.xed 
upon  the  table  in  the  same  jiosition  as  before  by 
means  of  the  micrometer  microscope  and  the  register 
of  its  position  ;  the  roller  being  passed  over  it 
deepens  those  parts  of  the  impression  which  the 
continuous  ]irinting  has  worn  away. 

Bank-pro-tec'tor.  {H;/drnulic  Engineering.) 
To  prevent  the  washing  away  of  banks  by  the  action 
of  waves  or  currents.  See  Fascine  ;  Gudin  ;  Sheet- 
riLiNc, ;  Crib;  Pitching;  Retaining-wall;  Dike; 
Sea-"\vam,,  etc. 

Ban'ner.  A  small  fiinged  flag,  depending  from 
its  staff'  by  cords  attached  to  the  ends  of  a  cross- 
piece. 

Ban-quette'.  1.  {Fortification.)  A  raised  bank 
at  the  foot  of  the  interior  .slojie  of  a  parapet,  on  which 
the  soldier  stands  to  deliver  his  fire.  See  Intrench- 
MENT  ;  Abattis. 

A  banquette  is  also  found  in  some  fortifications  at 
the  foot  of  the  counterscarp,  to  enable  defenders  to 
fire  over  the  crest  of  the  glacis. 

2.  {Civil  Engineering.)  a.  A  raised  footway  ad- 
joining the  ]iarapet  of  a  bridge. 

b.  A  ledge  on  the  face  of  a  cutting. 


BxVNTAM-WORK. 


229 


BAE-CUTTER. 


Ban'tam-w^ork.  Painted  or  carved  work,  re- 
sembling that  of  Japan,  only  more  gaudy. 

Bap  ta-te'riunL    A  back-mill  or  fiiliing-mill. 

Bap'tis-ter-y.  {Architecture.)  .\  building appiT- 
taiiiing  to  a  cathedral  or  church,  or  a  portion  of  the 
church  itself,  in  which  the  ceremony  of  baptism  is 
performed.  If  a  separate  building,  the  baptistery 
was,  in  the  earlier  ages,  either  lie.\agoual  or  octago- 
nal in  plan ;  afterwards  they  were  made  polygonal,  or 
even  circular. 

When  within  the  church,  it  is  merely  the  inclo- 
sure  containing  the  font,  as  in  English  churches  of 
the  present  day. 

Bar.  A  word  of  various  signification  in  different 
branches  of  the  practical  arts  ;  as 

1.  (Hydraulic  Engineering.)  a.  A  sedimentary 
deposit  in  a  river,  or  at  the  embouchure  of  one. 

4.  A  boom  of  logs  preventing  navigation. 

2.  (Xaulicil.)  a.  A  lever  used  in  a  cap.stan. 
They  are'inserted  like  spokes  in  the  capstau-head, 
and  serve  to  rotate  it.  The  analogous  levers  in  a 
wiudlass  ai-e  hdmhpikes. 

b.  \  flat  iron  rod  securing  a  hatch. 

c.  A  piece  of  iron  or  wood  to  secure  a  gun-port. 

3.  (Miichincnj.)  a.  X  bar-lathe  is  one  whose 
shear  is  a  single  piece,  frequently  triangular  in  sec- 
tion. 

i.  A  large  arbor  supported  between  the  centei-s  of 
a  lathe,  and  carrying  the  cutter  by  which  a  cylinder 
or  gun  is  bored  out.    A  boring- 
bar.      See  Cylinder- BOKER ; 

B0RIXG-M.\CUINE. 

4.  {Mining.)  a.  A  di-illing 
or  tamping  rod. 

b.  A  vein  running  across  a 
lode. 

0.  (Weaving,  etc.)  A  driving- 
bar  is  a  movable  operating  part 
in  a  lace-machine. 

\  bar-loom  is  a  small-ware 
loom. 

6.  (Printing.)  a.  The  por- 
tion connected  with  the  handle 
of*  a  hand  printing-press,  and 
acting  to  depress  the  platen. 

b.  The  middle,  long  cross- 
piece  of  a  printer's  chase. 

7.  (ffiisbandri/.)  Shifting 
rails  which  are  removable  from 

their  mortises  iu  the  posts  are  termed  bars,  and  the 
complete  device  Ls  a  sort  of  substitute  for  a  field- 
gate. 

8.  (Saddlery. )  «.  One  of  the  side  pieces  uniting 
the  pommel  and  cantle  of  a  saddle-tree. 

b.  The  mouth-piece  of  a  bridle-bit  which  connects 
the  two  checks. 

9.  {Furnace.)  ffr(i<«- Jars  or ^rc-Jara  support  the 
fuel,  and  rest  on  beurers. 

10.  The  crowbar  is  an  iron  lever  used  in  many 
ways. 

il.  (Carpentry.)  a.  A  horizontal  piece  of  timber 
or  metal  connecting  other  portions  of  a  framework. 

b.  A  crosswise  piece  of  wood  or  metal  held  by 
staijles  or  bolts,  and  forming  an  inside  fastening  for 
door  or  shutter. 

c.  One  of  the  thin  strips  of  wood  forming  the 
divisions  of  a  sash. 

12.  (fehicles.)  The  piece  to  which  the  traces  are 
attached  ;  a  splinttr-bar  is  permanently  attached  to 
the  carriage  ;  an  equnliziny-bar,  or  erencr,  is  other- 
wise known  as  a  double-free,  swings  on  a  pivot,  and 
has  a  sinide-tree  or  ichijfle-free  at  each  end, 

Bar'an-gay.  {S'aviical.)  An  Indian  vessel  pro- 
pelled by  oars. 


Bar'ba-can.  (Fortification.)  a.  An  advanced 
work  to  defend  a  bridge,  gate,  or  approach.  Other- 
wise, barbican. 

b.  An  embrasure. 

c.  A  channel  or  scupper  in  a  parapet  to  discharge 
water. 

Barb-bolt.  (Machinery.)  One  having  jagged 
edges  to  prevent  retraction  after  driving  ;  a  rag-bolt. 

BarTje-cue.  In  the  Cingalese  treatment  of  cof- 
fee-berries this  is  the  dry  floor  on  which  cofl'ee  is  sun- 
dried  after  the  pulp  is  gi-ated  therefrom,  and  the 
beans  in  their  parchment  en^•elcpe  have  undergone 
a  preliminary  soaking.  It  is  circular,  of  stone,  with 
a  white  plaster  surface,  sloping  away  from  the  center, 
and  smooth  as  glass.  The  coH'ee  is  sunned  upon  it  for 
four  days  without  removing  the  sac,  in  which  a  pair 
of  berries  are  inclosed,  the  object  being  to  dry  it 
previous  to  bein^  dispatched  to  Kandy. 

Barljer's  Chair.  One  adapted  for  the  special 
uses  of  a  barber,  with  a  vertically  adjustable  head- 
rest, arms,  an  elevated  footstool.  In  some  barber's 
chairs  there  are  drawers  and  shelves  for  the  appara- 
tus and  appliances. 

Bar-bette'-gun.  (Fortification.)  WTien  a  can- 
non is  mounted  so  as  to  be  fired  over  the  crest  of  the 
parapet  instead  of  through  an  embrasure,  it  is  said 
to  be  mounted  en  barbette. 

In  field-works,  a  mound  of  earth  is  thrown  up 
against  the  interior  slope  of  the  work  ;  its  upper 

Fig.  557. 


BarbttU. 

I 

surface  is  nearly  level,  and  of  such  a  hight  as  to 
allow  the  gim,  mounted  on  its  caniage,  to  be  fired 
over  the  crest  ;  a  slope,  termed  a  ramp,  is  made  at 
the  rear  of  the  barbette,  and  descends  to  the  tCTre- 
plein. 

The  parapet  may  be  on  the  summit  of  a  fort  which 
has  lower  tiers  of  guns  iu  casemate,  or  it  may  be  a 
mere  earthwork.  The  term  barbette  is  from  the 
French,  as  are  almost  all  our  military  terms,  and 
it  means  a  work  adapted  to  be  fired  over,  and  yields 
a  certain  amount  of  protection  to  the  gunners,  the 
piece,  and  the  ammunition.  The  carriage  is  adapted 
to  be  ran  "in  and  out  of  battery"  on  a  chassis,  and 
the  latter  has  a  circular  motion  on  a  pintle,  to  enable 
the  guns  to  be  trained  horizontally. 

When  the  pintle  is  arranged  at  front,  as  shown  in 
the  figure,  the  amount  of  this  circular  motion  is  lim- 
ited ;"  on  a  center-pintle  carnage  the  gun  may  be 
directed  toward  any  point  of  the  horizon.  Such  a 
gun  is  cr\!led  a  pirnl-gun. 

Bar'bi-can.    See  Karbacan-. 

Bar'ca.  (Xnulicil.)  A  Portuguese  two-masted 
Vessel.     I'sed  also  in  the  Mediterranean.     Barcon. 

Bar-cut'ter.  (^[l•tal-trorking.)  A  shearing-ma- 
chine which  cuts  metallic  bai-s  into  lengths. 


BAREGE. 


230 


BARK-CUTTING  MACHINE. 


Pig.  558. 


Bar- Cutter. 

The  purposes  are  various,  —  for  cutting  bars  into 
pieces  for  fagoting  and  reheating,  for  nail-plates, 
etc. 

Ba-rege'.  (Fabric. )  A  lady's  thin  dress-goods, 
all  won!,  plain  or  printed.  So  called  from  Barcijes, 
a  to\v]i  in  the  Pyrenees. 

Bare-pump.  (HydrauHcs.)  A  portable  suetion- 
punip  lor  (Irnwiug  li(pior  from  casks.  Such  are 
used  in  viueirar  works,  in  wiiu'  and  beer  cellars,  for 


JBare-Pitmp. 


sampling,  etc.  In  the  illustration  the  piston  is  hol- 
low, and  carries  a  spring-valve,  which  closes  as  the 
piston  rises,  and  ojiens  to  allow  the  air  to  escape 
as  till'  )iistou  descends. 

Bar-frame.  {Furnace.)  The  frame  which  sup- 
ports thi-  ends  of  the  grate-bars. 

Barge.  {Sifaiitical.)  a.  A  vessel  or  boat  of  state 
or  pleasure  ;  as  the  Baccntimr,  the  state  galley  of 
Venice  ;  Cleopatra's  galley  ;  the  Lord  Mayor  of  Lon- 
don's barge,  etc. 

b.  A  man-of-war's  boat  ne.\t  in  size  to  the  launch. 
The  boat  for  the  special  use  of  the  commander  of  a 
fleet  or  squadron  is  also  called  a  barge.  It  is  30  to 
32  feet  long,  has  a  beam  equal  to  .29  to  .2.5  of  its 
length,  is  ttjm'?-built,  and  carries  from  10  to  12 
oars. 

c.  A  large  boat  for  the  conveyance  of  goods  and 
passengers.  In  the  United  States  they  are  frequently 
of  600  to  800  tons  burden,  have  two  upper  decks. 


and  are  destitute  of  motive-power,  being  towed  by 
steamboats. 

Barge-board.     {CarjKntrt/.)     A  board  beneath 
the  gable,  hiding  the  horizontal  timbers.     It  is  per- 

Fig.  560 


Barge-Board. 


forated,  scalloped,  or  crenated,  to  give  it  a  light  and 
ornamental  a]ipearance. 

Barge-coup'le.  (Carpcntr}i .)  A  beam  mortised 
into  ancithii-  fc>  sti'eiigthen  the  building. 

Barge-course.  (Arcldtceturc.)  n.  That  portion 
of  the  shingling  or  slating  of  a  roof  which  piujects 
over  the  gable-end. 

b.  A  coping  course  of  bricks  laid  edgewise  and 
transversely  on  a  wall. 

Ba'ri.  The  portion  of  a  roofing-slate  showing 
the  gage,  anil  on  which  the  water  falls. 

Bar'i-tone.     (Husk.)     A  kind  of  bass-viol. 

Ba'ri-um.  A  metal,  the  base  of  heavy  spar  (sul- 
phate of  baryta),  discovered  by  Davy.  It  is  of  a 
grayish  or  yellowish  hue,  has  only  been  procuied  in 
very  minute  quantities,  and  is  rajiidly  converted  into 
an  oxide  by  the  action  of  either  air  or  water.  It  has 
never  been  ajjplied  to  any  practical  use  in  the  arts. 
Equivalent,  68.5  ;  symbol,  Ba.  An  oxide  of  barium, 
when  reduced  to  a  white  powder,  is  used  to  adulter- 
ate white  lead,  and  also  as  a  cosmetic,  —  both  very 
bad  practices  ;  one  injures  the  paint,  and  the  other 
the  complexion. 

Bark-cut'ting  Ma-chine'.  Bark  is  reduced  to 
a  state  of  minute  division  to  enable  the  water  to  dis- 
solve out  the  tannin  moie  readily  and  perfectly. 

Fai!COt's  Bark-catling  Machine  (French)  is  shown 
in  side  elevation  and  plan.  A  A'  are  two  fluted  cyl- 
inders which  supply  the  bark  previously  .spread  u)ion 
the  table  a  to  the  cutting-apparatus,  h  is  a  raised 
ledge  to  keep  the  baik  on  the  table.  The  cutting 
apparatus  consists  of  two  parallel  cii'cles  fixed  upon  a 
common  axis  C\  having  steel  plates  or  knives  />  B, 
which  are  disposed  in  a  spiral  form.  Tlie  shaft  G 
and  fly-wheel  S  are  driven  by  a  band  on  the  drum  D. 
A  pinion  at  the  other  end  of  the  shaft  C  cariies  a 
jiinion  7,  which  acts  upon  a  wheel  J  on  the  axis  of 
the  fluted  cylinder  A,  which  is  communicated  hy 
wheel  E  to "  cylinder  A'.  By  the  levers  F  F  and 
weight  G,  the  two  cylinders  A  A'  are  regulated  to 
any  required  proxiTnity.  Inside  the  fluted  cylinders 
is  a  longitudinal  piece  of  steel  b,  which  acts  as  a  su])- 
port  for  the  bark  as  it  is  cut  by  the  knives  B  B,  its 
edge  tbrniing,  as  it  were,  one  bar  of  the  cutting- 
shears. 

The  cylinder  which  carries  the  cutting- knives 
nuikes  about  130  revolutions  per  minute,  and  the 
((uantity  of  bark  cut  is  about  1,600  pounds  per 
hour. 


BARKER'S-MILL. 


231 


BAEKIXG-TOOLS. 


Fig.  561. 


j"iiiiii  iijiiiiiiiinaijiij 


Bark-Cutting  Mcuhine. 

Bark'er's  MiU.  {Bjidmv.Uc.)  The  Barker  mill 
has  attaineil  celebrity  ratlier  as  an  interesting  illus- 
tration of  the  principle  of  reaction  or  recoil  than  as 
a  practically  useful  machine.  It,  however,  has  the 
essential  features  of  the  famous  turbines  and  other 
reaction  wheels. 

It  consists  of  a  vertical  tuhe  having  an  open  fun- 
nel at  top,  and  branching  at  its  lower  end  into  two 
horizontal    radial    tubes 


Fig.  562. 


Barker^s  MiU. 


Each  of  these  horizontal 
arms  ha.s  a  round  hole  on 
one  side  of  it,  the  two 
holes  being  opposite  to 
each  other ;  and  tlie  verti- 
cal tube,  being  mounted 
on  a  spindle  or  axis,  is 
kept  full  of  water,  flowing 
into  tlie  funnel  at  the  top. 
The  issue  of  water  from 
the  holes  on  opposite  sides 
of  the  horizontal  anus 
causes  the  machine  to  re- 
volve rapidly  on  its  axis 
with  a  velocity  nearly 
equal  to  that  of  the  efflu- 
ent water,  and  with  a 
force  proportionate  to  the 
hydrostatic  pressure  due 
to    the    vertical    column 


and  to  the  area  of  the  apertures  ;  for  there  is  no 
solid  surface  at  the  apertures  to  receive  the  lateral 
pressure  which  acts  with  full  force  on  the  opposite 
side  of  the  arm. 

.\ceording  to  Dr.  Robinson,  this  unbalanced  pres- 
sure is  equal  to  the  weight  of  a  column  having  the 
oritice  for  its  base,  and  double  the  depth  of  the  water 
in  the  trunk  for  its  hight. 

The  machine  has,  for  one  hundred  years,  been  a 
favorite  subject  with  writers  on  d}-namics,  and  has 
been  modified  b\'  mecbanician.s. 

De  la  Cour  (1777)  proposed  to  bring  down  a  pipe 
from  an  elevated  reseiToir,  and,  recuiTing  its  lower 
end  upwardly,  introduce  the  water  into  a  short  pipe 
with  ten  arms  which  revolved  in  a  horizontal  plane 
in  the  manner  described. 

The  revolving  arms  may  be  mounted  on  a  horizon- 
tal axis  so  as  to  obtain  the  requisite  dii'ection  of  mo- 
tion without  iutermediate  gearing. 

In  ISil,  Whitelaw  obtained  a  patent  for  an  im- 
provement, in  which  the  hoiizontal  arms  assumed 
the  form  of  the  letter  S.  In  this  machine  the  water 
is  discharged  tangentially,  the  ca]iacity  of  the  arms 
being  greater  as  they  approach  tlie  center  of  rota- 
tion, so  as  to  obtain  a  quantity  of  water  at  every 
section  of  the  arm  inversely  proportionate  to  its  ve- 
locity at  that  section.  The  transverse  sections  of 
the  arms  are  everywhere  parallelograms  of  equal 
depth,  but  of  width  decreasing  from  the  central  ver- 
tical pipe  to  the  jet  at  the  outer  extremity  of  the  arm. 

A  small  machine  of  this  descri|ition  was  con- 
structed, having  a  fall  of  10  feet,  the  diameter  of 
the  circle  described  by  the  ends  of  the  anns  being 
15  inches,  and  the  aperture  of  each  jet  2.4  inches  in 
depth  by  .6  inches  in  width,  the  area  of  each  orifice 
being  1.44  inches,  the  water  expended  was  38  cubic 
feet,  the  revolutions  387  per  minute,  and  the  efiect 
equal  to  73.6  per  cent  of  the  power  employed. 

Bark'ing.  1.  Coloring  sails,  nets,  cordage,  etc., 
by  an  infusion  or  decoction  of  bark. 

2.  Strip|iing  trees  of  bark  for  cork,  dye,  tanning 
material,  or  medicine. 

Bark'ing-axe.  An  axe  of  proportions  and  shape 
ad;iptt'il  lor  barking  trees. 

Bark  ing-tools.  For  remo\ing  the  bark  of  trees 
for  tanning  purjioses.  Besides  the  axe  or  hatchet 
for  slitting  the  bark  longitudinally,  and  for  cutting 

Fig.  563. 


Peelins-lrons. 

incisions  around  the  trunk,  which  enable  it  to  be 
removed  in  lengths,  the  barker  requires  pcclhuf- irons, 
which  are  thrust  beneath  the  bark  to  loosen  it.  The 
operation  is  perfonned  in  spring,  when  the  sap  is 
abundant  between  the  bark  and  the  wood. 

Hi^ssing  is  not  the  exact  equivalent  of  barking,  as 
the  former  is  a  grinding  or  cutting  action  (usually). 


BARK-GRINDING   MILL. 


O'^O. 


BARK-PLANING  MACHINE. 


the  latter  a  peeling.     See  Loudon's  "Encyclopedia 
of  Agriculture." 

Bark-griad'ing  Mill.  Weldon's  Bark-.Vil/, 
17y7,  h:i.s  a  ciiiiicul  iron  drum  A  jirovided  with  teeth, 
and  rotating  in  a  easing  JJ,  tlie  upper  part  of  wliieh 
forms  a  Haring  hopper.  Tiie  casing  and  its  contained 
grinder  are  supported  by  a  framing  F,  and  motion  is 
given  to  tlie  cone  by  a  belt  running  upon  a  drum  on 

Fig.  664. 


Bark-Grinding  Mitt. 

the  upper  end  of  the  shaft  D,  whose  lower  end  is 
supported  in  a  step  or  ink.  A  screw  below  the  step 
affords  means  for  adjustment  of  the  cone  in  the 
casing,  the  faces  of  the  two  being  toothed,  so  as  to 
effectually  rasp  the  bark  as  it  passes  between  their 
adjacent  .surfaces. 

Bark'ing-mal'let.  A  short-handled  mallet  of 
hard  wood.  The  face  is  three  inches  square,  and 
the  other  end  is  sharpened  to  a  peeii  or  wedge. 

Iron  is  a  preferable  material,  and  the  same  tool 
may  he  used  for  riiiginr/  the  tree  and  splitting  the 
envelope  of  bark  longitudinally,  so  that  it  may  be 
removcil  by  the  pceli'itg- iron. 

Bark-mill.  In  Fig.  565  the  bark  is  broken  be- 
tween    the 


Fig.  565. 


Bark-MiU. 


breaker  D 
and  teeth  c, 
thence  pass- 
ing between 
the  rough- 
bottom  sur- 
face of  the 
hopper  and 
till' rotating 
disk  E.  by 
which  it  is 
reduced  to 
powder. 

Bark- 
om'e-ter. 
A  hydrome- 
ter so  grail- 
nateil  as  to 
determine 
the  strength 


of  oo7.e  according  to  a  given  scale  of  proportions, 
water  being  zero. 

Bark  Pa'per.  Throughout  Southeastern  Asia 
and  tlitcanii-a  the  IJruiissoiicsia  papijrifcra,  or  paper 
mulberry,  is  a  ctinnnon  tree,  and  its  bark  is  ca]iable, 
by  soaking  and  beating,  of  assuming  the  appearance 
of  tine  linen.  It  may  be  bleached,  dyed,  andjirinted, 
and  is  a  common  material  for  dress  in  the  islands  of 
Oceauica.  In  Java  and  Sumatra  it  is  the  common 
material  for  writing  upon.  When  solidified  and 
liuruished,  it  resembles  parchment.  Manuscripts  in 
Kuropeau  museums  attest  its  cpialitj'.  The  same 
bark  made  into  a  pulp  is  used  in  China  and  Japan 
for  mid\iug  jiaper. 

TIk'  jirocesses  adopted  with  bamboo  and  the  mul- 
berry-bark are  substantially  similar  after  the  reduc- 
tion of  the  raw  material  into  a  pulpy  condition. 
The  Chinese  processes  are  as  follows  :  — 

The  paper-stuff  being  rinsed  with  water  alone,  or 
with  water  in  which  rice  has  been  boiled,  is  brought 
to  the  state  of  pulp,  and  then  transferred  to  a  vat 
having  on  each  side  of  it  a  drying-stove  in  the  form 
of  tlie  ridge  of  a  house  ;  that  is,  consisting  of  two 
sloping  sides  tonehing  at  top.  These  sides  are  cov- 
ered e.\ternally  wdth  a  smooth  coating  of  stucco,  and 
a  flue  passes  through  the  brickwork,  so  as  to  keep 
tlie  whole  of  each  side  equally  and  moderately  warm. 
A  vat  and  a  stove  are  placed  alternately  in  tlie  man- 
ufactory, so  that  there  are  two  sides  of  two  diHerent 
stoves  adjacent  to  each  vat.  The  workman  dips  his 
mold,  which  consists  of  a  sieve-like  bottom  and  a 
movalile  raised  frame  surrounding  it,  into  the  vat, 
and  then  rai.ses  it  out  again  ;  the  water  runs  off' 
through  the  perfoi'ations  in  the  bottom,  and  the 
pulpy  paper-stuff'  remains  on  its  surface  ;  the  frame 
is  then  removed,  and  the  sieve  is  pressed  bottom  up- 
ward against  the  side  of  one  of  the  stoves,  so  as  to 
make  the  sheet  of  paper  adhere  to  its  surface  and 
allow  the  sieve  to  be  withdrawn.  The  water  speed- 
ily evaporates  by  the  warmth  of  the  stove,  and  be- 
fore the  paiier  is  quite  dry  it  is  brushed  over  on  its 
outer  surface  with  a  size  made  of  rice  ;  this  also  soon 
dries,  and  the  paper  is  then  stripped  off  in  a  fiiii.shed 
state,  having  one  smooth  surface,  it  being  the  prac- 
tice of  the  Chinese  to  write  only  on  one  side  of  the 
paper.  While  this  is  taking  place,  the  molder  has 
made  another  sheet,  and  pressed  it  against  the  side 
of  the  other  stove,  where  it  undergoes  the  operation 
of  sizing  and  drying,  as  the  other  had  done.  If  sheets 
of  very  large  dimensions  are  to  be  made,  the  mold  is 
snspendcil  by  a  tackle  and  is  managed  by  two  men  ; 
but  in  other  respects  the  process  is  the  same  as  that 
just  described. 

Exceedingly  beautiful  paper  is  produced  by  this 
very  simple  method.  Paper  is  made  in  India  in 
much  the  same  way  and  with  nearly  the  same  mate- 
rials ;  but  in  the  provinces  north  of  the  Ganges,  and 
in  Ne[ial,  the  common  material  is  the  bark  of  a  sjie- 
cies  of  Daphne  (laurel),  which,  like  that  of  the  paper- 
mulberry,  consists  almost  wdiolly  of  fiber. 

Another  mode  adopted  by  the  Chinese  is  to  dip 
out  the  pulp  in  a  mold  made  of  strips  of  bulrushes 
in  a  frame.  The  sheets  from  the  frames  are  piled  on 
a  table  with  intervening  strips  of  reed,  by  which  they 
may  afterwards  be  lifted  leaf  by  leaf.  Each  heap  is 
pressed  by  boards  and  weights  to  express  the  water, 
and  the  following  day,  the  leaves,  being  lifted  singly, 
are  laid  <iii  a  plank  in  the  sunshine  to  dry. 

Bark-pit.  ( Tanning. )  A  pit  partly  filled  with 
bark  and  water,  in  which  hides  are  steeped  in  the 
process  i>f  taiiiiliig. 

Bark-plan'ing  Ma-chine'.  A  machine  in  which 
the  layer  of  bark  is  suVijected  to  the  action  of  consec- 
utive cutters,  to  separate  the  inner  and  outer  layers. 


BARK-ROSSING  MACHINE. 


233 


BAROGRAPH. 


The  bark  is  passed  beneath  the  rollei's  with  the  rough 
side  upjiennost,  and  the  first  cutter  removes  the  iu- 


Fig.  566. 


/ 


pif»:y^^a 


SaTlc-Planing  Machine, 

most  bark,  the  second  the  inner  portion  of  the  outer 
bark,  the  extreme  outer  portion  of  tlie  hark  lieing 
discharged  from  the  machine  down  the  incline  to  the 
left.  The  dust  removed  by  the  respective  cutters 
falls  into  separate  receptacles. 

Bark-ross'ing  Ma-chine'.  A  machine  for  re- 
moving the  ros.%  —  that  is,  the  rough,  scaly  portion 
from  the  outside  of  bark.  The  ross  has  a  lesser  pro- 
portion of  tannin,  and  by  its  removal  a  steep  of 
greater  strength  may  be  obtained  and  vat-room  saved. 

Fig.  567. 


Bark-Rossing  Machine. 


In  the  e.iample  (Fig.  567),  the  machine  consists  of 
two  pairs  of  toothed  rollers  which  feed  in  the  bark 
and  thrust  it  against  the  stationary  knife,  whicli 
di^^des  the  ross  from  the  liber,  and  the  separated 
portions  slide  down  diiferent  inclines  to  special  re- 
ceptacles. 

Bark-stove.  iHorticuUiirc.)  A  bed  of  spent 
bark  and  soil,  heateil  by  flues  or  steam-pipes,  aided 
by  a  slow  fermentation  of  its  matenals.  It  is  used 
to  make  a  bottom  heat  for  plants  glowing  in  pots 
which  are  i^lunged  therein. 

Bar-lathe.  (Turning.)  A  lathe  whose  beam  or 
shear  consi-sts  of  a  single  bar  on  which  tlie  puppets 
or  stocks  and  the  rest  are  arranged.  The  bar  is  gen- 
erally of  a  tiiangular  shape  in  cross  section,  one  flat 
side  downward. 

Bar'ley-chump'er.  (Agrindturr .)  A  machine 
for  bve^ikiiii,'  the  awn  from  the  grain.  {Prov.  English.) 
A  hii iti)i}'Utia-mni:hitui. 

Barley-fork.  (AgricwUurc.)  A  fork  specially 
adapted  lor  gathering  up  the  unbound  gavels  of  bar- 
ley or  other  grain,  the  stalks  of  which  are  too  short 


to  be  readily  made  into  sheaves.  For  this  purpose 
it  is  pronded  with  an  upright  arrangement,  as  13,  at 
the  base  of  the  tines.     In  the  example  shown,  the 

Fig.  568. 


Barley-Fork. 

tines  and  handle  are  attached  to  the  metallic  socket- 
head  A,  the  whole  being  braced  and  supported  by 
the  bow  B  and  biace  G. 

Barley-huller.  {Milling.)  A  machine  for  taking 
the  hull  or  cuticle  from  the  gi-ain  of  barley,  making 
pot-biirlcy  OT  pearl -baric  i/.  The  former  has  merely 
lost  the  cuticle,  the  latter  has  had  a  further  amount 
of  its  substance  removed  by  prolonging  tlie  jirocess 
for  double  the  length  of  time.  The  process  is  anal- 
ogous to  that  of  hominy-making.      See  HuLLlXG- 

M.\CinNE  ;    HOMINY-MACUIXE. 

Bar'ley-mill.  {Milling.)  A  mill  for  decorti- 
cating barley  ;  luinging  it  to  the  condition  known 
as^if»W-barley,  the  husk  or  the  rind  of  the  seed  be- 
ing removed.  There  are  several  ways  of  acconi|ilish- 
ing  this :  1.  By  the  usual  English  barley-mill,  — 
a  stone  roughened  on  its  circumference,  and  revolv- 
ing in  a  metallic  casing  with  holes  like  a  gi'ater  point- 
ing inward  and  upward. 

2.  By  so  regulating  the  distance  between  the  ordi- 
nary runner  and  the  bed-stone  that  the  grain  is  not 
mashed,  but  merely  the  bian  rubbed  otf. 

Bar-loom.  {Weaving.)  A  loom  for  weaving 
ribltoiis. 

Barm.  (Brcicing.)  The  foam  or  froth  rising  from 
malt  lii|unrs  :  yeast. 

Ear-mil 'li-ans._  (Fabric.)  An  old  name  for  a 
kind  of  ln.>tian  goods  largely  e.vported  from  England. 

Bar'na-cles.  (Menage.)  A  noose  attached  to  a 
stock  or  handle,  and  nipped  arouml  the  upper  lip  of 
a  horse.  It  is  twisted  so  as  to  be  somewhat  painful, 
in  order  to  give  the  command  of  the  head  to  the  per- 
son holding  the  same.  It  enables  a  man  to  hold  the 
horse's  head  aloft  to  keep  him  from  biting,  oc- 
cupy his  attention,  and  measurably  prevent  his  kick- 
ing. 

Bar'o-graph.  An  instniment  for  recording  auto- 
matically the  variations  of  atmospheric  pressure. 

1  n  Fig.  569  this  is  effected  by  means  of  \  ihotography. 
The  operative  and  recording  parts  are  inclosed  in  a 
case  (which  in  the  figure  is  sujiposed  to  be  removed) 
which  rests  upon  the  horizontal  slab,  and  entirely 
excludes  the  entrance  of  light  excejit  through  the 
.■-lit  C.  ^  is  a  gas-burner,  the  light  from  which  is 
thrown  by  the  condenser  £  over  the  top  of  the  mer- 
curial column  in  the  barometer-tulie  J,  and  passing 
through  the  photograjihic  lens  D,  is  concentrated  on 
a  strip  of  sensitized  paper  wound  around  the  cylin- 
der E,  which  is,  by  clockwork  mechanism  at  F, 
made  to  revolve  once  in  forty-eight  hours. 

The  image  of  that  portion  of  the  slit  C  above  the 
mercurial  column  is  thus  caiised  to  fonn  a  continuous 
dark  band  of  irregular  width  on  the  paper,  liecoming 
narrower  as  the  mercury  rises,  and  widening  as  it 
descends  in  the  tube,  the  width  of  the  band  indicat- 
ing not  only  the  relative  changes,  but  absolute  bight 
of  the  barometer.     A  shutter  operated  by  the  clock- 


BAROMACROMETER. 


234 


BAROMETER. 


work  cuts  off  the  light  for  four  minutes  at  the  end 
of  each  second  liour,  leaviug  a  vertical  white  time- 
line on  the  paper. 

Fig.  £69. 


Barograph, 


By  the  pxiian.sion  of  a  zinc  rod  on  each  side  of  the 
baromcter-ttibe,  in  connection  with  a  glas.s  rod  and 
lever,  tln-rmonietric  changes  are  made,  and  the  true 
haiouK'tric  changes,  with  corrections  for  temperature, 
are  photographically  recorded. 

BiiiKiKE's  Self-Registering  Barometer.  Upon  the 
colunni  of  mercury  is  a  float  carrying  a  mirror,  on 
which  a  pencil  of  light  is  thrown.  Tlie  case  is  in- 
closed so  as  to  exclude  all  other  light,  and  the  beam 
is  i-ellei-ted  by  the  mirror  upon  a  traveling  slip  of 
paper  indicating  the  extent  and  time  of  barometiic 
changes. 

Ba'ro-ina-croin'e-ter.  An  instrument  for  ascer- 
taining the  weight  and  length  of  infants. 

Ba-rom'e-ter.  (Meteorology.)  An  instrument 
for  determining  the  weight  or  pressure  of  the  atmos- 
phere.    Invented  by  Torricelli  alxjut  the  year  1643. 

Barometers  are  variously  named  from  diH'erences 
in  construction,  mounting,  fitting,  etc.  ;  e.  g.  :  — 

Aneroiil.  Minimum  barometer. 

Holosteric  barometer.  Mountain  barometer. 

Hypsometer.  Pediment  barometer. 

Long-range  barometer.  Self-regi.stering  barometer. 

Marine  barometer.  Sympiesometer. 

Maximum  barometer.  Wheel  barometer. 

It  is  related  that  the  pump-makers  of  Cosmo  de 
Medici  tried  to  raise  water  over  32  feet  by  means 
of  a  sucking  pump,  but  failed  to  raise  it  over  31  feet. 
They  applied  to  Galileo  to  resolve  the  dilliculty.  He 
was  unable  to  do  it,  but  bade  them  accept  the  fact. 
His  disci|)le  Torricelli  investigated  the  subject,  and 
found  that  the  force,  whatever  it  was,  raised  a  col- 
umn of  mercury  only  30  inches,  which  he  judged  to 
be  the  equivalent  of  the  31  feet  of  water,  and  hence 
deduced  tliat  the  moving  agent  was  not  a  nameless 
"  horror  of  a  vacuum,"  —  a  term  which  covered  the 


ignorance  of  the  real  cause,  —  but  was  the  pressure 
of  the  air  upon   the  liquid  ;    and  that  this  pres- 
sure was  equal  to  about  15   pounds  to  the  square 
inch. 

In  1647,  Pascal  showed 
practically  that  the  hight 
of  the  mercurial  colunm 
was   affected  by  carrying 
the  inverted  tube  to  the 
top  of  an  eminence.     He 
made  the  experiment  on  a 
church  -  .steeple    in    Paris. 
To  test  the   matter   more 
completely,    he    wrote    to 
his  brother-in-law  Perricr, 
who  lived  near  the  Puy  de 
Dome,  in  Auvergne,  to   repeat  the 
experiment  on  that  mountain.  "You 
see,"  he  writes,  "that  if  it  happens 
that  the  bight  of  the  mercury  on  the 
top  of  the  hill  be  less  than  at  the 
bottom  (which  I  have  many  reasons 
to   believe,    though   all   those   who 
have   thought  alxiut  it  are  of  a   diffei'ent 
opinion),  it  will  follow  that  the  weight  and 
pressure  of  the  air  are  the  sole  cause  of  this 
suspension,  and  not  the  honor  of  a  vaciuim  ; 
since  it  is  very  certain  that  there  is  more 
air  to  weigh  on  it  at  the  bottom  than  on 
the  top,  while  we  cannot  say  that  natui"e 
"abhors   a   vacuum"    at    the    foot    of    a 
mountain  more  than  on  its  summit."     On 
trying   the  experiment,   JI.   Perrier  found 
a  difference   of  three   inches   of  mercury, 
"which,"  he  says,  "ravished  us  with  ad- 
miration and  astonishment." 

Claudio  Bcriguardi,  at  Pisa,  is  said,  how- 
ever, to  have  used  the  barometer  for  determination 
of  bights  five  years  earlier  than  this.  It  is  certain 
that  the  varying  weight  of  the  atmosphere  at  differ- 
ent bights  was  known  before  Torricelli. 

Alhazcn  the  Saracen,  A.  D.  1100,  was  aware  that 
the  atmosplu're  decreases  in  density  with  inci'ease 
of  hight,  and  therefrom  explained  the  fact  that  a 
ray  of  light  entering  it  obliipiely  follows  a  curvilinear 
path,  which  is  concave  towards  the  earth.  He  showed 
that  a  body  will  weigh  ditl'erently  in  a  rare  and  in  a 
dense  atmos)ilicre,  and  calculated  that  the  hight  of 
the  atmosphere  is  nearly  58A  miles,  anticipating  the 
discovery  of  Torricelli  by  several  centuries.  "The 
Book  of  the  Balance  of  Wisdom,"  by  AI  Khazini  (per- 
haps the  same  as  Alhazen),  gives  a  imniber  of  other 
luminous  statements  on  mechanics.  We  take  the 
liberty  here  of  stating  that  he  also  wrote  on  the  doc- 
trine of  the  progressive  development  of  animal  forms, 
l)ut  did  not  reach  the  Darwinian  conclusion.  "Not," 
as  he  says,  "that  man  was  once  a  bull,  and  was 
then  changed  into  an  ass,  and  afterward  into  a 
horse,  and  after  that  into  an  ape,  and  finally  became 
a  man."  This,  he  states,  is  only  a  misrepresentation 
by  "  common  people  "  of  what  is  really  meant. 

There  is  3'et  some  difference  between  the  true  the- 
ory of' progression  anil  the  doctrine  of  the  Vedas,  the 
Institutes  of  Menu  (contemporary  with  Elijah  and 
Homer,  and  the  teaching  of  Pythagoras,  040  B.  0. 
Rosalind,  the  charming,  refers  to  the  latter,  apropos 
of  finding  the  poetry  tacked  to  the  palm-tree  :  — 

"I  never  was  so  berhymed  since  Pythagoras'  time 
that  I  was  an  Irish  rat,  which  I  can  hardly  remem- 
ber." —  As  you  Like  It. 

The  pious  Moslem  prays  that  the  All-Merciful  will, 
in  the  Day  of  .Indgment,  take  pity  on  the  soul  of  Abu- 
r-llailian,  who  first  compiled  a  table  of  specific  gravi- 
ties, the  discovery  of  the  great  Archimedes  thirteen 


BAROMETER. 


0 

BAROMETER. 

Diameter  of 

Depression. 

Diameter  of 

Depression 

Tube.  Inches. 

Indies. 

Tube.  Inches 

Inches. 

.10 

.Ii03 

.40 

.0153 

.15 

.0863 

.45 

.0112 

.20 

.0581 

.50 

.0083 

.25 

.0407 

.60 

.0044 

.30 

.0292 

.70 

.0023 

.35 

.0211 

.80 

.0012 

hundred  years  before.  Our  own  Draper  desires  to 
add  a  clause  associating  in  this  prayer  the  name  of 
"Al/uizeti,  wlio  tirst  traced  tlie  curvilinear  path  of  a 
ray  of  light  through  the  air."  It  would  not  be  hard 
to  tind  good  reason  for  associating  the  name  of  Dra- 
per with  the  illustrious  two. 

The  barometer  in  its  ordinary  form  consists  of  a 
tube  34  inches  in  length,  closed  at  the  top,  exhausted 
of  air,  and  with  its  lower  open  end  plunged  in  a  cup 
of  mercury  which  ascends  in  the  tube  by  the  pres- 
sure of  the  atmosphere.  Changes  in  the  weight  of 
the  atmosphere  raise  or  lower  the  bight  of  the  mer- 
curial column  ;  and  a  graduated  scale  alongside  the 
tube,  and  embracing  the  range  of  motion,  enables 
the  reading  of  the  variations. 

The  wheel  barometer  has  a  recurved  tube  in  which 
the  mercury  ascends  and  descends,  thereby  actuating 
a  tloat  which  connects  by  a  cord  to  the  axis  of  an 
index-finger,  which  rotates  on  a  graduated  dial.  It 
was  contrived  by  Hooke  in  1688,  the  year  that  the 
great  Dutchman,  Williamof  Orange,  cameto  England. 
The  pendent  or  marine  barometer  is  suspended  on 
gimbals,  which  enable  it  to  maintain  its  verticality 
during  the  rolling  and  pitching  motions  of  a  ship, 
and  has  a  contraction  at  the  bottom  of  the  tube  to 
obviate  oscillations  of  the  mercury.  It  was  intro- 
duced about  the  year  1698  -  1700. 

The  invention  of  the  aneroid  barometer 
Fig.  570.      is  attributed  to  Conti,  1798,  or  to  Vidi, 
1804. 

Ill  the  aneroid  barometer  (which,  as 
its  name  implies,  has  no  liquid!  the  pres- 
sure of  the  atmosphere  is  exerted  upon 
an  elastic  metallic  diaphragm  above  a 
chamber  partially  exhausted  of  air.  The 
(.  motions  of  the  diaphiagm,  due  to  changes 
of  pressure,  are  transferred  to  an  index- 
finger  which  traverses  in  connection  with 
a  graduated  .scale.     See  Aneroid. 

Barometers  have  been  constructed  in 
I  which  the  tube  and  cistern  were  tilled 
'  with   water   instead   of  mercury.      The 
great  length  of  the  column   (nearly   34 
feet   at    ordinary   pressures)    renders   it 
extremely   susceptible   to   slight   atnios- 
d  pherie  changes  ;    so  much  so  that  even 
momentary  fluctuations  can  be  observed 
at  times  during  storms  :  liut  the  difficul- 
ties in  constructing  and  keeping  in  ad- 
justment a  barometer  of  this  kiml  have 
prevented  its  coming  into  practical  use. 
It  would  obviously  be  useless  at  temper- 
atures below  32"  F. 

A  standard  barometer  is  one  made  with 
peculiar  care,  to  serve  as  a  standard  of  com- 
parison for  less  costly  instruments  of  the 
kind,  or  for  use  in  meteorological  observa- 
tions, etc.,  where  great  accuracy  and  sus- 
ceptibility are  desired.     Tlie  tube  has  in 
n  some  cases  a  bore  of  an  inch  or  upward. 
a  is  the  mercury-cup,  b  the  adjusting 
'SP^  screw,  c  the  vernier,  d  the  thermometer 
for  data  in  making  the   corrections   for 
.  temperature. 

/^  In  reading  the  barometer  two  correc- 

Siananrd     tioiis  are  necessary  :  - 
Barometer.       1.   For  the  cnpilldrifi/,  or  depression  ol 
the  mercury  in  the  tube. 
2.   For  the  temperature. 

Pure  mercury  in  a  glass  tube  assumes  a  convex 
surface,  and  the  convexity  is  gi-eatest  in  tubes  of 
small  diameter. 

The  following  is  Ivory's  scale,  giving  the  correc- 
tions for  tubes  of  dift'erent  diameters  :  — 


In  siphon  barometers,  as  the  depression  is  equal 
in  each  leg  of  the  tube,  no  correction  is  necessary. 

The  correction  for  tempierature  involves  the  con- 
sideration of  the  expansion  of  the  mercury  and  also 
of  the  graduated  scale.  The  latter,  being  minute, 
is,  however,  generally  disregarded,  and  that  of  the 
mercury  being  .0001001  for  each  degree  Fahrenheit, 
it  has  been  usual  to  subtract  from  the  reading  -rrrfW 
of  the  observed  altitude  for  every  degree  of  Fahren- 
heit above  32°.  An  example  of  the  correction  wiU 
stand  thus :  — 

Thermometer,  54°. 

Barometer,  30  inches. 

(54  —  32)  X  30  X  .0001  =  .066,  to  be  subtracted 
from  30  inches.     Result,  29.934  inches. 

Calculated  correction  tables  are  publi-shed. 

The  holosteric  barometer  is  one  in  which  a  fluid  is 
dispensed  with.  The  usual  form  is  the  Aneroid 
(which  see).  The  Vidi  aneroid  has  a  metallic  dia- 
phragm ;  the  Bourdon  aneroid  has  a  bent  tube  capa- 
ble of  flexion.     See  Bourdon  Barometer. 

A  form  of  holosteric  barometer  is  constructed  on 
a  principle  similar  to  that  of  the  hygronutric  balance. 
Its  action  depends  on  the  did'erent  specific  gravities 

Fig.  571. 


^ 


Balance  Barometer. 

of  a  short  metallic  arm  a  and  a  long  and  bulky 
wooden  arm  b,  lialanced  on  a  pivot  c  at  then-  com- 
mon center  of  gravity  ;  the  long  wooden  arm,  dis- 
placing a  greater  bulk  of  air  in  proportion  to  its 
weight  than  the  other,  is  depressed  by  the  rarifica- 
tion  and  elevated  by  the  condensation  of  the  atmos- 
phere, causing  the  two  arms  to  oscillate  about  the 
sustaining  pivot,  the  variations  being  shown  by  a 
scale  d,  to  which  the  longer  ami  points. 

From  a  manual  compiled  by  liear-Admiral  Fitzroy 
of  the  English  navy,  and  ]iublished  by  the  Board  of 
Trade,  the  following  is  condensed  :  — 

The  barometer  shows  changes  in  the  weight  of  the 
atmosphere,  if  any  occur. 

Changes  in  the  level  of  the  mercury  are  more  em- 
phatic than  actual  elevation. 

If  the  mercury,  standing  relatively  high,  should 
fall,  it  presages  a  change,  but  not  so  great  a  one  as 
if  the  mercui-y  stood  lower  and  fell  to  the  same  ex- 
tent.    The  converse  is  also  true. 

The  barometer  foretells  coming  weather  rather 
than  indicates  the  present.  The  longer  the  inter- 
val between  the  sign  and  the  change,  the  longer 
said  altered  weather  will  last.  The  converse  is  also 
true. 


BAROMETER-GAGE. 


236 


BAROIIETROGRAPH. 


Tlie  liaronu'ti-r  being  at  medium  hight  and  rising, 
the  theiinoniBter falling  indicates  dry  weather.  The 
converse  ;  barometer  medium  and  falling,  thermom- 
eter rising,  rain  ;  thermometer  falling,  snow. 

The  rising  or  falling  condition  of  the  mercury  may 
be  observed  upon  its  upper  surface  ;  convex  if  rising, 
concave  if  falling. 

Fluttering  changes  indicate  unsettled  weather  ; 
slow  movements  the  contrary.  Rapid  and  continued 
fall  is  a  sign  of  a  storm,  the  wind  being  from  the 
north  if  the  barometer  is  low  (for  the  season),  and 
from  the  south  if  the  thermometer  is  high. 

Tluve  causes  allect  a  barometer  ;  — 

1.  Tlie  direction  of  the  wind. 

2.  The  moisture  of  the  air. 
3    The  force  of  the  wind. 

AVhen  they  act  separately  they  act  less  strongly, 
and  when  coincidently  the  change  in  the  barometer 
is  greatest. 

Ba-rom'e-ter-gage.  ISIeam-Engiiic.)  An  at- 
tachment to  a  boiler,  condenser,  or  other  chamber, 
wliieli  indicates  the  state  of  the  vacuum. 

When  a  boiler  is  allowed  to  cool,  the  steam  con- 
denses, and  a  more  or  less  perfect  vacuum  is  formed 
therein,  subjecting  the  boiler  to  heavy  external  at- 
mospheric pressure.  This  ciuitingency  is  usually 
met  by  an  inlet  safety-valve,  called  a  W(cin(;«-valve. 
When  a  condenser  is  in  operation,  it  is  desirable 
to  know  the  condition  of  the  vacuum,  as  a  test  of 
the  efhiieney  of  the  air-pump. 

When  a  receiver  is  partially  exhausted  for  expeii- 
mental  purposes,  it  is  desirable  to  obtain  an  indica- 
tion of  the  tenuity  of  the  contained  air. 

The  Baromc- 
Fig.  572  tcr-gngehnheni 

glasstubert,one 
end  being 
plunged  in  a  cis- 
tern of  mercury 
i,  and  the  other 
enil  c  connect- 
ing with  a  steam- 
boiler,  condens- 
er, or  tank,  as 
the  ease  may  be. 
When  the  jet 
of  water  con- 
denses the 
steam  in  the 
condenser,  a 
partial  vacuum 
is  formed,  and 
the  external  at- 
mosphere is  in 
excess  of  the 
internal  pres- 
sure, so  that 
the  mercury  is 
caused  to  as- 
cend the  tube. 
Another  form 
1  an  inverted 
siphon, themer- 
cury  being  con- 
tained in  the 
bend  il.  as  in  the  Sleam-Pivssurc  Gftfim. 

Bar-o-met'ri-cal  A-e'ri-om'e-ter.  (Meteorol- 
ocjy.)  An  inverted  siplion  used  for  approximately 
determining  the  relative  speoitie  gravities  of  immis- 
cible fluids,  as  oil  and  water,  or  water  and  mercury. 
For  instance,  if  mercury  be  poured  in  one  limb  and 
water  into  the  other,  and  the  stop-coek  at  c  be  turned 
so  as  to  establish  a  communication  between  them,  it 
will  be  found  that  an  inch  of  mercury  in  one  limb 


Fig.  673. 


Barometer-  Gages. 


Bttrometrical 
Aeriomfter. 


will  balance  13^  inches  of  water  in  the 
other,  showing  the  relative  speciKe 
gravities  of  the  two  fluids  to  be  as  13^ 
to  one. 

Bar-o-met'ro-graph.  (Meteorol- 
oijij.)  An  instrunji-iit  liy  which  the  va- 
riations of  atmo.splierie  pressure  are 
automatically  recorded  on  a  sheet  of 
papei'. 

Nai'IEK  .s  instrument,  patented  in 
ISiS,  is  intended  to  mark  the  varia- 
tions of  atmospheric  pressure  during 
an-  entire  period  of  24  hours.  Con- 
nected with  the  barometer-tube  is  a 
vertical  .spindle  carrying  a  card  which 
lias  on  its  surface  a  number  of  radial 
lines  anil  concentric  circles ;  the  radial 
lines  represent  fractions  of  inches,  and 
the  concentric  circles  represent  por- 
tions of  time.  Aliove  the  card  is  a  lever  carrying  a 
vertical  iiricker,  which  is  made  to  rise  and  fall  at 
certain  regular  intervals  of  time,  and  to  travel  from 
the  inner  concentric  circle  to  the  outer  one  once  in 
24  hours.  On  the  vertical  spindle,  and  underneath 
the  card,  is  fastened  a  grooved  wheel,  around  which 
is  passed  a  cord,  while  the  other  end  is  made  fast  to 
a  tloat  resting  upon  a  column  of  mercury  in  a  tube. 
The  card  has  a  fixed  point  repiesenting  29.5  inches, 
which,  at  the  commencement,  is  placed  underneath 
the  priekei-.  As  the  column  of  mercury  rises  or  falls 
by  the  varying  pressuie  of  the  atmosphere,  the  jirinted 
card  will  tiavel  to  the  left  or  the  right  accordingly  ; 
and  the  variation  of  hight  will  be  indicated  by  tlie 
distance  of  the  punctureil  lines  from  the  starting-point 
on  either  side. 

A  self-registering  barometer,  recently  invented  in 
France,  is  shown  in  the  accompanying  cut.  The 
records  are  continuous  and  comparable,  and  are  pro- 
duced by  the  variations  of  an  aueroid.  The  pressure 
of  the  atn!os])here  affects  four  metallic  boxes,  as  in 
the  ordinary  aneroid,  having  their  upper  and  under 
faces  undulated  ;  a  vacuum  is  made  in  each  of  them 
separately,  and  they  are  attached  together  in  one 
series,  so  that  for  an  equivalent  variation  of  pressure 
the  movement  is  four  times  greater  than  it  is  for  one 
box  only.  A  very  strong  flat  steel  spring  R  acts 
upon  the  barometric  boxes  in  an  opposite  direction 
to  the  atinos]jheric  jjressure.  This  spring  controls 
the  indicating  lever  L  L  by  means  of  a  connecting 
piece  at  the  point  B:  this  connector  receives  the 
action  from  tlie  extremity  of  the  spring,  and  com- 
nuinicates  it  to  the  lever  i  i  at  a  point  very  close 
to  its  axis,  from  whence  it  follows  that  a  consider- 
able multiplication  of  movements  is  the  result. 

The  indications  of  the  movements  of  the  lever  are 
registered  in  the  following  manner :  A  cylinder  C 
is  revolved  by  the  regular  movement  of  an  ordinary 
pendulum  timepiece  ;  it  makes  a  complete  revolution 
in  one  week,  and  carries  a  glazed  paper  which  has 
been  smoked  black  by  means  of  a  candle.  At  the 
extremity  of  the  lever  is  a  very  fine  spring,  pointed 
at  the  end,  which  rests  upon  the  cylimler  and  traces 
a  white  line  upon  the  black  ground.  At  the  end  of 
each  week  the  paper  is  changed  for  a  fresh  one,  the 
record  on  the  old  one  being  protected  by  a  coat  of 
varnish. 

The  action  of  the  self-registering  and  printing 
barometer,  invented  by  Professor  Hough  of  the  Al- 
bany Observatory,  depends  upon  the  making  and 
breaking  of  an  electric  circuit  by  the  rising  and  fall- 
ing of  the  mercury,  for  the  communication  of  impulses 
to  electro-magnets,  which  unlock  a  train  of  clock- 
work so  devised  as  not  only  to  describe  a  constant 
curve  upon  a  piece  of  paper,  representing  the  hight 


BAROSCOPE. 


237 


BARREL. 


Fig.  574. 


French  Baromelrograph. 

of  the  column  at  any  time  of  day  and  night  for  many 
davs  in  succession,  but  also  to  luint  upon  pages, 
which  may  be  subsequently  bound,  the  hights  of  the 
column  as  often  as  may  be  desired,  thus  making  a 
printed  record.  The  barometer  employed  hasa  siphon 
tube. 

Bar'o-scope.  {Meteorologi/.)  An  instrament 
which  indicates  the  variations  in  weight  of  the  at- 
mosphere without  indicating  its  absolute  pressure. 
A  weather-glass.  Of  this  class  are  the  iustrunients 
called  proguosticators,  or  storm -glasses,  consisting 
of  a  tube  containing  a  clear  liquid  in  which  a  Hoccu- 
lent  substance  floats,  rising  and  falling  with  varia- 
tions in  the  weight  of  the  atmosjiheric  column,  and 
thus  indicating  the  kind  of  weather  which  may  be 
expected. 

Somewliat  allied  to  these  are  instnmients  in  which 
a  flocculent  substance  i<  suspended  in  a  menstruum  ; 
the  assumption  of  a  milky  appearance  by  tlie  material 
indicates  an  excess  of  moisture  in  the  air,  and  prog- 
nosticates rain. 

The  wheel  barometer  of  Hooke  is  also  a  baroscope, 
as  its  changes  and  indications  are  made  visible  by 
means  of  a  float  in  the  mei-cury,  whose  counterbal- 
anced suspension-string  moves  a  hand  on  an  index- 
circle. 

Ba-rouche'.  {Vehicle.)  A  four-wheeled  carriage, 
having  a  falling  top.  It  has  two  seats  inside,  ar- 
ranged so  that  four  persons  can  sit  two  facing  other 
two,  the  seat  for  the  driver  being  outside. 

Bar-pump.  (HiidrauUcs. )  A  small  boat-pump 
for  i-aising  water,  oil,  etc.,  from  large  casks.  Prob- 
ablv  from  Bnrr-pump.     See  B.^re-it.mp. 

Bar-quan-tine'.  [Xautical.)  A  three-masted 
vessel,  scpiare-rigged  on  tile  forenia.st,  and  fore-and- 
aft  rigged  nn  the  main  and  mizzen.  Commonly  found 
on  the  Northern  lakes.     Also  spelt  barkaiUbu. 

Barque.  (Xnulknl.)  A  three-masted  vessel 
whose  lore  and  main  masts  are  squarc-rUiged,  like 
those  of  a  ship,  and  whose  mizzen  is  forc-and-afl 
rigged,  like  a  schooner. 

Bar'ra-can.  (Fabric.)  A  thick,  strong  stuff', 
known  by  this  and  similar  names  in  most  of  the 
languages  of  Europe  and  Western  Asia.  It  is  made 
in  AiTOeuia  and  Persia  of  camel's  hair,  like  cnmlel, 
whose  name  also  indicates  that  its  material  is  deiived 
from  the  same  animal.  The  name  has  been  presen'ed, 
while  the  fabric  has  been  made  of  other  materials, 
—  wool,  flax,  and  cotton. 

It  was  during  the  wool  stage  that  the  memorable 
Falstaff'  celebrated  his  achievements  :  ' '  Four  rogues 
in  buckram  (barmcan)  set  at  me." 

An  article  called  barracan  is  yet  used  in  Europe, 


and  in  some  countries  is  mainly  cotton,  resem- 
bling/«.s^i'«is. 

The  old  Roman  toga  was  commonly  made  of 
this  material. 

Barrack.  (Engineering.)  A  temporary  build- 
ing for  quartering  soldiere  or  for  workmen.  Per- 
manent buildings,  also,  designed  exclusively  for 
occupancy  by  soldiers,  are  geuerally  so  called. 

Also  a  structure  erected  for  sheltering  the 
workmen  where  Avork  is  progiessing  in  an 
isolated  position,  to  which  access  is  at  times 
difficult  or  impossible,  on  account  of  the  state 
of  the  tide  or  weather.     Of  this  class  were  the 

Fig.  575. 


•    Barrack  on  Skfnyvore  Rock. 

temporar}-  dwellings  erected  by  the  Stevensons  on 
the  Bell  Rock  inthe  Frith  of  Forth,  and  on  the 
Skerry vore  Rocks,  about  12  miles  AV.  S.  AV.  of  the 
island  of  Tyree,  Argyllshire,  Scotland,  for  the  pro- 
tection of  the  men,  provisions,  tools,  and  a  portion 
of  the  materials. 

Bar'rage.  1.  (/"aftnc)  A  Normandy  fabric  made 
of  linen  interwoven  with  worsted  flowers. 

2.  (Hydraulic  Enijinecriiig.)  .Bfjrra^c  is  a  French 
word,  signifying,  in  general,  an  artificial  obstruction 
placed  in  a  -water-course  in  older  to  obtain  an  in- 
creased depth  for  na%ngation,  irrigation,  or  other 
puqioses.  Barrage-fixe  is  a  permanent  dam  of  ma- 
soniT.  Barrnge-mobih  is  a  dam  having  a  sluice  by 
which  the  flow  of  water  may  be  regulated. 

Bar'ras.     (Fabric.)     A  kind  of  packing-cloth. 

Bar'rel.  A  word  applied  to  hollow  cylindrical 
objects,  such  as  — 

1.  (Pump.)     The  piston-chamber  of  a  pump. 

2.  A  cask  for  containing  liquids,  usually  having 
a  capacity  of  from  30  to  45  gallons. 

A  cask  for  certain  kinds  of  provisions,  —  flour, 
fruits,  vegetables,  etc.,  —  holding  196  pounds  of  flour 
(American  custom),  or  about  2^  bushels  of  fniit, 
varying  according  to  the  customai-y  practice  in  re- 
gard to  striking  or  heaping  the  measure. 


BARREL. 


238 


BARREL-FILLER. 


Dickenson''s  Wrought-Iroil  Barret. 


A  iMeiV.sure  of  ear-corn  in  the  Southern  States, 
shi'lliuj,'  2h  bushels. 

Tlie  D1CKEN.S0N  Patent  Wrought-Iron  Barrels, 
usi'd  in  the  British  navy,  have  a  cylimli-ical  form, 
with  a  soldered  seam.  An  irou  hoop  b  is  riveted  to 
eaeh  end.  This  hoop  has  a  rabbet,  and  the  thickest 
part  is  riveted  to  the  drum  a,  wliile  the  other  por- 
tion forms  a  recess  with  the  side  of  the  drum  for  the 

reception  of  the 
Fig.  B76.  tiauge    of   the 

head  c,  whicli  is 
made  by  bend- 
ing the  periph- 
ery of  the  circu- 
lar iron  plateata 
rightaugletoits 
pUuR".  A  pack- 
ing of  greased 
liemp-bands  is 
placed  in  the 
i  recess,  the  Hange 
of  the  head 
driven  in,  and 
then  the  edge 
of  the  iron  hoop 
is  turned  over  against  the  bottom  head,  making  an 
air  and  water-tight  joint. 

This  is  for  the  bottom  head.  The  upper  head  is 
removable  without  damage  to  the  package.  The 
upper  portion  of  the  hoop  is  not  flattened  down  as  at 
the  other  end  of  the  barrel,  but  a  number  of  latch- 
bolts  are  pivoted  to  the  cover,  and  catch  into  open- 
ings in  the  side  of  the  hoop. 

Tlie  metal  is  coated  inside  and  out  with  canvas 
saturated  with  a  composition  of  caoutchouc,  8  ; 
black  resin,  4  ;  Venice  turpentine,   1. 

This  is  digested,  spread  on  the  cloth,  and  the  lat- 
ter is  then  run  between  rollers. 

3.  (Horo'ogij.)  a.  The  hollow  cylinder  or  case 
containing  the  mainspriiuj  of  a  watch,  or  .spring  clock 

(a.  Fig.  577).     It 

Fig.  577.  is  connected  by 

a    chain    with 

the/iwcc,  and  by 

the   \vinding  of 

the     latter     the 

chain  passes  from 

the'  barrel,   and 

the    viainspring 

Barrels.  is    wound.       See 

Fusee. 

When  the/fKcc  cannot  be  introduced  into  a  watch, 

owing  to  the  flatness  of  the  movemciU,  the  first  wheel 

is  attached  to   the  barrel,  which  is   then   called  a 

gyiiiy-barrcl  {b.  Fig.  577). 

Slop-works  are  attached  to  regulate  the  action  of 
the  spring  ;  that  is,  to  prevent  its  being  wound  too 
tight  or  running  down  too  far,  using  thi'  middle 
power  of  the  spi-ing  and  rejecting  its  highest  and 
lowest  powers.  This  is  particularly  necessary  in 
watches  destitute  of  the  fusee.  See-  Stop-work. 
b.  The  chamber  of  a  spring-balance. 

4.  [Fire-arms.)  The  tube  of  a  gun  from  which 
the  projectile  is  discharged. 

5.  (J/itsjc.)  The  cylinder  studded  with  pins  by 
which  the  keys  of  a  musical  instrument  are 
moved. 

6.  (Metallurgii.)  A  cylindrical  vessel  moring  on 
an  axis,  for  amalgamating,  polishing  (tumbling-box), 
or  making  gunpowder.  In  the  latter  case  it  is  par- 
tially filled  with  bell-metal  balls,  and  is  called  a 
roll  iiig-barrel. 

7.  (MaiUieal.)  a.  The  main  piece  of  a  capstan, 
between  the  whelps  and  the  pawl-rim. 


b.  The  cylinder  around  which  the  tiller-ropes  are 
wound. 

8.  The  sonorous  portion  of  a  bell,  which  is  attached 
by  the  remaining  portion,  the  canon  or  ear,  to  the 
suspensory  arrangements. 

y.  (Pulleij.)  The  cylindrical  portion  of  a  drum 
or  pulley  on  which  the  band  laps. 

10.  {Steam-Engine.)  The  cylindrical  portion  of 
the  locomotive  boiler  extending  from  the  lire-bo.x  to 
the  smoke-box. 

Bar'rel-drain.    A  cylindrical  drain. 

Bar'rel-dry'er.  A  device  ibr  drying  barrels  after 
being  coopered  or  washed,  before  refilling. 

Fig.  578. 


Barrel-  Dryer, 

The  view  (Fig.  578)  is  sectional,  and  shows  two 
tiers  of  main  steam-pipes  with  vertical  branch-pipes 
extending  upwardly  through  the  bung-holes  into  the 
interiors  of  the  casks. 

Bar'rel-fill'er.  (Hydnndics.)  A  device  for  filling 
casks,  provided  with  an  automatic  arrangement  for 
cutting  off  the  supply  of  liijuid  in  time  to  prevent 


Fig.  B79. 


Barrel-Filling  Apparatta. 


overflow,  or  calling  attention  to  the  fact  that  the 
vessel  is  about  full. 

In  one  form,  the  rising  of  the  liquid  in  the^barrel 
is  the  means  of  stopping  the  flow.  In  Fig.  579,  the 
tube  A'  B  is  jointed  at  I).    The  end  bearing  the  float 


BARREI^FILLING  GAGE. 


239 


BARREI^ROLLER. 


K  is  inserted  into  the  barrel  to  lie  filled,  and,  as  the 
float  rises,  it,  through  the  medium  of  the  rod  L  and 
jointed  lever  J/  N  0,  releases  the  detent  i/,  allow- 
ing a  spring  to  foree  up  the  rod  g  and  depress  the 
rod  e,  closing  the  vah'e  E  and  cutting  oft'  the  supply- 
As  the  projecting  spout  £  is  lightened  by  the  ab- 
sence of  the  liquid,  the  counterpoise  weight  T  lifts  it 
clear  of  the  bung-hole. 

In  another  form,  the  liquid  flows  through  a  stop- 
cock to  enter  the  baiTel  ;  when  the  latter  is  full,  the 
liquid  overflows  into  a  chamber  in  which  a  float  rises 
and  operates  a  lever  to  close  the  stop-cock. 

In  another  form,  a-s  tlie  liquid  rises  and  closes  the 
air-exit,  the  air  condensed  in  the  upper  part  of  the 
barrel  passes  through  a  duct  in  the  faucet,  and  by 
pressure  on  a  diaphragm  operates  a  lever  which  closes 
the  supply. 

In  some  cases  the  elevation  of  the  water-level  oper- 
ates a  wliistle,  in  another  rings  a  bell.  The  ascend- 
ing float,  however,  is  the  usual  operative  feature  of 
the  barrel-filler. 

Bar'rel-fiU'ing  Gage.  {Hydraidies.)  An  auto- 
matic indicator,  used  in  connection  with  a  faucet,  to 
announce  when  the  barrel  is  about  full,  so  that  the 
supply  may  be  stopped.  Some  gages  merely  show 
the  hight  of  the  liquid  in  the  barrel ;  others  give  an 
alann  when  it  attains  a  certain  hight  ;  others  cut 
oS'  the  supply.     See  B.^rhel-filler. 

Bax'rel-head  Cut'ter.  (Coopering.)  a.  A  tool 
for  rounding  and  c|iamfering  barrel-heads.      The 

Fig.  5S0. 


II   1  yJK'.'l 


II   \  I     III 


Barrel  Head  Cutter. 

pivot  c  is  stuck  into  the  center  of  the  head,  and  the 
tool  rotated  by  the  handle  H.     The  angular  cutter 

Fig.  oSl. 


Enrr^UHender 


Fin  adjustable  on  the  shank  B  of  the  tool,  according 
to  the  radius  of  the  barrel-head. 

b.  A  machine  for  effecting  tlie  same  purpose.  In 
the  example  the  blank  is  placed  between  the  clamp- 
ing disks,  and  the  frame  turned  so  as  to  bring  the 
blank  in  contact  with  the  disked  saw  ;  this  move- 
ment also  brings  the  bevel-wheel  upon  the  arbor  of 
the  clamping-disks  in  connection  with  its  motive- 
wheel  upon  the  saw-shaft.  The  frame  is  duplicated, 
so  that  while  one  blank  is  being  operated  on,  another 
may  be  clamped  in  position. 

Bar'rel-head  Hold'er.  (Coopering.)  A  clamp 
con^^isting  of  a  pair  of  jaws  for  holding  barrel-heads 
in  i>osition  wide  being  trimmed  around  the  edges. 

Bar'rel-hoop'ing  Ma-chine'.  {Coopering.)  A 
machine  for  setting  the  hoops  on  a  barrel.  A  circu- 
lar ring  has  pendent  drivers,  and  is  reciprocated  by 
a  rack-bar  and  pinion.  The  assembled  staves  are 
placed  in  upright  position,  and  the  hoops  driven 
thereon  by  the  downward  motion  of  the  drivers. 

Bar'rei-loom.  (jreaving.)  a.  A  loom  in  which 
a  barrel,  usually  a  square  prism,  receives  the  perfo- 
rated cards  which  determine  the  figures.  A  jacquard 
loom. 

b.  One  used  for  wearing  figured  fabrics ;  the  rising 
and  falling  of  the  heddles  which  govern  the  wai-ps 
being  accomplished  through  the  agency  of  pins  on 
the  revolving  barrel. 

Bar'rel-mak'ing  Ma-chine'.  {Coopering.)  A 
machine  or  series  of  machines  by  which  some  prin- 
cipal part  of  the  process  of,  or  the  series  of  processes 
in,  making  barrels  is  performed. 

Brown's  English  Patent,  1825,  embraces  the  foU 
lowing  series  of  devices  :  — 

1.  A  circular  saw,  with  a  bench  and  slide-rest, 
having  an  adjustable  guide  consisting  of  a  flexible 
bar,  which  is  bent  to  the  curve  desired  for  the  edge 
of  the  stave.  A  piece  of  wood  of  proper  dimensions 
is  clamped  to  the  slide-rest,  which  is  advanced  by 
hand  along  the  guide  and  presented  to  the  circular 
saw,  which  gives  the  proper  cuitc  to  the  edge  of  the 
stave. 

2.  An  apparatus  with  cutters,  attached  to  a  re- 
volving standard,  by  means  of  which  the  staves, 
secured  by  temporary  hoops,  are  crozed. 

3.  An  apparatus  somewhat  similar  to  the  above, 
in  which  the  straight  pieces  of  wood  for  forming  the 
heads  are  held  together,  cut  to  the  circular  figure 
required,  and  beveled. 

4.  A  machine  in  which  the  cask,  after  having 
been  assembled  and  headed  up  by  hand  in  the  usual 
way,  is  revolved,  while  a  cutting  tool  is  made  to 
traverse  along  its  exterior,  forming  a  smooth  surface. 

The  arrangement  of  the  machineiy  at  Glen's  Falls, 
N.  Y.,  consists  of  three  machines  :  the  first  for  cut- 
ting the  staves  to  the  required  length,  finishing  the 
heads,  and  making  the  croze  ;  the  second  jointijig 
the  staves  in  packs  ;  the  third  forn)ing  the  heads. 

Bar'rel-or'gan.  [Music.)  An  instrument  in 
which  the  notes  are  sounded  by  means  of  pins  or 
staples,  arranged  as  to  time  and  place  on  the  surface 
of  a  cylinder  which  is  rotated  by  hand.     See  Haxd- 

ORGAV. 

Bar'rel-pen.  A  steel  pen  which  has  a  split  cylin- 
drical shank,  adapting  it  to  slip  upon  a  round 
holder. 

Bar'rel-pro'cess.  A  mode  of  extracting  precious 
metals  from  ores.     See  Am.\lgamator. 

Bar'rel-roll'er.  A  device  for  clamping  the  ends 
of  a  barrel,  and  manipulating  it  so  as  to  allow  it  to 
turn  freely  when  rolled  along  on  its  bilge. 

A  pair  of  handles  of  a  convenient  size  are  crossed, 
and  pivoted  at  the  point  of  crossing  like  a  pair  of 
scissors.     The  opposite  ends  of  the  handles  are  each 


BARREL-SCREW. 


240 


BARROW-PUMP. 


provided  with  a  disk  of  a  diameter  somewhat  less 
than  that  of  the  common  barrel-head.     Each  disk 

_.    ,„„  is  pivoted  at  its 

Fig  682.  '       ,    .. 

centerto  Its  sup- 
porting arm  and 
so  as  to  revolve 
freely.  The 
handles  are  of 
such  form  that 
the  disks  may 
be  appliud,  one 
at  each  end  of 
a  barrel,  and 
pressed  closely 
against  it, 
whereupon  the 
barrel  may  be 
Barrel- Roller.  ^^^i^^y  ,,oii;.j 

Bar'reVsaw.  (Coopering.)  A  cylindrical  saw 
for  sawing  staves,  etc.,  to  a  curved  form  They  are 
afterward" bent  to  the  required  longitudinal  curve. 
The  saw  is  mounted  on  a  table,  and  means  are  pro- 
vided for  keeping  it  up  to  the  work  and  retracting 
it  therefrom. 

Fig.  B83. 


Fig.  584. 


Barrel-Saw. 

Cylindrical  saws  are  also  used  for  sawing  chair- 
backs,  brush-backs,  and  fellies. 

Bar'rel-screw.  (Shiinoriijhling. )  A  form  of 
screw-jack  used  in  a  shipwriglit's  yard  to  move 
heavv  tini'icr-i  or  assist  in  launcliing. 

Bar'rel-3et'ter.  (Gmi-inal-ing.)  A  cylindrical 
mandrel  trsed  by  aiinorers  for  straightening  the  bar- 
rel of  a  liie-ann  and  in  truiiuj  the  bore  or  exterior 
surface. 

Bar'rel-vault    {^fasonr;/.)    A  cylindrical  vault. 
Bar'rel-vise.     (Oun-smithbui.)     A  bench-vise, 
having  a  lonu'it\idiiial  groove  in  its  jaws  to  tit  it  for 
the  reception  of  a  gun-barrel,  which  may 
be  protected  from  direct  contact  of  the 
jaws  of  the  vis;i  by  sheet-lead  or  other 
soft  metal  cheeks. 

Bar'rel-wash'er.  {Brewing.)  A  ma- 
chine in  wliich  casks  are  cleansed  after 
use,  preparatory  to  refilling. 

In  one  example,  the  barrels  are  clamped 
in  the  frames  tliat  turn  on  pivots  in  jour- 
nals in  an  iron  frame.      The  barrels  are 
arranged  at  an  angle  to  their  line  of  rota- 
tion by  a  clamp  with  a  corrugated  surface 
that  curves  to  suit  the  bilge  of  the  bar- 
rel.    To  vary  the  angle  to  the  plane  of 
rotation  of  ail  the  barrels  simultaneously, 
the  clas|)S  are  mounted  in  circular  guide- 
Wfiys  on  the  chimping  rails,  so  that  they 
may  vibrate  in  arcs  of  which  the  axis  of  rotation  of 
the  frame  forms  the  center.    This  causes  a  swashing 
motion  of  the  water  endways  of  the  barrel,  by  which 
iti  interior  is  cleansed. 


Barrel-  Washer. 

Bar-ret-tee3'.     {Fabric.)    A  kind  of  plain  silk. 

Bar'rier.  (Fortification. )  An  obstacle,  such  as 
a  )ialisade  or  stockade,  for  defending  an  entrance  to 
a  fortification.  It  is  provided  with  a  central  gate 
formed  of  strong  upright  timbeis,  connected  by 
transverse  beams  at  top  and  bottom  and  a  diagonal 
brace. 

Bar'rier-gate.  {Fortification.)  A  gate  closing 
the  entiam.'c  through  a  stockade  or  barrier. 

Bar'rOTW.  1.  (Mining.)  A  heap  of  oiWc,  or  rub- 
bish. 

2.  {Vehicle.)  A  light  carriage  for  transporting 
articles,  moved  by  hand.  See  Hand-bailuow  and 
Wheklbaim-.ow. 

3.  In  salt-works,  a  wicker  case  in  which  the  salt 
is  put  to  drain. 

Bar'roTW-pump.  {Hydraulics.)  A  combined  suc- 
tion and  Ibrce  jiump,  rendered  portable  by  being 
mounted  on  a  two-wlieeled  barrow,  and  adapted  for 
agricultural  and  fire-engine  purposes. 

In  the  illustration  .sliown,  the  pump  is  double- 
Fig.  585. 


BaTTO\c-Pitmp. 

acting,  and  is  worked  by  the  lever  n,  which  pro- 
jects over  and  between  the  handles  of  the  barrow. 
h  is  the  suction-hose  ;  d,  discharge-nozzle ;  e,  air- 
chamber  ;  g,  cylinder. 


BAR-SHARE  PLOW. 


241 


BASCULE   BRIDGE. 


Bar-share  Plow.  {Agriculture.)  One  having 
a  bar  extending  backward  from  the  I'o'nt  of  tlie 
share.  Used  in  tending  crops,  laying  out  corn-rows, 
etc. 

Bar-shear.  (Metal-working.)  A  machine  for 
cutting  metallic  Ijars.     It  consists  of  a  very  strong 

tig.  566. 


Sar-Sh-ar. 

frame,  having  a  fixed  lower  blade  e  and  a  vertically 
reciprocating  upper  blade  d,  between 
which  the  bar  is  sheared,  a  is  the  fly- 
wheel, b  the  main  gear-wheel  on  the  axis 
of  the  cam  (hidden  in  the  interior  of  the 
casing),  which  works  the  tail  of  the  lever 
c  and  reciprocates  the  jaw  d.  See  Bar- 
cutter. 

Bar-shoe.  {Farrienj.)  A  horseshoe 
which  is  not  open  at  the  heel,  but  is 
continued  round  at  the  rear.  It  is  used 
with  horses  which  are  liable  to  contrac- 
tion of  the  heel,  to  spread  that  part  of 
the  foot. 

Bar-shot  (Ordnance.)  A  projectile 
formerly  used,  consisting  of  two  cannon- 
balls,  or  half-balls,  united  by  a  bar  of  iron, 
and  employed  for  severing  the  rigging 
of  vessels,  as  w"ell  as  for  field  and  fort 
artillery. 

Shot  used  in  proving  ordnance  may  be 
considered  as  belonging  to  this  class,  con- 
sisting, as  they  do,  of  a  bar  with  hemi- 
spherical ends,  weighing  twice  or  three  times  that 
of  the  solid  shot  used  in  service. 

Bar-ti-zau'.  (Fortification.)  The  overhanging 
tunets  of  a  battlement. 

Bar'ut-ine.  (Fabric.)  A  kind  of  Persian 
silk. 

Ba-saltlng.  A  process  for  utilizing  the  scoria; 
of  blast-furnaces  for  making  paving  and  building 
blocks. 

Ba-sane'.  (Leather.)  French  tanned  sheep-skins 
for  bookbinding.     Batcsin. 

Bas'cule.  (Fr.  sec-saw.)  A  form  of  bailing-scoop 
used  by  Perronet  at  the  Bridge  of  Orleans  was  worked 
by  20  men,  10  at  each  end.  600  motions  were  given 
to  it  per  hour,  and  at  each  motion  4  cubic  feet  of 
water  were  raised  3  feet  high  ;  2, 400  cubic  feet  per 
hour. 

It  consists  of  a  pair  of  scoops  re  a  on  a  .single  frame, 
which  is  pivoted  to  oscillate  upon  bearings  on  the 
summit  of  posts  b,  secured  to  a  frame  planted  on  the 
bottom  of  the  river,  pond,  or  inclosure  to  be  dra  ined 
See  Bailing-scoop. 

16 


Fig.  587 


PerroneCs  Bascule. 


Bas'cule  Bridge.  A  counterpoise  drawbridge 
which  oscillates  in  a  vertical  plane;  the  inner  por- 
tion descends  into  a  pit,  while  the  outer  ascends  and 
closes  the  gateway. 

A  bridge  which  has  its  track  simply  hinged  to  the 
edge  of  the  scarp  or  curbing,  and  which  is  lifted  by 
weight  or  windlass,  is  classed  as  a  Liftixg-ehidge 
(which  see).  The  bascule  has  an  inner  portion  of 
roadway,  which  acts  as  a  counterpoise  to  the  portion 
which  projects  over  the  water-way.  The  inner  por- 
tion ilescends  into  a  dry  well  when  the  bridge  is 


Fig.  688 


Bascule  at  Brussels. 

lifted  into  a  vertical  position,  the  outer  portion  clos- 
ing the  opening  in  the  wall  outside  of  the  portcullis, 
if  there  be  one.  This  form  of  bridge  was  not  uncom- 
mon in  the  castles  of  the  feudal  times,  when  the  rich 
owned  the  poor,  and  learning  had  no  refuge  but  in 
the  Church. 

Fig.  689 


Bascule  Neu/  Brisark. 


BASE. 


242 


BASIX-FAUCET. 


A  bascule  bridge  at  Brussels,  called  a  bnlancinij- 
bridgc,  lias  an  overweighed  land  end,  so  that  it  as- 
sumes the  vertical  when  a  chock  beneath  its  inner 
end  is  lemoved.  The  land  end  works  iu  a  (|uad- 
rantal  pit  lined  with  iron.  The  strut  that  supports 
the  land  end  is  footed  upon  a  set-ott'  in  the  masonry, 
and  a  swinging  strut  limits  the  depression  of  the 
bridge  at  its  outer  end.  When  tilted,  the  bridge  is 
held  in  position  by  a  rack  and  jiinion. 

Instead  of  the  heavily  counter-weighted  platform, 
a  pendent  weight,  chain,  and  jiulleys  may  act  ujion 
a  vertical  arm  to  raise  and  lower  the  platform,  which 
oscillates  upon  a  horizontal  a.xis. 

Base.  1.  {^Ordnance.)  The  ],rotuberant  rear  por- 
tion of  a  gun,  between  the  knob  of  the  cascabel  and 
the  biisc-riiu/. 

The  base  is  the  middle  member  of  the  ca^scabel  when 
the  piece  has  a  base-ring  and  knob.  In  the  simpli- 
city of  modern  pieces,  many  mere  ornaments  and 
extraneous  matters  are  omitted.  The  base  is  always 
present,  forming  the  rounded  contour  at  the  rear  of 
the  breech. 

2.  (Carpentry.)  The  skirting-board  next  to  the 
floor  of  a  room. 

3.  (Surveiiiiuj.)  The  main  line  of  a  .survey,  ascer- 
tained by  actual  measurement,  upon  which  the  sub- 
sequent trigonometrical  operations  are  founded. 

4.  (Arehik'clure.)  The  lower  part  of  a  structure  : 
of  a  building  it  may  constitute  a  basement ;  of  a  col- 
umn it  may  consist  of  basc-violdings  and  })linth. 

5.  (Forlificalion.)  The  line  connecting  the  salient 
angles  of  two  bastions. 

6.  {Dentistry.)  A  foundation  resting  immediately 
upon  the  gums,  on  or  into  which  the  artificial  teeth 
are  placed. 

Baae-burn'ing  Fur'nace.     A  furnace  or  stove 
in  which  the  fuel  is 


Fig.  690. 


H<i'e-Bitrni  'g  Stove. 


containeil  in  a  hop- 
per or  chamber,  from 
which  it  is  fed  to  the 
tire  as  the  lower  stra- 
tum burns.  The  .sup- 
ply is  thus  continu- 
ous, the  hopper  hold- 
ing a  supply  for  any 
given  time,  according 
to  its  capacity. 

The  idea  seems  to 
have  originated  in  the 
"Constant  Furnace " 
of thealchemists.  See 
Ath.\nuI!. 

James  Watt  con- 
trived a  smoke-con- 
suming furnace  on 
that  principle.  See 
S  .M  O  K  E  -  CO.SSUMING 
FURX.VCE. 

The  principle  of  the 
base -burner  is  also 
found  in  the  f  irnace 
e.xhibited  in  1685 
by  M.  Delasme,  at 
the  fair  of  St.  Ger- 
main. It  consisted 
of  a  long  tube  like 
an  inverted  siphon, 
the  longest  leg  of 
which  formed  the 
chinmey  and  the 
shortest  the  furnace. 
The  fuel  was  depos- 
ited on  a  grating  near 
the  top  of  the  short- 


est lef,  being  supplied  from  above.  Soon  after  igni- 
tion of  the  fuel,  heat  was  communicated  to  the  longest 
leg  or  chinmey,  and  by  that  means  a  current  of  air 
was  caused  to  Jiass  downward  through  the  fuel  and 
under  the  grate,  where  tlio  smoke  was  consumed. 

Base-burn'ing  Stove.  (.)ne  having  a  magazine 
to  hold  a  su)iply  of  fuel,  which  falls  out  at  the  bot- 
tom as  that  in  the  fire-pot  becomes  consumed.  In 
the  example,  the  grate  is  arranged  to  be  dumped 
without  opening  the  base  of  the  stove,  thus  prevent- 
ing the  esouiie  of  dust.  The  reservoir  is  constructed 
in  three  sections.  Above  the  mica  windows  is  a 
register  for  the  purpose  of  admitting  air  to  the  fire. 

Base'raent  (.Ircliitcctiire.)  The  lower  story  or 
floor  of  a  building  ;  the  story  of  a  house  below,  or 
partly  below,  the  h'Vel  of  the  ground. 

Base-plate.  (Madiincry.)  The  bottom  plate, 
to  which  tlic^  frame  of  an  engine  or  machine  is  fas- 
tened.     A  beil-plale. 

Base-ring.  (Ordnance.')  A  molding  on  the  JrcccA 
of  a  gun,  between  the  base  and  the  first  reinforce. 
See  C,\NNoN. 

Base-vi'ol.  (Mimic.)  An  instrument  of  the  vio- 
lin kind,  the  largest  of  the  class.  It  has  four  strings 
and  eight  stops,  divided  by  semi-stops.  It  is  played 
by  a  bow. 

Bas'il.  1.  (Cutting-tools.)  The  ground  surface 
of  a  cutting- tool  which  forms  an  angle  with  the 
back  ;  as  of  a  chisel,  giuver,  plane-bit,  etc. 

The  broad-axe,  adz,  tir!ner  and  paring  chisels, 
gouge,  plane-bit,  graver,  have  but  a  single  basil :  one 
face  is  pennanent  and  straight ;  the  sharpening  is 
done  upon  the  basil. 

Chopping -axes,  hatchets,  machetes,  stone -axes, 
bill-hooks,  swords,  tomahawks,  turning-chisels,  etc., 
have  a  double  basil,  if  it  may  be  so  termed.  They 
are  sharpened  equally  on  the  two  faces. 

2.  (Leather. )  A  sheep-skin  tanned  with  bark,  and 
of  quality  for  making  slippers. 

Bas'i-lisk.  (Ordnance.)  An  old  name  for  a  long 
48-pounder  cannon  ;  so  called  from  the  snakes  which 
superseded  the  dolphins  conmion  on  other  guns. 

Ba'sin.  1.  (Optics.)  The  disk  on  an  optician's 
stake,  in  which  convex  lenses  are  gi-ound. 

2.  (Hat-making.)  The  iron  mold  in  which  a  felt 
hat  is  formed. 

3.  (Hydraulic  Engineering.)  a.  A  wet-dock  with 
gates  to  restrain  the  reflux 
of  water  when  the  tide  ebbs. 

b.  The  space  between  gates 
in  a  dock. 

c.  A  widened  space  in  a 
navigable  canal  to  permit 
boats  to  turn,  or  to  lie  and 
unload,  without  interfering 
with  the  passage  of  other 
boats. 

Ba'sin  -  fau'cet.  (Hy- 
draulics.)   A  cock  for  regu- 


Fig  691. 


B 


Eitsin-Foiteet. 


lating  the  flow  of  water  into 
a  basin,  etc.  Some  operate 
by  turning,  so  as  to  par- 
tially or  wholly  unclose  the 
mouth  of  the  supply-jiipe. 
In  the  example,  the  valve/ 
is  stepped  in  the  screw-shaft 
/',  and  has  an  elastic  disk  at 
bottom,  which  rests  on  the 
supply-tube  .4,  and  is  lifted 
from  its  seat  by  rotation. 


BASKET. 


243 


BASKET. 


Other  faucets  operate  by  vertical  pressure  on  a 
button  or  lever,  which  depresses  a  spring-valve  and 
opens  the  water-way  ;  the  pressure  being  relieved, 
the  efflux  ceases. 

Bas'ket.  1.  A  vessel  made  of  fle.\ible  materials 
lappedorinterwoven.  The  art  of  interweaving  wands, 
leaves,  and  splints  is  of  great  antiquity.  The  ark  of 
Moses  was  a  basket  of  interwoven  bulrushes,  made 
water-tisht  by  slime  and  pitch  (Ex.  ii.  3),  1571  li.  c. 
The  chief  baker  of  Pharaoh  dreamed  that  he  had 
three  white  baskets  upon  his  head  filled  with  bake- 
meats,  which  probably  meant  cakes.  This  was  1717 
B.  c.     (Gen.  xl.  17.) 

The  ordinary  use  of  the  basket  in  gathering  in  the 
crop  is  indicated  by  the  blessing  of  basket  and  store. 
(Deut.  xxviii.  5.) 

On  opening  one  of  the  ancient  tombs  of  Egypt,  a 
la/ly's  work-basket  was  fouml,  containing  the  follow- 
ing articles,  which  may  now  be  ^-iewed  by  generations 
from  twenty-five  to  thirty  centuries  subsequent  to  the 
time  of  the  lady  who  used  them.  They  are  in  the 
Abbott  collection,  Xew  York  City. 

Two  skeins  of  thread  ; 

A  small  white  glass  bottle  ; 

An  ointment-box  ; 

A  toilet-box  to  contain  kohl,  for  blacking  the 
edges  of  the  eyelids,  as  in  the  days  of  Jezebel  ; 

A  wooden  netting-needle,  charged  with  the  origi- 
nal thread  ; 

Two  bronze  needles  ; 

Oue  blade  of  a  pair  of  scissors  ; 

A  piece  of  linen,  partly  darned  ; 

Some  bronze  pins  ; 

An  ivory  dress  comb  ; 

A  wooden  comb  ; 

Four  small  ivory  pegs,  use  uncertain  ; 

A  bronze  spatula,  for  spreading  unguents  ; 

Some  false  hair,  plaited. 

Baskets  from  ancient  Egj'pt,  preserved  in  the  Ab- 
bott Museum  of  Antiquities,  Xew  York  City,  are 
made  of  gi'a.ss,  reeds  covered  with  leather,  and  of 
date-tree  fiber. 

Pliny  refers  to  the  suppleness  and  graceful  slender- 
ness  of  the  osier  willow,  ;is  fitting  it  for  the  weaving 
of  baskets  and  many  utensils  employed  in  agriculture. 

In  ancient  Egj'pt,  wicker-work  baskets  were  made 
of  osiers  and  the  stalks  of  the  palm-leaf  They  were 
made  with  and  without  handles,  for  various  purposes, 
and  of  different  sizes  and  shajies.  Grain  was  sown 
from  a  basket ;  eggs,  figs,  and  grapes  are  represented 
in  baskets  in  the  field  and  the  store-room. 

Baskets  made  of  palm-leaves  are  preserved  in  the 
British  Museum. 

The  ancient  Britons  excelled  in  making  baskets, 
which  were  largely  exported  and  sold  for  liigh  prices 
at  Kome.  British  articles  were  transported  to  Rome 
in  baskets,  and  the  British  name  for  these  hampers 
was  there  retained,  —  bascuda.  The  Welsh  preser\'e 
it  as  bnsgawd.  When  Britain  was  first  known  to  the 
Romans,  the  natives  made  boats  of  ba.sket-work  cov- 
ered with  hides,  and  boats  made  in  a  similar  way 
are  still  used  in  parts  of  Wales.  See  Cor.a.cle.  Boats 
of  split  bamboo,  woven  like  basket-work,  are  used  in 
Hindostan,  and  in  some  parts  of  South  America  rush 
baskets  capable  of  holding  water  are  made  by  the 
natives. 

A  two-horse  carriage  of  basket-work,  termed  a 
"  Holstein  wagon,"  is  used  in  some  parts  of  Europe, 
and  this  material  is  very  commonly  employed  in  the 
United  States  for  the  bodies  of  sleighs,  and  some- 
times for  pony  phaetons.  Rattan  is,  however,  the 
neater  and  more  desirable  material. 

For  the  finer  kinds  of  baskets  particularly,  osier 
is  the  material  most  commonly  used,  but  for  a  coarser 


riK-  592. 


Sjilint  Baskel. 

basket,  strips  of  split  hickory,  oak,  or  black  ash,  are 
frecpiently  employed.  Osiers  are  prepared  for  the 
basket-maker  by  being  split  asunder  or  stripped  of 
their  bark,  according  to  the  kind  of  work  for  which 
they  are  intended.  Previous  to  being  stripped,  they 
require  to  be  soaked  in  water,  and  the  stripping  is 
performed  by  drawing  the  willows  through  iron 
brakes,  which  remove  the  bark  :  they  are  next 
cleaned  by  a  sharp  knife,  and  expo.sed  to  the  sun 
and  air.  The  barked  or  white  osiei-s  are  assorted  into 
bundles  or  fagots  according  to  size,  the  larger  ones 
being  used  for  the  strong  work  in  the  skeleton  of  the 
basket,  and  the  smaller  for  the  bottom  and  sides. 

When  the  osiers  are  used  for  ordinary'  work,  they 
are  taken  whole  ;  but  for  fine  work,  they  are  divided 
b}'  an  instrument  consisting  of  two  edge-tools  set 
at  -right  angles  to  each  other,  which  quarter  the  rod 
longitudinally  through  the  pith.  These  are  next 
drawn  through  an  implement  resembling  an  ordinaiy 
spoke-shave,  keeping  the  outer  part  of  the  split  next 
to  the  wood  while  the  pith  is  presented  to  the  iron 
edge  of  the  instrument ;  the  split  is  further  reduced 
and  made  regular  in  thickness  by  being  drawn  through 
a  flat  piece  of  steel  having  one  cutting  edge  like  a 
chisel ;  the  flat  is  bent  round  so  that  the  plain  and 
cutting  edges  are  made  to  approach  or  lecede  by  means 
of  set  screws,  regulating  the  thickness  of  the  osier. 

In  basket-making,  a  number  of  rows  are  laid  cross- 
wise to  form  the  start  for  the  bottom,  and  are  woven 
together  by  a  spiral  weft  of  wands,  which  pa.ss  al- 
ternately over  and  under  the  ladial  wands,  to  which 
others  are  added  as  the  size  increases ;  the  wands  are 
bent  up  to  form  the  sides,  and  other  rods  are  woven 
in  and  out  between  each  of  them,  until  the  basket  is 
raised  to  the  intended  hight.     The  edge  or  brim  is 

Fig.  693. 


Basket- Making 


BASKET-CARRIAGE. 


244 


BASSO-RILIEVO. 


finished  by  turning  down  the  projecting  ends  of  the 
ribs,  wliereby  the  whole  is  Hrnily  and  conijiactly 
united.  Handles  are  fonned  by  forcing  two  oi'  three 
osiers,  sharpened  at  their  ends  and  cut  to  the  proper 
length,  down  the  weaving  of  the  sides  close  together, 
and  they  are  pinned  fast  about  two  inches  from  the 
brim,  so  as  to  retain  the  handle  in  the  proper  jiosi- 
tion.  The  osiers  are  then  bound  or  plaited,  and  the 
handle  is  finished. 

Of  late  years  much  ingenuity  has  been  exercised  in 
devising  forms  of  baskets  for  the  carriage  of  fruit  to 
market  in  packages  of  size  proportioned  to  the  char- 
acter of  the  fruit.  Osiers,  splints,  veneers,  and  pa- 
per have  been  employed.  Sojne  of  these  baskets  are 
made  frustum-shaped,  so  as  to  pack  in  nests  for  re- 
turn ;  otliei-s  have  been  made  folding  or  collapsible  ; 
others  of  such  cheap  material  and  workmanship  as 
to  be  sold  with  the  fruit. 

Veneer  baskets  are  made  with  bails  or  handles,  or 
simjily  as  boxes.  Tlie parts  are  sometimes  interwoven, 
but  more  often  fastened  by  tacks  or  rivets. 

2.  {Fort  incut  ion.)  In  tielil- works,  a  </(«6to«  or  cor- 
beilie  Idled  with  earth  and  built  into  a  parapet. 

3.  \Hat-niak-inij. )  A  wicker-work  or  wire  screen 
of  an  oval  shape,  which  collects  the  tilaments  of  hair 
as  they  are  lightly  thrown  on  to  it  by  the  how,  which 
separates  them  from  the  bunch  deposited  on  the 
bencll.      See    HowlNG. 

Bas'ket-cai'riage.    (Vehicles.)    A  small  vehicle 

with  a  wiikei'  bi  d,  and  adapted  to  be  drawn  by  ponies. 

Bas'ket-grate.  A  tire-grate  for  burning  coal,  in 
whicli  tile  bottom  and  one  or  more  of  the  sides  are 
made  of  bars,  with  intervening  openings  through 
which  air  is  admitted  and  he.vt  emitted. 

Bas'ket-mak'ing  Ma-chine'.  A  circular  wooden 


Fig.  594. 


B(isk€t-niakiits  Mackine. 


bottom-piece  with  radially  projecting  basket-strips  is 
attached  to  the  end  of  a  rotating  snaft,  and  during 
the  rotation  of  the  bottom  and  radial  stri])s,  a  Hlling- 
carrying  device  having  a  vibratory  motion  passes 
over  and  under  the  radial  strips,  and  leaves  the  tilling 
carried  by  it,  and  this  filling  is  laid  in  compactly  by 
reed-like  pieces.  iSee  patents  for  this  class  of  ma- 
chinery to  F.  H.  Brown,  Nos.  68,965,  69,309,  70,072, 
70,160,  70,318. 

in  the  example,  the  skeleton  of  a  top  or  bottom 
is  clamped  to  the  shaft  by  set  screws.  The  end  of 
the  filling  is  fed  through  the  apron.  Jlotion  is  ap- 
plied to  the  driving-shaft  which  rotates  the  skeleton. 
The  pad  of  the  apron  is  vibrated  by  the  action  of  the 
eccentric  wheel  that  rests  upon  the  ring,  causing  the 
rods  to  vibrate  alternately  aliove  and  below  the  fill- 
ing, which  is  introduced  between  them. 

Bas'ket-'work.  (Fortification.)  Work  involv- 
ing  the  interweaving  of  withes  and  stakes.  Such  as 
loicker-work,  ranclimj,  iciUtling,  icaling-gubions,  fas- 
cines, hurdles,  etc. 

Ba'son.  {Hat-mating.)  A  triangular  metallic 
plate  ujion  which  a  covering  of  fur  is  laid  and  felted 
to  make  a  conical  napping,  or  pull-over  for  a  hat- 
body.     The  same  as  Basin. 

Bas'set.  {Mining  Engineering.)  The  outcrop  or 
emergence  of  a  stratum  or  seam  at  the  surface. 

Bas'set-horn.  {Music.)  A  wind  instrument  re- 
sembling the  claiinet  in  tone  and  manipulation,  but 
larger.  It  is  seldom  employed  in  the  orchestra,  ex- 
cept in  the  execution  of  a  few  special  pieces.  It  is 
believed  to  have  been  invented  at  I'apan,  about  1770, 
and  afterwards  perfected  by  Lotz,  of  Presburg. 
Bas-sette'.  {Mu^sic.)  A  small  bass-viol. 
Bass-horn.  {Music.)  A  wind  instrument  of 
deejier  tone  than  the  bassoon. 

Bas-soon'.    {Music.)    a.  A  musical  wind  instru- 
ment niaile  of  wood,  and  capable  of  being  divided 
near  the  iniddle,  so  that  the  two  parts  may  be  of  a 
more  convenient  length  for  carriage.     The  bassoon 
has  a  reed  and  cun-ed  mouth-piece,  and  is  played  by 
means  of  keys  and  finger-holes  like  the  clarinet,  to 
which  it  forms  the  tass.     Its  compass  is  three  oc- 
taves, from  double  A  in  the  bass,  to  A  in 
the  second  space  of  the  treble,  and  its 
designation  generally  is  the  F  or  bass 
clef,  yet  in  the  higher  passages,  for  the 
more  convenient  arrangement  of  the  notes, 
the  alto  or  tenor  clef  is  often  used. 
b.  A  reed-pipe  stop  in  an  organ,  tuned 
(to  the  extent  of  its  compass)  with  open  diapason, 
and  depending  for  the  peculiar  (juality  of  its  tone 
{timbre)  upon  the  particular  shape  and  proportions 
of  the   tube   through  which   the  vibrations  of  the 
tongue  are  emitted.     See  STOP. 

Bass-re-lief.  {Sculpture.)  Strictly  sjieaking, 
loic  relief,  but  frei|uently  used  in  a  somewliat  gen- 
eral sense  to  indicate  the  ]n-ominence  of  sculpture 
from  the  plane  surface  to  which  it  remains  attached. 
See  Rii.iKVii. 

Bas'so-rili-e'vo.  {Sculpture.)  The  slight  pro- 
jection of  a  sculptured  oliject  from  the 
plane  surface,  as  in  the  case  of  the  fig- 
ures on  medals,  coins,  friezes,  etc.  ; 
called,  also,  low-relief.     See  RiLlEVO. 

Bass-vi'ol.  (J/imc.)  A  stringed 
musical  instrument  resembling  a  violin, 
but  larger,  and  having  a  graver  tone. 
It  is  held  in  an  upright  position  when 
played,  the  butt-end  resting  on  the  Hoor 
or  some  olyect  but  little  elevated  above 
it.  The  instrument  now  generally  known 
as  the  bass-viol  is,  in  fact,  the  violon- 
cello. 


BAST. 


245 


BAT. 


Bast.  A  rope  or  cord  made  of  the  bark  of  the 
lime-tree,  bass-wood,  or  linden  ;  also  the  bark  made 
into  ropes  and  mats. 

Bas'tard  File.  One  of  a  grade  bet^veen  the 
rouijk  and  the  smooth,  in  respect  of  the  relative 
prominence  and  coarseness  of  the  teeth. 

The  order  is  as  follows  :  — 


Rough. 

Middle-cut. 

Bastard. 


Second-cut. 

Smooth. 

Dead-smooth. 


The  angle  of  the  chisel  in  cutting  the  bastard  file 
is  about  10°  from  the  perpendicular. 

The  number  of  cuts  to  the  inch  varies  with  the 
length  of  the  file  in  inches. 


Inches 

Cuts  . 


4 
76 


64 


56 


12 

48 


16 
44 


20 
34 


Bas'tard  Stuc'co.  The  finishing  coat  of  plas- 
tering; wlien  prepared  for  paint. 

Bas'tard  Type.  {Pridtiny.)  Type  with  a  face 
larger  or  smaller  than  that  usual  to  a  body  of  given 
size  ;  as,  bourseois  on  a  brevier  body. 

Bas'tard  WheeL  A  fiat  bevid-wheel,  or  one 
which  is  a  near  approach  to  a  spur-wheel. 

Bas-ter'na.  {rehide.)  The  ftasterttn  of  the  Ro- 
mans was  a  litter  or  species  of  sedan,  carried  by  two 
mules,  differing  from  the  leclica  in  that  the  latter 
was  borne  by  slaves.  The  name  is  derived  from  a 
people  of  the  Carpathian  Mountains,  and  was  after- 
wards applied  to  a  species  of  ox-cart  or  wagon  useii 
by  the  early  kings  of  France. 

The  name  survives  in  a  modern  European  carriage. 

Bast'ing-ma-chiae'.  A  sewing-machine  mak- 
ing the  running  stitch,  and  used  in  h(isling  together 
the  ends  of  pieces  of  cotton  cloth,  in  order  to  ibnn 
them  into  a  continuous  length  for  convenient  feed- 
ing and  handling  during  the  operations  of  ivashing, 
blea^hin{f,  singeinq,  printiiuj,  dyeing,  etc. 

Bas'tion.  (Fortificalicn.)  .\  projecting  portion 
of  the  main  inclosure  of  a  fortification,  consisting  of 
two  faces  and  two  flanks,  sometimes  single  or  dc- 
tachtd,  but  usually  arranged  on  the  angles  of  the 
fortification,  and  connected  bj'  a  retired  part  called 
a  curtain.  In  field-works,  a  series  of  bastions, 
formed  at  the  angles  of  a  square  or  pentagon,  and 
thus  connected  with  an  exterior  ditch,  and  sometimes 

rig.  595. 


qG. 

KopqG. 

GH. 

t. 

B. 

D. 


F  F  F. 

S. 
b. 
n. 

a 
w. 


Bastion, 


a  glacis,  freiiuently  comprise  the  whole  system  of 
defence  ;  but  in  fortifications  of  a  permanent  char- 
acter these  are  surrounded  by  outworks,  and  the 
number  of  bastions  may  be  increased  indefinitely, 
the  polj'gon  forming  the  basis  of  the  works  being 
adapted  to  the  shape  and  capacity  of  the  place  to  be 
defended. 

Fig.  595  is  a  plan  of  two  bastions  (.1/  L)  connected 
by  a  curtain  with  outworks,  as  arranged  on  tlie  moil- 
ern  system. 

The  various  parts  not  particularly  described  here 
may  be  found  under  their  respective  alphabetical 
heads. 

A.   Interior  slope. 
T.  Terreplein  of  rampart. 
E.   Parapet  of  rampart. 
ATM.  Rampart. 
a.  Scarp. 
M.  Full  bastion. 
L.  Empty  bastion. 
p  q.  Face  of  bastion. 
Flank  of  bastion. 
Outline  of  bastion. 
Curtain. 
Kamps. 
Ditch. 
Tenaille. 
Y.  Caponniere. 
c.   Batardeau. 
Ravelin. 

Redoubt  in  ravelin.  • 

Counterscai-p. 
Traverses  in  covered  way. 
Reentering  places  of  anns. 
Redoubt  in  places  of  ai'ms. 
P.  Salient  places  of  arms. 
V.  Covered  way. 
X.  Glacis. 
A  hoUow  bastion  is  one  in  which  the  terreplein  is 
not  continued  to  the  rear  beyond  a  ceitain  distance, 
at  which  a  farther  descent  occurs. 

A  full  bastion  incloses  ground  which  is  even  with 
the  rampart. 

An  empty  bastion  has  a  terreplein  adjacent  to  the 
parapet,  and  the  middle  portion  is  much  lower. 

A  bastion  is  said  to  be  composed  when  two  sides  of 
the  interior  polygon  are  very  unequal. 

A  detached  bastion  is  separated  from  the  inclosure 
by  a  ditch  about  its  gorge,  and  not  connected  by  a 
curtain. 

Bastioned  lines  are  composed  of  long  parapets  of 
earth,  protected  at  inten-als  by  bastions.     See  LiXE. 
Bas'tdoned  Fort.     A  fort  having  two  or  more 
bastions  connected  by  curtains.     Tlie  tenn  is  com- 
monly restricted  to  field-works.     The  essential  prin- 
ciples of  a  bastioned  fort  are,  that  it  is  constructed 
so   that  the  most  promi- 
nent jiart  of  each  salient 
is  on  a  line  bisecting  the 
angle  of  a  ]  olygon  ;   the 
Jfanks  are   arranged   per- 
]iendicularly  to   the  face 
of  the  opjiosite  bastions, 
so  as  to  obtain  a  raking 
fire  within  easy  musket- 
rantfc. 
Bat.     1.  A  mallet. 

2.  A  club  for  striking  a 
ball  in  various  plays  ;  as, 
base  -  ball,  cricket,  cro- 
quet, etc. 

3.  A  rammer  used  by 
founders. 

4.  {Fiber.)  a.  Clean  cot- 


BATARDATE. 


246 


•BATH. 


ton  in  loose  and  evenly  sin-ead  condition.  Tlie  pro- 
duct of  the  biiltin^^-macliine,  in  which  the  cotton  is 
sculdicd,  blown,  and  lieliveied  in  an  even  continuous 
wad,  which,  when  wound  on  a  roller  or  a.xis,  forms 
a  lap  and  is  ready  for  cardiiuj. 

b.  A  scutching  or  beating  sword  for  hemp  or  llax. 

5.  (I'lumbiiui.)  A  \iluml)er's  tool,  made  of  beech, 
about  eighteen  inches  long,  and  used  for  dres.sing 
and  flatting  sheet-lead. 

6.  (Hat-nuikiiiij. )  a.  One  or  more  slivers  of  carded 
wool,  or  a  body  of  blown  fur.  The  subse(juent  pro- 
cesses are  shrinking  and  hardening  ;  the  lirst  liy  im- 
mersion in  hot  water,  the  latter  by  pressure  and 
rubbing.     Felting  succeeds. 

Web,  lap,  sheet,  and  sliver  are  synonymes  in  this 
connection. 

b.  In  hand-work,  a  bat  may  be  said  to  be  a  light 
assemblage  of  felting-hair  gathered  by  the  bow.  It 
is  compacted  by  pressure  of  the  hands  on  a  piece  of 
leather  called  the  luirdening-skin,  and  by  rubbing. 

7.  A  half  or  other  portion  of  a  brick  large  enough 
to  be  worked  into  a  wall. 

Bat'ar-da'te.  {Nautical.)  A  siiuare-stemmed 
rowing-gnlley. 

Bat'ax-deau'.  1.  {Fortification.)  A  wall  across  the 
ditch  to  retain  the  water  in  that  part  of  a  ditch  re- 
quiring to  be  inundated.  Its  crest  is  too  narrow  to 
afford  a  passage  for  the  enemy. 

2.  {JSiu/incering.)  A  coffer-dam,  or  case  of  piling 
without  a  bottom,  for  building  the  piers  of  a  bridge. 

See  L'OFFEK-D.VM. 

Bat-bolt  (.Machiiicrii.)  A  bolt  barbed  or  jagged 
at  its  hull  or  tang,  to  retain  it  within  an  object  cast 
or  solidilied  about  it. 

Batch.  A  lot  of  prepared  materials  or  articles, 
suitable  in  i|uantity  for  once  charging  a  pot,  furnace, 
or  oven. 

1.  (Glass.)  The /crt  of  a  glass-maker  compounded 
and  sifted  for  use,  ready  for  tiie  glass-pot  or  crucible. 

2.  A  lot  of  dough  or  unbaked  loaves. 

3.  {Mining.)  A  certain  iiuautity  of  ore  sent  from 
a  mine  to  the  surface  by  a  couple  of  men. 

Bate.  {Liathcr.)  The  alkaline  solution  employed 
in  the  preparation  of  hides,  after  liming  and  before 
tanning,  to  remove  or  neutralize  the  lime.  See  Bat- 
ing. 

Ba-teau'.  {Nautical.)  a.  A  flat-bottom  boat, 
used  in  navigation  and  propelled  by  oars  or  by 
poles. 

b.  A  ponton  of  a  floating  bridge. 

Bath.  1.  A  vessel  in  which  the  whole  or  a  part 
of  the  person  may  he  washed  or  bathed. 

2.  A  house  or  place  where  such  conveniences  are 
provided. 

3.  A  tank  containing  a  liquid  for  galvanic  or  elec- 
tro-metallurgic  purposes. 

4.  A  vessel  containing  a  fluid  metal  or  heated 
composition,  as  a  lead-bath  or  sand-bath. 

Baths  were  long  used  in  Oriental  countries,  and 
traveled  by  the  route  of  Egypt  to  Greece.  Homer 
mentions  the  use  of  the  bath  as  an  old  custom.  From 
Greece  they  reached  Rome,  imported,  as  it  is  said, 
by  Agrippa.  The  thermai  {hot  batli.t)  were  very  splen- 
did, and  adorned  for  a  people  wlio  .spent  much  leis- 
ure among  the  baths  and  their  voluptuous  accessories. 
The  marble  gioup  of  Laoeobn  was  found  in  150(3  in 
the  Baths  of  Titus,  erected  about  A.  D.  80  ;  and  the 
Farnese  Hercules  in  the  Baths  of  Caracalla,  erected 
A.  D.  217. 

A  rollicking  Greek  thus  %vi'ites  ;  — 

"  And  lately  baths,  too,  have  been  introduced,  — 
things  which  formerly  men  would  not  have  permit- 
ted to  e.\ist  inside  a  city.  And  Antiphaues  points 
out  their  injurious  character  :  — 


'  Plague  take  the  bath  I  just  Bee  the  plight 
lu  which  the  thing  ha^  left  uie  ; 
It  seeuia  t'  have  boil'd  me  up,  aud  quite 

Of  strength  and  nerve  bereft  me. 
Don't  touch  me  !     Curst  was  he  who  taught  a 
Man  to  soak  ia  boiling  water  I ' 

Atheiueia.  Epit  B.  I.  32  " 

Homer,  however,  mentions  another  set,  who 

"  to  the  polished  marble  bath  repair, 
Anoint  with  fresh  perfumes  their  flowing  hair, 
And  seek  the  banquet  hall." 

Iliad. 

At  one  period  there  are  said  to  have  been  more 
than  800  of  these  establishments  in  Rome,  many  of 
them  doubtless  of  the  smaller  class,  founded  by  pri- 
vate iudi\-iduals.  The  erection  of  baths  was  one  of 
the  principal  means  by  which  many  of  the  emperors 
endeavored  to  obtain  fame  and  popularity.  Nearly 
all  these  structures  have  yielded  to  the  "ravages  of 
time,  but  sufficient  remains  are  left  to  aflbrd  an  idea 
of  their  general  construction  and  arrangement. 

The  Baths  of  Caracalla  were  ]irobably  the  most 
magnificent  structure  that  adorned  the  ancient  capi- 
tal of  the  world ;  they  occupied  a  quadrangle  of  1,011 
by  1,080  feet.  The  entrance  was  decomted  by  a  poi-- 
tico  composed  of  two  stories  of  arcades,  one  above 
the  other,  erected  upon  lialf-columns,  Ionic  below 
and  Doric  above.  Some  of  the  finest  statues  of  an- 
ticjuity  have  been  found  within  these  ruins,  giving 
an  idea  of  their  original  magnifieence. 

These,  like  other  structures  of  the  kind  erected  by 
the  Romans,  were  heated  by  stoves,  and  had  arrange- 
ments for  attbrding  three  dillVrent  kinds  of  baths, 
cold,  tepid,  and  warm,  according  to  the  taste  or 
re(|uir?ments  of  the  bather. 

For  a  jiiece  of  money  equivalent  to  about  half  a  cent 
any  Roman  citizen  could  procure  the  aih'antages  of 
one  of  these  baths,  which  were  accessible  alike  to 
the  rich  and  the  poor. 

The  buildings  were  illuminated  at  night  by  lamps 
and  candehibiiE,  the  light  of  which  was,  according 
to  Seneca,  thrown  on  crystal  balls  jilaced  in  the 
vaulting  or  on  the  walls,  so  as  to  produce  the  most 
dazzling  reflection.  Glass  was  intioduced  in  the 
time  of  Pliny,  who  calls  it  a  modem  in  vent  ion.  He 
was  mistaken. 

Remains  of  baths  have  been  found  in  all  countries 
where  the  Roman  power  extended.  At  Chester,  Eng- 
land, among  the  ruins  of  a  bath  were  found  bricks 
stamped  with  the  impression  LEG  XX,  leading  to 
tlie  inference  that  the  structure  had  been  erected  by 
the  20th  Roman  legion,  surnanied  the  Victorious. 

Those  of  Pompeii  are  still  in  a  wonderi'ul  state  of 
preservation. 

In  one  of  the  baths  of  Rome,  the  basin  was  found 
to  be  coated  with  a  cement  so  hard  that  it  was  im- 
possible to  dissolve  it  sufficiently  to  analyze  its  sub- 
stance. It  was  a  Roman  jiahn  (about  three  inches) 
thick,  and  capable  of  resisting  not  alone  the  heat  of 
the  water,  but  the  action  of  any  heat  whatever. 

The  Roman  bath  had  six  ]irini'i]ial  apartments:  — 

1.  The  Apodyteriuni,  apiiropriatcd  to  luidres.^ing, 
had  shelves  all  round,  on  which  to  place  the  clothes, 
and  had  attendants  to  take  charge  of  them. 

2.  The  Frigidarium,  or  cold  bath. 

3.  The  Tepidarium,  situated  lietween  the  Frigida- 
rium and  the  warm  bath,  and  having  a  medium  tem- 
perature. 

4.  The  Caldarium,  heated  by  the  dnj  lieat  of  a 
stove  I  the  Laeonicum.     Here  the  bathers  sweated. 

5.  The  Balneum,  or  warm  bath. 

6.'  The  Eleothesium  ;  an  apartment  heated  by  the 
Hypocaustum,  or  underground  furnace.  Here  the 
oils  and  perfumes  were  applied. 

A  douche  bath  is  one  in  which  the  water  is  driven 


BATH-BRICK. 


247 


BATTER. 


or  dropped  forcibly  upon  the  person  or  the  part  af- 
fected. 

An  earth  liath  is  one  in  which  the  patient  is  cov- 
ered with  warm  sand. 

The  names  of  other  baths  are  sufBciently  descrip- 
tive without  detailed  description  under  this  general 
head. 

Air-bath.  Shower-bath. 

Electro-galvanic  bath.        Sitz-bath. 

Medicated  bath.  Steam-bath. 

Mercurial  bath.  Turkish  bath. 

Russian  bath.  Vapor-bath. 

(Photography.)  A  solution  in  which  plates  or 
papers  are  immersed  or  floated  ;  or  the  vessel  holding 
said  solution.  Baths  are  known  as  sensitizing  (the 
nitrate  of  silver  bath),  fij:iiuh  tonitig,  or  wushing. 
They  are  of  various  forms,  horizontal  or  vertical ; 
the  "nriterials  are  glass,  porcelain,  or  hard  rubber. 

Bath-brick.  A  fine  silicious  material,  found  in 
the  vieinitv  of  Bath,  England,  compacted  into  the 
form  of  biieks,  and  used  as  an  abradant. 

Bath-chair.  {.Vehicle.)  A  small  hand-carriage 
with  a  hood.  So  called  from  the  city  of  Bath,  Eng- 
land, whose  mineral  waters  are  much  freiiuented  by 
invalids,  and  where  the  vehicle  seems  to  have  origi- 
nated. For  the  legends  of  Bath,  see  Pickwick  and 
the  Historv  of  Prince  Bladud. 

Bath-fur'nace.  X  furnace  for  heating  the  water 
supplied  to  a  bath. 

Bath-heat'er.  An  apparatus  for  heating  the  wa- 
ter in  a  bath.  It  may  consist  of  a  pipe  which  con- 
nects with  the  upper  and  lower  parts  of  the  bathing- 
tub,  and  has  a  middle  coil  which  traverses  a  furnac". 

Bath'ing-ma-chine'.  A  portable  room  on  wheels, 
for  the  convenience  of  bathers.  It  is  run  dowi  into 
the  water,  so  that  the  person  is  not  exposed  on  the 
beach  betneen  the  untiring-room  and  the  water. 

Bath'ing-tub.  A  tub  or  tank  for  bathing  pur- 
poses ;  usually  of  elongated  fonn,  to  pemiit  the  bather 
to  assume  a  recumbent  posture.  The  sitz  or  hip 
bath  is  like  a  deep-seated  chair,  and  the  water  covers 
the  person  from  the  waist  to  the  knees. 

Bath-met'al.  A  brass  for  cheap  jewelry,  com- 
posed of.  brass,  32  ;  zinc,  9. 

Bath-note.  A  folded  writing-paper,  8J  by  14 
inches. 

Ba-thom'e-ter.  {Nautieal.)  A  measurer  of  depth. 
A  souniliiij  apparatus.     The  devices  consist  — 

1.  Of  the  common  deep-sea  lead  and  line. 

2.  Of  devices  for  detaching  the  sinker  on  reaching 
bottom,  enabling  an  attached  tube  to  be  drawn  up 
separately,  so  as  to  secure  a  specimen  from  the  bottom. 

3.  Of  a  weight  within  which  a  line  is  coiled  to  avoid 
friction  in  descending. 

i.  Of  a  sphere  or  spherescontaining  mercury,  which 
the  pressure  at  great  depths  forces  into  a  tube  or 
gage  graduated  so  as  to  record  the  .lepth  attained. 

5.  Of  a  spiral  vane  actuating  a  train  of  clock-work 
which  registers  the  number  of  revolutions  made  by 
the  vane,  and  thus  indicates  the  depth.  See  Sound- 
ing ArPAi'.ATi's. 

Bath-stone,  (.^fasonrl|.)  An  English  building- 
stone  of  tlie  oolitic  formation. 

Bat'ing.  (Leather  .Uanufacturc.)  The  operation 
of  steeping  hides  and  skins  in  an  alkaline  solution 
consisting  of  the  dung  of  chickens,  pigeons,  dogs,  etc. 

In  this  they  remain  six  or  eight  days,  according  to 
the  temperature  of  the  bate  and  the  thickness  of 
the  hide. 

The  bating  follows  the  liming  or  unhairing  so'u- 
tion,  and  the  object  of  the  former  is  to  neutralize  the 
lime  and  render  the  leather  pliable. 

Dog's  dung  {album  Grwcuin)  was  formerly  and  is 


still  applied ;  the  ammonia  probably  being  the  active 
agent. 

Sheep-skins  are  bated  in  bran-water. 
The  bating  fonns  a  chemical  combination  with  the 
lime,  the  ammoniacal  chloride  palling  with  its  chlo- 
rine to  form  the  chloride  of  luue,  which  is  readily 
dissolved  in  water. 

JI.^cBride,  in  1774,  showed  the  property  pos- 
sessed by  hydrochloric  acid  of  dissolving  the  lime 
in  the  manner  accomplished  by  the  bote. 

TuiiNBVLL  used  sugar  in  the  proportion  of  four  or 
five  iwunds  of  cane-sugar  or  molasses  to  seventy 
gallons  of  water.  This  formed  a  soluble  saccharate 
of  lime. 

Warrington,  1841,  employed  carbonate  of  am- 
monia. 

Ba-tiste'.  (Fabric.)  a.  A  very  fine,  white,  thick 
linen  cloth  or  cambric.  Wade  of  a  fine  quality  of 
white  flax  grown  in  the  South  of  France,  and  called 
rami.      (Not  the  ramie.) 

b.  An  Ea.st  India  goods  of  similar  quality. 
Bat-print'ing.    (Porcelain.)    One  mode  of porcc- 
luin  printing :  tlie  other  is  termed  Pkes.s-pkintino 
(which  see).     The  former  is  printed  on  glazed  ware, 
the  latter  on  the  biscuit. 

In  hrit-jrrinting  the  Unes  of  the  engraving  are  fine, 
and  the  impression  is  taken  in  linseed-oil  on  a  thin 
slab  of  gelatine  cut  to  the  size.  The  oil  having  been 
transferre<l  to  the  glazed  ware  by  pressing  the  gela- 
tine against  it,  is  next  dusted  with  the  metallic  color 
by  means  of  cotton -wool.  The  color  is  melted  and 
fixed  in  an  enamel-kiln. 

Bafs--wring  Bum'er.  (Gas.)  A  form  of  gas- 
burner  in  which  gas  issues  at  a  slit  so  proportioned 
as  to  give  to  tlie  flame  the  shape  of  a  bat's  wing. 

Batt.  The  hat-maker's  term  for  the  basis  of  the 
skin,  or  bowed  materials  of  a  hat.     Bat. 

Bat'ten.  A  strip  of  wood  or  a  scantling,  as  may 
be  required,  for  vaiious  jiurposes. 

1.  (Carpentry.)  a.  A  cleat  or  bar  nailed  trans- 
versely on  a  structure  of  jointed  planks,  such  as  a 
door  or  shutter,  to  prevent  warping  and  preserve  the 
relative  position  of  the  parts. 

A  batten  door  is  formed  of  planks  laid  side  by  side, 
and  secured  together  by  slats  fastened  across  them, 
without  exterior  framing. 

b.  A  board  2  to  7  inches  wide,  and  from  §  to  2 
inches  thick.     (English  practice.) 

c.  In  furring,  scantling  secured  to  brick  walls  to 
form  a  foundation  on  which  plastering  lath  is  laid. 

d.  A  strip  nailed  to  the  rafters,  to  which  slats 
are  nailed. 

2.  (Plastering.)  A  batten  is  placed  at  exposed 
comers  so  as  to  be  Hush  with  the  worked  surface  of 
plaster,  and  resist  abrasion  or  blows.  Called  also  an 
angle-staff. 

3.  (Cotton.)     A  web  or  bat  of  fibers. 

4.  (Weaving.)  The  beam  which  forces  up  the 
weft.     Lay  or  lathe. 

5.  (Xautieal.)  a.  One  of  the  strips  placed  around 
the  hatches,  to  keep  down  the  tarpaulin  which  covers 
them. 

b.  Strips  tied  around  standing  rigging  to  keep  it 
from  chafing. 

Bat'ter.  1.  (Engineering.)  The  backward  slope 
of  a  wall,  to  enable  it  to  withstand  an  outward  thrust, 
as  of  a  bank  which  it  retains.  Retaining  and  brea.<!t 
walls  batter  towards  the  bank.     See  Br.EAST-WALL. 

2.  (Forging.)  To  spread  metal  outwardly  by  ham- 
mering on  the  end.  The  impact  upsets  the  bar  or 
rod,  and  extends  it  outwardly. 

3.  (Pottery.)  A  plaster  mallet  used  to  flatten  out 
a  lump  of  clay  which  is  to  be  laid  and  formed  upon 
the  whirling-table. 


BATTERING-GUN. 


248 


BATTERV. 


The  batting  is  done  upon  a  latling-bhck  of  wet 
plaster. 

Bat'ter-ing-gun.  (Ordnance.)  One  of  heavy  cal- 
iber, speeitieally  adapted  for  demolishing  works. 
E.xamplos  :  the  18  and  24  pounder  smooth-bore,  and 
the  -t.V-inrli  ritleil  gun  of  the  United  .States  service. 

Bat'ter-ing-ram.  An  implement,  used  before;  the 
invention  of  gunpovviler,  for  making  breaches  in  the 
walls  of  fortiKed  places.  It  consisted  of  a  long  pole 
or  beam,  with  an  iion  head,  suspended  between  up- 
rights. The  head  sometimes  weighed  a  ton  or  more. 
The  men  who  operated  it  were  protected  by  the  te3- 
tudo,  a  movable  shed  with  a  curved  roof,  adapted  to 
resist  the  stones,  etc.,  thrown  on  it  by  the  besieged. 

This  machine  is  incorrectly  stated  to  have  been 
invented  by  Aitemon,  a  Lacedemonian.  It  was  em- 
ployed by  Pericles,  about  441  B.  c.  The  pole  was 
from  80  to  120  feet  long,  and  suspended  by  cords  on 
which  it  oscillated,  being  retracted  by  the  united 
efforts  of  a  number  of  men,  who  pulled  the  cords  and 
then  allowed  the  spar  to  swing  forward  and  bring  its 
armed  head  against  the  masonry  of  the  besieged  for- 
tress. Its  effects  were  sought  to  be  avoided  by  low- 
ering down  bags  which  acted  as  feiulers  to  deaden 
the  blow,  by  burning  the  framework,  or  by  hurling 
missiles  at  the  operators.  See  descriptions  of  Roman 
military  engines,  and  Josephus. 

Assyrian  antiquities  upset  the  Greek  claim  of  first 
invention.  Battering-rams  are  shown  in  the  sculp- 
tures of  Nimroud.  The  machine  is  worked  from 
within,  upsetting  the  walls  by  dislodging  the  stones. 
The  testiido  was  made  of  wicker-work,  and  ran  upon 
si.x  wheels. 

•    The  battering-ram  is  mentioned  by  the  prophet 
EEekiel  (iv.  2  and  xxi.  22)  about  590  B.  c. 

Bat'ter-ing  Plumb-rule.  (Engineering.)  An 
instrument  for  leveling  sloping  work.  The  sides  are 
cut  to  the  required  angle  with  the  central  line,  over 
which  the  plummet  hangs. 

Bat'ter-ing-rule.  (Engineering.)  A  rule  or 
templet  by  wliich  tlie  bailer  or  slope  of  a  retaining 
or  breast  wall  is  regulated  in  building. 

Bat'ter-ing-train.  ( Ordnamc. )  A  train  of  heavy 
ord'iaui'i'  for  sie,'e  operations. 

Bat'ter-lev'el.  (Engineering.)  An  instrument 
for  m  -asuring  the  angle  of  a  slope.    See  Clinometku. 

Bat'ter-y.  A  number  of  objects  or  devices  in  po- 
sition ;  as  of  gicns,  plates,  kettles,  etc. 

A  position  or  place  in  which  objects  are  mounted  ; 
as  a  sunken,  barbcUc,  or  casenuitc  battery. 


Barbette  battery. 
Battery  forge. 
Battery  gun. 
Breeching  battery. 
Bnnsen  battery. 
Callaud  battery. 
Carbon  battery. 
Casemate  battery. 
Covered  battery. 
Cross- lire  battery. 
Daniell's  battery. 
Double-fluiil  battery. 
Electric  battery. 


Grove  battery. 
Gun  battery. 
Half-sunken  battery. 
Hat-maker's  battery. 
Leclanche  batteiy. 
Leyden  battery. 
Magneto-electric  battery. 
Masked  battery. 
Mountain  battei^y. 
Open  battery. 
Ricochet  battery. 
Siege  battery. 
Single-fluid  battery. 


Electro-magnetic  battery.  Smee  battery. 


Elevated  battery. 
En-echarpe  battery. 
Enfilading  battery. 
En-revers  battery. 
Field  battery. 
Floating  battery. 
Galvanic  battery. 

Many  of  these  are  described  under  their  alphabet- 
ical heads. 


Stamp  battery. 
Submarine  battery. 
Sugar-kettle  battery. 
Sunken  battery. 
Thermo-electric  battery. 
Voltaic  battery. 


1.  (Fortification.)  a.  Barbette  battery ;  the  guns 
are  elevated  to  fire  over  the  top  of  the  parapet,  and 
not  through  embrasures. 

b.  Breeching  batter ij ;  one  employed  in  making  a 
practicable  breach  in  an  enemy's  works. 

e.  Blinded  battery  ;  one  masked  or  hidden  till  the 
time  comes  to  make  it  effective. 

d.  Casemated  battery ;  one  firing  through  embras- 
ures in  a  bomb-proof  chandler. 

c.  Cavalier  battery ;  one  mounted  on  an  elevated 
interior  work. 

/.  Counter  battery ;  one  on  the  crest  of  the  glacis, 
to  cover  the  storming  party. 

g.  Direct  battery  ;  one  tiring  perpendicularly  upon 
a  work. 

h.  Enfilading  battery  ;  one  which  flanks  a  work, 
entrenched  line,  or  line  of  attack. 

i.  Fixed  battery  ;  one  permanently  established,  as 
in  a  fortress. 

j.  Floating  battery  ;  one  on  a  raft  or  ship. 

k.  Inclined  battery ;  one  on  a  sloping  gi'ound. 

I.  Indented  battery :  one  with  in<lentations  or  oc- 
casional notches  which  conmiand  the  face. 

m.  Joint  battery  ;  one  of  two  which  form  supports 
to  each  other. 

n.  Leveled  battery ;  one  in  wliich  the  interior  has 
the  natural  level,  the  parapet  being  gained  by  earth 
from  the  ditch. 

0.  Masked  battery  ;  one  artificially  concealed. 

I).   Oblique  battery  ;  one  to  deliver  an  enfilading  fire. 

q.   Open  battery  ;  one  of  field  artillery. 

r.  Ricochet  battery ;  one  delivering  its  fire  with 
small  charges,  the  missile  rolling  and  popping  along 
the  ground. 

«.  i>unkcn  battery;  the  included  space  of  which  is 
excavated. 

Fig.  596. 


y\m  XL         rML  .J  '■ 


Stamp  Battery. 


BATTERY-BRUSH. 


249 


BATTERY-GUN. 


2.   (.Uetallurgy.)     A  series  of  stamps  operated  by  ]  neously,  without  stopping  to  reload, 
one  motive  power,  for  crushing  ores  containing  the  ;  number  of  varieties. 


There  are  a 


precious  metals. 

The  stamps  a  (four  in  the  series  sho^vn)  are  raised 
consecutively  by  the  cams  b  on  the  shaft  c,  to  which 
motion  is  imparted  by  a  belt  on  the  pulley  d. 

3.  A  number  of  connected  Leyden  jars,  adapted 
for  coincident  charging  and  discharging.  See  Elec- 
tric B.iTTEUT. 

4.  An  apparatus  for  generating  galvanic  electri- 
city.    See  G.iLVANic  B.vttef.y. 

5 .  A  vessel  with  sides  protected  to  withstand  can- 
non projectiles,  and  pierced  for  heavy  guns.  Distin- 
guished from  an  ordinary  war  vessel  by  its  compara- 
tively imperfect  capacity  for  navigating  in  all  waters 
and  weathers.     A  floating  batterj-. 

6.  (Nautical.)  The  guns  mounted  on  each  deck 
of  a  sliip  of  war  ;  as  the  main-deck,  lowcr-dccl;  and 
spar-dai  batteries. 

Bat'ter-y-brush.  A  small  brush,  shaped  like  a 
hair-brush,  used  for  cleaning  or  brushing  off  o.xides 
formed  on  zinc,  and  for  evenly  distributing  the  mer- 
curv  or  amalgam  over  the  zinc. 

Bat'ter-y  Com'mu-ta'tor.  (Tclajraphij.)  An 
apparatus  by  which  tlie  strength  of  a  current  may 
be  altered,  so  that  one  third,  two  thirds,  or  the 
whole  of  the  elements  may  be  brought  into  service 
by  changing  the  place  of  a  contact-peg.  See  Sabine, 
p.  101. 

Bat'ter-y-forge.  A  traveling  forge  which  ac- 
companies a  field  battery.  The  body  is  constructed 
like  that  of  a  caisson,  except  that  in  place  of  the 
two  ammunition-chests  it  has  a  bclloios-haiLse  a.   This 


Battery-Forge. 

contains  the  bellows,  and  has  a  space  partirioned  off 
for  iron  and  steel.  In  the  rear  is  a  bo.x  b,  to  hold 
250  pounds  of  bituminous  coal,  and  in  front  is  tlie 
fireplace  c,  upon  which  the  an^-il  is  placed  in  trav- 
eling. An  upright  plate  of  strong  sheet-iron  is  inter- 
posed between  the  fireplace  and  the  front  of  the 
bellows-house.  In  the  limber-chest  are  contained  a 
set  of  blacksmith's  and  farrier's  tools  packed  in  four 
boxes  (for  field  batteries).  In  the  United  States  ser- 
vice battery-forges  are  di\nded  into  two  classes,  A 
and  B.  One  of  the  former  accompanies  each  field 
battery,  and  contains  a  forge  as  well  as  the  black- 
smith's and  farrier's  tools,  iron  and  steel,  horseshoes, 
and  spare  parts  necessary  for  making  the  more  ordi- 
nary repairs  to  the  iron-work  of  the  battery. 

Forge  B,  which  is  precisely  alike  in  size  and  con- 
struction, contains  nearly  the  same  tools  and  stores 
as  forge  A,  but  has,  in  addition,  certain  articles  and 
spare  parts  which  are  less  likely  to  become  broken 
or  worn  out  in  service.  It  remains  in  the  rear  with 
the  field  and  siege  train. 

Bat'ter-y-gun.  A  gun  having  a  capacity  for 
firing  a  number  of  shots  consecutively  or  simulta- 


1.  A  piece  of  ordnance  having  a  number  of  load- 
chambers  attached  to  a  vertical  axis,  and  consecu- 
tively presented  at  the  rear  of  a  cannon-bore.  As 
each  takes  its  place  at  the  breech,  it  is  advanced  into 
the  bore  and  locked  before  firing.  (Hai'.dy,  1862  ; 
Dodge,  1856.) 

2.  A  chambered  breech-piece,  revolving  in  a  verti- 
cal plane,  and  presenting  its  chambei-s  consecutively 
at  the  open  rear  of  the  barrel,  which  is  common  to 
all  the  chambers.  The  principle  of  construction  is 
that  of  the  revolving  chambered  pistol.  (Hedrick, 
1870. >  See  also  Fire-akms,  where  Pi-ckle's  Revolv- 
ing Battery  Gun,  English  Patent,  1718,  is  described 
and  figured. 

3.  A  number  of  parallel  barrels  aiTanged  in  rank, 
and  having  connected  vents  for  intercommunication 
of  fire.  (TowNSEND,  1871.)  The  infernal  machine 
of  Fieschi,  which  he  fired  on  Louis  Philippe,  was  a 
row  of  barrels  clinched  to  a  frame,  and  had  a  train 
of  powder  which  was  laid  over  all  the  vents  in  suc- 
cession, like  the  row  of  banels  in  a  proving-house. 

The  Requa  battery  consists  of  25  rifles,  each  24 
inches  long,  mounted  in  a  horizontal  plane  upon  a 
field-carriage.  It  is  breech-loading,  the  cartridges 
being  forced  into  the  chambers  by  a  sliding  bar 
worked  by  two  level's.  By  a  lever  beneath  the 
frame  the  barrels  may  be  diverged,  so  as  to  scatter 
the  balls  120  yards  in  a  distance  of  1,000  yards. 

The  weight  of  the  battery-gun  used  at  Charleston, 
S.  C,  was  1,382  pounds.  "  Sen-ed  by  three  men,  it 
fired  7  volleys,  or  175  shots,  per  minute.  Its  ett'ective 
range  was  1,300  yards. 

4.  Forms  of  many-barreled  cannon,  revohang  on  a 
vertical  axis,  the  pieces  being  muzzle-loaded.  (lIlL- 
BURN,  1866.     Divergent,  Natcher,  1864. ) 

5.  A  cluster  of  rotating  barrels,  consecutively 
loaded  and  fired  by  automatic  action.  (Catling, 
1861  -65.)  This  wUl  have  a  longer  description  pres- 
ently. 

6.  A  cluster  of  barrels,  in  whose  rear  is  placed  a 
chambered  plate,  each  of  whose  chambers  corresponds 
to  one  of  the  cluster  of  barrels,  against  whose  rear  it 
is  locked  before  firing.  The  Mitkailleur  (which 
see). 

7.  A  number  of  chambered  blocks  brought  con- 
secutively to  the  positions  for  loading,  and  then  for 
firing,  through  a  group  of  barrels  equal  in  number 
to  the  numbef  of  chambers.     (Tavlur,  1871.) 

The  GatUng  gun  has  a  revolving  cluster  of  paral- 
lel barrels.  In  the  rear  of  each  barrel,  and  rotating 
therewith,  is  its  own  loading,  firing,  and  spent-car- 
tridge-sheU-retracting  mechanism.  All  these  jjarts 
are  rigidly  secured  upon  an  axial  shaft,  wliich  is  re- 
volved by  means  of  bevel  gearing  and  a  crank,  as 
shown  in  Fig:  59S,  and  also  in  Fig.  599,  which  are 
respectively  rear  and  front  views  of  the  gun  mounted. 
In  the  rear  of  the  cluster  of  barrels  b  is  a  stationary 
cylinder  a,  within  which  are  the  loading  plungers, 
tiie  firing-pin,  and  the  cartridge-retractor. 

Each  of  these  parts  moves  horizontally  and  in  line 
with  the  barrel  to  which  it  appertains,  the  motion 
lieing  attained  by  the  pressure  of  lugs  on  the  moving 
medianism  against  stationary  cam -rings  in  the  cyl- 
inder as  the  cluster  of  parts  revolves.  The  ammuni- 
tion is  fed  in  at  the  hopper  g  ;  or,  as  in  an  improved 
form  shown  in  the  full-page  engraving  opposite  to 
page  250,  the  ammunition  is  contained  in  a  feed- 
drum  which  is  placed  above  the  hopper,  and  deliv- 
ers its  cartridges  one  at  a  time  from  its  successive 
rows.  Its  capacity  is  four  hundred  cartridges,  and 
these  may  all  be  fired  in  one  minute. 

As  the  cluster  of  baiTels  revolves,  the  operative 


BATTERY-GUN. 


250 


BATTERY-WAGON. 


mechanism  in  the  rear  of  eacli  barrel  comes  under  the  I  AiTangemcnt  is  made  for  horizontal  adjustment  to 
influence  of  tlie  cam-rings  in  the  interior  of  the  cyliu-  I  deliver  a  sweeping  lire, 
der.      The   loading-rod   of  a   given 

■        ■       ■  ■  Fig.  6a8. 


barrel  being  in  the  most  retracted 
position  when  that  barrel  is  uppi-r- 
most,  a  cartridge  drops  into  tlu 
groove  in  front  of  the  said  rod  ;  ai 
the  barrels  rotate,  this  rod  is  pusliec 
forward,  and  ilrives  the  cartridge  intc 
the  rear  of  the  barrel  ;  a  firing-pin, 
which  traverses  in  a  longitudinal 
slot  in  the  loader-rod,  is  all  this 
while  being  retracteil,  until  the  bar- 
rel is  at  its  lowest  jiosition  ;  ther 
the  firing-pin  passes  tlie  retractinjj 
cam,  and  is  abandoned  to  the  intiu- 
ence  of  a  s|iring,  which  drives  the 
end  of  the  pin  forcibly  against  the 
cartriiige  and  cxjilodes  the  fulminate. 
Now  comes 


Gallhig  Gun  (K'''7r  V!nv). 


shank  runs  parallel  with  the  loader-rod,  and  with- 
draws the  empty  shell  of  the  cartridge,  which  drops 
out  of  the  machine.  The  barrel  then  takes  its  turn 
again  alxive,  and  so  the  work  proceeds. 

e  is  the  working-crank,  c  the  elevating-screw,  d 
the  trail,  k  the  loop  by  which  the  trail  is  attached 
to  the  limber,  h  i  are  the  back  and  front  sights,  I 
the  cheeks  of  the  carriage.  In  the  view  on  the  oppo- 
site page  the  Gatling  gun  is  represented  as  adapted 
to  various  services  :  mounted  on  tripod,  on  carriage, 
on  horse,  on  camel.  The  weight  of  the  guns  is  125, 
300,  500,  600  pounds,  according  to  size.  The  firing 
is  always  one  shot  at  a  time,  and  a  number  of  shots 

Fig.  699. 


Bat'ter-y-head.  (Railroad  Engineeriny. )  The 
end  of  an  embankment  under  formation,  over  which 
the  contents  of  the  gravel-wagons  are  dumped. 

Bat'ter-y-wag'on.  A  four-wheeled  vehicle,  ex- 
]>ressly  adapted  lor  the  purpose  of  transporting  the 
tools  and  spare  jiarts  required  for  the  repairs  of  a 
battery  of  artillery  in  the  field ;  one  is  attached  to 
each  battery. 

It  has  a  body  98.8  inches  long  and  3  feet  wide  in 
the  clear,  and  an  arched  wooden  top,  turning  over 
on  hinges  like  a  trunk-lid.  At  its  rear  is  a  rack  for 
forage.   The  wagon-body  and  the  limber-chests  carry 

Fig.  600. 


Gatling  Gun  {Front  Yiew.) 

equal  to  the  number  of  barrels  at  each  revolution 
of  the  craiik.      The  recoil  is  practically  nothing. 


Battery-Wagon, 

spare  parts  for  the  carriages,  harness,  etc.  ;  also  har- 
ness-maker's tools,  paint,  oil,  candles,  axes,  hatchets, 
picks,  and  miscellaneous  tools. 

In  the  United  States  service  battery-wagons  are 
designated,  according  to  their  contents,  C  and  D. 
The  former  accompanies  the  field-battery  in  its  evo- 
lutions, and  is  posted  a  short  distance  in  the  rear  in 
time  of  action.  It  contains  the  tools,  materials,  and 
spare  parts  necessary  to  repair  on  the  spot  the  smaller 
casualties  most  likely  to  occur  to  the  wood-work  and 
harness  of  the  battery. 

Battery-wagon  D  is  precisely  similar  in  eonstnic- 
tion,  but  contains  a  ditt'erent  set  of  stores  and  tools, 
such  as  armorer's  tools  and  laboratory  implements, 


BATTING-BLOCK. 


251 


BATTLE-AXE. 


as  well  as  such  spare  parts  of  gun-carriages  as  are 
less  likely  to  require  replacement. 

It  remains  with  the  vehicles  of  the  field-train,  and 
is  only  resorted  to  when  the  means  afforded  by  wagon 
C  are  inadeciuate  for  the  necessary  repairs. 

Bat'ting-block.  (Pottery.)  A  block  of  wet  plas- 
ter on  which  a  dab  of  clay  is  tiatteued  out  by  a  butter, 
to  prepare  it  for  being  placed  on  the  ivhirlimj-lahle, 
where  it  is  formed  by  a  mold  and  templet  into  a 
piece  of  circular  ware. 

Bat'ting-ma-cUine'.  (Fiber.)  A  machine  in 
which  cotton  partially  loosened  and  cleaned  by  the 
leiUoiving-machiue  (which  see)  is  scutched,  blown, 
and  lapped  so  as  to  iit  it  lor  presentation  in  a 
soft,  downy,  and  even  wad  to  the  carding-ma- 
chine. 

As  a  preliminary  process,  the  cotton  is  carefully 
weighed,  a  given  quantity  being  distributed  on  a 
certain  surface  of  the  slatted  feed-apron,  which  has 


occa.sional  black  slats  in  order  to  mark  certain  areas. 
The  cotton,  being  spread  evenly  over  the  given  area, 
passes  into  the  throat  of  the  machine  under  the  eom- 
pressing-roUer  d,  and  tlien  between  the  feed-rollers 
b,  which  are  pressed  together  by  a  weight  acting 
upon  a  lever  c,  which  acts  upon  the  brasses  above 
the  rollers.  Passing  the  fluted  cylinders  b,  the  cot- 
ton is  immediately  exposed  to  the  first  scutching- 
beater,  which  consists  of  two  fiat  bars  e  e  fixed  at 
right  angles  upon  a  revolving  shaft,  so  as  to  strike 
upon  the  cotton  as  it  issues  from  between  the  feed- 
rollers.  The  scutcher  makes  2,000  revolutions  per 
minute  in  near  proximity  to  the  grated  concave  0, 
through  which  dirt  escapes:  The  cotton  is  wafted 
on  to  a  traversing  slatted  apron  D,  which  revolves 
on  the  rollers/;/,  passing  beneath  a  revolving  cage- 
cylinder  E,  inclosed  by  the  cover  h,  in  the  top  of 
which  is  a  dust-duct  i,  in  conununioation  with  a  re- 
volving fan,  which  exhausts  the  air  from  the  interior 


Fig  601 


Batting-Machine. 


of  the  machine,  and  therewith  withdraws  the  dust. 
The  reticulated  cylinder  E  allows  the  air  and  dust 
to  pass.but  retains  the  cotton  fiber,  which  is  pressed 
into  a  bfit  upon  the  apron  D,  and  delivered  to  a  sec- 
ond pair  of  feed-rollers  /,  when  it  is  again  exposed 
to  a  scutcher  F,  which  acts  similarly  to  the  one  be- 
fore described.  This  scutcher  has  2, 200  revolutions 
per  minute,  and  delivers  the  cotton  to  an  apron  G, 
whicli  carries  it  beneath  another  reticulated,  dust- 
withdrawing  cylinder  in  communication  with  the 
air-exhaust  duct  m. 

The  cotton  thence  passes  in  a  fleecy  mass  to  the 
pressure-rollers  o  p,  which  deliver  the  compressed 
fleece  to  the  cylinder  whose  axis  is  loaded  by  sus- 
pended weights  L,  which  bear  it  down  upon  the 
carrying-rollers  K  X,  whereby  the  fleece  is  condensed 
as  it  is  wound.  As  the  lap-cylinder  /  increases  in 
diameter,  the  links  rise,  carrying  the  weights  L,  and 
when  the  laj)  has  attained  the  required  size,  the  main 
portion  of  the  machine  is  thrown  out  of  gear,  while 
the  twin  rollers  p  p  continue  to  revolve,  and  thus 
tear  the  bat  apart  in  the  middle  between  the  pairs 
of  rollers  o  p.  The  attendant  then  removes  the  lap, 
hooks  up  the  weighting  device,  places  another  lap- 
cylinder  in  position,  starts  the  machinery,  restores 
the  action  of  the  weight,  and  guides  the  advanced 
edge  of  the  bat  around  the  cylinder.     See  Cotton- 

CLE.\N'ER. 

Bat'ting-staff.  An  implement  used  by  laun- 
dresses for  beating  linen  in  washing. 

Bat'ti-tu'ra.  The  scales  which  fly  off  from  met- 
als while  under  the  hammer. 


Bat'tle-axe.  This  military  weapon  is  of  very 
remote  antii|uity,  being  made  of  stone  before  the 
discovery  of  metals.  (See  Axe.)  It  was  used  by  the 
Sacae,  who  formed  a  part  of  the  forces  of  Xerxes. 

Fig  602. 


Batth-Axes. 


BATTLEDORE. 


252 


BAY-WINDOW. 


Breiimi.s,  tlie  Gallic  king,  who  captured  Rome,  was 
armed  with  a  battle-axe,  and  in  remote  ages  it  ap- 
pears to  have  been  considered  peculiarly  as  the 
weapon  of  an  uncivilized  ]«?ople.  It  was,  however, 
extensively  employed  during  the  Middle  Ages,  and 
was  in  use  as  late  as  the  sixteenth  centuiy,  when 
attempts  were  made  to  improve  it  by  attaching  a 
pistol  to  the  handle. 

a,  battle-axe  from  Dr.  Abbott's  collection  of 
Egyptian  antiiiuities  in  New  York  ;  made  of  bronze, 
firmly  bound  to  its  original  handle  by  means  of  slen- 
der interlaced  thongs  of  leather.  It  was  found  at 
Thebes. 

The  other  figures  represent  battle-axes,  more  or 
less  rude,  of  the  times  known  as  the  "Roman  pe- 
riod "  and  the  "  Middle  Ages." 

Bat'tle-dore.  1.  {Glass-making.)  A  flat  wooden 
paddle,  used  in  flatting  glass  while  still  plastic,  as 
in  making  the  Hat  bottoms  of  decanters,  etc. 

2.  An  instrument  of  play,  having  a  handle  and  a 
flat  surface,  or  palm,  formed  of  a  hoop,  and  stretched 
parchment  covers.  It  is  used  in  playing  shuttle- 
cock. 

Bat'tle-ment.  (Architecture.)  An  open  or  in- 
terrupted parapet  on  tlie  roof  of  a  building.  A  para- 
pet with  embrasures. 

Bauge.  (Fabric.)  A  French  fabric  made  with 
thread  .spun  upon  coarse  wool. 

Bav'in.  A  fagot  of  brushwood,  sometimes  used 
as  a  fa.scine. 

BaTv'sin.  Leather  made  from  sheep-skin.  (Fr. 
ha.¥(nr.) 

Bay.  1.  (Architecture.)  One  of  the  lights  or 
compartments  between  muUion  and  mullion  in  the 
great  windows  of  the  pointed  style. 

2.  (Carpentrij. )  A  portion  of  a  compound  or  framed 
floor  included  between  two  girders,  or  a  girder  and 
the  wall. 

a.  A  case-bay  is  between  two  girders. 

b.  A  tail-bay  is  formed  of  common  joists,  where 
one  end  of  each  is  framed  into  a  girder  and  the  other 
rests  on  a  wall. 

c.  A  portion  of  a  wall  included  between  pilasters 
or  buttresses,  or  of  a  ceiling  between  the  beams  of 
the  panels. 

3.  The  term  is  also  used  in  a  compound  form  :  — 

a.  \  baij  of  plastering ;  between  two  screeds  which 
regulate  the  working  of  the  float. 

b.  A  bay  of  roofing :  the  small  rafters  and  their 
supporting  purlins  between  two  principal  rafters. 

c.  A  bay  of  joists  ;  the  joists  between  two  binding- 
joists,  or  between  two  girders  in  a  framed  floor. 

Hay-bay  in  a  barn  ;  a  sick-bay  on  shipboard. 

4.  (Ship.)  That  part  on  each  side  between  decks 
of  a  man-of-war  which  lies  forward  of  the  butts. 

5.  (Bridging.)     The  portion  between  two  piers. 

6.  (Mining.)  The  space  between  two  frames  in  a 
gallery. 

7.  (Hydraulie  Engineering.)  a.  The  head  of  a 
lock. 

b.  A  compartment  containing  water  for  a  wheel, 
as  a  fore-bay. 

Bay-bolt.     One  with  a  barbed  shank. 

Bay'o-net.  A  piercing  weapon,  fixable  on  the 
muzzle-end  uf  a  fire-arm.  They  were  originally  made 
at  Bayonne,  in  France,  in  the  latter  half  of  the  seven- 
teenth century,  aiul  used  by  that  nation  in  the 
Netherlands  in  1647.  The  weapon  was  introduced 
into  the  English  army  in  1672,  and  used  at  Killie- 
crankie,  in  Perthshire,  where  the  forces  of  William 
of  Orange,  conmiandeil  by  Mackay,  were  defeated  by 
those  of  James  II.,  under  the  command  of  Graham, 
of  Claverhouse,  1689  ;  and  also  at  the  battle  of  Mar- 
saglia,  1693,  "with  great  success  against  the  enemy. 


unprepared  for  the  encounter  with  so  formidable  a 
novelty." 

The  first  known  bayonet  was  a  kind  of  long  and 
slender  rapier,  with  a  wooden  handle,  or  plug,  which 
was  inserted  into  the  muzzle  of  the  musket.  Previ- 
ous to  this  it  had  been  customary  to  distribute  mus- 
keteers among  the  pikemen,  the  two  mutually  sup- 
porting and  assisting  each  other.  The  above-named 
arrangement  for  fixing  the  baj'onet  does  not  seem 
to  have  prevailed  long,  and  was  soon  superseded  by 
a  slotted  socket  on  the  lower  part  of  the  bayonet, 
which  slipped  over  the  muzzle  of  the  musket  and 
was  held  in  position  by  a  stud  on  the  barrel.  The 
ring-bayonet  was  introduced  in  1693,  and  the  socket- 
bayonet  in  1703.  This  form  continued  in  use  for 
about  150  years,  an  annular  clasp  and  screw  being 
ailded  about  1842  in  the  United  States  service. 

The  "sword  "  bayonet  b  seems  to  be  of  very  recent 
origin,  having  been  first  recognized  in  the  United 


"H^ 


Fig.  603. 


Bayonets. 

States  army  in  1856.  Its  utility  as  a  weapon  is  very 
questionalile.  It  is  believed  that  this  form  of  bayo- 
net was  first  intiodueed  in  the  French  service  among 
the  Chasseurs  de  Vineennes,  who  used  it  in  Algiers, 
in  the  Crimean  campaign  of  1854-55,  and  the  Ital- 
ian war  of  1859. 

It  is  secured  to  the  rifle  by  a  ring  in  the  guard  and 
a  spring-catch  in  the  hilt. 

The  saw-bayonet,  liaving  a  sword  edge  and  a  saw 
back,  is  now  being  tested  for  the  British  arms.  The 
spack-bayimet  has  also  its  advocates,  it  being  intended 
to  enable  the  soldier  to  intrench  his  position.  The 
tendency  seems  to  be  to  beat  their  si)ears  into  trow- 
els and  their  swords  into  pruning-saws,  but  the  peace- 
able intention  is  not  apjiarent.     See  Intrenching 

T0OL.S. 

The  bayonet-blade  is  forged  under  a  trip-hammer, 
after  whiidi  it  is  rolled  to  a  proper  form  by  sets  of 
rollers  adjusted  to  give  it  the  required  shape  and 
taper.  The  socket  is  then  forged,  and  the  two  por- 
tions welded  together.  It  is  next  twice  swaged  by 
the  "drop,"  then  ground  and  polished  ;  the  foi'mer 
on  a  stone,  and  the  latter  on  wheels  bound  with 
leather  and  covered  with  emery.  The  bayonet  is 
rigidly  gaged,  and  then  tested  by  weight  and  by  blow 
to  deteimine  its  soundness  and  tetnper. 

Bay'o-net-clasp.  A  movable  ring  of  metal  sur- 
rounding thesoeket  of  a  bayonet,  iir  order  to  strengthen 
the  socket  and  render  the  bayonet  less  easily  detach- 
able. 

Bay'o-net-joint.  A  peculiar  form  of  coupling, 
in  which  one  circular  piece,  having  a  slot  longitudi- 
nal for  part  of  its  length  and  transverse  the  remain- 
der, is  sleeved  over  another.  The  interior  piece  is 
jirovided  with  a  stud  which  enters  the  slot,  and,  by 
turning,  the  two  parts  become  locked  so  as  to  pre- 
vent withdrawal  by  a  lonsritudinal  movement. 

Bay'o-net  Scab'bard.  The  sheath  in  which  the 
bayonet  is  placed.  It  has  a  loop  at  its  u])per  part, 
calleil  the  //-Of/,  through  which  the  waist-belt  passes. 

Bay-stall.  {Building.)  A  fixed  seat  within  a 
windi'W-opeiiing. 

Bay-Twin'do'w.  (Building.)  A  iow-window ; 
one  projecting  from  the  general  surface  of  the  house. 
It  is  u.sually  of  semi -polygonal  shape,  sometimes 
semicircular  or  semi-elliptical. 


BDELLOMETER. 


253 


BEAD  AND   BUTT. 


Fig.  601. 


Bay-Windoio. 

Bdel-lom'e-ter.  A  cuiiping-glass  to  which  are 
attiolieil  an  exhausting  syringe  and  a  scarificator. 

Bea'con.  .\  structure  erected  for  the  purpose  of 
a.ssisting  navigation  liy  jiointing  out  those  dangers 
wliicli ,  owing  to  the  difficulty  and  expense  that  would 
attend  the  placing  of  more  efficient  mai'ks  to  serve 
by  night  as  well  as  by  day,  are  necessarily  left  with- 
out lights,  or  which,  from  the  peculiarity  of  their 
position  in  passages  too  intricate  for  navigation  by 
night,  are  considered  suffici'-ntly  indicated  by  day- 
marks  alone.  Tliey  are  generally  placed  on  rocks  or 
banks  only  which  ar^'  diy  at  some  period  of  the  tide. 
On  rocks  in  exposed  situations  Ijeacous  are  sometimes 
of  squared  masonry,  firmly  joggled  together  ;  but  in 
situations  difficult  of  acc-'ss,  and  wliere  an  uncom- 
pleted structure  of  masonry  could  not  be  safely  left 
exposed  to  the  storms  of  winter,  an  open  framework 
of  iron,  firmly  trussed,  braced,  and  secured  to  the 
rock,  is  preferable.  In  less  exposed  situations,  where 
the  bottom  is  of  rock,  gravel,  or  hard  sand,  a  conical 
beacon,  composed  of  iron  plates  and  partially  filled 
with  concrete,  is  sometimes  emi>loyed. 

In  a  comprehensive  sense,  a  lighthouse  is  a.beicon  : 
but  the  term  technically  refers  to  day  marks,  or  to 
night  marks  where  cressets  are  era]ilo3-ed. 

A  soiwrijic  beicon,  so  called,  is  one  provided  with 
an  apparatus  for  sounding  an  alarm.  See  Foo- 
al.\i;m. 

Bead.  1.  (Carpenlry.)  A  small  salient  molding 
of  semicircular  section. 

a.   Cock-bead. 

Hg.  605.  b.   Qiiirk-bcad. 

c.   Bdul-hu'l. 

d.  Be  iJ -flush. 

e.  Doahh:-qairkcd  bead. 

.\  small  globular  ornament,  often  oc- 
curring in  a  long  series,  fonning  a  band 
or  molding. 

The  strip  on  a  sa-sh-frame  which  forms 
■  a   guide    for  the  sash.     The  beads  are 
known  as  the  inside,  outside,  and  part- 
ing beads. 

2.  (Bookbinding.)  A  roll  on  the  head- 
band of  a  book. 

3.  The  proof  of  spirit,  consisting  in 
the  appearance  of  the  rising  bubbles. 

Beads.  i.   A  i>erf orated  piece  of  glass,  metal, 

or  other  material,  adapted  to  be  strung 

in  a  series,  and  used  for  the  purpose  of  ornament  or 

in  devotion.     This  latter  use  came  from  Asia  to  Eu- 

.-ope,  and  from  the  latter  to  America. 

Glass  bejids  originated  with  the  Egj-ptians,  —  at 
least,  such  are  the  indications.  One,  in  the  posses- 
sion of  Captain  Henvey,  has  a  hieroglyphic  inscrip- 
tion which  shows  its  date  to  be  about  1500  B.  c. 
Glass  bugles  and  beads  for  necklaces  were  much  used 
by  the  Egyptians,  and  for  a  sort  of  network  in  the 
munnuy-wrappings. 

Beads  strung  in  chaplets  have  long  been  in  use  for 
devotional  purposes  among  Eastern  nations,  and  are 
worn  by  the  Chinese  and  Tartar  Buddhists,  as  well 
as  hy  the  Turks  and  other  Mohammedan   nations. 


The  Chinese  rosary  is  composed  of  108  beads  of  stones 
and  coral,  which  are  sometimes  as  large  as  pigeon's 
eggs.  The  use  of  beads  in  the  Chi-istian  Church  is 
of  great  antiquity.  St.  Augustine  mentions  them 
A.  D.  366.  Peter  the  Hermit  had  a  series  of  55 
beads.  Dominic  de  Guzman,  A.  D.  1202,  intro- 
duced the  rosary  of  15  large  and  150  small  beads. 
Beads  were  used  by  the  Dmids  in  the  time  of 
Cssar. 

Beads  are  made  of  a  great  variety  of  materials  : 
gold,  diamond,  amber,  pearl,  coral,  jet,  ganiet,  crys- 
tal, steel,  paste,  wood,  glass,  etc.,  much  the  gi'eater 
proportion,  however,  being  of  the  latter  material. 
The  manufacture  is  extensively  carried  on  at  difl'er- 
ent  places  in  Europe,  that  of  each  place  being  char- 
acterized by  some  peculiarity  in  the  style  or  manner 
of  manufacture.  Immense  numbers  are  made  at 
Birmingham,  certain  varieties  of  ^yhich  are  sold  by 
thousands  of  dozens  as  dolls'  eyes. 

At  Murano,  near  A^enice,  where  great  numbers  are 
made,  tubes  of  glass  of  various  coloi-s  are  drawn  out 
to  a  great  length  and  cut  into  very  small  pieces  of 
uniform  length,  which  are  then  put  in  a  heap  with 
a  mixture  of  sand  and  wood  ashes,  and  stirred  with 
a  spatula  until  the  ca\"ities  become  filled.  The  mix- 
ture is  then  transferred  to  an  iron  pan  suspended 
over  a  moderate  fire,  and  stirred  until  the  cylindri- 
cal bits  of  glass  assume  a  smooth  rounded  form.  (See 
Be.\d-furxace.)  AVhen  removed  from  the  fire,  and 
their  bores  cleaned  out,  they  constitute  beads. 

A  very  beautiful  and  costl)'  sort  of  beads  are  made 
in  imitation  of  pearls,  from  which  the  best  qualities 
dift'er  so  .slightly  in  ajipearance  as  to  require  an  ex- 
pert to  detect  the  dift'erence.  The  bead  is  blown 
into  a  thin  bulb,  and  the  pearly  appearance  produced 
by  pouring  into  it  a  mixture  of  liquid  ammonia  mixed 
.with  the  white  matter  from  the  scales  of  certain  kinds 
of  fish,  as  the  bleak.  The  pearl  matter  is  prejiared 
by  removing  the  scales  from  the  lower  jiart  of  the 
fish,  washing  them,  and  soaking  them  in  water  until 
the  pearly  film  falls  off  and  forms  a  sediment  in  the 
bottom  of  the  vessel ;  this  is  dissolved  in  licjuid  am- 
monia and  injected  into  the  beads,  so  as  to  fonn  a 
thin  coating  inside  ;  after  which  the  better  kinds 
have  melted  white  wax  poured  in,  rendering  them 
mnch  more  durable.  Artificial  pearls  were  invented 
by  a  Frenchman  named  Jaquin,in  the  time  of  Cath- 
erine de  Sledicis,  and  are  principally  manufactured 
in  the  department  of  the  Seine,  where  great  improve- 
ments have  been  made  in  the  art  ;  such  as  giving 
irregular  foims  to  the  large  bulbs,  to  increase  their 
resemblance  to  pearls,  and  exposing  them  for  a  short 
time  to  the  vapor  of  hydrofluoric  acid,  so  as  to  re- 
move the  glassy  appeaiance  of  the  exterior  coating. 
Mucilage  of  gum-arabic  is  also  used  instead  of  wax, 
which  increases  the  translucency,  and  is  not  liable  to 
be  melted  by  heat. 

Beads  of  agate,  camelian,  and  allied  stones  are 
made  in  British  India  by  breaking  the  stones  into 
pieces  of  the  required  size,  and  chipping  tliem  with 
a  hammer  until  rounded.  They  are  then  fixed  in 
wooden  clams,  and  partially  polished  by  rubbing  on 
a  coarse,  hard  stone,  after  which  they  are  similarly 
treated  by  being  rubbed  on  a  board  covered  with 
emery  and  lac.  The  polishing  process  is  completed 
by  placing  a  large  number  of  them  in  a  leathern  bag 
partially  filled  with  emery-dust  and  a  fine  powder 
derived  from  the  stones  themselves  in  drilling,  and 
I'oUing  the  bag  backwards  and  fonvards  for  some  ten 
or  fifteen  days  by  means  of  a  tliong  passing  around  it 
and  operated  by  two  men  seated  at  the  opposite  sides 
of  a  room.  The  holes  are  afterward  drilled  with  a 
steel  drill  tipped  with  diamond  dust. 

Bead  and  Butt.  (Carj/cntri/.)   Framing  in  which 


BEAD   AND   QUIKK. 


25-i 


BEAM. 


the  jiant'ls  are  liusli,  having  beads  stuck  or  run  ujion 
the  two  edges.     See  c.  Fig.  605. 

Bead  and  Quirk.  A  bead  stuck  on  the  edge  of 
a  piece  of  stuti'tliisli  with  its  surface.     See  6,  Fig.  605. 

Bead-butt  and  Square-ivork.  (Carpentry.) 
Frainiug  witli  bead  and  Ijutt  on  one  side  and  sijuare 
on  the  otlier ;  used  in  doors. 

Bead'ed  Wire.  An  ornamental  wire  having 
globular  enlargements  at  regular  intervals. 

Bead'ed-'w'ork  Lathe.    See   Milled  Work  ; 

G.^GE-LATHE. 

Bead-fur'nace.  (Glass.)  A  furnace  in  which 
glass  beads  are  rounded  after  the  cylinders  liave 
been  cut  to  the  jiroper  lengths.  The  back  of  tlie 
furnace  B  has  a  step,  into  which  the  point  of  the 
axis  t  of  the  drum  A",  in  which  the  beads  are  placed, 

Fig.  606. 


B^ml-Fitrnare. 

is  inserted.  Tliis  and  the  hook  /,  suspended  from 
the  upper  projecting  part  N,  serve  as  supports  for 
the  drum  in  its  inclined  position.  The  heat  is  main- 
tained at  a  point  sutficient  to  soften,  but  not  to  melt, 
the  beads,  and  tlie  rounded  form  is  imparted  to  them 
by  rotating  the  drum  by  means  of  the  handle  S. 

Bead-loom.  (Weaving.)  A  gauze-loom  in  which 
beads  are  strung  upon  the  threads,  the  intersections 
of  the  threads  being  occupied  by  the  beads. 

Bead-plane.  (Carpcntnj.)  A  molding-plane  of 
a  semi-cylindric  contour,  generally  used  in  sticking 
a  molding  of  the  same  name  on  the  edge  or  on  the 
side  close  to  the  arris.  A  set  consists  of  nine  planes, 
each  working  a  half-round  of  given  radius. 

Bead-tool.  ( Wood-turninri.)  A  tool  for  turn- 
ing conve.K  moldings.  Its  end  has  a  semicircular 
or  other  curved  form,  with  a  sharp  edge  correspond- 
ing to  the  contour  of  the  bend  desired. 

Beak.  1.  {Architrj:luri'.)  A  small  pendent  fillet 
forming  a  cliannel  behind,  to  prevent  water  from 
running  down  the  lower  bed  of  the  coniice. 

2.  (Shijiirrighting.)  The  rostrum  or  prow  of  a 
ship.  PisiEus  is  saiil  to  have  added  it  to  the  an- 
cient galleys.     It  is  now  revived  in  the  rmn. 

More  technically  speaking,  a  part  of  the  ship  be- 
fore the  forecastle,  fastened  to  the  stem  and  supported 
by  the  main  knee. 


3.  (Carpentry.)  The  crooked  end  of  the  lioldfast 
of  a  carpenter's  bench. 

4.  (Forging.)  a.  The  point  of  an  anvil.  The 
horn.     The  beak-iron  or  biek-iroii  is  all  beak. 

h.  A  toe-clip  or  a  horse's  shoe  turned  up  against 
the  hoof. 

5.  (Nautical.)  a.  A  ram,  pike,  or  rostrum  on  the 
stem  of  a  vessel  to  ru:i  down  an  opponent. 

b.  Tlie  part  of  a  ship  forward  of  the  stem  and  sup- 
porting tlie  figure-head. 

6.  (CItcmieal. )  The  rostrum  of  an  alembic  which 
conducts  the  vapor  to  the  worm. 

7.  One  of  the  jaws  of  a  forceps  or  pliers,  named 
after  some  real  or  fancied  resemblance  to  the  pro- 
truding facial  organ  ;  as,  — 

Hairk's-bill  forceps.  Eound-nose  pliers. 

Narrow-beak  forceps.  Crane's-bill  forceps. 

Long-nose  pliers.  Croiv's-bill  forceps. 

8.  (Gas-Fitting.)  A  gas-burner  with  one  round, 
smooth  hole  5V  of  an  inch  in  diameter. 

Beak'er.  (Glass.)  An  open-mouthed  thin  glass 
vessel,  liaving  a  projecting  lip  for  pouring  ;  used  for 
containing  solutions  requiring  heat,  etc.  Beaker- 
glass. 

Beak'-head  Beam.  (Shipbuilding.)  The  lon- 
gest beam  in  a  ship. 

Beak'ing-joint.  The  joint  formed  by  the  meet- 
ing of  several  heading-joints  in  one  continued  line, 
whicli  is  sometimes  the  case  in  floors  and  doors. 

Beak'-i-ron.  1.  (S/uet-iron  Working.)  Beak, 
Beck,  Bick-iron,  Bickern.     An  anvil  with  a  long 

Fig  607. 


Beah-Irons. 

beak  adapted  to  reach  the  interior  surfaces  of  sheet- 
metal  ware. 

a.  A  tool  with  a  long  beak,  used  for  rounding  sec- 
tions of  stove-pipe,  large  tin-plate  ware,  etc.  Its 
tang  is  set  in  a  square  socket  in  tlie  bench. 

b.  A  tool  with  a  shorter  and  cylindrical  beak. 

c.  A  tool  with  two  beaks,  which  act  as  stakes  or 
an^Tls  in  the  interior  of  ware,  diffei-ently  presented. 

d.  A  conical  beak,  intended  to  be  grasped  in  a 
vise.     A  stake. 

2.  The  liorn  of  an  anvil. 

Beale-light.  An  argand  burner,  in  which  the 
flame  is  fed  with  air  under  pressure,  rising  through 
the  central  aperture.     Named  after  its  inventor. 

Beam.  A  straight  piece  of  wood  or  iron  in  the 
frame  of  a  stnicture,  usually  occupying  a  relatively 
elevated,  horizontal,  and  transverse  ]iosition  :  as  the 
beams  of  a  sliip  that  support  tlie  deck  (uniting  the 
sides  above  the  keel,  the  spine  of  the  vessel)  ;  the 
beams  of  a  house  or  barn,  stretching  across  it,  and 
supported  by  the  side  walls  or  posts. 

Relative  size,  character,  position,  and  importance 
have  caused  the  word  to  be  applied  to  a  long  straight 
piece  in  a  machine  or  tool,  whether  poised  (a),  jour- 
naled  (6),  or  fi.xed  (c). 


BEAM. 


255 


BEAM. 


tl^ 


a.  The  poised  beam  of  a  balance,  to  wliose  respec- 
tive ends  the  scales  are  attached.  In  the  Roman 
balance  or  steelyard,  the  beam  is  not  radically  equi- 
poised, but  one  end  is  longer  than  the  other,  so  that 
a  smaller  weight  on  one  end  shall  counterbalance  a 
larger  on  the  other  in  calculated  proportions,  as  in 
many  counter  scales  and  all  platform  scales.  The 
larger  descriptions  of  the  latter  hare  combinations  of 
beams  or  levers. 

b.  The  icorking  or  walking  beam  of  a  steam-engine, 
which  is  poised  at  its  mid-length,  and  sustains  at  its 
respective  ends  the  connecting-rod  to  the  slide  of  the 
piston-rod,  and  the  pitman  which  drives  the  crank 
of  the  paddle-wheel  shaft.  In  the  Cornish  pumping- 
engine,  in  place  of  the  pitman,  is  attached  the  pump- 
rod.  This  oscillating  piece  is  usually  called  a  beam, 
and  such  an  engine  is  sometimes  called  a  beam-en- 
gine.    See  also  Side-beam  Engine. 

c.  The  straight,  cylindrical,  horizontal  bars  in  a 
loom,  on  which  the  yarn  and  fabric  are  wound,  called 
the  yam-beam  and  the  clotli-beam  respectively. 

1.  (Building.)  Specific  denominations  have  been 
conferred  upon  beams  in  framed  structures  of  wood. 

a.  Tie-beam;  one  uniting  the  ends  of  a  pair  of 
principal  i-afters,  or  a  pair 

of  posts,  to  prevent  .spread- 
ing or  divergence. 

b.  Collar-beam;  a  hori- 
zontal strutconnecting  and 
bracing  two  opposite  raft- 
ers. 

c.  Dragon-beam;  apiece 
of  timber  to  receive  and 
support  the  foot  of  the 
hip- rafter. 

fL  Straining-beam ;  one 
used  in  a  truss  or  frame  to 
confine  principal  parts  in 
place. 

e.  Camber-beam;  Ahori- 
zontal  beam  in  a  simple 
span,  whose  sill  has  two 
posts,  two  struts,  and  a 
camier-beam  uniting  the 
tops  of  the  posts. 

A  beam  bent  or  built 
into  an  arched  shape  to 
support  a  sill  or  summer. 

f.  Hammer-beam:  a  tie- 
beam  proceeding  from  the 
feet  of  a  pair  of  principal 
rafters,  bat  having  its  mid- 
dle portion  removed  ;  the 
ends  at  the  gap  are  stayed 
by  ribs  springing  from  cor- 
bels below,  and  support  other  ribs  which  spring  into 
an  arch. 

g.  Binding-beam;  a  tie-beam  which  binds  together 
portions  of  a  frame. 

h.  Girder-beam  ;  a  tie-beam. 

i.  Truss-beam  ;  the  principal  horizontal  timbers 
of  a  truss,  allied  the  top  ami  bottom  ehord,  and  from 
which  proceed  the  slays  and  braces  which  hold  and 
push  respectively,  so  to  speak,  and  confer  rigidity 
upon  the  frame. 

j.  Summer-beam;  a  central  floor  or  ceiling  timber, 
resting  at  its  ends  upon  the  walls  or  the  girders  of 
the  exterior  frame,  and  supporting  the  ends  of  the 
joints  which  are  notched  into  it. 

k.  A  rched  beam  ;  a  beam  bent,  cut,  or  built  into 
an  arched  form  to  support  a  structure.  See  Arched 
Beam. 

I.  A  biiilt-beam  is  one  made  of  several  parts  scarfed 
or  ^trapped  together. 


'  m.  A  kerfed  beam  is  one  whose  under  side  has  a 
number  of  transverse  kerfs  penetrating  to  a  certain 
depth,  so  as  to  enable  the  beam  to  be  bent.  See 
Akched  Beam. 

n.   Ground-beam  ;  a  sill  for  a  frame. 

0.  The  box-beam  is  a  fomi  of  girder  having  a 
double  web,  inclosing  a  box  or  cell.  (See  Gii:der.) 
It  is  usually  of  iron.     See  Figs.  216,  218. 

Fig.  60S  represents  four  foiins  of  beams  in  Eng- 
lish use. 

B  represents  a  girder  on  the  suspension  principle, 
the  wooden  girder  a  a  being  stayed  by  the  tension-rods 
e  ef,  which  are  looped  over  the  cast-iron  toe-plates 
b  b.  At  points  one  third  of  their  length  from  either 
end  the  rods  are  bolted  to  iron  cross-pieces  d  d,  which 
rest  against  blocks  c  c  beneath  the  beam. 

yi  is  a  cast-iron  girder  with  a  wrought-iron  tie- 
bolt. 

The  next  beam  in  the  figure  shows  a  pair  of  par- 
allel girders  with  cast-iron  foot-plates  c,  embracing 
the  ends  of  each,  holding  them  at  their  distance,  and 
affording  points  of  attachment  for  the  suspension- 
rods  «  n,  which  are  secured  by  screw-nuts  to  the  iron 
saddle-pieces  dd,  the  latter  being  connected  by  links  J. 

Fig.  608. 


The  lower  illustration  (Fig.  60S)  is  a  combined 
wood  and  iron  girder,  used  to  support  a  large  brew- 
erj'-vat,  weighing,  when  full,  about  100  tons. 

The  main  features  of  this  beam  consist  of  three 
cast-iron  plates  a  a  a,  whose  abutting  ends  rest 
against  cast-iron  blocks  c  c,  and  which  form  a  kind  of 
arch,  supported  by  a  bow  and  string  truss  g  g  d  d. 
The  ends  of  the  beams  rest  on  shoes  b  and  wall- 
plates  g. 

Jlr.  Hodgkinson,  of  England,  is  said  to  have  de- 
termined the  true  shape  of  a  cast-iron  beam,  as 
deduced  from  his  discovery  of  the  fact  that  the  resist- 
ance of  cast-iron  to  direct  crushing  is  more  than  six 
times  its  resistance  to  tearing. 

It  consists  (1,  Fig.  609)  of  an  upper  flange  a,  web 
b,  and  lower  flange  c.  The  sectional  area  of  the  lower 
flange,  which  is  subject  to  tension,  is  nearly  six  times 
that  of  the  upper  flange,  which  is  subject  to  crush- 
ing.    In  order  that  the  beam,  when  cast,  may  not  be 


BEAM. 


256 


BEAM. 


Fig.  609. 


Qtst-T'-ort  Beatns. 
Htclions. 


«--r-    I 


liable  to  crack  from  unequal  cooling, 
the  thicknesses  of  the  vertical  web  at 
its  upper  and  lower  edges  are  nearly 
equal  to  those  of  the  flanges  at  top 
and  bottom  respectively. 

The  most  usual  shapes  of  cast-iron 
beams  are  shown  in  the  views,  which 
present  cross-sections. 

1,  2.   Double-T  beams. 

3.  Inverted-T  beam. 

4.  Trough-shaped  beam. 

Fig.  610  shows  a  number  of  forms 
of  sections  of  fagots  for  wrought-iron 
beams,  the  webs  and  flanges  being 
made  up  of  plates  riveted  together, 
and  so  disposeil  as  to  bring  the  tibrous 
strength  of  the  iron  into  the  most 
advantageous  positions.  The  f;igots, 
having  been  made  up,  are  heated  in 
a  furnace,  and  then  rolled  by  a  train 
whose  "passes"  have  the  appropriate 

Fig.  610. 


m 


1. 
m: 


c^TT 


iii 

Fagots /or  Beams. 


-_j 


J^ 


r"  '  ~-i 


£ 


■-By 


Beam. 


size  and  shape  to  bring  the  beam,  by  successive  ope»- 
iitions,  to  the  shape  and  size  required  in  the  tinished 
beam. 

2.  (Shiphuilding.)    One  of  the  curved  transversa 
timbers  of  a  vessel,  supporting  a  deck. 

The  end  of  the  beam  B  rests  on  a  shelf  S,  which 
is  bolted  through 

the   futtocks    F,  Fig.  611. 

and  its  upper  and 
lower  sides  are 
secured  by  dow- 
els  d  d'  to  the 
water-way  ?Fand 
shelf  ;S'.  A  ver- 
tical bolt  a  b  ties 
the  water-way, 
beam,  and  shelf 
together,  while 
another  bolt  /  e 
secures  together 
tlie  w.ater  -  way 
)r,  futtoc-k  F, 
and  planking  P. 
c  d\s  the  convex 
curve  of  the  wa- 
ter-way, for  which 
may  be  substi- 
tuted the  concave  curve  shown  in  dotted  lines.  The 
icntcr-way  forms  a  tie  above  the  beam  and  below  the 
sjiirh'tiinj. 

F,  frame.  Fig-  612. 

0  P,  outside 
planking. 

/   P,    inside 
planking. 

£,  deck  beam. 

D  P,    deck 
jilanking. 

S,  shelf  to  which  the  beam 
end  is  coaked. 

IV,  thick  water-way. 

HI,  thin  water-way. 

B  S,  binding  strake  or  let- 
ting-down  strake. 

A",  forked  iron  knee. 

Dotted  lines  show  the  bolts. 

A  midship-beam  is  a  sliip's  deck-beam  about  the 
waist. 

An  orlop-beam ;  a  beam  of  the  lower  deck,  or  where 
one  would  be  were  it  laid. 

3.  (A'auliea!.)  a.  A  fender-beam  is  the  inclined 
beam  of  an  ice-breaker,  shod  with  iron.  A  beam 
to  protect  a  quay  or  jetty  by  receiving  the  impact 
of  the  vessels  alongside. 

b.  The  shank  of  an  anchor  from  one  of  whose  ends 
the  arms  diverge,  and  whose  other  end  passes  through 
the  stock,  or  conversely. 

c.  The  width  of  a  vessel  is  called  her  breadth  of  beam. 

4.  (H'cai-iiKj.)  a.  The  roller  on  which  the  yarn 
is  wound,  and  from  which  it  is  !et  off  as  the  weaving 
progresses.     The  yarn-beam. 

b.  The  roller  on  which  the  goods  are  wound  by  a 
lal-e-up  motion  as  the  weaving  progresses.  The 
cloth-bcaiii,  or  breast-beam. 

5.  (Railroad  Evyinecritig.)  The  sifing-bcam  is  a 
cross-piece  supported  by  the  frame  of  the  truck,  and 
sustaining  the  car-body  in  such  manner  that  a  cer- 
tain lateral  motion  and  play  is  allowed. 

6.  {('urryiurj,  etc.)  The  board  over  which  a  hide 
is  placed  to  be  unhaired,  struck,  or  shaved  by  the 
knives  adapted  to  those  processes. 

The  unliairiiici-beum  is  a  cylindrical  table  on  which 
the  hides  from  the  lime-pit  are  placed  while  the  hair 
is  scraped  otf. 


IP         OP 

Sbip'^s  Beam  nnff  Fasten- 
ings. 


BEAM-BOARD. 


257 


BEAX-HAKVESTER. 


The  strikiiig-batm  is  a  cyliudrical  horse  on  which 
the  hides  are  occasionally  scraped  by  a  triangular 
steel  knife,  during  the  time  they  are  drying  after 
removal  from  the  tanning-liquor. 

The  currier  s  beam  is  an  inclined  post  over  wliich 
the  hide  is  stretched  to  be  shaved  by  the  currier's 
knife. 

The  currier's  beam  in  a  slanting  position  is  shown 
in  the  ancient  paintings  of  Kourna,  Thebes. 

7.  Sicipe-beam  ;  the  counterpoise  lever  of  a  draw- 
bridge. 

8.  The  oscillating  lever  of  a  steam-engine.  A 
working-beam  or  side-lever. 

9.  The  main  piece  in  the  frame  of  a  plow  to  which 
the  handles,  clevis,  and  standard  are  attached. 

10.  The  straight  working-edge  of  the  stock  of  a 
square  or  bevel. 

11.  The  bar  on  which  slide  the  sockets  carrying 
the  points,  pencil,  or  pen,  of  a  hcam-coinpciss. 

12.  Tlie  pule  or  tongue  of  a  carriage  (not 
much  used).  r— l 

Beam-board.    The  platform  of  a  steel- 
yard or  lialaii'-i'. 

Beam-ceu'ter.     (Stecim-Engine.)     The 
pin  on  whicli  tiii'  working-beam  vibrates. 

Beam-com'pass.     Sometimes  called  a  ^ 
trammel.       An   instrument    for   describing 


The  yam-threads  are  laid  uniformly  in  the  order 
in  whicli  they  were  placed  in  the  v:arping-mill  by 
means  of  a  separator  or  ravel,  wliich  consists  of  a 
number  of  |iieces  of  cane  fi.\ed  to  a  rail  of  wood,  so 
as  to  resemble  a  rake.  Tlie  threads  ])ass  between  the 
teeth,  and  the  yarn  is  sju-ead  on  the  beam  to  the 
required  width. 

■1.  (Leather.)  The  operation  of  working  hides 
with  a  slicker  over  a  beam. 

Beam'ing-ma-chine'.  (Leather.)  One  in  which 
hides  supported  on  a  siitling  or  rolling  carriage  are 

Fig.  G14. 


rig  613. 


Beam-Compass. 

large  circles.  It  has  a  beam  or  rod,  and  two  sliding 
sockets  wliich  carry  the  steel  point  and  the  yjencil 
or  pen  points.  Set -screws  on  the  sockets  hold  them 
to  their  places  on  the  beam. 

Beam-en'gine.  (Steeim- Engine.)  An  engine 
with  an  oscillating  beam,  to  whose  respective  ends 
the  connecting-rod  from  the  piston  and  the  pitman 
from  the  crank  are  attached. 

In  the  Cornish  engine  the  connecting-rod  is  at  one 
end  and  the  ]iunip-rod  at  the  other  end. 

To  avoid  the  elevation  of  the  working-beam,  so 
common  in  our  .\tlantic  and  Eastern  river  steamers, 
the  side-lever  engine  has  been  invented.  This  brings 
the  engine  into  more  compact  form,  throws  the  weight 
nearer  to  the  keel,  and  places  the  engine  below  the 
water-line  in  some  cases,  —  an  especial  advantage  in 
war-vessels.  See  Side-be.\m  Exgixe  ;  5I.\rine 
Ste-\m-exgin"e  ;  Lever-engixe. 

The  old  atmospheric  engine  of  Newcomen  was  a 
beam-engine,  and  he  is  justly  regarded  as  the  in- 
ventor of  the  -loorlcing  or  walking  beam.  (See  Steam- 
engixe;  At.mo.spheric-exgixe.)  The  pump-rod  and 
the  piston  were  suspended  by  flexilde  connections 
from  arcs  on  the  ends  of  the  working-beam.  When 
Watt  came  to  the  work,  he  devised  the  parallel  mo- 
tion as  a  means  of  communicating  a  vertical  motion 
to  a  rod  from  a  point  on  a  beam  which  oscillated  in 
an  arc. 

Beam-fill'ing.  (Masonry.)  Filling-in  courses 
of  brick  or  stone  between  the  ends  of  beams  or  joists 
where  they  rest  upon  a  wall. 

Beam'ing.  1.  (Weaving.)  The  operation  of 
winding  the  yarn  upon  the  beam  of  a  loom. 


Bfamitrg-Macliine. 

operated  upon  by  a  pendulous  slicking-tool  which 
has  a  vibratory  motion.  The  motion  of  the  carriage 
brings  different  parts  of  the  leather  under  the  influ- 
ence of  the  tool. 

In  the  illustration,  the  leather  is  supported  on  a 
rotatable  tablet  k  resting  on  a  carriage  o  o,  which 
runs  back  and  forth  on  rails.  The  tablet  k  is  verti- 
cally adjustable  by  means  of  the  treadle  jy  b.  The 
beaming-tool  /  is  brought  in  contact  with  the  leather 
or  raised  therefrom  by  means  of  the  eccentric-rods  ij 
and  rod  /;,  which  are  moved  as  required  by  means 
of  the  wheels  /;  c. 

Beam-knife.  The  two-handled  knife  used  by 
curriers  to  shave  hides  when  the}-  are  stretched  over 
tlie  lieam.     See  Cuiuuer's  Kxife. 

Beam-line.  (Shipwrighting.)  The  line  indicat- 
ing the  intersection  of  the  top  of  the  beams  with  the 
frames. 

Beaa-har'vest-er.  (Agriculture.)  A  machine 
for  cutting  bean-haulni  and  placing  the  vines  in  wind- 
row, cocks,  or  in  a  receptacle  of  the  traveling  ma- 
chine. 

There  are  .several  forms  :  — 

A  hand-puller,  having  a  long  row  of  teeth  to  catch, 
and  a  movable  clamp  which  comes  down  upon  the 
teeth  to  grip,  the  vines. 

A  machine  with  a  broad,  flat  oblique  share  which 
cuts  the  roots  beneath  the  surface,  followed  by  lift- 
ing-bars which  raise,  and  a  rake  which  collects,  the 
vines  in  a  bunch.  By  oscillating  the  rake,  the  bunch 
is  dumped  upon  the  gi'ound. 

A  plow  which  cuts  the  vines  below  the  surface, 
and  lifting  and  directing  rods  which  conduct  them 
to  a  box  on  the  machine. 

A  two-wheeled  machine,  having  a  rotating  wheel 
with  claws  which  catch,  lift,  and  then  deposit  the 
vines  in  a  box  on  the  machine,  whence  they  are 
dumped  in  cocks. 

A  machine  with  a  pair  of  nearly  horizontal  toothed 
wheels  rotating  in  apposition,  so  as  to  grasji  the  vines 
at  the  ground  surface  and  lift  them  so  that  they  may 
be  grasped  by  a  traveling  elevator- belt,  which  depos- 
its them  in  the  box  of  the  machine. 

A  wheeled  machine  in  which  the  pullers  H  are 
guided  in  and  out  of  a  hollow  cylinder  by  a  cam- 


BEAN-MILL. 


258 


BEARER. 


Huiile  g,  so  as  to  catch  tlic  liaulm,  lift  it,  and  carry 
it  upward  and  over,  and  then,  by  retraction  of  tlie 

Fig.  616. 


Manger's  B:an- Harvester 

iniUer-arms,  leave  the  vines  mion  tlie  platform  E  on 
the  rear  of  the  fi-anie  A.  The  pullers  rest  upon 
springs  S  inside  the  cylinder,  and  are  projected  by 
the  same  in  the  intervals  of  their  retraction  by  the 
cam-snide. 

A  form  of  machine  which  follows  the  row  of  plants, 
and  in  which  the  rotating  puller-wheel  has  a  contin- 
uous series  of  pairs  of  clamps,  which  close  as  they 
come  over  the  row,  grasp  and  lil't  the  vines,  and  then 
open  to  deposit  them  in  a  chute  which  carries  them 
to  a  transversely  moving  apron  which  di'posits  them. 

A  machine  (Kig.  616)  having  L-shaped  cutters, 
which  sever  the   vines  below   the   surface   of  the 

Fig.  616. 


Rosier's  Bean-Harvester. 

ground,  from  which  they  are  raised  by  a  trailing 
device,  consisting  of  diverging  prongs,  and  left  upon 
the  surface  of  the  ground. 

Bean-mill.  {Hiisiiantlnj.)  A  mill  for  splitting 
beans.  Used  in  England  in  preparing  them  for 
horse-feed. 

Fig.  617. 


Ernn-Skeller. 


A  mill  for  grinding  beans  to  meal. 

Bean-shel'ler.  A  machine  for  removing  the 
hulls  from  beans.  In  the  cxani)ile,  the  pods  are 
fed  by  an  endless  apron  c  longitudinally,  and  cut 
by  the  serrated  wlieels  i ;  the  toothed  rollers  £  B 
then  carry  otf  the  hulls,  allowing  the  seed  to  drop 
into  the  receptacle. 

Bean-shot.  {Mctallurgi/.)  Copper  in  grains. 
Produced  liy  pouring  the  melted  copper  into  water. 

Bear.  (Mclal-vofking.). 
1.  A  portable  punching-ma-  Fig.  618. 

chine   for   iron   plates.      A 
piinchinri-bear. 

2.  (Naii,tical.)  A  heavy 
block  shod  with  matting, 
and  used  to  scrub  the  decks. 

Beard.  1.  {Cai-pcnlrtj.) 
The  sharp  edge  of  a  board. 

2.  {Knillhig.)  The  hook 
at  the  extremity  of  a  needle 
in  aknitting-machine,  which 
retains  the  yarn. 

3.  The  barb  of  an  arrow 
or  fish-hook. 

4.  {Agrieulluix.)  The 
awn  of  grain,  as  of  barley, 
which  is  removed  by  liuni- 
iiicUng. 

5.  (Printing.)     The  part 
of    the    type    between    the 
shoulder  of  the  shank  and  Biar. 
the  face. 

6.  {Locks.)    A  spring-piece  on  the  back  of  a  lock- 

bolt  of  a  connnon  kind, 
to  hold  with  a  moder- 
ate pressure  in  either 
of  its  positions,  and 
prevent  its  rattling  in 
its  guides. 

Beard'ing.  (Sliip- 
rcricihiing.)  a.  A  bev- 
eling or  rounding  ;  as 
of  tlie  adjacent  parts 
of  the  rudderand  stern- 
jiost,  to  give  the  for- 
mer a  greater  range  of 
motion  without  jam- 
ming against  the  lat- 
ter. 

b.  The  curving  of 
the  dead-wood  to  suit 

the  shape  of  the  ship's  body. 
Beard'ing-line.     {Sldpbuilding .)     The  trace  of 

the  inner  surface  of  the  ship's  skin  upon  the  keel, 

stem,  and  stern-post. 
Bear'er.     Anything  used  by  way  of  support  to 

another  weight. 

1.  (Carpentrg.)  a.  A  member  employed  to  carry 
other  portions,  as  joists  used  in  sujiporting  lead  flats 
or  short  pieces  to  support  gutters. 

b.  A  bearing-partition  is  one  that  supports  a  struc- 
ture above. 

2.  (Engineering.)  Bearing-piers  and  bcaring-zvalls 
are  supporting  structures. 

3.  (Lathe.)  That  part  of  the  lathe  which  supports 
the  puppets. 

4.  (Funiaee.)  A  supporting  bar  beneath  the  fire- 
bars of  a  furnace. 

.  5.  (Mil!.)  Tlw  hon.iingn  ov  .':tftndftrds  of  a  ToWmg- 
mill,  in  whicli  the  gudgeons  of  the  rollers  revolve. 

6.  (Printing.)  a.  Type  or  furniture  lettei--high, 
to  protect  the  face  of  the  type  in  jirinting  or  stereo- 
typing. 

b.  The  overlay  or  frisket  sheet. 


BEAEIXG. 


259 


BEATER-PRESS. 


7.  (.l/iwic. )  In  an  organ,  one  of  the  tliin  pieces 
of  hard  wood  fastened  to  the  upper  side  of  a  sound- 
board, to  form  guides  for  the  register-slides  wiiich 
command  the  openings  in  the  top  of  a  wind-ehest 
leading  to  the  pipes  of  the  separate  systems  of  pipes 
which  form  stvps.     See  Stop  ;  Okgax. 

Bear'ing.  1.  {Arcliitcclure.)  a.  The  span  of  a 
beam  between  its  points  of  support. 

b.  Tlie  bearing  at  tlie  oids  or  wall-support  is  the 
length  of  the  rest  on  the  wall  or  ]>ier. 

i.  {Machiiierij.)  a.  The  portion  of  an  axle  or 
shaft  in  contact  with  its  collar  or  boxing. 

b.  The  portion  of  the  support  on  which  the  gud- 
geon rests  and  rotates. 

3.  {Vehicle.)  One  of  the  pieces  supporting  the 
framework  of  a  carriage  and  resting  on  the  axle. 

i.  (Railroad  Engineering.)  One  of  the  chairs  sup- 
porting the  framework  of  a  railroad  car  or  tratk,  and 
resting  on  the  journal  of  the  axle,  outside  of  the 
wheel. 

One  mode  of  lessening  the  friction  of  journal-bear- 
ing   consists 
Kg.  619.  of    a   rolling 

support  bj- 
means  of 
wheels  a  a. 
This  is  famil- 
iar in  the 
mode  of 
hanging 
grindstones. 
The  same 
idea  ampli- 
fied has  been 
adopted  for 
the  axles  of 
cai-s  and  car- 
riages, con- 
sisting of  an 
annular  sjs- 
tem  of  rollers 
c  c  in  the  box 
or  hub  d, 
which  forms 
a  rolling  bear- 
ing for  the 
a.xle,  the  in- 
dividual roll- 
ers of  the  sys- 


Anti-friction  Wheels. 

tem  rotating  on  their  a.xes, 
and  in  some  cases  revolv- 
ing, also  revolve  around 
the  common  axis,  namely, 
the  axle  of  the  carriage. 
J  is  a  plate  having  radial 
slots  in  which  the  rollers  c  are  joumaled. 

In  this  case  the  bearings  cc  are  rollers, 
not  wheels,  as  the  weight  is  not  imposed 
upon  the  axles  of  the  wheels,  but  on  their 
surfaces.     See  also  Step. 

Bear'ing  Bin'na-cle.  (Nautical.)  A 
small  binnacle  on  the  fife-rail,  in  the  cen- 
ter and  fonvard  part  of  the  poop. 

Bear  ing-neck.  The  part  which  revolves 
within  the  pedestal  brasses,  and  supports  the 
weight  or  strain.     The  journal  of  a  shaft. 

Bear'ing-pile.  (Hydraulic  Engineer- 
ing.) A  pile  flriven  as  a  pillar  to  bear  a 
superstructure. 

When  driven  till  they  reach  a  fii-m  sub- 


stratum, they  may  bear  a  load  of  1,000  pounds  for 
each  squaie  inch  of  head. 

When  standing  in  relatively  soft  ground,  not  over 
one  fifth  of  the  above. 

The  diameter  should  not  be  less  than  one  twentietli 
of  the  length.  If  rocks  are  expected  to  be  met  with, 
the  point  should  be  shod  with  iion  ;  such  shoe  may 
be  one  hundredth  the  weight  of  the  jiilc.  An  iron  hoop 
binds  the  head,  to  prevent  spreading.  It  is  driven 
by  a   PiLE-DRiVEK  (which  see).     Sec  also  Rixging- 

ENGINE  ;    JIoNKF.Y-E.NGIXE  ;    PiLE-SAW,   etc. 

Bear'ing-rein.  (Saddlery.)  The  rein  which 
belongs  to  the  bridle,  and  which  is  attached  to  the 
bit  and  looped  over  tlie  check-liook  in  carriage-har- 
ness, and  over  the  hanies  in  wagon-harness. 

Bear'ings.  (Shipwrighling.)  The  widest  part  of 
a  vessel  below  the  plank-shear.  The  line  of  flotation 
of  tlie  loaded  vessel  when  trimmed. 

Beat'er.  1.  (Agriculture.)  The  striking  portion 
of  a  thrashing-machine  or  other  mill  which  acts  by 
percussion. 

2.  (Cotton,  etc.)     a.  A  scutcher. 

b.  A  blade  used  in  breaking  flax  or  hemp. 

3.  (Jl'caving.)  The  latlic  or  batten  of  a  loom  for 
driving  the  ux/t  into  the  shed,  compacting  the  fab- 
ric. 

4.  A  hatter's  mallet. 

5.  (Knitting-machine.)  Another  name  for  the 
Jack  (which  see). 

Beat'er-press.  For  baling.  One  in  which  the 
bale  is  made  by  beating  it  into  smaller  bulk  ;  or, 
which  is  more  usual,  in  which  the  bale  is  packed  by 
beating,  and  finally  solidified  by  direct  and  main- 
tained pressure. 

In  the  example  (Fig.  620),  the  beater  is  lifted  by 
means  of  its  toggle-links  and  pressure-arms  0  C,  the 
latter  drawing  inward  to  avoid  contact  in  raising, 
and  the  arms  become  sockets  for  the  ends  of  the  tog- 
gles L  L,  when  the  beater  becomes  the  follower  of  the 
press. 

The  fulcrums  of  the  toggles  are  formed  by  the 
ends  of  the  pivoted  rods  A  A,  which  gradually  as- 
sume verticality  as  the  outer  ends  of  the  toggle- 


Beater  Baliltg-Press. 


BEATING. 


260 


BED. 


levers  L  asceml,  when  the  rope  I  is  tightened.  Tliis 
is  Hrst  a  In^itfcr  and  tlien  a  t(:(/(fle  press. 

In  other  ea.ses  the  motive-power  is  phieed  a  story 
lielow  thi'  lluor  of  tile  barn,  from  whence  the  hay  is 
charged  into  the  press-bo.x.  The  draft  animal  at- 
tached to  the  sweep  rotates  the  capstan,  which  is 
made  ett'ective  either  to  raise  the  beater  or  to  move 
tlie  togf;les  which  raise  the  lower  follower. 

Beat'ins.  Tlie  process  of  hamnieiing  gold  or  sil- 
ver into  Iraf.      Sec  (!|II,I)-I1K.\TING. 

Beat'ing-brack'et.  {Weaving.)  The  balkn  ov 
InUie  of  a  loDiu.  The  movable  bar  which  closes  up 
the  m?i;/'-tlircails. 

Beat'ing-en'gine.  1.  (Paper-makinr].)  A  ma- 
chine having  a  revolving  cylinder,  with  cutters  oper- 
ating against  a  concave  similarly  armed,  to  cut  rags 
into  stuff  for  ])aper-pulp. 

Two  or  more  of  such  engines  are  employed  :  a 
U'as/«;;- operates  coarsely  upon  the  stuff;  a.  jiuishcr 
completes  the  work.  The  fir.st  brings  the  material 
to  lialf-stull",  in  which  condition  it  is  bleacheil  ; 
hence  arise  the  terms  Stuff-IvNCIxe,  H.\lf-stuff 
Engine  (which  see). 

2.  (C'ulton  Manufacture.)  The  machine  in  which 
cotton  or  other  ftber  is  beaten  to  rid  it  of  dust,  and 
to  loosen  it  so  that  it  may  make  a  hat  suitable  for 
farther  o])cvations  in  course.     See  Fig.  601. 

Beat'ing-machine'.  (Cotton,  etc.)  A  machine 
in  which  the  bale-cotton  is  opened  and  loosened  out 
so  as  to  i-id  it  of  the  dirt  and  trash,  and  deliver  it  in 
a  comparatively  loose  bat.  The  machine  has  many 
modifications  and  names :  wolf,  devil,  opener,  wil- 
lower,  scutcher,  etc.  See  Cotton-cleaning  Ma- 
chine. 

Bea'ver.  (Fabric.)  A  heavy,  milled  woolen  cloth 
for  overcoats. 

Bea'ver-teeu.  (Fabric.)  a.  A  cotton  twilled 
goods  in  which  the  warp  is  drawn  up  into  loops, 
forming  a  pile.  This  is  left  uncut,  which  distin- 
guishes the  fabric  from  velvet,  in  which,  the  pile  is 
cut. 

b.  A  strong  cotton  twilled  goods  for  men's  wear. 
It  is  a  kind  of  smooth  fustian  shorn  after  being  dyed. 
If  shorn  before  dyeing,  it  is  called  moleskin. 

Be-casse'.     (yautical.)     A  large  Spanish  boat. 

Beche.  (Wcll-boritig.)  A  tool  for  gi'abbing  a  rod 
when  it  has  broken  in  the  bore. 

Beck.  A  \at  or  vessel  used  in  a  dye-house.  A 
di/e-beek  contains  a  dyeing  solution  ;  a  soap-beck  con- 
tains soap-suds.     See  Back. 

Beck'et.  (Nautical.)  A  bracket,  pocket,  loop, 
or  rope  to  hold  spars,  ropes,  etc.,  in  position,  to 
prevent  their  swaying  about  or  lying  around  loose. 

Bed.  1.  (Ma.sonrij.)  a.  The  line  of  the  direc- 
tion of  the  natural  strata  of  stones  in  the  quarry. 

b.  The  horizontal  surface  of  an  ashlar  or  building- 
stone  worked  for  building  or  in  position  ;  the  respec- 
tive surfaces  are  the  tipper  and  lower  beds.  The 
stone  sliould  lie  horizontally,  as  it  laid  in  the  quarry. 

c.  The  surface  of  a  voussoir,  represented  by  the 
abreuvoir.  That  surface  of  a  quoin  in  an  arch  which 
abuts  iqion  another  quoin  or  a  skew-back. 

d.  A  course  of  stones  or  bricks  in  a  wall. 

c.  The  lower  surface  of  a  brick,  shingle,  slate,  or 
tile  in  position. 

/".  The  place  prepared  for  the  erection  of  a  wall  ; 
the  place  in  which  a  block  or  brick  is  laid. 

g.  X  layer  of  hydraulic  mortar  on  the  e.xtrados  of 
an  arch. 

2.  (Piaihray  Engineering.)  The  foundation  of  a 
roadway  ;  in  a  railway,  that  ]iart  on  which  the  ties 
inunediately  rest,  including  the  ballasting. 

3.  (Madiincnj.)  a.  The  foundation-]iiece  of  a 
machine   or   engine,  as   the    bcd-jilate   of  a   steam- 


engine,  and  the  same  of  smaller  structures,  lathes, 

drills,  etc. 

b.  The  shears  of  a  turning-lathe  to  which  the  pup- 
pets are  attached. 

c.  The  lower  die  of  a  ])unching-n]achine. 

d.  The  lower  stone  of  a  grinding-inill. 

c.  The  table  of  a  planing-machiue  on  which  the 
work  is  dogged. 

4.  The  wooden  block  out  of  which  are  hollowed 
the  mortal's  in  which  the  materials  for  gunpowder 
are  compounded. 

5.  (Shipu-rigktin  .)  a.  The  cradle  of  a  ship  on 
the  stocks. 

b.  The  part  of  a  bowsprit  having  the  greatest  di- 
ameter. 

6.  (Carpentry.)  The  surface  in  a  plane-stock  on 
which  the  plane-iron  is  supported. 

7.  (Priiili)ig.)  The  platform  of  a  printing-press 
on  which  a  form  is  laid. 

S.  (  Weapons.)  a.  A  frame  for  supporting  a  piece 
of  ordnance,  more  especially  a  mortar ;  as,  a  mortar- 
bed. 

b.  The  hollowed  place  in  a  gun-stock  which  receives 
the  barrel. 

9.  (Vehicles.)  The  box,  body,  or  containing  re- 
ceptacle of  a  vehicle. 

10.  (Mining.)     A  seam  or  horizontal  vein  of  ore. 

11.  (Domestic.)  An  article  of  furniture  to  sleep 
or  rest  on. 

Goose-feather  beds  and  pillows  were  introduced  by 
the  Eomans  iluring  the  government  of  the  Cfesars. 
They  were  imported  from  Egypt.  Introduced  into 
England  by  the  returning  Crusaders. 

Besides  feathers,  many  other  substances  have  been 
and  are  still  used  for  beds  ;  as,  straw,  heather,  rush- 
es, hair,  corn-shucks,  moss,  sponge,  e.xeelsior  (wood- 
en shreds,  curled). 

Among  primitive  nations  the  skins  of  wild  beasts 
have  been  much  employed,  and  of  these  were  the 
beds  of  the  ancient  Britons  at  the  time  of  Ciesar's 
invasion.  Their  Roman  conquerors  are  said  to  have 
taught  them  the  use  of  straw  ;  to  some  extent  of 
giain  also,  it  would  seem.  The  down  of  the  eider- 
duck  of  the  Scotch  cliffs  is  the  softest  and  most 
luxurious  material. 

The  beds  of  the  Greeks  were  according  to  taste 
and  ability.  The  poor  wrapped  himself  in  a  nig, 
and  laid  on  straw  or  weeds,  with  a  billet  of  wood 
under  his  head.  In  cold  weather  sheep-skins  were 
added.  The  richer  had  blankets  and  fine  rugs. 
AVhen  he  undressed,  he  added  a  linen  sheet.  He 
rolled  himself  up  in  his  bed-clothes. 

Bedsteads  were  an  afterthought,  and  even  then 
we  find  that  the  occupants  swaddled  themselves  in 
the  blankets.  They  did  not  understand,  it  ap- 
pears, how  to  make  a  partnership  matter  of  it,  — 
bed-clothes  of  generous  area  covering  a  pair.     See 

BEn.STEAI). 

Air-beds  were  known  several  centuries  ago,  being 
made  of  fabric  rendered  air-proof  by  paint  or  varnish. 
The  annexed  cut  is  from  the  first  GeiTnan  edition  of 
Vegetius,  a.  p.  1511,  and  represents  some  soldiers 
reposing  on  one  in  time  of  war.  The  mode  of  infla- 
tion by  bellows  is  also  indicated. 

We  see  indications  of  the  same  idea  in  the  account 
given  of  the  sports  of  Heliogabalus,  who  had  col- 
lapsing cushions  wherewith  he  tricked  his  guests. 
See  Air.-nED.     See  also  Hydrostatic  Bkd. 

•We  are  indebted  to  Dr.  Arnott  for  the  invention 
of  the  water-bed,  which  was  contrived  by  him  for 
the  jinrpose  of  supporting  the  body  without  sensible 
inecjuality  of  pressure,  thus  preventing  bed-sores. 
Clark,  in  1813,  and  Macintosh,  in  1S23,  improved 
the  matter  by  contributing  a  better  material.     The 


BED-BOTTOM. 


261 


BED-PAN. 


Fig.  621. 


Fig.  623. 


india-rubber  clotli  was  long  known  simjily  as  "Mac- 
intosh." 

Bed-bot'tom.  A  derice  attached  to  a  bedstead 
on  which  the  bed  immediately  rests.  The  object  to 
be  attained  is  to  secure  sufficient  stvengtlf  with  a 
certain  degree  of  elasticity,  and  for  tliis  purpose 
many  contrivances  liave  been  devised,  among  the 
best  known  of  which  is  probably  the  old-fashioned 
"sacking"  bottom,  having  eyelet-holes  around  its 
margin,  through  wliich  a  rope  was  ])assed  for  secur- 
ing it  to  pegs  on  the  bedstead.  Another  common 
arrangement  is  merely  a  series  of  slats  passing  from 
side  to  side  and  resting  in  notches  on  the  rails. 

The  frani'.-work  in  the  accompanying  cut  is  made 
from  the  sticks  of  the  palm-branch  ;  so  says  Wilkin- 

Fi».  622. 


Egyptian  Jlattrfss. 

son.  It,  and  other  structures  similarly  made,  are 
known  by  the  general  name  of  IraJTass.  The  bed- 
stead of  palm-branches,  called  a  hats,  and  mentioned 
by  Porphyry,  was  (irobably  of  this  kind.  It  proba- 
bly foimed  the  body  of  some  of  the  couches  and  ot- 
tomans represented  in  the  ancient  paintings  on  the 
Egyptian  tombs.  The  bed-bottoms  made  in  this 
w^-  are  usually  7  by  3§  feet,  and  from  1  to  2  feet 
intiight. 

In  Fig.  623  are  shown  several  varieties,  some  in 
section  and  others  in  elevation. 


Bid-Bouoms. 

a,  the  longitudinal  spring-slats  are  cuiTed  over  at 
the  ends  and  attached  to  the  cross-bars. 

b,  the  slat-ends  rest  on  springs  whose  lower  coils 
rest  on  lugs  with  shanks  which  sciew  into  the  rail. 

c  has  spring-bars  B  and  a  ten.«ion-wire  A, 
d  has   spring-pieces   inserted  obliquely  into  the 
slat. 

e  has  disks  and  sjjindles,  spring  sujiportcd. 
/has  spiral  springs  between  upper  and  lower  webs. 
g  has  springs  supporting  an  upper  padded  frame. 
'/(  has  a  system  of  curved  springs,  slats,  and  spiral 
springs. 

The  above  is  a  mere  sample  of  hun- 
dreds of  varieties.  Woven  wire  fabric 
or  rattan  is  the  best  in  warm  weather. 
Bed-clothes  Clasp.  A  device  tor 
-  ' —  preventing  the  accidental  displacement 
of  bed-clothes  ;  as,  for  instance,  a  pair 
of  pivoted  jaws  kept  closed  by  a  spiral 
spring  and  fastened  to  the  bedstead. 

Bed'ding.  The  seat  on  which  a 
boiler  or  other  stracture  rests.  See 
Hep. 

Bed'ding  -  stone.       iBriclclayimi. ) 
A  marble  slab,  accurately  level,  on  which 
the  rubbed  side  of  a  brick  is  tested  to 
prove  the  trath  of  its  face. 
Bede.     .\  miner's  pickaxe. 
Bed-lathe.    The  usual  form  of  lathe,  in  which 
the  puppi-ts  and  rest  are  supported  upon  two  paral- 
lel and  horizontal  beams  or  shears. 

Bed-mold'ing.  A  collective  term  for  all  the 
moldings  beneath  the  corona  or  principal  projecting 
member  of  a  cornice,  which,  without  bed-moldings, 
would  appear  too  much  like  a  mere  shelf. 

Bed-pan.  (Domcslic.)  A  convenience  for  the 
sick-rooui,  for  the  use  of  invalids  or  the  bedridden. 


BED-PLATE. 


262 


BEDSTEAD-FASTEXER. 


Fig.  624. 


Bed-Pan. 

Bed-plate.  (Machincri/.)  The  foundation -])late 
to  whieli  thr  frame  of  a  machine  is  bolted,  as  of  a 
steam-engine. 

In  Blandy's  portable  engine,  the  engine  and 
working  machinery  are  all  attached  to  a  continuous 
hollow  iron  bed-plate  in  the  form  of  a  cylinder.  Tlie 
feet  for  tins  bed-plate  fit  into  seats  on  the  boiler,  so 
as  to  lie  removable  tlierefrom  when  recjuired.  Tlie 
principal  object  is  to  prevent  the  uneijual  expan.sion 
of  the  boiler  and  engine  from  throwing  the  latter  out 
of  fnic,  or  from  straining  tlie  joints  of  the  former. 

Bed'stead.  A  piece  of  furniture  supporting  a 
mattress  <pr  bed. 

Bedsteails  were  common  in  Eg\'pt  and  among  the 
later  Greeljs.  Tliey  wen'  only  used,  however,  by  the 
wealthier  chisscs.  Many  ornate  bedsteads  are  repre- 
sented in  the  tombs  at  various  parts  alone  the  river 
Nile. 

Among  the  earlier  notices  is  the  iron  bedstead  of 
Og,  king  of  Bashan  ;  it  was  nine  cubits  long  and 
four  broad  (Deut.  iii.  11).  This  was  adapted  for  a  man 
twelve  feet  high.  The  Rabbinical  writei-s  have  exer- 
cised their  ingenuity  upon  Og,  and  their  highest 
fliglit  concerns  a  bedstead,  the  first  mention  of  the 
article  in  their  chronicles.  Rabbi  Ben-.Somebody  — 
we  merely  condense  —  says  that  Og  lived  before"  the 
flood,  and  was  so  tall  that  the  water  did  not  reach 
his  knees,  and  so  he  waded  through.  Escaping  this 
destruction,  he  afterwards  turned  up  as  Eliezer  of 
Damascus,  Abraham's  servant.  Abraham  was  of  a 
size  equal  to  74  ordinary  men,  but  M-as  no  match  for 
Eliezer,  except  in  scolding,  which  he  could  do  most 
profoundly.  As  he  was  blowing  up  Og  one  day,  the 
latter  trembled  so  violently  as  to  jerk  out  a  double 
tooth,  which  the  patriarch  converted  into  an  ivory 
bedstead.  It  was  probably  carious,  and  so  Abraham 
sawed  otf  the  fangs  to  bring  them  to  a  length  for 
legs,  and  shoveled  out  the  hole  so  as  to  hold  a  few 
camel-loails  of  straw.  Abraham  appears  to  have 
discharged  him,  or  Og  ran  away,  and  again  appears 
in  opposition  to  Moses,  who  killed  him. 

Rabbi  Jochanan  admits  that  the  above  is  only  tra- 
dition, but  says  that  he  himself  chased  a  roe  into  the 
lioUow  shin-bone  of  the  defunct,  and  followed  it 
three  miles  without  finding  his  roe  or  the  end  of  the 
hole.  He  became  tired  and  returned  disgusted.  A 
huge  —  bone. 

The  bedsteads  of  the  luxurious  Greeks  had  four 
lails,  legs,  straps  to  support  the  mattress,  a  head- 
board, and  sometimes  a  foot-board.  They  were  made 
of  solid  maple  or  boxwood  ;  sometimes  veneered  with 
costlier  wood,  tortoise-shell,  or  ivory.  They  had 
ornamental  feet,  sometimes  of  silver. 

The  mattress  was  of  linen,  woolen  cloth,  or  leather, 
and  slutted  with  straw  or  wool.     Round  and  square 


pillows  were  used.  They  were  provided  with  soft  and 
thick  woolen  blankets  and  sheets.  The  Greeks  wore 
nightgowns.  The  sleeping  arrangements  of  the 
wealtliy  Greeks  seem  to  have  been  good,  but  the 
Asiatics  said  "the  Greeks  do  not  know  how  to  make 
a  comfortable  bed." 

"  But  no  town  with  Miletus  vies 
In  the  brijal-bcj's  rich  canopies." 

Critias;  quoted  by  Athenaius,  A.  D.  220. 

The  Roman  beilsteads  were  magnificent,  and  the 
weary  climbed  on  to  them  by  step-ladders  on  the  open 
side  ;  the  other  was  closed  by  a  side-board.  The 
open  side  was  sponda,  the  closed  plutcus ,-  the  latter 
for  the  weaker  vessel. 

The  mattresses  or  beds  were  stufl"ed  with  wool  or 
feathers. 

\Vc  cannot  spare  room  to  describe  the  gorgeous 
counterpanes. 

The  bedsteads  had  canopies,  but  we  do  not  read 
of  curtains  or  testers. 

The  bed,  or  rather  bedstead,  of  Ware,  mentioned 
by  Shakespeare,  is  still  in  existence,  and  is  to  be 
seen  at  one  of  the  inns  in  that  village.  It  is  twelve 
feet  square.  Many  innovations  have  been  made  on 
the  old-fashioned  four-post  bedstead.  That  known 
as  the  four-poster  was,  however,  provided  with  four 
high  posts  and  a  tester,  forming,  with  the  curtains, 
a  complete  canopy  by  which  the  sleeper,  if  so  dis- 
posed, could  be  fully  protected  against  fresh  air,  and 
enjoy  the  pleasure  of  breathing  as  vitiated  an  atmos- 
phere as  he  pleased. 

It  was  formerly  the  general  practice  to  make  the 
bed-bottom  of  coarse  canvas,  having  eyelet-holes 
along  its  edges,  through  which  a  cord  was  passed, 
and  thence  over  pins  in  the  side,  top,  and  bottom 
rails,  which  supported  the  bed-bottom,  the  arrange- 
ment admitting  of  bemg  laced  up  as  tight  as  de- 
sired. Of  late,  various  arrangements  of  slats  have 
prevailed.     Sec  Bed-butto.m. 

Many  improvements  have  also  been  made  in  the 
manner  of  putting  the  parts  together,  so  that  the 
bedstead  can  be  set  up  and  taken  down  with  greater 
facility. 

Invalid-bedsteads  are  made  with  rising  sections, 
so  as  to  bring  the  body  to  a  reclining  or  sitting  posture 
for  relief  by  change  of  position. 

Wardrobe-bedsteads  are  modes  of  concealing  beds 
in  chambers  to  be  occupied  during  the  day,  where 
the  acconunodations  of  the  domicile  are  limited. 

Bed'stead-fast'en-er.  A  device  consisting  of 
two  parts,  one  attached  to  the  end  of  the  rail,  and 


Fig.  G25. 


Fig.  626 


42/ 

Btdstentl-FnslencT.  Bedstead-Wrench. 

the  other  to  the  .side  of  tlie  bed-jiost,  by  which  the 
I  parts  are  locked  together  or  readily  detached. 
I      There  are  many  varieties  ;  some  of  metal ;  others 


BEDSTEAD-KEY. 


263 


BEEHIVE. 


screws  on  the  rails  and  screw -sockets  in  the  posts, 
dovetail  tenons  on  the  ends  of  the  rails  and  slots  or 
sockets  in  the  posts,  etc. 

Bedstead-key.     See  Bf,dste.\d-wi!exch. 

Bed'stead-wrrench.  A  crank-wrench  employed 
in  turning  the  bolts  which  secure  the  rails  to  the 
posts  of  bedsteads.  A  nut  is  inserted  at  a  lateral 
moi'tise  in  the  rail,  so  as  to  present  its  aperture  in 
the  path  of  the  screw-bolt,  which  is  rotated  by  the 
wrench.  A  tenon  on  the  end  of  the  rail  fits  into 
a  mortise  in  the  face  of  the  post. 

Another  form  combines  sockets  of  various  sizes  and 
a  scrcw-driver. 

Bed-stone.  (Milling. )  The  term  applied  to  the 
lower  or  stationary  millstone.  The  .lower  stone, 
however,  in  some  mills,  is  the  runner.  In  some  mills, 
again,  the  stones  are  driven  in  contrary  directions. 
The  term  bcd-slone,  in  such  cases,  loses  its  signifi- 
cance, and  it  becomes  the  runner  or  the  lower  run- 
ner respectively. 

Bed'^way.  (Mining.)  An  appearance  of  strati- 
fication, or  nearly  horizontal  fine  of  marking  in 
granite. 

Bee.  (Kauiical.)  One  of  the  pieces  of  plank 
bolted  to  the  outer  end  of  the  jib-boom  to  reeve  the 
foretop-mast  stays  through. 

Bee-block.  (Xautical.)  One  of  the  blocks  of 
hard  wooil  bolted  to  the  sides  of  the  bowsprit-head, 
for  rccvini,'  the  foretop-mast  stays  through. 

Bee-feeder.  (Husbandry.)  A  device  for  feed- 
ing bees  ill  bad  weather  or  protracted  winters.  For 
the  materials  of  the  food,  see  I.angstroth  or  other 
apiarists.  The  mode  is  usually  a  small  perforated 
piece  of  board  which  floats  on  the  liquid  food. 

Bee-fu'mi-ga-tor.  (Husbandry.)  A  blower  for 
driving  a  smudge  into  a  hive  to  e.\pel  the  bees,  or 
comijel  them  to  retire  to  a  certain  part  of  the  hive, 
while  honey  is  removed,  or  the  hive  examined  and 
cleaned.  Fumigation  is  also  used  to  partially  para- 
lyze the  bees  while  the  swarm  is  being  parted. 

Bee'hive.  (Husbandry.)  A  box,  crate,  basket, 
or  hollow  log  in  which  bees  are  kept  for  the  sake  of 
their  honey.  In  the  old  scripture  and  classic  lands 
they  lived,  and  yet  live,  in  the  clefts  of  the  rocks. 
They  arc  new-comers  to  this  hemisphere,  and  with 
us  live  in  a  wild  state  in  lioUow  trees.  In  Califor- 
nia, it  is  said,  they  have  taken  to  the  cliffs.  A 
sawed-off  section  of  a  hollow  log  is  known  in  the 
West  and  South  as  a  gutn,  possibly  from  the  use  of 
a  log  of  the  gum-tree  for  that  purpose.  Whether 
for  a  beehive  or  a  curb  for  a  spring  it  bears  that 
name  ;  and  the  gum-wood  is  only  common  in  some 
localities,  whereas  the  name  is  univei'sal. 

Hybla  and  H}-mettus  are  classic  bee-giound.  Eu- 
melus  of  Corinth  wrote  a  poem  on  bees  741  B.  c. 
There  are  enimierated  "29"2  species  of  the  apis  genus. 
The  honey-bee  was  introduced  by  the  English  into 
Boston,  1670,  and  is  spreading  over  the  continent. 
The  men  were  lately  alive  who  professed  to  recollect 
the  time  when  the  swarms  first  made  their  appear- 
ance on  the  west  side  of  the  Mississippi.  They  are 
said  to  keep  a  little  in  advance  of  civilization.  Ru- 
ber wTOte  on  bees  in  1796,  and  the  bee-anatomists 
and  physiologists  are  but  liis  followers. 

Samson  found  a  swarm  of  bees  in  the  land  that 
flowed  with  milk  and  honey.  Honey  was  prohibited 
as  an  offering  on  the  altar  under  the  Leritical  law, 
but  its  first-fruits  were  presented  for  the  use  of  the 
priests.     (Lev.  ii.  11,  12.) 

Honey  was  a  favorite  article  of  food  in  ancient 
Egypt,  but  the  tombs  are  silent  as  to  the  treatment 
of  the  bees. 

A'arro  (50  B.  c.)  recommends  that  hives  be  made 
of  basket-work,  v.ood,  bark,  hollow  trees,  pottery,  or 


reeds,  and  be  contraclible  according  to  the  size  of 
the  swarm.  He  recommends  a  pane  of  transparent 
stone  {liipis  spccularis),  so  as  to  enable  the  apiarian 
to  see  the  bees  at  work. 

Sallust  recommends  cork  ;  a  very  good  sugges- 
tion. They  are  yet  made  of  cork  in  some  parts  of 
Southern  Europe  ;  the  wood  being  removed,  leaves 
the  cork-bark  as  a  cylinder.  In  Grccci-  and  Turkey 
earthenware  hives  arc  in  common  use.  The  ancient 
English  hives  were  baskets  of  unpeeled  willows. 

Beehives  made  of  helical  coils  of  twisted  straw  are 
in  common  use 

in  England,  as  f'S-  627. 

well  as  those 
of  wood.  A 
representation 
of  one  of  the 
former  kind  is 
shown  in  the 
illustration, 
the  cover  be- 
ing removed  to 
show  the  inte- 
rior glass  cap. 
The  materials 
of  which  hives 
are  made  dif- 
fer in  various 
countries,  and 
the  variations 
in  construction 
are  almost  in- 
finite. 

Pepys  thus 
refers  to  glass 
beehives  :  — 

"After  din- 
ner to  Mr.  Ev- 
elyn's ;  he  being  abroad,  we  walked  in  his  garden  ; 
and  a  lovely,  noble  giound  he  hath  indeed  [Sayes 
Court].  And,  among  other  rarities,  a  hive  of  bees  ; 
so  as,  being  hived  in  glass,  you  may  see  the  bees 
making  their  honey  and  combs  mighty  pleasantly." 
—  Pepys's  Diary,  -April,  1665. 

Movable  comb-hives  were  invented  in  1792.  In 
their  present  form  and  adaptation  they  are  consid- 
ered the  invention  of  Langstroth. 

In  some  countries  it  is  usual  to  cany  bees  from 
place  to  place  in  their  hives  for  change  of  pasture. 
This  practice  is  extensively  carried  on  in  Egypt, 
where  gieat  numbers  of  hives  are  often  transported 
on  boats  from  place  to  place  along  the  Xile,  accord- 
ing to  the  succession  of  flowers  in  dilferent  districts. 
An  analogous  custom  of  transporting  bees  from  one 
locality  to  anothei'.  for  similar  reasons,  has  long 
been  prevalent  in  Persia,  Asia  Minoi',  and  Greece  ; 
and  in  Scotland,  during  the  season  w  hen  the  heather 
is  in  bloom,  many  hives  are  annually  carried  to  the 
heaths  from  districts  not  in  their  immediate  vicinity. 

In  Poland,  the  bees  are  transported  in  large  colo- 
nies from  their  ninter-quarters  to  their  summer  pas- 
lure,  and  back  again  when  the  weather  becomes 
inclement. 

The  objects  principally  held  in  ^-iew  in  the  mani- 
fold attempted  improvements  in  beehives  are  the 
prevention  of  the  access  of  moths  to  the  hive,  and 
the  separation  of  the  portion  containing  the  spare 
honey  from  the  breeding  portion.  It  is  also  desii- 
able  that  perfect  vc-utilation  and  ready  access  to  any 
l)art  of  the  hive  should  be  attained,  and  that  there 
should  be  no  difficulty  in  removing  the  sui^ilus  honey. 

These,  and  other  considerations  involving  cheap- 
ness, have  been  the  subjects  of  improvements  almost 
innumerable. 


Straw  Beehive. 


BEEHIVES,  SWAKM-INDICATOK  FOR. 


2C4 


BEER-COOLER. 


Suspended  Beehive. 


Fig.  C28  is  a  fair  illustration  of  one  favorite  form 
of  hive.    It  is  suspended 
Fig.  628.  by  cleats   on   tlie   sides. 

It  has  a  large  breeding- 
chamber  B.  a  glass  door, 
and  a  slojiing  Hoor  to 
carry  off  dirt.  Above 
are  two  sliding,  remov- 
able bo.xes  a  a  for  the 
abstraction  of  honey 
without  disturbing  the 
contents  of  the  main 
chamber. 

Fig.  629  shows  the 
arrangement  of  mova- 
ble combs  in  a  box 
whose  sides  are  remov- 
able from  the  interior 
works.  The  upijer  se- 
ries of  combs  are  for 
removal  of  honey. 

In     Fig.      630,      the 
hinged    top    and    spare 
h o n e y-b ox    compart- 
ments  admit  of  being  lifted  from  the  lower  breeding- 
hive  ;  the  entrance 
Fig.  629.  to  the  lower  hive  is 

regulated  by  an  in- 
vertible  bee  -  trap 
with  swing  -  bars, 
by  which  the  size 
of  the  apertures 
may  be  changed. 
A  groove  is  cut  in 
the  bottom  for  a 
moth  -  trap,  which 
may  be  opened  by 
dropping  a  hinged 
lighting-board. 
Sectional  frames 
have  varying  gains 
on  their  different 
sides,  which,  by 
connection  with 
the  entrance-slot, 
may  prevent  the 
queen  or  drones 
from  passing 
through  or  imped- 
ing tlie  passage  of 
the  workers. 

B  ee  '  h  i  V  e  s  , 
S  warm-in'di- 
ca-tor  for.  (Hus- 
biiiii/rii.)  An  ar- 
rangement for  de- 
tecting the  gath- 
ering of  a  swarm 
previous  to  their 
•  departure  in  quest 
of  other  homes  and 
jiastures  new.  It 
is  usually  an  alight- 
ing-boanl,  so  ar- 
ranged as  to  cause 
an  alarm  when  a 
certain  weight  of  outlying  bees  has  accumulated  upon 
it,  — this  being  tlu'ir  habit  previous  to  flight. 

Many  of  the  improvements  in  hives  have  special 
reference  to  preventing  swarming,  by  division  of  the 
inmates  into  two  bodies  with  room  for  expansion  of 
each  pai'ty.  These  attempts  to  anticipate  or  defeat 
the  natural  inclinations  of  these  little  HijmenopUraji 
are  only  partially  successful. 


Fig.  63D. 


Movable  Comb-Hive, 


Kretchmer^s  Beehive. 

Beer.  A  fermented  infusion  of  malted  grain,  to 
which  hops  is  usually  added. 

The  teiin  is  also  ajjplied  to  beverages  made  of  in- 
fusions of  roots  and  herbs. 

"  When  the  vine  would  not  grow  and  be  fruitful, 
Osiris  taught  the  inhabitants  to  make  drink  of  bar- 
ley, little  inferior  in  stiength  and  ])leasant  flavor  to 
wine  itself."  —  Dioporus  Siculus  (60  b.  c). 

HecatsEus,  in  his  "Description  of  the  World,"  re- 
fers to  the  Egyptian  beer.  Sophocles  and  Jischylus 
also.     The  latter,  — 

"  And  after  this  he  dranli  his  beer,  and  much 
And  loudiy  brafiged." 

Athcnaius  says  that  Thracians  and  Pieonians  drank 
of  barley-wine,  or  a  similar  drink  made  from  millet 
or  other  grain. 

"  Polybius  describes  the  palace  of  one  of  the  Span- 
ish kings  as  being  [furnished  with]  huge  silver  and 
gold  goblets  full  of  the  wine  made  of  barley."  — 
ATHi;xEVS. 

"Aristotle  says  that  wine  of  gi-apes  is  stimulating, 
but  that  of  barley  has  a  tendency  to  stupefy."  — 
Ihid. 

Beer-cool'er.  (Brevinq.)  a.  A  large  shallow 
vat  or  cistern  in  which  the  beer  is  exposed  to  the  air 
to  cool. 

b.  A  tub  or  cistern  in  which  beer  is  exposed  to 
cooling  influences  mechanically  exerted,  as  in  Fig. 

Fig.  G31. 


631,  in  which  air  is  driven  by  the  pump  A  through 
the  worm  b,  which  is  in  a  cistern  of  ice-cold  water. 


BEER-FAUCET. 


265 


BEET-EOOT  SUGAR  MACHINERY. 


and  escapes  in  jets 
through  the  beer  in 
vat  D.  d  is  a  safety- 
valve. 

In  another  form  the 
beer-vat  has  a  jacket 
in  which  ice-cooled 
water  circulates.  The 
devices  are  numerous. 

Fig.  G32  shows  a 
form  of  beer-cooler  in 
which  the  kegs  are 
kept  in  a  refrigerator  ; 
the  ice  being  in  the 
upper  chamber,  the 
cooled  air  descends 
by  gravity. 

Beer-f  au'cet. 
For  draining  certain 
descriptions  of  beer  it 
is  desirable  to  foam  it, 
which  is  done,  when 
the  beer  has  not  life 
enough  of  its  own,  by 
means  of  a  piston 
which  ejects  air  along 
with  the  beer  into  the 
glass  or  pitcher.  As 
the  piston  descends, 
air  is  ejected  at  the  central  aperture,  mixing  with 

TVS,.  633. 


Beer-  Cooler. 


Beir-Fauc€l. 

the  beer,  which  passes  out  at  tlie  annular  orifice 
around  the  air-opening. 

Beer-float.  (DistiUimj. )  An  areometer  or  hy- 
drometer designed  to  ascertain  from  tlie  observed 
density  of  a  grain-wash  the  possible  yield  of  spirit 
therefrom.  The  scale  of  the  instrument  is  graduated 
to  indicate  directly  at  the  standard  temperature  the 
percentage  by  volume  of  proof-spirits  that  the  mash 
will  yield,  provided  the  fermentation  proceeds  to  a 
]poiut  wliere  its  <leusity  is  equ.al  to  that  of  water. 

Beer-foun'tain.  A  form  of  ]iump  used  in  draw- 
ing beer  into  a  glass  for  immediate  consumption.  It 
generally  i'onsi.sts  of  a  lever  njoinited  in  an  orna- 
mental stand,  and  connected  to  a  piston  in  a  pump 
which  raises  tlie  beer  from  the  cask  and  ejects  it  at 
the  faucet  by  the  lever. 

Beer-hop'per.  \  vat  or  beck  in  which  the  infu- 
sion of  hops  is  made,  to  be  added  to  the  wort. 


The  hops  to  be  treated  Fig.  631. 

are  placed  upon  the  false 
bottom,  and  the  liquor 
is  then  introduced,  and 
steam  let  into  the  lower 
comjiartment.  Pipes  are 
jirovided  for  drawing  off 
the  liiiuid,  preventing  its 
overflow,  and  conducting 
the  aroma.  The  stirring 
device  is  removable,  to 
allow  the  false  bottom 
to  be  taki'U  out. 

Beer-ma-chine'.  A 
machine  consisting  of  a 
number  (say  three  to 
eight)    of    lift     or     force  Beer-Hopper. 

]Himps,    which    connect 

with  as  many  casks  of  different  qualities  of  malt- 
liquor  in  a  cellar,  and  are  operated  by  oscillating 
handles  in  a  neat  case  at  the  counter  where  the 
liquor  is  drawn.  The  faucets  are  arranged  in  a  row 
over  a  sink  which  catches  the  drip.  The  aH'air  is 
oui'  of  the  polished  appointments  of  a  bar-room. 

Beer-vat.  (Brcicing. )  One  in  which  the  infu- 
sion of  the  malt  is  made,  constitutingthewort  orsweet 
unl'ermented  liquid,  which,  with  the  added  infusion 
of  hops  and  the  resulting  fermentation,  becomes  beer. 

Bee'tax.  {AyricuUurc.)  An  instrument  for  par- 
ing turf. 

Bee'tle.  1.  A  heavy  nuxllet  or  wooden  hammer 
used  in  chiving  wedges,  solidifying  the  earth,  etc. 
Also  called  a  iruiid.  The  handle  is  at  right  angles 
to  and  passes  through  the  head,  like  a  hammer ;  and, 
like  the  latter,  receives  a  swinging  motion,  the  shoul- 
der being  the  center  of  vibration.  The  rammer,  on 
the  contrary,  receives  projiulsion  in  the  direction  of 
its  length,  as  the  pavior's  rammer,  the  ramrod,  etc. 

The  beetle  was  used  by  the  Greeks  to  bruise  olives 
at  the  press. 

The  pavior's  rammer  is  sometimes  made  so  large 
as  to  be  operated  by  several  men.  Perhaps  it  was 
to  a  large  maul  that  Falstaff  referred  ;  — 

"  If  I  do,  fillip  me  with  a  three-man  beetle.'' 

2.  (Cotloii.)  The  beciling-incwhine  formerly  used 
in  cotton -mills  consisted  of  a  long  series  of  vertical 
stamps,  lifted  consecutively  by  studs  set  spirally  on 
a  liorizontal  rotating  shaft,  and  coming  down  upon 
the  cloth  a«  it  was  wound  upon  a  roller  rotated  slowly 
beneath.  The  action  is  similar  to  the  ore-stamps  of 
the  mines, 

Bee'tle-head.  The  weight  or  monlxi/  of  a  pile- 
dri\-er. 

Beet-root  Su'gar  Ma-chin'er-y.  The  process 
eon.sists  in  :  — 

1.  JFushing  the  roots  in  a  rotating  drum  of  laths 
submerged  in  a  cistern  of  water. 

2.  linsj/inr/  to  a  jnilp  by  a  hollow  studded  cylin- 
der, against  which  the  roots  are  pressed,  a  jet  of 
water  keeping  the  drum  clear  of  the  pulp. 

3.  Prcssinti  the  pulp  in  woolen  bags  in  a  hydrau- 
lic press  to  remove  the  saccharine  juice.  Pecqueur 
substitutes  a  force-]iump  action  and  foraminated  cyl- 
inders covered  with  wire-gauze.  The  cane-rolling 
mill  has  also  been  used. 

4.  The  resulting  juice  is  heated  to  140°,  defecated 
by  hydrate  of  lime,  filtered  and  evaporated  in  a 
vacuum-pan.  See  Cuxdensek  ;  EvAPui:,vror. ;  V.\c- 
UU.M-PAX;  SUGAK-MACHIXEUY  ;  DIFFUSION  AfP.i- 
KATi;s. 

Maceration  and  dcsiccalion  have  each  been  tried 
with  some  degree  of  success.  The  first  notice  we  find 
of  the  making  of  beet-root  sugar  was  in  1747. 


BELAYING-PIN. 


266 


BELL. 


AcHAiiu's  (Frcncli)  process  made  the  niamifac- 
ture  a  success  in  17!)!). 

Napoleon  encoiu'ageil  it  when  the  English  cruisers 
destroyed  the  conimeree  of  France,  and  cut  her  off 
from  her  sugar-])roilucing  colonies. 

1 1  is  now  lieingtrieil  in  Illinois,  Utah,  and  California. 

Be-lay'ing-pin.  {Nautical.)  A  stout  pin  in  the 
side  of  a  \cssel  or  round  the  masts,  used  for  fastening 
or  belKyin'j  ropes. 

There  are  several  contrivances  for  belaying,  differ- 
ing especially  in  size.     We  may  cite  :  — 

Belaying-jiin.  Cleat. 

Belaying-cleat.  Kevel. 

Belaying-bitt.  Kiding-bitt. 
Chess-tree. 

Bel'fry.  1.  A  warlike  machine  in  the  form  of  a 
tower,  formerly  used  in  sieges  as  a  cover  while  firing 
on  the  enemy. 

2.  (Archiicdurc.)  a.  A  tower,  either  forming  part 
of  a  building  or  detached,  in  which  bells  are  sus- 
pended. 

b.  The  apartment  in  a  tower,  etc.,  in  which  the 
bells  are  placed. 

Bell.  1.  rt.  A  hollow,  cup-shaped,  metallic  ob- 
ject suspendeil  by  a  neck,  and  sounded  by  a  swing- 
ing clapper. 

b.  A  hollow,  metallic  sphere  sounded  by  a  loose 
ball  in  its  interior. 

Bells  are  of  very  great  antiquity,  small  golden  bells 
being  mentioned  in  Exodus  xxviii.  34,  as  forming, 
alternated  with  pomegranates,  ornaments  upon  the 
hem  of  the  high-priest's  robe.  Small  bells,  composed 
of  an  alloy  of  10  copper  and  1  tin,  were  found  by 
Layard  at  Niinroud. 

Bells  (lialliiiiiibid'um)  in  ancient  Greece  and  Rome 
were  of  various  forms,  hemispherical,  pyramidal, 
sometimes  like  the  modern  Haring  or  the  Chinese 
pattern.     They  also  used  Hat  disks,  like  gongs. 

They  were  used  for  lusti'atious  ;  frames  with  bells 
of  varying  sizes  and  pitch  were  used  in  religious  ob- 
servances. They  were  hung  at  the  outer  doors  of 
houses,  as  often  to  notify  passers  that  somebody  was 
coming  out  as  that  some  one  awaited  leave  to  enter, 
for  the  doors  uniformly  swung  outward  into  tlie 
street.  They  were  used  to  awaken  the  family  or 
call  them  to  meals  (Seneca).  They  were  used  pub- 
licly in  the  camps  and  garrisons,  on  triumphal  eais, 
and  Plutarch  alludes  to  their  use  in  the  fish-market ; 
they  were  also  carried  by  the  night-watch.  They 
were  hung  upon  liorses,  cattle,  and  sheep,  as  with  us, 
to  trace  them  in  iMse  they  should  stray.  According 
to  Pliny,  the  monument  of  Porsenna  was  decorated 
with  bells.  Lars  Porsenna,  of  Clusiuni,  he  who 
halted  at  the  Tiber,  was  contemporary  with  Daniel. 
After  this  statement  it  seems  futile  to  simply 
repeat  the  legends  of  the  introduction  of  bells  into 
Europe  in  the  fifth  and  sixth  centuries,  as  if  they 
were  then  a  new  thing. 

Sheep-bells  of  bronze  were  used  in  ancient  Italy, 
and  are  yet  preserved  in  the  Museum  of  Naples. 
Then,  as  now,  the  sheep  made  periodical  migrations 
from  their  lowland  winter  pastures  to  their  mountain 
summer  pastures,  like  those  subject  to  the  code  of 
laws  "La  Mesta  "  of  Spain.  See  Merino.  Varro 
refers  to  his  flocks  wintering  in  Apulia,  but  spending 
the  summer  on  the  mountains  of  Samnium. 

Bells  are  said  to  have  been  introduced  into  Tlhris- 
tian  churches  about  A.  D.  400  by  Paulinus,  Bishop 
of  Nola,  in  Campania  ;  into  France  about  550.  They 
were  mentione<l  by  Bede,  and  are  known  to  have 
been  useil  in  England  prior  to  the  year  700.  Bells 
were  first  cast  in  England  in  the  reign  of  Edmund, 
A.  D.  940. 


In  A.  B.  610,  Clotaire  II,,  king  of  France,  be- 
sieged Sens,  when  Lu])us,  Bishop  of  Orleans,  ordered 
the  bells  of  St.  Stephen  to  be  rung.  The  sound  so 
friglitened  Clotaire  that  he  gave  up  the  siege.  So 
they  say. 

Pope  John  IX.  ordered  bells  to  be  rung  as  a  de- 
fence against  thunder  and  lightning,  A.  D.  900. 

All  the  bells  in  Europe  were  rung  in  1456,  by  order 
of  Pope  CalLxtus  III.,  to  scare  away  Halley's  comet, 
which  was  supposed  to  be  in  some  way  identified 
with  Mohammed  II.,  who  had  just  taken  Constanti- 
nople.     The  comet  left,  but  Mohammed  stayed. 

Most  of  the  bells  of  Western  Europe  appear  to 
luive  been  hand-bells,  of  which  some  curious  exam- 
ples are  still  preserved.  They  are  made  of  thin 
plates  of  hammered  iron,  bent  into  a  four-sided  form 
and  brazed  together  at  the  corners.  One  of  these, 
said  to  have  belonged  to  St.  Patrick,  is  preserved  in 
the  city  of  Belfast.  For  a  long  period  they  were 
made  of  comparatively  small  size.  One  in  a  church 
at  Orleans,  in  the  eleventh  century,  weighed  '2,600 
pounds,  and  was  considered  as  remarkably  large  at 
that  time. 

During  the  thirteenth  century  nuich  larger  bells 
began  to  be  cast.  The  "  Jaccjueline,"  at  Paris,  cast 
in  1300,  weighed  15,000  pounds  ;  one  cast  at  Paris 
in  1472  weighed  15,000  pounds  ;  and  the  bell  of 
Rouen,  cast  in  1501,  weighed  over  36,000  pounds. 

"One  of  the  pieces  in  my  coUeelinn  which  1  the 
most  highly  value  is  the  silver  bell  [made  by  Ben- 
venuto  Cellini]  with  which  the  Po])es  used  to  curse 
the  caterpillars,  —  a  ceremony,  1  believe,  now  aban- 
doned. Lahontan,  in  his  travels,  mentions  a  like 
absurd  custom  in  Canada,  the  solemn  excommunica- 
tion by  the  bishop  of  the  turtle-doves,  which  greatly 
injuri'd  the  plantations.  For  this  bell  I  exchanged 
with  the  Marcpis  of  Rockingham  all  my  Roman  coins 
in  large  brass.  The  rilievos,  representing  caterpil- 
lars, butterflies,  and  other  insects,  are  wonderfully 
executed."  —  Hor.ACE  Walpole. 

The  bell  known  as  the  "  Liberty  Bell,"  which,  on 
the  4th  of  July,  1776,  announced  the  signing  of  the 
Deidaration  of  Independence,  vi-as  cracked  while 
being  rung  in  honor  of  the  visit  of  Henry  Clay  to 
Philadelphia,  and  since  then  has  been  on  exhibi- 
tion in  that  city,  together  with  other  Revolutionary 
relics.  The  following  inscription,  taken  from  Levit- 
icus XXV.  10,  surrounds  it  near  the  top  :  "  Proclaim 
liljcrty  throughout  the  land,  unto  all  the  inhabitants 
thereof." 

The  Russians  Fig-  635. 

have  surpassed 
all  other  Euro- 
]ieau  peoples  in 
the  size  of  their 
bells.  The 
great  bell  of 
Moscow,  cast  by 
the orders of the 
Empress  Anne 
in  1734,  was  by 
far  the  largest 
maile  by  them, 
being  2i  feet  in 
h  i  g  h  t ,  and 
weighing  193 
tons.  It  re- 
mained sus- 
peiuled  only  un- 
til 1737,  when  Great  Brll  of  Moscow. 
it  fell  in  conse- 
quence of  a  fire,  and  remained  partially  liuried  in  the 
earth  until  1837,  wlien  it  was  raised,  and  now  forms 
the  dome  of  a  cha])el  formed  by  excavating  the  earth 


BELL. 


267 


BELL. 


underneath  it.  It  has  been  denied  that  tliis  bell 
ever  was  suspended. 

Saysacorrespondentof  the  "New  York  Observer": 
"  In  Russia  the  bell  is  an  instrument  of  nuisie  for 
the  worship  of  God  as  truly  and  really  as  the  organ 
in  any  other  country.  This  is  the  key  to  what  would 
otherwise  be  diffieiilt  to  explain. 

"The  bell  is  a  medium  of  communication  with 
the  Infinite,  and  the  worship  of  a  people  and  an  em- 
pire finds  e.Kpression  in  the  majestic  tones  of  a  bell, 
and  it  ceases  to  be  a  wonder  that  a  bell  should  have 
a  tongue  which  reiiuires  twenty-four  men  to  move, 
and  whose  music  sends  a  thrill  of  praise  into  every 
house  in  the  city,  and  Hoats  away  beyond  the  river 
into  the  plains  afar. 

"  Moscow  is  the  '  holy  city '  of  the  Greek  Church. 
Pilgrims  come  hither  from  thousands  of  miles  off,  and 
on  foot,  and  sometimes  without  shoes.  When  they 
draw  near  the  city,  and  on  tlie  evening  air  the  music 
of  these  holy  bells  is  first  borne  to  their  ears,  they 
fall  upon  their  faces  prostrate,  and  worship  God.  If 
they  could  go  no  farther,  they  would  be  content  to 
die  there,  for  they  have  heard  the  bells  of  Moscow, 
and  on  their  majestic  tones  their  souls  have  been 
taken  up  to  heaven  !  This  is  the  sentiment  of  the 
superstitious  peasant,  and  it  is  a  beautiful  sentiuient, 
—  ideal,  indeed,  but  all  the  more  delicate  and  ex- 
alted. Wc  use  the  bell  simply  to  call  the  people  to 
the  house  of  worship  ;  they  speak  to  us.  Their  bells 
praise  God.  They  cast  their  silver  and  their  gold 
into  the  molten  mass,  and  it  becomes  an  ottering,  as 
on  an  altar,  to  Him  who  is  worshipped  with  every 
silvery  note  and  golden  tone  of  the  holy  bell. 

"  A.scending  the  Ivan  tower,  we  fiud  on  three  suc- 
cessive stories  bells  to  the  number  of  thirty-four. 
Some  of  these  are  of  a  size  to  fill  one  with  astonish- 
ment had  he  not  seen  the  giant  below.  The  largest 
is  on  the  first  story  above  the  chapel,  and  weighs 
more  than  127,830  pounds.  It  swings  freely  and  is 
easily  rung.  I  smote  it  with  the  palm  of  my  hand, 
supposing  that  such  a  blow  could  not  produce  the 
.slightest  vibration  in  such  a  mighty  mass  of  iron  ; 
but  it  rang  out  as  clear  and  startling  as  if  a  spirit 
within  had  responded  to  my  knock  without.  Two 
bells  are  of  solid  silver,  and  their  tones  are  exquisite- 
ly soft,  liquid,  and  pure.  It  was  exciting  to  go  from 
one  to  another  and  strike  them  with  their  tongues 
or  with  your  haml,  and  catch  the  variety  and  rich- 
ness of  their  several  melodies. 

"  I  had  come  down  from  the  Kremlin  to  my  lodg- 
ings, and,  wearied  with  the  wanderings  of  the  day, 
was  lying  on  the  bed  and  looking  out  on  tlie  city. 
It  is  just  before  sunset,  and  the  day  has  been  ojipres- 
sively  warm.  A  delicious  glow  from  the  gorgeous 
west  is  bathing  all  the  domes  and  roofs  witli  splen- 
did colors,  and  silence  is  stealing  in  with  tlie  setting 
sun  upon  the  crowded  city.  It  is  the  eve  of  one  of 
the  most  holy  festivals  of  the  Greek  Church.  One 
vast  church  edifice  is  directly  in  view  of  my  window, 
and  but  a  .short  way  off. 

"As  I  lie  musing,  from  this  church  near  at  hand 
comes  the  softest,  sweetest  tone  of  an  evening  bell. 
Another  tone  responds.  A  third  is  heard.  The 
Ivan  tower  on  the  hight  of  the  Kri'mlin  utters  his 
tremendous  voice,  like  the  voice  of  many  waters. 
Then  all  the  churches  and  towers  over  the  whole 
city,  —  four  hundred  bells  or  more,  —  in  concert,  in 
harmony,  '  with  notes  almost  divine,'  lift  up  their 
voices  in  an  anthem  of  praise  such  as  I  never  thought 
to  hear  with  mortal  ears,  waves  of  melody,  an  ocean 
of  nuisic,  deep,  rolling,  heaving,  changing,  swelling, 
sinking,  rising,   sounding,  overwhelming,  exalting." 

"Keeping  time,  time,  time, 
In  a  sort  of  Runic  rhjme." 


The  Chinese  have  likewise  produced  bells  of  colos- 
sal size,  one  of  which,  at  I'ekin,  weiglis  130,000 
pounds ;  but  the  tone  of  their  bells  is  said  to  be  dis- 
cordant and  "jianny,"  like  that  of  their  gongs. 

The  great  bell  of  Burmah,  at  a  temple  in  the  en- 
virons of  Amarapoora,  is  slung  on  a  triple  beam  cased 
and  hooped  with  metal,  and  resting  on  piers  of  brick- 
work. In  the  upper  part  are  visilde  the  chains  of 
iron  around  which  the  metal  of  that  portion  was 
run,  to  strengthen  it  at  the  point  of  suspension. 

Its  dimensions  are  as  follows  :  — 

External  diameter  at  the  lip.         .   16  feet  3  inches. 
External  diameter  56  inclics  above 

the  lip 10    " 

Interior  hight     .         .         .         .       11    "    6      " 
Exterior  hight        .         .         .         .   12    " 
Interior  diameter  at  top      .         .         8    "    6     " 

Thickness 6  to  12      " 

Weight,  about   ....      260,000  pounds. 

Klaproth  states  that  in  an  edifice  before  the  great 
temple  of  Buddha,  at  Jcddo,  is  the  largest  bell  in 
the  world. 

"It  is  17  feet  2 J  inches  in  hight,  and  weighs 
1,700,000  piounds  English.  Its  weight  is  conse- 
quently nearly  four  times  greater  than  the  great 
bell  at  Moscow,  and  56  times  larger  than  the  great 
bell  at  Westminster,  England." 

The  bell  suspended  from  a  tripod  and  hand-bells 
are  regular  accessories  in  Japanese  bands,  if  such 
they  may  be  termed. 

As  among  the  Slavonic  nations,  the  bell  is  the  great 
musical  feature  of  Tartaj-ian  worship  :  — 

"  The  Lamas  execute  a  kind  of  nuisic  little  in  con- 
cord with  the  melodious  gravity  of  the  psalmody. 
It  is  a  stunning  noise  of  bells,  cymbals,  tamborines, 
conch-shells,  trumpets,  whistles,  etc."  —  A.nv.i.  Hue, 
Travels  in  Tartary. 

The  Chinese  and  Mandshu  words  for  bell  are 
onomatopoetic,  being  respectively  tsianrj-lsiang  and 
tang-tang. 

The  weight,  dimensions,  and  date  of  casting,  of 
some  of  the  largest  bells  in  the  world  are  stated  to 
be  as  follows  :  — 

Weiglit.    Di.imetor.    Tliicliness. 
Pounds.      Ft.  In  Inches. 


23 


Moscow  (Kremlin), 

Cast  in  1553    . 

36,000 

Cast  in  1654 

288,000 

Fell  in  1703. 

Recast  in  1733      . 

432,000 

21. 

Broken  in  1737. 

Moscow  (.St.  Ivan's) . 

127,830 

Burmah  (Amarapoora) 

260,000 

Pekin 

130,000 

Novogorod 

62,000 

Vienna  (1711)      . 

40,200 

9.8 

Olniutz    . 

40,000 

Rouen 

40,000 

Sens 

34,000 

8.6 

Erfurth 

30,800 

Westminster      (  "  Big 

Ben,"  1858)     . 

30,324 

London  (Houses  of  Par- 

liament) . 

30,000 

Paris     ( Notre     Dame, 

1680)       . 

28,672 

8.6 

Montreal  (1847) 

28,560 

8.6 

Cologne 

25,000 

New  York  (City  Hall) 

23,000 

8. 

New  York  (Fire-alarm, 

33d  Street) 

21,612 

York   ("Great  Peter," 

1845)       . 

10|  ton.s. 

8.3 

7* 
8| 

64  to  7 


BELL. 


268 


BELL-CRANK. 


Weight. 

Piameter. 

Thickness 

Pounds. 

Ft.  In. 

Inches. 

Bruges 

23,000 

Rome  (St.  Peters,  1680) 

18,600 

0.\fbra("  Great  Tom," 

1680) 

18,000 

7.1 

6i 

Antwerp 

16,000 

Exeter  (1675)       . 

6h  tons. 

6.3 

5 

Lincoln  ("Great  Tom," 

1834)       . 

5i  tons. 

6.8 

6 

London  (St.  Paul's,  1709) 

11,470 

6.7 

Fig.  636  represents  a  bell  having  a  rotatable  clap- 
per.    The  various  parts  are  — 

B,  clapper  or  tongue. 


Fig.  636. 


C,  clapper-bolt. 

D,  yoke. 
F,  canon  or  ear. 
M,  mouth. 
P,  sounil-bow. 
S,  shoulder. 
T,  barrel. 
Cattle  and  sheep  bells 

are  cast,  or  are  made  of 
wrought-raetal  by  being 
doubled  over  at  the  angles 
or  cutting  and  brazing. 
Each  carries  its  clapper. 
Harness  and  slcujh  bells 
BtU.  are    sometimes    made   as 

others,  with  a  suspended 
clapper  in  the  usual  bell-shaped  article,  but  are  gen- 
erally hollow  spheres 
with  perforations, 
and  contain  globes 
of  iron  which  have 
free  play  and  give  a 
sharp  jingle  rather 
than  a  sonorous  and 
prolonged  note. 

Call  bells  are  used 
for  the  table  or  desk 
to  summon  a  servant 
or  messenger  in  the  «=,' 
vicinity. 

Chimes,  or  peals 
of  bells,  are  of  very 
ancient     date,     the 

tii'st  chime  introduced  into  England  having  been  put 
up  at  Croylaud  Abbey,  A.  D.  960,  and  to  this  day 
that  country  is  noted  for  the  number  and  variety 
of  its  peals  of  bells,  which  are  an  institution  of 
almost  every  village  church. 

The  making  and  arrangement  of  a  suit  of  bells  to 
constitute  a  perfect  chime  is  a  matter  of  considerable 
difficulty.  The  tone  of  a  bell  depends  conjoiTitly  on 
its  diameter  and  thickness,  a  small  or  thick  bell 
yielding  i-elatively  a  more  acute  sound  than  one 
which  is  larger  or  thinner,  owing  to  the  greater 
rapidity  of  the  vibrations  of  the  metal.  The  founder 
endeavors  to  regulate  the  diameter  and  thickness  so 
as  to  produce  a  certain  note  in  each  bell  of  a  set  of 
chimes  ;  but  as  this  is  difficult  to  be  attained  by  the 
mere  operation  of  casting,  it  is  generally  necessary 
to  remove  some  of  the  metal  afterwards  to  produce 
a  perfect  note,  by  either  reducing  the  diameter  at 
the  lower  edge  wlien  the  note  is  too  low,  or  reducing 
the  thickness  of  the  part  struck  by  the  clapper  when 
too  sharp.     SeeCili.ME. 

The  thickest  part  of  the  bell  is  that  struck  by  the 
clapper,  and  is  called  the  sound-how.  Among  the 
German  bell-founders  this  is  taken  as  the  unit  of 
construction,  and  being  considered  as  =  1,  the  most 
approved  proiiortions  are  :  diameter  at  the  mouth. 
=  15;  diameter  at  the  top,  =  "i;  hight,  =  12;  and 


the  weight  of  the  clapper  =  jV  of  the  weight  of  the 
bell. 

The  easting  of  small  or  house  bells  is  performed  in 
a  manner  similar  to  that  of  other  small  biass  or 
bronze  castings ;  but  with  the  larger  bells,  furnaces 
capable  of  melting  large  quantities  of  metal  are  re- 
quired. For  very  large  bells  the  moUl  is  usually 
constructed  in  a  pit  in  the  vicinity  of  the  furnace. 
The  core  is  rough  brick -work  covered  with  layers  of 
clay  and  horse-dung,  turned  to  shape  by  a  templet. 
This  being  dried,  a  "model"  of  earth  and  hair  is 
laid  on,  being  the  exact  counteijiart  of  the  Inture 
bell.  A  third  and  heavy  .shell  is  laid  over  the  model, 
and  when  dry  is  lifted  from  the  model,  somu  parti nt/ 
dust  having  been  sprinkled  over  the  model  before 
apj)lying  the  material  of  the  outer  shell.  The  model 
is  now  cut  away  from  the  core  and  the  shell  replaced, 
leaving  a  space  between  the  shell  and  the  core  tlie 
exact  form  and  size  of  the  bell.  The  pit  being  tilled 
around  the  shell,  the  metal  is  run  into  the  mold. 

Fig.  637  shows  a  device  for  molding  bells.  The 
templets  or  i-ueeps  D  V  each  turn  on  a  guide-pin  d, 
l>assing  through  an  opening  in  the  inner  and  outer 
cases  A  B  respectively,  which  have  lips  a  b  around 
their  lower  jjeripheries,  serving  as  guides  to  the 
sweeps,  and  also  relieving  the  loam-mold  from  press- 
ure when  the  two  cases  are  brought  together. 

The  molds  previously  described  do  not  afford  ade- 
quate provision  for  the  escape  of  confined  air  and 
gases,  and  the  casting  is  liable  to  be  porous.  An 
impi-oved  method  consists  in  the  eniployment  of  per- 

Fig.  637. 


638. 


SeU-Mold. 

forated  metallic  flasks  corresponding  to  the  interior 
and  exterior  surfaces  of  the  bell,  and  accui'ately  cen- 
tered to  each  other  by  a  ver- 
tical guide.  The  outer  flask 
is  coated  internally,  and  the 
inner  one  externally,  with  a 
mixture  of  loam  and  combus- 
tible matter.  The  combusti- 
lile  matter  is  burnt  out  by  the 
heat  of  the  molten  metal,  al- 
lowing this  to  shrink,  and  pre- 
ventingthe  occurrence  of  what 
is  known  as  a  fire-crack  or 
strain  ;  and,  the  perforated 
flasks  being  above  ground, 
free  escape  is  permitted  to 
the  gases. 

This  arrangement  is  shown 
in  Fig.  638. 

2.  The  mouth  of  a  funnel  or  trumpet.  1  he  pavil- 
ion (Fr.).  ,  .  ,        ,    ,, 

Bell-buoy.  (Xaiilieal.)  One  to  which  a  bell 
is  so  attached  as  to  be  rung  by  the  motion  of  the 
waves. 

Bell-crank.  (Maehincnj.)  A  rectangular  lever 
having  its  fulcrum  at  the  apex  of  the  angle,  by  wliich 
the  direction  of  a  motion  is  changed  90°.     Its  pri- 


BeU-flnsk. 


BELL-GLASS. 


269 


BELLOWS. 


mary  application  was  for  ringing  bells, 
hence  the  name  ;  but  it  is  applicable 
to  many  other  purposes  where  a  power  is 
to  be  exerted  upon  a  weight  in  a  direc- 
tion of  90°  from  it. 

Bell-glass.  {Glass.)  A  bell-shaped 
Belt-Crank,  glass  vessel,  open  at  bottom,  and  having 
a  knob  on  top  for  convenience  of  hand- 
ling. ■  It  is  used  in  connection  with  an  air-pump,  by 
which  the  air  may  be  exhausted  from  it ;  also  for 
holding  gases  to  be  experimented  upon. 

Bell-met'aL  An  alloy  composed  of  copper  and 
tin,  either  alone  or  with  the  addition  of  a  greater  or 
less  proportion  of  other  metals,  usually  zinc  and  lead. 
It  is  a  species  of  bronze,  and  from  its  hardness  and 
sonorousness  is  better  adapted  than  any  other  metal 
for  the  purpose  from  which  it  derives  its  name.  73 
parts  copper  to  25  tin  is  a  usual  proportion,  but  its 
constituents  vary  from  50  copper,  33  zinc,  and  17 
tin,  to  80  copper,  10  tin,  6  zinc,  and  4  lead  ;  some- 
times the  proportions  72  copper,  26.5  tin,  and  1.5 
iron  have  beeu  employed.  The  proportion  78  copper 
to  22  tin  is  generally  recognized  in  commerce. 
Other  approved  proportions  are  given  below. 

Zinc. 
For  Indian  gongs . 
Church  and  large  bells 
House  and  hand  beUs 
Paris  clock  bells 

Clock  bells  .         .         .         .       72       26  2 

Repeating-watch  bells        .  70       26  i 

Overman's    .         .         .         .       71       26       1         2 
Ancient  Assyrian  bells 

"  In  some  cases  two  metals  were  used  without  al- 
lojing  ;  iron,  for  instance,  being  overlaid  partially 
or  wholly  with  bronze."  —  La  yard. 

Bel'lows.  {Pncumalics. )  A  device  for  forcing  a 
stream  of  air,  usually  as  a  means  of  urging  a  fire. 

Bellows  were  used  in  Egypt  in  the  time  of  Thoth- 
nies  III.,  1490  B.  c,  and  are  represented  on  a  tomb 
bearing  the  name  of  that  Pharaoh. 

A  pair  of  leathern  bags  or  cylinders,  attached  to 
disks,  were  alternately  inHated  and  compressed, 
during  the  latter  action  driving  air  by  a  pipe  to 
the  fire.  The  cut  is  from  the  tomb  referred  to,  and  the 

Fig.  640. 


ppe 

r.  Tin.  Iron. 

00 

20-25 

3 

1 

2 

1 

72 

26i     li 

72 

26 

70 

26 

71 

26       1 

86 

14 

boards  joined  by  a  piece  of  leather,  was  early  known 
to  the  Greeks  and  Komans.     See  Fig.  145. 

In  the  Spiritalia  of  Hero,  150  is.  c,  is  described 
a  steam-boiler  from  whicli  a  hot-air  blast,  or  hot  air 
mixed  with  steam,  is  blown  into  the  fire,  and  from 
which  hot  water  Hows,  or  cold  is  introduced. 

Double  foot-bellows,  and  duplicate  pipesto  the  iron 
furnace,  with  four  tuyeres,  are  shown  in  the  paint- 
ings of  Kourna,  Thebes.  The  blow-pipe  and  tongs 
in  connection  with  a  smelting-furnace  in  the  same 
place. 

The  mention  of  the  burning  of  the  bellows  in  Jere- 
miah vi.  29,  seems  to  have  been  in  connection  with 
lead  and  silver  smelting  and  refining.  This  is  a 
common  combination  of  metals  in  ores. 

Strabo  ascribes  the  invention  of  the  bellows  to 
.■\nacharsis  the  Scythian,  who  was  coeval  with  Solon. 
The  anchor  and  the  potter's  wheel  are  also  ascribed 
to  this  man  by  Pliny,  Seneca,  and  other  Romans  ; 
the  declaration,  however,  is  quite  inadmissible  as  to 
the  pottei-'s  wheel,  and  equally  untrue  as  to  both 
the  bellows  and  the  anchor.  Homer  mentions  the 
potter's  wheel,  and  it  was  used  in  Egypt  one  thousand 
years  before  Homer.  On  the  walls  of  the  tombs  of 
ancient  Egj-pt  are  painted,  Ptah,  the  Creator,  and 
Neph,  the  Divine  Spirit,  sitting  at  the  potter's  wheel 
turning  clay  to  form  men. 

Among  the  ancient  forms  of  bellows  may  be  cited  : 

Skins  of  animals  sewed  up  to  form  bags,  and  used 
in  a  manner  analogous  to  tlie  bellows  of  the  bagpipe. 


Fig.  Oil. 


^Vf^ 


Egyptian  Bellows  {SDubes). 

men  are  shown  working  the  bellows  with  the  feet  and 
hands,  throwing  the  weight  on  the  bags  alternately, 
and  lifting  with  a  cord  the  one  which  is  just  exhaust- 
ed ;  the  other  man  is  holding  the  rod  of  metal  in  the 
fire.  The  oldest  form  of  wind-bag  was  probably  the 
skin  of  an  animal  sewed  up,  or  else  a  wooden  reed 
with  a  piston  like  that  of  a  popgun,  until  tubes  were 
bored  out  of  wood  or  made  of  a  ring  of  bark  taken 
from  a  tree.     Our  common  bellows,  consisting  of  two 


Japanese  Blacksmith's  Bellows. 

Two  such  skins  used  alternately  would  give  a  contin- 
uous blast  :  such  was  the  ancient  Roman  forge-bel- 
lows. 

A  pair  of  hollow  cylinders,  made  of  bamboo  or 
hollow  logs,  and  having  pistons  actuated  by  manual 
power. 

A  pair  of  large  calabashes  con- 
nected by  two  reeds,  and  having 
large  openings  at  the  top,  covered 
by  tubes  of  soft  goatskin,  which  are 
closed  down  alternately. 

A  cylindrical  bag  of  soft  .skin 
closed  at  the  ends  by  two  wooden 
disks,  by  which  it  was  opened  and 
closed  like  a  Chinese  lantern.  This 
device  in  its  duplicated  form,  to 
render  the  blast  continuous,  is  still 
used  in  Europe  and  South  America. 
The  Japanese  bellows  consists  of 
a  box  a,  with  a  reciprocating  pis- 
ton b,  and  two  eduction-tubes  c  c, 
leading  from  the  respective  ends  of 
the  bo.x  to  the  fire.  Our  illustm- 
tion  does  not  indicate  the  valves  in 
the  tubes  to  prevent  reflu.x  of  air, 
nor  the  air-induction  openings.  The  artist  leaves 
them  to  be  supposed,  which  is  not  difficult  to  do. 

The  smelting  of  tjie  ferruginous  sand  of  the  Non- 
kreem  Valley,  on  the  confines  of  English  India,  is 
veiy  rudely  carried  on  in  charcoal  fires  blown  by 
double-action  bellows,  worked  by  two  persons,  who 
stand  on  the  machine,  raising  the  flaps  with  their 
hands  and  expanding  them  with  their  feet,  as  shown 
in  the  cut.     There  is  neither  furnace  nor  flux  used 


BELLOWS. 


270 


BELLOWS. 


ill  the  reduction.     The  fire  is  kindled  on  one  side  of 
iin  upright  stone  (like  the  licad-stone  of  a  grave),  with 


a  small  arelied  liole 


elose  to  the  ground  ; 
Fig.  642. 


this 


tain  by  whom  they  were  invented.     Lohsinger  of 
Nuremberg  (1550),  and  Schelhorn  of  Schmalebuche, 
iu  I'oburg  (1630),  are  cited  as  having  introduced 
them. 

They  are  described  in  a  work  by  Reyiier, 
professor  at  Kiel,  1669,  as  being  "pneumatic 
chests,"  and  as  consisting  essentially  of  a 
lid  moving  in  a  closely  fitting  box.  In  an- 
other ibrm  we  find  that  two  bo.\es  were  used, 
one  fitting  closely  within  the  other,  and  the 
two,  being  perhaps  quadrantal  .segments  of 
cylinders,  were  hinged  together  so  that  the 
movable  one  vibrated  on  the  common  axis. 

The  ordinary  bellows  in  its  simplest  form 
consists  of  two  flat  boards,  usually  of  trian- 
gular shape,  each  having  a  projecting  han- 
dle ;  and  between  the  boards  are  two  or  more 
hoops  bent  to  the  figure  of  the  bellows.  A 
piece  of  leather  is  nailed  to  the  edges  of  the 
lioards,  jiartially  infolding  the  hoops,  and 
forming  an  inclosed  chamber,  which  is  en- 
larged or  contracted  by  raising  the  upper 
board  w  bile  the  lower  one  remains  stationary. 
The  lower  board  has  a  metallic  pipe  attached 
and  a  valve  in  its  center,  opening  upward, 
which  rises  when  the  upper  board  is  raised, 
admitting  air  into  the  chamber,  which  is  ex- 
pelled through  the  pipe  by  depressing  the 
ujipei'  board  ;  this  arrangement  docs  not  af- 
ford a  continuous  blast,  the  air  issuing  in 
puffs,  and  accordingly  the  smith's  bellows  is 
furnished  with  a  third  board,  of  the  same 
shape  as  the  other  two,  connected  to  the  low- 
er board  by  a  piece  of  leather,  and  divi<ling 
the  bellows  into  two  similar  chambers  con- 
nected by  a  valve  opening  upward  ;  the  blast- 
pipe  is  connected  to  the  middle  board,   issu- 


Sy„^gg£jKr> 


^  sas' 


Fig.  644 


Nonkreetn  Beltoic.^. 

hole  the  bellows  are  suspended  ;  bamboo  tubes  from 
each  of  its  compartments  meet  in  a  larger  one,  by 
which  the  draft  is  directed  under  the  hole  in  the 
stone  to  the  fire. 

The  ore  is  run  into  lumps  as  large  as  two  fists,  with 
a  ragged  surface  ;  these  lumps  are  afterward  cleft 
nearly  in  two  to  show  their  purity. 

Fig.  643  shows  a  bellows  employed  by  the  Fon- 
lah  black.smiths  on  the  west  coast  of  Africa.  It  con- 
sists of  two  calabash- 
Fig.  643.  es  connected  togeth- 
er by  two  hollow 
bamboos  or  reeds  in- 
serted into  their  sides 
and  united  at  an  an- 
gle to  another  which 
leads  to  the  fire.  A 
large  opening  is  made 
ill  the  top  of  each 
calabash,  and  a  cylin- 
drical bag  of  soft 
goatskin  stitched  or  otherwise  secured  around  the 
edges.  The  workman  seats  himself  on  the  grouml, 
and,  placing  the  machine  lietween  his  legs,  grasps  the 
ends  of  the  bags,  and  by  alternately  raising  each 
with  the  mouth  open  and  pushing  it  into  the  cala- 
bash when  closed,  the  contained  air  is  forced  into 
the  tubes  and  a  continuous  blast  maintained. 

Wooden  bellows  were  known  in  Germany  in  the 
middle  cf  the  sixteenth  century,  but  it  is  not  cer- 


■--£--  . 


FoultUi  Belloirs 


ing  from  the  upper  <t 
chamber.  The  low- 
er board  is  held 
down  by  a  weiglit, 
and  a  weight  is  also 
attached  to  the  up- 
per board.  In  work- 
ing the  bellows  the 
middle  board  is 
raised,  drawing  the 


Forge-BeUows. 


air  through  the  valve  into  the  lower  cavity,  and  the 
descent  of  the  board  forces  it  into  the  upper  cavity, 
the  valves  preventing  its  return,  and  the  weight,  de- 
pressing     the 

upper    boaril,  * 

forces  the  air 
out  through 
the  pipe  in  a 
continuous 
blast  ;  the  as- 
cent of  ihe 
middle  board 
fills  the  lower 
cavity,  while 
its  descent 
fills  the  up- 
per cavity,  the 
irregular  puff- 
ing action  be- 
ing confined  to  the  lower  cavity  of  the  bellows 


OUI  lioinaii  LMtfijK 


the 


BELLOWS. 


271 


BELI^TRAP. 


blast  is  however,  though  continuous,  not  quite  reg- 
ular, as,  when  the  air  is  forced  into  the  upper  cavity, 
there  is  au  excess  of  pressure  over  the  pressure  dur- 
ing the  descending  motion  of  the  lower  board. 

The  smith's  bellows  is  worked  by  means  of  a  rocker 
with  a  cord,  chain,  or  rod  attached.  By  drawing 
down  the  handle  b  of  the  rocker  the  movable  board 
rises,  forcing  the  air  through  the  valve  into  the  up- 
per chamber ;  the  weight  on  the  board  c  forces  the 
air  out  through  the  pipe  d  to  the  fire  on  the  forge- 
hearth. 

Fig.  645,  from  an  ancient  Roman  lamp,  is  an  ex- 
act counterpart  of  the  modern  domestic  bellows. 

Various  machine-worked  bellows  have  been  in- 
vented, but  generally  those  which  rise  to  the  dignity 
of  machines  lose  the  pulsative  character  and  have 
come  to  be  called  blowers. 

In  Fig.  646  the  V-shaped  bottom  is  pivoted  in  the 
middle,  and  has  a  rocking  motion  imparted  by  lever 


Fig.  646. 


Bel'lows-cam'e-ra.  (Photography.)  A  form 
of  expanding  camera  in  which  the  front  and  after 
bodies  are  connected  by  an  expansible  portion,  like 
the  sides  of  a  bellows  or  accordeon. 

Bel'lows-pump.  (HijdrauUcs.)  A  form  of  at- 
mospheric pump  ill  which  the  part  of  the  piston  is 
played  by  the  upper  leaf  of  the  bellows.  The  cut 
is  from  Vegetius  ;  Ertlurt,  1511. 

The  6u(/-pump  and  rfiopAroi/m-pump  are  other 
forms. 

Bell-pull.  The  knot  and  attached  cord,  or  series 
of  wires  and  bell-crank  levers,  by  which  a  house-bell 
is  caused  to  strike. 

Bell-rlng'er.  In  England  each  bell  of  a  chime 
is  provided  with  a  yoke  and  wheel,  and  is  oscillated 
in  the  usual  manner,  a  ringer  being  required  for  each 
bell. 

In  this  country  they  are  usually  mounted  station- 
arily,  except  the  tenor,  and  rung  by  means  of  cords 

Fie.  64S. 


X,  treadle  Y,  or  pulley  with  fly-wheel  It  Z,  either 
affording  a  continuous  blast.  See  also  Blower  ; 
Batteuy-forge,  etc. 

A  blowing-engine  in  which  the  blast   of  air   is 
supplied  by  a  falling  column  of  water. 


BelloiLs-Pump. 


Bell- Ringer. 


attached  to  the  clappers  and  led  to  the  ringer's  room 
below,  where  they  are  connected,  in  the  order  of  the 
notes,  with  lever-handles  b,  so  arranged  that  the  bells 
may  all  be  chimed  by  one  person.  The  tenor-bell  is 
provided  with  mountings  for  swinging,  in  order  that 
it  may  be  rung  as  an  ordinary  church-bell,  and  is 
usually  placed  in  the  center  of  the  bell-room,  the 
others  being  grouped  about  it  in  such  relative  posi- 
tionsaswill  most  advantageously  distribute  the  weight 
and  allow  the  best  arningement  of  the  ringing-cords. 

Among  the  devices  for  the  meclianical  ringing  of 
bells  may  be  cited  steam  acting  upon  a  piston  to  vi- 
brate the  clapper  ;  air  acting  upon  vanes  to  move 
a  pitman  connected  to  the  clapper  or  the  axis  of  the 
bell  ;  springs  released  to  cause  a  certain  number  of 
pulsations  to  give  a  specific  alarm  set  in  operation  by 
the  touch  of  a  trigger.     See  Chime. 

Bell-tel'e-graph.  A  form  of  apparatus  invented 
by  ■■^ir  Ij'liarlcs  Bright,  in  which  the  signals  are  given 
by  strokes  upon  two  bells  of  diff'erent  pitch,  one  of 
which  represents  the  movements  of  the  needle  to  the 
left  and  the  other  to  the  right. 

Bell-trap.  (Pneumatics. )  One  fonn  of  air  or 
stench  trap  to  prevent  the  reflux  of  foul  air  from 
drains.  It  consists  of  an  inverted  cup  whose  edges 
are  submerged  in  the  water  of  a  basin  which  over- 
flows into  the  drain.  This  pennits  an  overflow  of 
water,  but  prevents  a  reflux  of  air.     See  Ain-TRAP. 


BELLY. 


272 


BELTING. 


Bel'ly.     The  front  or  lower  surface  of  an  object ; 

as  — 

(liailwioj  Enijineering.)  The  belly  of  a  railway 
rail  ;  a  ilescemliiig  tiange  between  bearings. 

(Music.)     The  front  of  a  nmsieal  instrument. 

(Engraving.)     Tlie  lower  edge  of  a  graver. 

( Wlicelwrighting. )  The  wooden  covering  of  an  iron 
axle. 

The  rounded  surface  of  an  object ;  as  of  a  bottle, 
retort,  etc. 

(Mctallurgij.)  The  upper,  rounded  part  of  the 
boshes. 

(Architecture.)     The  batter  of  a  wall. 

(Nautical. )     The  swell  of  a  sail. 

(Shipwrighting. )  The  hollow  of  a  compass-timber ; 
the  convexity  of  the  same  is  the  back. 

(Machinery.)  A  swell  on  tlie  liottom  surface  of 
anything  ;  as,  a  depending  rib  beneath  a  gi'ate-bar, 
iron  beam,  or  girder,  to  strengthen  it  from  downward 
deflection  between  supports. 

(Saddlery.)  A  piece  of  leather  attached  to  the 
back  of  the  cantle,  and  forming  a  point  of  attach- 
ment in  some  saildles  for  valise-straps. 

The  unburnt  side  of  a  slab  of  cork. 

(Locksmithing.)  Tlie  lower  edge  of  a  tumbler 
against  wliirli  tlte  bit  of  the  key  plays. 

Bel'ly-band.  1.  (Saddlery.)  the  strap  which 
goes  beneatli  the  belly  and  is  buckled  to  the  ends  of 
the  back-band,  completing  the  girtli. 

2.  (NauHcal.)  A  strengthening  strip  of  canvas 
half-way  betueen  the  close-reef  and  the  foot. 

Bel'iy-brace.  {Sleam-Enginc.)  A  cross-brace 
stayed  to  tlic  boiler  between  the  frames  of  a  locomo- 
tive. 

Bel'ly-rail.  (Railroad  Engineering.)  A  railroad 
rail  with  a  tin  or  web  descending  between  the  por- 
tions wliich  rest  on  the  ties.  It  is  seen  in  tlie  im- 
proved Penrlivn  rail,  1805  ;  also  in  Stephenson  and 
Losh's  Patent,"  1816. 

Bel'ly-roll.  (Agriculture.)  A  roller  with  a  pro- 
tuberant midlength,  to  roU  the  sloping  sides  of  adja- 
cent  lands  or  ridges. 

Belt.  1.  (Machinery.)  A  strap  or  flexible  band 
to  communicate  motion  from  one  wheel,  drum,  or 
roller,  to  another.  Belts  are  made  of  leather,  gutta 
percha,  caoutchouc,  wire,  woven  fabric,  and  other 
materials. 

Two  leathern  belts  have  lately  been  made  in  Paw- 
tucket,  composed  of  two  thicknesses  of  leatlier  iimily 
cemented  together,  without  a  stitch,  rivet,  or  peg  in 
either  of  them,  and  are  half  an  inch  thick.  The 
larger  of  tlie  two  was  made  from  5i  large  ox-hides, 
is  136  feet  long,  48  inches  wide,  and  weighs  1,000 
pounds.  The  other  is  87  feet  long,  36  inches  wide, 
and  weighs  475  pounds. 

The  ratio  of  friction  to  pressure  for  belts  over 
wood  drums  is,  for  leatliern  belts,  when  worn,  .47  : 
when  new,  .5  ;  and  when  over  turned  cast-iron  pul- 
leys, .24  and  .27. 

A  leatliern  belt  will  resist  a  strain  of  350  pounds 
per  square  inch  of  section,  and  a  section  of  .2  of  a 
square  inch  will  transmit  the  equivalent  of  a  horse- 
power at  a  velocity  of  1,000  feet  per  minute  over 
a  woollen  drum,  and  .4  of  a  square  inch  over  a  turned 
cast-iron  pulley. 

A  vulcanized  india-rubber  beltwill  sustain  agreater 
stress  than  leather,  added  to  which  its  resistance  to 
slipping  is  from  50  to  85  per  cent  greater. 

2.    (Masonry.)     A  range  or  course  of  stones   or 

bricks  projecting  from  the  rest,  cither  plain  or  fluted. 

Belt-ciasp.    (Joint.)    A  device  for  attaching  the 

ends  of  belting  together  so  as  to  fonn  a  continuous 

band.      See  Bf.i.i-goupling. 

Belt -coupling.     (Machinery.)     A  device   for 


joining  together  the  ends  of  one  or  more  bands  or 
belts.  This  is  commonly  elfccted  by  cutting  or 
jiunching  holes  near  the  two  extremities  to  be  joined, 
and  lacing  them  together  by  thongs  of  laeing-leatlicr 
or  calfskin.  Many  siiecial  devices  have  been  con- 
trived to  dispense  with  lacing,  for  wliich  see  also 
Buckle. 

In  the  figure,  A  represents  a  coupling  in  which 
the  ends  of  the  belt  b  are  secured  by  eyelets  or  rivets 
between  bent  me- 
tallic   straps    a.  Fig.  649. 
which        form 
leaves  of  a  hinge 
c.    A  pintle  pass- 
es   through    the 
eye  of  each  por-  '^AjT^Tj' 
tion  of  the  binge. 

For  the  round 
belts  of  foot  and 
liand  lathes,  a 
figure-S  hook  B 
isusedforacoup- 
ling,  or  a  coujile 
of  sockets  C,  into 
whicli  tlie  ends 
of  the  belt  are 
inserted,  and 
wliich  have  a 
liook  and  eye  re-  Beh-Coitpling. 

spectively. 

For  flat  belts  in  which  lacing  is  not  deemed  advis- 
able, the  ends  may  be  joined  by  hooks  inserted  from 
alternate  sides  and  hammered  flat  as  at  D. 

Other  modes  of  coupling-beltsare  tobefound;  some 
involving  hooks  E,  and  others  lapping-plates  F. 
Other  forms  approach  the  buckle  and  various  peculiar 
interlacing  devices,  such  as  curved  bars  of  metal  G, 
slotted  plate  and  toggle-jaws  H,  or  rivets  which 
pass  through  the  out-turned  end  of  the  belt,  as  at  7. 

£  is  a  tie  in  which  a  jdug  with  two  grooves  is  made 
the  means  of  connection  ;  the  belt  is  tubular,  and  the 
respective  ends  are  throttled  by  wires  into  the  grooves 
of  the  plug. 

Belt-ciit'ter.  a.  A  machine  or  tool  for  slitting 
tanned  hides  into  stri]is  for  belting,  In  a  machine 
lor  this  purpose  the  knives  are  set  at  gaged  distances 
apart,  or  the  knife  at  a  gaged  distance  from  the  gov- 
erning edge,  and  the  leather  passed  along  below  the 
knife,  or  conversely. 

b.  A  tool  for  this  purpose  has  a  fence  which  runs 
along  the  governing  edge,  and  a  cutter  adjustable  to 
the  required  distance,  eipial  to  the  width  of  the  strip 
desired.  Such  tools  are  used  by  liarness-makers  for 
cutting  out  lines  and  straps  for  harness.    See  G.\GE- 

KNIFE. 

c.  An  implement  for  preparing  belts  for  being  laced 

Fig.  650. 


or  coupled.    That  shown  combines  a  cutting-blade  b, 
punch  i\  awl  ji,  and  pliers  k  m. 

Belt'ing.    (Machincr)/.)    A  flexible  band  for  com- 
municating motion.     See  Belt. 


BELTING. 


BELT-SPEEDER. 


Drums  ami  Bells. 


Belts  are  made  of  leather,  india-rubber,  gutta- 
percha, hempen  rope,  webbing,  etc. 

A  belt  is  said  •to  be  quartered  when  it  passes  around 
pulleys  whose  axes  are  at  right  angles  to  each  other, 
as  at  b. 

Belts  crossed  so  as  to  run  the  pulleys  in  opposite 
directions  are  said  to  be  crossed  or  halved  (a.  Fig. 
651). 
A  band  is  a  flat  belt. 

c  d  (Fig.  651)  are  respectively  side  and  end  eleva- 
tions of  a  driving 
Fig.  651.  and  driven  pulley, 

movingin  the  same 
direction,  the  rela- 
tive speed  being 
proportionate  to 
their  respective 
radii. 

a  shows  the  belt 
crossed,  causing 
the  driven  pulley 
B  to  move  in  a 
direction  opposite 
to  that  of  the  driv- 
er A. 

In  6  6  two  pul- 
leys   C    and     D, 
driven  immediately  from  A,  are  caused  to  rotate  in 
reverse  directions  by  means  of  a  guide-pulley  B,  un- 
der which  the  band  passes. 

e  shows  a  mode  of  driving  two  pulleys  from  a  sin- 
gle driver  by  one  belt. 

India-rubber  belting  is  prepared  by  folding  rubber 
cloth  to  a  sufficient  thickness  and  desired  width. 
The  folded  stuff  is  then  placed  in  ^  flat-prcfis,  and  sub- 
jected to  a  steam-heat  of  280°  Fahr.  to  vulcanize 
the  rubber  and  blend  all  the  pUcs  into  one. 

Artificial-leather  belting  is  made  of  leather  scraps 
and  shavings  washed  in  alkaline  water,  pulped  with 
gelatinous  and  resinous  substances,  vegetable  fiber, 
and  bullock's  blood. 

When  properly  pulped,  the  same  may  be  run  off 
on  an  ordinary  paper-machine  or  between  rollers, 
and  doubled  to  a  proper  thickness,  and  may  be  used 
either  with  or  without  farther  preparation  by  ja- 
panning, stitching,  or  water-proof  applications.  The 
belting  is  usually  subjected  to  a  high  temperature  of 
heat,  to  set  the  gluten  and  other  resinous  properties. 
A  fomi  of  belting  called  angular  beltiiuj  has  been 
lately  introduced,  which  has  riveted  on  the  working 
side  of  the  continuous  plies  of  the  belt  a  series  of 
rectangular  truncated  pyramids  of  leather.  The  sides 
of  the  pjTaraidal  frustums  have  an  angle  of  about  60° 
with  the  belt  in  the  example  at  the  American  Insti- 
tute Fair,  1S72 ;  but  this  would  probably  vary  with 
the  diameter  of  the  pulley  over  wliich  these  hclt-shocs 
were  designed  to  be  lapped. 

Leather  belting  is  ordinarily  prepared  in  the  fol- 
lowing manner:  both  oak  and  hemlock  bark  are  used 
in  tanning,  but  oak-tanned  leather  is  decidedly  supe- 
rior, and  commands  a  higher  price  in  the  market. 

Slaughter  hides  are  limed  and  bated  in  the  usual 
way,  closely  trimmed  and  green  shaved,  after  having 
been  well  washed  in  the  washing-wheel,  and  when 
the  hair  has  been  removed  they  are  put  into  the  tan 
liquor,  being  tacked  to  laths  which  rest  upon  ledges 
along  the  sides  of  the  vat. 

After  the  tanning  process  has  been  completed, 
each  hide  is  split  into  four  pieces,  of  which  the  mid- 
dle piece,  comprising  the  back,  is  for  heavy  belting. 
These  pieces  are  now  put  into  the  bancl-washer,  and, 
after  a  few  revolutions,  for  the  purpose  of  cleaning 
them,  they  are  passed  between  two  iron  cloth-covered 
rollers,  constnicted  similarly  to  a  clothes-wringer,  by 


[  which  they  are  pressed  dry  enough  to  receive  the  stuff- 
I  ing,  the  work  being  done  by  hand  ;  the  pieces  are 
I  then  hung  up  to  dry. 

]  When  the  stuffing  his  had  time  to  diy  in  suffi- 
I  ciently,  each  piece  is  thoroughly  dampened  and  then 
passed  through  a  jmwerful  lever-stretching  machine, 
where  it  may  be  subjected  to  a  strain  of  sixty  tons  to 
the  piece,  after  which  it  is  oiled  and  hung  up  to  dry. 
The  effect  of  this  stretching  is  to  make  it  almost  im- 
possible for  the  belt  to  stretch  by  ordinary  use  after 
completion. 

These  pieces,  after  becoming  thoroughly  dry,  are 
passed  to  the  belt-room,  where  are  machines  for  plan- 
ing off  the  laps,  joining  the  different  parts,  and 
straightening  the  edges.  After  the  riveting,  the 
edges  are  pared  or  rounded,  and  for  this  puqjose  the 
belt  is  passed  between  two  paring-bits,  wliich  are  set 
one  on  each  side  of  a  gi-oove  the  width  of  the  belt. 
As  the  belt  is  drawn  along  the  edges  are  rounded, 
the  belt  being  wound  around  an  arbor.  If  a  square 
edge  is  required,  the  coil  is  simiily  taken  from  the 
arbor,  scraped  with  a  slicker,  and  burnished  until  it 
has  a  glazed  appearance. 

Belt-lac 'ing.  Leather  thongs  for  lacing  together 
the  adjacent  ends  of  a  belt  to  make  it  continuous. 

Machines  for  cutting  narrow  strips  of  leather  for 
lacing  operate  by  means  of  a  gang  of  circular  knives, 
whi^-h  split  into  strips  the  leather  which  passes 
against  them.  The  knives  are  secured  by  collars  on 
a  mandrel,  at  gaged  distances  ajjart,  and  their  edges 
cut  against  a  parallel  roller  set  over  against  the  for- 
mer at  such  distance  as  may  suffice  to  allow  the  leather 
to  pass  in  the  interval.  Another  form  of  the  machine 
is  a  gang  of  stationary  knives  which  cut  the  side  or 
strip  of  leather  which  is  drawn  against  and  between 
them  by  means  of  rollers. 

Belt-pipe.  (Slcnm-Enginc.)  A  steam-pipe  which 
surrounds  the  cylinder. 

Belt-punch.  A  punch  for  forming  the  holes  in 
a  belt  into  which  lacing,  rivet.s,  or  clasps  are  inserted. 
The  punch  c  acts  against  an  anvil  on  the  other  jaw, 

Fig.  652. 


Rh-Funch. 

the  latter  is  graduated,  and  has  an  adjustable  gage 
G,  which  may  be  set  at  such  a  distance  from  tlie 
nose  of  the  pliere  that  a  row  of  holes  may  be  readily 
]iunched  at  a  set  distance  from  the  edge  of  the 
belt. 

Belt-savr.    A  B.\nd-saw  (which  see). 

Belt-shift'er.     (Machinaij.)    A  device  for  shift- 
ing a  belt  from  a  fast 
to  a  loose  pulley,  or  Fig.  663. 

rice  rersn,  or  from 
one  pulley  to  anoth- 
er, to  cause  a  change 
in  the  motion  of  the 
belt,  or  to  shift  the 
power  of  the  belt  to 
another  pulley  run- 
ning in  the  same  di- 
rection. In  the  illus- 
tration, the  pivoted 
levers  connected  by  Beli-Shifter. 

jointed  rods  with 
the  rocking-bar  simultaneously  shift  the  belts. 

Belt-speed'er.     {Machinery.)    A  pair  of  cone- 


BELT-SPLICING. 


274 


BENCH-CLAMP. 


pulleys  carrying  a  belt  which,  hy  shifting,  hcconie 
the  medium  of  transmitting  varying  rates  of  motion. 
It  is  much  used  in  some  spinning-machines  to  vary 
the  rate  of  rotation  of  the  spool  as  the  cap  increases 
in  size.     See  CoNE-rULLEV. 

Belt-splic'ing.  (Machincrif.)  A  mode  of  fast- 
ening ends  of  belts  or  belt-lengths,  by  splitting  one 
end  so  as  to  hold  the  long  tapered  edge  of  the  other 
one,  which  is  cemented  between  the  lips  of  the  former. 

Belt-stretch'er.  A  device  for  drawing  together 
the  ends  of  a  belt,  in  order  that  they  may  be  sewed 
or  riveted  to  render  the  belt  continuous. 

The  belt  is  placed  around  a  couple  of  pulleys,  and 
its  ends  approached  to  lap  upon  each  other  for  sew- 

Fig.  664. 


the  side  of  a  cutting,  an  embankment,  or  parapet. 
A  berme ;  a  banquette. 

2.  A  support  for  tools  and  work  in  various  me- 
chanical operations,  as  carpentry,  metal  and  leather 
working,  etc. 

The  bench  is  of  a  thick  plank,  or,  better  still,  a 
number  of  pieces  of  scantling  glued  and  bolted  to- 
gether, —  a  combination  which  resists  warping  better 
than  any  mere  plank,  however  thick  or  well  braced. 
At  the  back  part  is  a  shallow  trough  I  to  hold  small 


655. 


Bflt- Slrelcher. 

ing.  The  stretcher  consists  of  a  pair  of  clamps  KC, 
J  F,  and  a  tightening-cord  iV,  the  leather  in  each 
clamp  being  pincheil  by  a  serrated  eccentric.  The 
rope  winds  upon  the  roller  7,  the  pawl  M  engaging 
the  ratchet  L  to  maintain  the  stretch. 
Belt-tight'en-er.  Fig.  055  shows  a,  double  clamp 
and  a  tighten  ing- 
device,  in  which  A 
represents  a  lever 
acting  through  tog- 
gles B  to  draw  the 
clamps  C  towards 
each  other.  When 
they  are  drawn  as 
nearly  together  as 
may  be  requisite, 
they  are  held  by 
the  bars  or  link  1) 
until  the  belt  is 
laced  or  riveted. 

Another  foi-m  of 
belt-tightener  is 
a  device  to  rest 
against  the  belt  in 
some  part  of  its 
length  between  two 
drums  over  which 
it  runs,  so  as  to  in- 
crease its  frictional 
adherence  to  the 
drums.  The  device 
is  usually  an  idler- 
pnllcy  on  a  swinging  frame  or  weighted.  ■ 

Belt-weav'ing  Loom.  One  for  weaving  heavy 
narrow  stuff  suitable  for  making  belts  for  machinery. 
It  does  not  differ  in  any  substantial  respect  from  a 
naiTow-ware  loom,  as  belting  only  difi'ers  from  web- 
bing in  proportions  or  material,  il^  at  all. 

Bench.     1.  (Eiigincerinr/.)    A  horizontal  ledge  on 


Beh-  Tightener. 


Carpenter's  Beiuh, 

tools,  a  b  are,  respectively,  a  toothed  and  a  square 
bench-hook,  which  slip  in  vertical  mortises  so  as  to 
assume  any  required  elevation,  or  be  driven  down 
flush  with  the  surface  of  the  bench,  k  is  a  holdfast, 
which  clamps  work  to  the  bench. 

d  c  are  the  screws  of  a  bench  -vise  c,  by  which  work 
is  held.  The  screw  d  has  a  garter/,  which  enters  a 
notch  in  the  cylindrical  neck  of  the  screw,  keying 
it  in  the  jaw,  so  that  the  latter  follows  the  inward 
and  outward  motions  of  the  screw.  A  number  of 
stops  are  placed  along  the  front  of  the  bench,  either 
of  which  may  be  raised  to  hold  one  end  of  a  piece  of 
work,  while  the  other  end  is  held  by  the  stop  j  on  the 
sliding-piece  li,  which  is  moved  by  the  end-screw  ff. 

When  a  board  is  placed  edgeways  in  the  vise  c,  its 
bottom  edge  may  rest  on  a  pin  m,  which  is  ]ilaced  in 
either  one  of  the  vertical  series  of  holes  in  the  post. 

Bench-clamp.  A  jaw-tool  attached  to  a  work- 
bench for  holding  an  article  to  be  operated  ou  in  place. 

The     bench  -  clamp     is 


shown  on  a  painting  in 
Herculaneum,  where  it  is 
used  to  dog  a  timber  to  a 
bench  while  it  is  being 
sawed  by  a  frame-saw. 

In  one  form,  a,  the 
board,  when  set  on  edge, 
is  clamped  by  two  wedges 
between  the  angular 
cheeks. 

In  another,  the  clamp  J 
has  an  arm  c,  which  is 
pressed  downward  upon 
the  work  to  be  held  by 
means  of  the  screw  d, 
whose  end  rests  on  the 
base-piece  of  the  clamp  e. 

Another  clamp  isformed 
of  two  pivoted  dogs  g  g, 
between  whose  heads  the 
board  slips.  The  board  is 
shown  in  dotted  lines,  and 
]>ressure  against  the  tails 
of  the  dogs  clamps  their 
heads  against  the  sides  of 
the  board. 


Pig.  657. 


Jjinch-Gavips. 


BEXCH-DRILL. 


275 


BEND. 


Fig.  658. 


Bench  -  drill. 

A  drill  adapted  to 
be  used  on  a  ma- 
chinist's or  car- 
penter's bench. 
In  the  example 
shown,  a  post  a  is 
erected  between 
the  jaws  of  the 
bench-vise  h,  and 
has  a  vertically 
adjustable  arm  c, 
in  which  is  the 
feed-screw  d, 
which  forms  the 
pintle  or  back-ccii- 
tcr  of  the  brace  c. 
The  work  /  is 
placed  on  the 
bench  7,  and  the 
brace  is  rotated 
by  the  hand,  which 
gra-sjis  tile  loose 
sleeve  /(. 

Bench-ham'- 

m  e  r .  ( .l/.;  tal- 
icorking.)  A  fin- 
isher's or  black- 
smith's hammer. 
They  are  of  various  sizes  and  shapes  for  different 
kinds  of  work. 

A  stop  or  abutment  which  occu- 
pies a  vertical  mortise  in  a  car- 
penter's bench,  and  is  adjustable 
to  any  required  elevation,  to  stay 

\>"3,   X,"    f^  *'^^  """'^  being  planed  ;  or  may 
V---n   fm^s^ST    be  driven  flush  with  the  surface 
of  the  bench  when  its  services 
are  not  needed. 

One  of  the  hooks  a  has  a  notched 
plate  against  which  the  wood  is 
driven  in  planing ;  the  other  hook 
b  is  s:juare,  so  as  not  to  damage 
nearly  finished  work. 

Bench-lathe.     A  small  lathe  such  as  may  be 
mounted  on  a  post  which  stands  in  a  socket  in  a 

Fig.  660 


Iknch-DriU. 


Bench-hook. 
Fig.  659. 


Btndt-Hooks. 


(Hl^^ 


fineness,   jnd:,   long,   trying  panel,    smooth,  jointer 
planes  (which  see). 

It  consists  of  a  stock  traversed  by  a  slot  in  which 
is  wedged  a  slanting  knife,  sharpened  at  its  lower 
edge,  and  called  tlie  plane-bit.  The  opening  in  the 
xoic  through  which  the  bit  protrudes  is  called  the 
throat.  'The  degree  of  protrusion  of  the  bit  deter- 
mines the  rankness  of  the  cut  and  the  consequent 
thiclcness  of  the  shaving.     The  bit  is  usually  held 

Fig.  661. 


Benrh-Lallic. 

bench.  In  the  illustration,  the  mandrel  carries  a 
face-plate  with  centering  devices,  and  may  be  driven 
by  a  cord  from  a  treadle  or  by  a  bow.  The  tail-stock 
and  rest  are  adjustable  by  thumb-nuts. 

Bench-mark.  {Surveying.)  A  mark  shomng 
the  starting-point  in  leveling  along  a  line  ;  also  sim- 
ilar marks  atfixed  at  convenient  distances  to  substan- 
tial or  permanent  objects,  to  show  the  exact  points 
upon  which  the  leveling-staffs  were  placed  when  the 
various  levels  were  read,  thus  facilitating  reference 
and  correction. 

Bench-plane.  A  joiner's  plane  for  working  a 
flat  surface.     Thev  are  named,  in  the  order  of  their 


bj'  a  wedge  driven  in  from  above,  but  clamping  ar- 
rangements have  been  suggested,  though  they  are  not 
in  much  favor.  In  the  one  shown,  the  cap-piece  is 
held  against  the  bit  by  means  of  a  screw  /  passing 
from  the  heel  of  the  plane  to  the  nut  X  in  contact 
with  the  cap  H  and  bit  C,  and  a  second  screw  F, 
which  pn.«hes  down  the  nut  in  the  cap-piece. 

Bench-reel.  A  spinning-wheel  on  the  pim  of 
which  the  sailmaker  -ninds  the  yarn. 

Bench-screw.  (Carpentry.)  The  wooden  screw 
wliich  operates  the  movable  jaw  of  the  joiner's  bench- 
vise.     See  Bi;xcH. 

Bench-shears.  Hand-shears,  the  end  of  whose 
lower  limb  is  turned  at  right  angles  and  is  received 
in  a  soc'Ket  in  the  bench. 

Bench-strip.  (Carpentry.)  A  batten  or  strip 
on  a  carpenter's  bench  which  may  be  fixed  at  a  given 
distance  from  the  edge  to  assist  in  steadying  the 
work.     It  may  form  a  fence  or  a  guide. 

Bench-vise.  A  vise  provided  ^vith  means  for 
attachment  to  a  wood  or  metal  worker's  bench.  In 
the  vise  of  the  carpenter's  bench  the  movable  wooden 
jaw  is  clamped  against  the  stationary  jaw  of  the 
bench  by  means  of  a  wooden  screw  rotated  by  a  lever 
occupying  a  slot  in  the  head. 

In  the  ordinary  metal-worker's  vise  the  jaws  are 
both  of  iron,  and  one  of  them  has  a  spreading  claw 
which  is   screwed   fast  to  the  bench.      In  parallel 


Btncli-Yise. 

%-ises,  however,  other  means  of  fastening  are  adopted. 
(See  A^ISE.1  In  the  illustration,  one  jaw  slips  on 
the  bar  as  the  nut  is  rotated  by  the  handle  ;  the 
other  jaw  is  fixed  in  tlie  required  position  on  the  said 
bar  liv  means  of  a  pawl. 

Bend.  \.  (Sliipwrighting.)  <i.  One  of  the  strong 
planks  or  miles  on  a  vessel's  sides  to  which  the  beams, 
knees,  and  futtocks  are  bolted.     See  Wai.e. 

b.  The  cross-section  of  a  building-draft.  A  bend 
represents  the  molding  edge  of  s.  frame. 


BENDING. 


BERME. 


2.  {Mining.)  An  indurated  argillaceous  substanci'. 

3.  (Nautical.)  A  knot  by  which  one  rope  is  fast- 
ened to  another,  or  to  an  object  such  as  a  ring,  spar, 
or  post. 

Fig 


Bend.i, 

a,  a  ?ooji)-bend.  d,  a  rolliiifj  bend. 

6,  3,  fisherman' s  bend.         c,  a  carrick  bend. 

c,  a  common  bend. 

/,  a  m,oorin(/-hexn\,  in  which  the  rope  is  bent  to  a 
post  or  hoJIard  on  a  pier  or  wharf. 

Bend'ing.  A  process  applied  to  plates  to  form 
them  into  cylindrical  shapes,  or  angular  shapes  for 
boilers,  angle-iron,  etc. 

AVhen  the  material  is  brought  to  a  corrugated  form 
it  is  termed  Cour.uciATiNO  (which  see). 

Tlie  bending  of  wood  for  thills,  bows,  fellies,  ]dow- 
handles,  etc.,  is  usually  while  steam-hot,  and  sup- 
ported in  clamps  and  formers. 

Angle-iron  for  ships'  fi'ames  is  bent  to  give  the 
proper  figure  to  the  molding  edge,  by  means  of  a 
level inr/-bhck  or  by  a  swage.  The  former  is  adapted 
to  produce  sharp  curvatures.     See  LEvr.LlNG-BLDfK. 

The  .sipage  consists  of  a  fixed  curveil  bed  and  a  re- 
ciprocating block.  One  side  of  the  bar  to  be  bent 
or  straightened  rests  against  a  pair  of  fixed  blocks, 
with  slightly  roundedsurfaces.  Midway  between  those 
fixed  blocks  the  opposite  side  of  the  bar  is  pressed 
against  by  a  block  having  a  reciprocating  motion. 
The  position  of  the  fixed  blocks  and  the  length  of  the 
stroke  of  the  movable  block  are  capable  of  adjust- 
ment, according  to  the  alteration  to  be  pi'oduced  in 
the  figure  of  the  bars. 

Bending  of  plates  for  ships'  sides  is  performed  by 
passing  them  between  a  pair  of  bed-rollers  and  a  free 
roller  above,  whose  bearings  are  adjustable  by  means 
of  screws  so  as  to  give  any  required  curvature  to  the 
plate. 

Boiler-plates  are  bent  in  the  same  way. 

Bend'ing-strake.  (Shijjwrighting.)  Twostrakes 
wrought  near  the  coverings  of  the  deck,  worked  all 
fore  and  aft  a  little  thicker  than  the  rest  of  the  deck, 
and  let  down  between  the  beams  and  ledges  so  that 
the  upper  side  is  even  with  the  rest. 

Bend-leath'er.   Asupeiiorcpiality  of  sole-leather. 

Ben-gal'.  (Fabric.)  a.  A  thin,  light  Bengalee 
stuff,  made  of  silk  and  hair,  for  women's  apparel. 

h.  .\n  imitation  of  striped  muslin.    (Bengal  •stripes.) 

Ben-gal'-light.  {Pi/folcchnics.)  A  Idnd  of  fire- 
work, giving  a  vivid  and  sustained  blue  light,  iisedas 
a  signal ;  also  written  Brngola. 

The  composition  for  Bengal-lights  is,  1  part  anti- 
mony, 2  sulphur,  2  mealed  powder,  and  8  nitrate  of 
soda.  These  are  finely  pulverized  and  thoi'oughly 
incorporated  together,  and  the  composition  is  pressed 
into  earthen  bowls  or  similar  shallow  vessels.  When 
not  used  immediately,  the  mouth  .should  be  covered 
with  waxed  paper  to  exclude  moisture. 

Ben-gal'-stripea.  (Fabric. )  A  Bengalee  striped 
cotton  cloth . 

Bent.  One  section  of  the  frame  of  a  building, 
which  is  put  together  on  the  ground  or  foundation, 
and  then  raised  by  holding  the  feet  of  the  posts  and 


elevating  the  upper  portion.  A  bent  consists  of  po-sts 
united  by  the  beams  which  pass  transversely  across 
tlic  building.  When  rai.scd,  it  is  secured  bythe  beams 
of  the  sidi'  to  the  other  bents. 

Bent-gage.  ( H'ood-ioorking,  etc.)  One  whose 
Ijlade  forms  an  angle  with  the  handle.  Used  by 
wonil-workers  and  sculptors. 

Bent-gouge.  (Wood-working.)  A  gouge  bent 
towart-ls  the  basil,  and  used  for  scooping  or  hollowing 
out  concave  sui'faces.     A  bcnt-ncck  gouge. 

Bent-gra'ver.     1.   (Jewclrg.)     A  seorper. 

2.  (Engraving.)  A  graver  witli  a  blade  so  bent  as 
to  reach  a  surface  whose  plane  is  lower  than  a  mar- 
ginal rim.  Used  in  chasing  and  in  engraving  mono- 
grams in  sunken  tablets. 

Bent-le'ver.  A  lever  the  two  arms  of  which 
fmm  an  angle  at  whose  apex  is  the  fulcrum  ;  as,  a 
bell-crank  lever. 

Bent-le'ver  Bal'ance.  A  weighing-scale  in 
wdiich  the  scale-pan  /K 


Fig.  664. 


Bent'Lei-eT  Balance. 
A  tube  whose  bend  forms  a 
Fig.  665. 


is  attached  to  the  short 
end  A  of  a  bent-lever, 
which  is  pivoted  on  the 
summit  of  a  post  B,  and 
whose  weighted  end  0 
traverses  a  graduated 
arc  to  a  distance  pro- 
portioned to  the  weight 
in  the  pan  If.  As  the' 
weight  C  ascends,  its 
leverage  becomes  great- 
er, and  it  balances  a 
cori-espondingly  greater 
weight  in  tlie  pan  JF. 
Its  leverage  in  the  po- 
sition shown  is  indicated 
by  the  vertical  dotted 
line  dro]iped  from  /). 

Bent-pipe  Fil'ter. 
containing  re- 
ceptacle for  a 
certain  quan- 
tity of  sand 
through  which 
water  passes, 
enteringat  one 
leg  and  being 
discharged  at 
the  other. 

Bent-rasp. 
One  having  a 
curved  blade. 
Used  by  gun- 
stockcrs  and 
sculptors. 

Ben'zole.  Discovered  by  Faradav  in  oils  in  1825, 
and  by  C.  B.  Mansfield  in  coal-tar,"  1849.  The  lat- 
ter was  fatally  burned  while  experimenting  with  it  in 
1855.  Aniline  is  produced  from  it,  and  is  the  source 
of  the  celebrated  modern  dyes,  mauve,  magenta,  etc. 

Ber'ga-mot.  (Fabric.)  A  coarse  tai>estry,  said 
to  have  been  first  made  at  Bergamo,  Italy.  It  is 
com]iosed  of  flocks  of  wool,  hair,  silk,  cotton,  or 
hemp. 

Ber'lin.  (J'ehiclc.)  A  species  of  four-wheeled 
carriage  having  a  .sheltered  seat  behind  the  body  and 
separate  from  it.  Introduced  previous  to  1673  by 
Philip  de  Chiese,  of  Piedmont,  in  the  service  of  Wil- 
liam, Elector  of  Brandenburgh 

Berme.  1.  (Fortification.)  A  narrow, level  space 
at  the  loot  of  the  exterior  slope  of  a  parajiet,  to  keep 
the  crumbling  of  the  parapet  from  falling  into  the 
ditch.     See  Ab.\ttis. 

2.   (Engineering.)     A  ledge  or  bench  on  the  side 


Bent-Pipe  Filter. 


BERTH. 


BESSEMER  PROCESS. 


or  at  tlie  foot  of  a  bank,  parapet,  or  cutting,  to  catch 
earth  that  may  roll  down  the  slope  or  to  strengthen 
the  bank. 

In  canals,  it  is  a  ledge  on  the  opposite  side  to  the 
tow-path,  at  the  foot  of  a  talus  or  slope,  to  keep  earth 
which  may  roll  down  the  bank  from  falling  into  the 
water. 

Slopes  in  successive  benches  have  a  bernie  at  each 
notch,  or,  when  a  change  of  slope  occurs,  on  reaching 
a  diH'erent  soil. 

Berth.  A  sleeping-space  of  limited  dimensions 
on  board  ship  or  on  a  railway-car.  It  consists  of  a 
box  or  shelf,  usually  penn;inent  on  shipboard,  occu- 
pying a  space  against  the  wall  of  a  state-room  or 
cabin. 

In  railway-cars  berths  are  usually  made  at  two 
elevations  ;  the  lower  one  is  made  up  by  bridging  the 
space  between  two  adjacent  seats,  the  upper  berth  by 
letting  down  a  shelf  from  above.    Sec  Sleeping-car. 

Berth  and  Space.  {Sliipicriijhling.)  The  dis- 
tance between  the  molding-edge  of  one  bent  or  frame 
of  a  ship  to  the  molding  of  another  bent  or  frame. 
Same  as  room  and  ^pfn:c. 

Bes'se-mer  Pro'cess.  A  metallurgic  process 
which  SL-rves  as  a  substitute-  for  puddling  with  certain 
descriptions  of  cast-iron,  and  for  the  manufacture  of 
iron  or  steely-iron  for  many  purposes. 

Steel  is  a  compound  of  iron  and  carbon,  stand- 
ing in  the  series  between  wrought-iron  and  cast-iron, 
the  former  having  less  carbon,  and  the  latter  more, 
than  steel.  An  old  authority  gives  the  coutents  of 
carbon  in  different  classes  as  follows  :  — 


Pure  retined  iron  contains 

.     0.00  per  ce 

Soft  cast-steel 

0.83 

Common  cast-steel 

.     1.00 

Harder  cast-steel 

3.3.3 

White  cast-iron 

.      4.00 

Mottled  cast-iron 

5.00 

Black  cast-iron 

.     8.00         " 

The  old-fashioned  way  of  manufacturing  the  so- 
called  blister  steel  was  to  first  produce  a  refined 
iron,  and  then  cause  the  bars  to  re-absorb  the  neces- 
sary quantity  of  carbon  in  the  cementation  furnace, 
where  they  were  treated,  imbedded  in  charcoal  for 
at  least  a  fortnight.  This  steel  broken  up  and  re- 
melted  in  crucibles  forms  cast-&\,ee\.  The  refining  of 
iron  in  a  puddling-furnace  to  the  point  where  it  as- 
simied  the  character  of  steel  was  the  next  step  in 
the  process.     See  Steel. 

Jlr.  Bessemer's  process  is  as  follows  :  — 
The  iron  whichis  to  be  converted  intosteel  is  melted 
in  cupola  furnaces,  and  tapped  off  into  a  large  ladle 
standing  upon  scales,  where  the  weight  of  tlie  charge 
may  be  accurately  detemiined.  When  everything 
is  ready,  the  charge,  of  about  twelve  thousand  pounds, 
is  run  into  one  of  the  "  converters. "  This  is  an  egg- 
shaped  iron  vessel,  about  fifteen  feet  high  and  nine 
feet  diameter,  hung  by  trunnions  upon  a  ponderous 
iron  framework.  To  one  trunnion  is  attached  a 
heavy  pinion,  worked  by  a  rack,  driven  by  a  water- 
engine,  which  rotates  the  vessel  in  a  vertical  plane. 
Through  the  other  trunnion,  which  is  hollow,  pass- 
es an  air-pipe,  which  is  continued  down  the  out- 
side of  the  vessel,  and  opens  into  a  chamber  at  the 
bottom  of  the  "convertor."  (See  CoNVERTon.l 
This  chamber  communicates  with  the  main  cavity  of 
the  vessel  through  120  holes,  each  three  eighths  of 
an  inch  in  diameter.  These  holes  are  contained  in 
ten  cylindiical  fire-bricks,  imbedded  in  refractoiy 
materials,  and  the  whole  bottom  —  chamber  and  all 
—  is  removable  at  pleasure.  The  main  cavity  is 
lined  a  foot  thick  with  a  mixture  of  crushed  cjuartz, 
sand,  and  clay,  and  opens  at  the  top  obliquely  up- 


ward through  a  "  nose  "  pointing  towards  the  chim- 
ney. It  is  evident  that  the  bla.st  must  pass  through 
a  trunnion,  because  the  vessel  could  not  be  rotated 
if  received  in  any  other  manner.  Prior  to  recei\'ing 
the  charge,  the  lining  is  heated  nearly  to  whiteness, 
and  the  vessel  is  inclined  to  a  horizontal  position,  or 
beyond,  in  order  to  kcejj  the  air-holes  above  the  fluid 
iron  while  charging.  The  blast  is  then  turned  on, 
the  vessel  righted,  and  the  pressure  of  the  blast  keeps 
the  metal  from  pouring  through  the  air-holes.  Im- 
mediately the  reactions  commence. 

The  cast-iron  used  in  the  convertor  contains  about 
two  per  cent  of  silicon,  which  has  a  powerful  affinity 
for  oxygen,  and  the  combustion  of  whii-h  generates 
enormous  heat.  When  the  carbon  oxidizes,  which 
it  does  in  the  later  stiige  of  the  conversion,  a  long 
body  of  flame  issues  from  the  convertor  of  a  dazzling 
whiteness.  It  is  so  brilliant  that  the  eye  can  scarce- 
ly endure  it,  and  with  the  heavy  roar  of  the  blast, 
the  rumbling  from  the  volcanic  turmoil  within,  and 
the  showers  of  sparks  blown  out  of  the  vessel  in  thou- 
sands of  scintillating  pellets,  forms  a  scene  which 
must  be  witnessed  in  order  to  be  appreciated. 

The  completion  of  the  blow  and  the  exhaustion  of 
the  impurities  is  denoted  almost  instantaneously  by 
a  change  in  the  whiteness  of  the  flame  to  a  hollow, 
lurid,  translucent  glare,  accompanied  with  smoke. 
The  change  occupies  scarcely  three  seconds,  and 
great  care  nmst  be  taken  to  turn  down  the  vessel  the 
moment  the  conversion  is  complete.  The  product 
contained  in  the  convertor  is  nearh'  pure  iron,  in  a 
state  of  perfect  fluidity.  A  small  ijuantity  of  oxide  of 
iron  is  mechanically  mingled  with  it,  which  must  be  re- 
moved, and  for  this  pui-jjose  five  or  six  per  cent  of 
spiegeleisen  is  run  into  the  vessel.  The  manganese 
of  this  metal  at  once  decomposes  the  oxide  of  iron, 
takes  up  its  oxygen,  freeing  the  iron,  and  passes  into 
the  slag  an  oxide  of  manganese.  The  carbon  of  the 
spiegeleisen  is  partly  oxidized  and  partly  remains 
in  the  ii'on,  giving  it  its  steel  projierties.  Afterwaiting 
a  few  seconds  for  this  reaction  to  complete  itself,  the 
vessel  is  rotated  farther  down,  and  its  contents  dis- 
charged through  the  nose  into  the  ladle  wielded  by 
a  huge  hydraulic  crane,  and  then  poured  tlirough  a 
hole  in  the  bottom  of  the  ladle  into  iron  ingot-molds. 
The  blowing  occupies  about  twenty  minutes,  and  the 
loss  of  metal  is  about  thirteen  per  cent. 

The  rotation  of  the  conveitor,  which,  together  with 
its  charge,  weighs  over  thirty  tons,  the  shifting  of 
the  ingot-molds,  ladles,  and  other  parts,  and  the  re- 
moval of  the  ingots,  are  all  effected  by  hydraulic 
power.  The  American  form  of  the  apparatus  is  the 
work  of  Mr.  HoUey,  and  is  a  total  renovation  of  the 
English  method  and  a  great  improvement. 

Holley's  convertor  has  a  joint  below  the  trun- 
nions, and  the  lower  portion  of  the  bulb  may  be  tak- 
en off,  placed  on  a  car,  and  wheeled  away,  so  that  the 
workmen  may  be  able  to  get  directlj'  at  the  tuyeres, 
and  can  set  them  quickly  and  strongly  by  ramming 
(janislcr  solidly  around  them,  instead  of  pouring  it 
around  them  in  a  semi-fluid  state,  as  in  the  cases 
where  the  bottom  of  the  convertor  is  reached  through 
the  mouth.  By  having  some  supplementary  bottom- 
sections  to  replace  at  once  those  in  which  the  tuyeres 
have  become  burned  out  or  worn  too  short,  the  daily 
working  capacity  is  about  doubled. 

The  ingots  are  highly  crystalline,  and  generally 
contain  many  cavities,  which,  however,  have  not 
been  exposed  to  the  air,  and  therefore  close  together 
perfectly  under  hammer  or  in  the  rolls.  The  weight 
of  the  ingot  is  about  1,400  pounds,  and  it  will  make 
two  railway  bars.  It  cannot  usually  be  hammered 
until  after  it  has  been  cooled  and  reheated.  It  aver- 
ages  a   foot  square,   is  three  or  three  and  a  half 


BEST-WORK. 


278 


BEVELING-EDGE. 


feet  high,  and  has  consiJeiable  taper.  In  or- 
der to  enter  a  23-ineh  train  of  rolls,  It  must  be 
"bloomed"  down  to  about  si.x  inches,  and  for 
this  purpose  it  is  reheated  to  full  orange  red- 
ne.ss,  hammered,  and  cut  in  two.  It  is  reheated  ' 
a  second  time  for  rolling,  and  each  "bloom" 
receives  17  pa.sses,  issuing  from  the  last  one 
over  30  feet  in  length.  The  ragged  ends  are 
sawed  oH'  by  two  .saws,  jdaced  28  feet  5  inches 
apart,  and  when  cool  the  bar  is  just  28  feet  long, 
having  contrauted  5  inches,  and  weighs  usu- 
ally 67  pounds  to  the  yard,  —  more  or  less,  of  course, 
aeeording  to  the  pattern. 

Best-^work.  {Mining.)  A  miner's  term  of  the 
best  or  riehest  class  of  ore. 

Be-ton'.  Specifically,  the  Frencli  term  for  con- 
crete ;  a  concrete,  the  invention  of  M.  Coiguet,  com- 
posed usually  of  sand  5,  lime  1,  hydraulic  cement 
.25.  The  materials  are  ini.ved  by  a  shovel,  grouml 
violently  in  a  tempering-mill,  water  being  added 
sparingly  from  time  to  time.  The  pug-mill  has  a 
vertical  cylinder  and  a  shaft  armed  with  knives  spi- 
rally arranged,  beneath  which  is  a  cycloidal  presser 
which  drives  the  plastic  beton  out  at  holes  in  the 
bottom  of  the  mill.  This  is  carefully  and  persistently 
ranuned  in  molds,  a  stratum  at  a  tijue,  till  the  mold 
is  full.  The  top  of  each  stratum  is  deeply  scratched 
to  bind  its  successor  thereto.  The  molds  are  cotters 
in  silii,  or  ordinary  molds,  aeeording  to  circumstances. 
The  reduction  by  ranmiing  is  very  great,  about  1.7 
to  1.  The  weight  becomes  140  pounds  to  the  cubic 
foot.  The  resistance  to  crushing  is  ,5,000  pounds  to 
tlie  si[uare  inch  ;  ten  times  that  of  a  common  mor- 
tar made  of  the  same  materials  and  proportions. 

Sewers  made  on  this  plan  may  have  the  centering 
removed  in  eight  liours,  and  in  four  or  live  days  they 
maybe  used.  Archer  with  a  pitch  of  1  in  10  have  pro- 
portions, sand  5,  lime  1,  hydraulic  Ciment,.5.  In 
Paris,  arches,  floors,  foundations,  barracks,  and 
churches  are  made  of  this  material.  A  dwelling 
of  live  .stories,  in  Miroinesnil  Street,  Paris,  is  con- 
structed of  a  single  mass  of  beton  ;  a  staircase  of  the 
same  material  runs  in  helicoidal  form  from  the  base- 
ment to  the  highest  floor,  molded  in  the  position 
where  it  stands. 

In  making  foundations  of  blocks  of  hydraulic  con- 
crete, sheet  piling  is  fii'st  driven,  and  forms  a  wall  or 
curb  to  maintain  the  concrete  in  place  until  set. 

This  is  an  old  Roman  method,  and  was  described 
by  Vitruvius.  It  has  also  been  used  by  the  French 
in  their  works  in  Algiers.  Blocks  of  324  cubic  feet 
were  floated  out  and  dropped  from  slings  into  their 
places. 

English  recipe  :  — 

Puzzuolana 12 

Quicklime 9 

Sand 6 

Stone  spalls    .....  9 

Iron  scales 3 

Molded  or  mixed  in  a  box. 

M.  Coignet  erected  a  test  arch  at  St.  Denis,  near 
Paris,  whose  dimensions  are  as  follows  :  — 

Span 196  feet. 

Rise  of  arch  .         .         .         .         .  19" 

Cross-section  at  the  crown  .  4  feet  by  3.25  " 
Cross-section  at  the  .springing  6.5  feet  by  6.5  " 
Specittc  gravity  of  the  material         .         .  2.200 

Weight  of  arch    .....        260  tons. 

The  arch  was  constructed  in  six  days,  being  formed 
in  thin  concentric  layers.  After  it  had  reached  what 
was  deemed  a  sufficient  size,  it  was  allowed  to  remain 
for  five  or  six  weeks,  at  the  end  of  which  time  all 


extraneous  suj)ports  were  removed.  This  was  several 
years  ago,  and  it  yet  stands  uninjured,  and  prom- 
ises to  remain  an  enduring  monument  of  the  skill 
of  its  constructor.  The  total  amount  of  depression 
sustained  by  the  center  of  the  arch  after  the  cen- 
tering had  been  removed  was  barely  three  eighths 
of  an  inch. 

Bet'ty.     (Slang.)     A  short  crowbar  ;  a  jemmy. 

Be-t'weeus'.  A  grade  of  needles  between  shaiys 
and  blunts. 

Bev'el.     1.  Any  angle  except  one  of  90°. 

2.  An  instrument  for  setting  off  any  angle  or  bevel 
from  a  straight  line  or  surface,  much  used  by  artifi- 
cers of  all  desci'iptions  for  adjusting  the  abutting 
surfaces  of  work  to  the  same  inclination.  It  is  com- 
posed of  two  jointed  arms,  one  of  which  is  brought 
up  square  against  the  line  or  surface  from  which  the 
angle  is  to  be  set  off,  and  the  other  then  adjusted  to 
the  desired  bevel  or  inclination.   See  Bevel-square. 

3.  (Prinling.)  A  slug  cast  nearly  type-high  and 
with  chamfered  edges.     Used  by  stereotypers. 

4.  The  oblirjuitv  of  the  edge  of  a  sawtooth  across 
the  face  of  the  blade. 

Bev'el-gear'iiig.     (Gear.)    Cogged  wheels  whose 
axes  form  an  angle  with 
each  other,   the  faces  of  fig.  667. 

the  cogs  being  oblique 
with  tlieir  shafts,  the 
sum  of  the  angles  of  the 
teeth  with  their  respec- 
tive shafts  being  e(|Ual  to  (~&3: 
90°.  The  illustration 
shows  a  breast-drill  in 
which  a  bevel  -  wheel 
drives  two  bevel-pinions 
on  the  stock  of  the  drill ; 
one  pinion  is  for  cutting, 
the  other  for  feed. 

Bev'el-ing.  1.  (Car- 
pcninj.)  The  .sloping  of 
an  arris,  removing  the 
square  edge. 

2.  (Shipu'righting.)  a. 
The  opening  and  closing 
of  angle-iron  frames  in 
order  to  meet  the  plates 
which  form  the  skin  of 
the  ship,  so  that  the  fay- 
ingsurfaceoi  the  siik-nrm 
of  the  angle-iron  may  exactly  correspond  to  the  shape 
of  the  plating. 

The  bi'veling  is  performed  by  smiths  while  the 
iron  is  lying  hot  upon  the  leveling-bloek. 

b.  The  angles  whiidi  the  sides  and  edges  of  each 
piece  of  the  frame  make  with  each  other. 

A  standing  beveling  is  made  on  the  outside  ;  an 
under  beveling  is  one  on  an  inner  surface  of  a  frame 
of  timber. 

Bev'el-iug-board.  (Shiphuilding.)  A  flat  piece 
of  wocid  on  wliirh  the  bevclings  of  the  several  pieces 
of  a  ship's  structuri'  are  marked. 

Bev'el-ing-edge.  (Shipbuilding.)  One  edge  of 
a  ship's  frame  which  is  in  contact  with  the  skin,  and 


JSS 


Bevel- Gearing. 


BEVELING-MACHINE. 


279 


BEVEL-WHEEL. 


which  is  worked  from  the  molding-edge  or  that  which 
is  rejiresented  in  the  draft. 
Bev'el-ing-ma-chine'.    {Bookbinding.)    A  ma- 
rig.  668.     . 


Beveting- Machine. 


chine  in  which  the  edge  of  a  board  or  book-cover  is 
beveled.  The  table  on  which  the  material  is  laid 
is  hinged  to  the  bed-piece,  and  may  be  suiiiiorted  at 
any  desired  angle  by  the  jiawl-brace  and  a  rack,  so  as 
to  present  the  mateiial  at  any  inclination  to  the 
knife. 

Bev'el  Plumb-rule.  (Engineering.)  A  sui-vej'- 
or's  instrument  i'or  adj  usting  the  slope  of  embankments. 

Bev'el  Scroll-saw.  A  machine  for  sawing  ship- 
timber  to  tile  proper  curve  and  bevel.  The  saw  is 
mounted  on  a  circular  frame  a,  and  reciprocated  by 
means  of  a  rod  b  and  eccentric  c.  By  inclining  the 
saw  in  its  frame  any  reijuired  level  may  be  cut,  the 
curve  being  given  by  moving  the  carriage  d  d  on  its 
circular  track  a,  so  as  to  vary  the  presentation  of  the 
timber.  The  timbers  rest  on  the  rollers  / /  of  the 
table  ;  but  if  long,  are  likewise  supported  by  the  roll- 
ers k  k  of  the  carriages  e  c,  which  run  towards  and 
from  the  saw  on  tracks  ;  i.  To  change  the  presenta- 
tion for  oblique  or  circular  cut,  the  carriages  i  i  move 
in  concert  —  if  the  timber  be  long  enough  to  bring 


Fig.  639 


Bevel  Scroti- Sato. 


them  both  into  action  —  around  the  track  g,  against 
whose  flange  the  guide-rollers  h  h  be.ar. 
Bev'el-square.    One  whose  blade  is  adjustable 

Fig.  670. 


Btvel- Square. 


to  any  angle  in  the  stock,  and  retained  at  any  set  by 
a  clamping-screw  ;  a  bevel.  The  cut  shows  several 
forms  and  positions. 

Bev'el-tool.  (Turning.)  A  turner's  tool  for 
'forming  gi-ooves  and  tajiers  in  wood.  ItiylU-hand  or 
left-hand  bevels  are  used,  according  as  the  work  ta- 
pers to  the  right  or  left  of  the  workman. 

Bev'el-wheel.     (Gear.)     The  term  is  applied  to 

Fig.  671. 


Bevel-  Gearing. 


BEZAN. 


280 


BILBO. 


a  cog-whftl  wlitisc  working-face  is  obliciue  witli  the 
axi-s.  Its  use  is  usually  in  connection  with  another 
1  level-wheel  on  a  shaft  at  right  angles  to  that  of  the 
lornier,  but  not  always  so.  When  the  wheels  are  of 
the  same  size  and  their  shafts  have  a  rectangular  re- 
lation, the  working-faces  of  the  wheels  are  at  an 
angle  of  -45°  with  the  respective  shafts,  and  the  result 
is  miicr  gears  a.  If  this  relation  of  the  shafts  be 
maintained,  but  the  wheels  are  varied  in  size,  b,  the 
angles  of  their  faces  will  vary.  As  before,  however, 
their  cogs  are  cut  at  right  angles  to  the  surface  of 
two  cones  whose  ape.xes  coincide  with  the  point  where 
the  axes  of  the  wheels  would  meet. 

When  the  shafts  are  arranged  obliquely  to  each 
other,  c,  a  certain  obliquity  of  the  cogs  of  the  wheels 
becomes  necessary. 

The  lower  figure  in  the  cut  shows  a  mode  of  obtain- 
ing two  different  speeds  on  the  same  .shaft  from  one 
driving-wheel. 

The  term  bcvcl-wliecl  applies  in  strictness  only  to 
a  wheel  the  angle  of  whose  working-face  is  more  or 
less  than  45°,  the  latter  being  a  mUcr-trhecl. 

Be-zaJQ.  {Fabric.)  A  Bengalee  white  or  striped 
cotton  cloth. 

Bez'el.  A  term  applied  by  watchmakers  and 
jewelers  to  the  groove  and  projecting  flange  or  lip 
by  which  the  crystal  of  a  watch  or  the  stone  of  a 
jewel  is  retained  in  its  setting.     An  ouch. 

Bib'ble-press.     A  press  for  rolling  rocket-cases. 

Bibbs.  (Xnutlciil.)  Cleats  bolted  to  the  hounds 
of  a  mast  to  support  the  treaUc-trccs. 

Bib-cock.  A  cock  or  faucet  haring  a  bent  doicn 
nozzle  ;  a  bib. 

Fig  672. 


Bib- Cock. 

a  is  a  bib-cock  with  a  square  for  the  key. 

b  is  a  bib-cock  with  a  union-joint  on  the  nose  for 
the  connection  of  hose. 

c  is  a  bib-irilrc,  the  closure  being  by  a  recipro- 
cating sliili-  iiist-'ad  iif  a  rotary  spigot. 

Bi'chord  Pi-a'no-for'te.  {Ahtsic.)  A  piano 
with  a  gi'and  movement,  but  po.ssessing  hut  two 
strings  to  a  note.     A  soni-yrand  piano-forte. 


Bick-i'ron.  A  small  anvil  with  a  tang  which 
stands  in  a  hole  of  a  work-bench.      A  beak-iron. 

Bi-oy'cle.  (Vehicle.)  A  two-wheeled  velocipede. 
The  wheels  are  iu  line  ;  the  fore-wheel  is  driven  by 
the  feet. 

Johnson's  old  English  patent  for  a  hobby  was  a 
bicycle.     See  Vklocipede. 

Bid'der-y-ware.  {JUmj.)  This  is  made  at 
Bidcr,  a  town  aliout  sixty  miles  from  Hyderabad, 
India.     Dr.  Heyue  states  its  ju-oportions  as  — 

Copper         ......     8 

Lead         ......         4 

Tin 1 

To  3  ounces  of  this  alloy  16  ounces  of  zinc  are 
added  when  the  alloy  is  melted  for  use.  It  is  col- 
ored by  dipping  into  a  solution  of  sal-ammoniac,  salt- 
peter, common  salt,  and  sulphate  of  copper.  This 
colors  it,  and  the  color  fomis  a  ground  for  the  silver 
and  gold  inlaying.  Chisels  and  gravers  are  employed, 
and  after  the  inlajdng  is  complete,  the  ware  is  "pol- 
ished and  stained. 

Another  formula  gives,'  zinc  128,  copper  16,  lead  4, 
tin  2.     See  Alloy. 

Bi-det'.  A  form  of  sitting-bath  used  for  washing 
the  body,  the  administration  of  injections,  and  treat- 
ment of  hemorrhoids. 

Bid-hook.     (Xaulical.)     A  small  boat-hook. 

Bier.  1.  A  hand-barrow  adapted  to  carry  a  corpse 
or  cotfin,  or  both.     Its  purpose  is  its  only  distin- 
guishing peculiar- 
ity to  constitute  a  Fig.  673. 
difference  between 
it  and  a  stretcher, 
litter,     or     hand- 
barroiv. 

The  bier  repre- 
sented in  the  ac- 
companying cut 
was  the  ordinary 
fonn  for  support- 
ing the  dead  in  Bier. 
ancient  Egypt. 

The  illustration  is  from  the  temple  at  Kamak. 

2.  ( IJ'ea  ring. )  A  count  of  40  threads  in  the 
warp  or  chain  of  woolen  cloth.  The  number  of 
warp-threads  is  counted  by  biers ;  the  threads  are 
temied  ends.     Thus,  — 

In  ordinary  broadcloth  there  are  3,600  threads  in 
the  warp  ;  these  are  set  in  a  slci/  or  reed,  about  3-pg 
yards  wide.  Such  a  warp  is  said  to  be  90  biers.  In 
England,  5  biers  or  200  threads  go  to  the  hundred. 
This  is  one  of  the  absurd  overdrafts  ;  as,  a  hundred- 
weight of  112  jiounds  ;  a  dozen  consisting  of  13.  In 
some  trades  a  hundred  consists  of  120  pieces  or 
pounds. 

40  warp-threads  of  woolen  yarn  on  the  beam  : 
5  biers  make  100  ;  that  is,  100  "pairs  of  threads,  100 
above  and  the  same  nnniher  below,  in  the  shed.  Com- 
mon broadcloth,  If  yards  wide,  ha.s  18  double-hun- 
dreds, or  3,600  waqi-threads.  Fine  broadcloth  may 
h;ive  6,000  warp-threads. 

Bight.     {Xautical.)     The  loop  of  a  bent  rope. 

Bi-la'lo.  (J^essel.)  A  two-masted  vessel  of  Ma- 
nilla. 

Bil'an-der.  (I'essel.)  A  small  two-masted  ves- 
sel us.-d  in  Holland,  princijjally  on  the  canals. 

Bil'bo.  (Weapon.)  1.  A  iie.xible-bladed  cutlass 
from  llilboa. 

"To  be  compassed,  like  a  good  bilbo,  in  the 
circumference  of  a  peck,  hilt  to  point,  heel  to  head." 
—  Falstaf  (in  the  buck-basket). 

2.  A.  form  of  fetters  for  prisoners,  named  from 
Bilboa,    Spain,   where  they  were   manufactured   in 


BILGE. 


281 


BILGE-WATER  GAGE. 


Bilge-KeeU. 


large  ([uantities,  and  shipped  ou  the  vessels  of  the 
Spanish  Armada. 

A  long  bar  of  iron  was  bolted  and  locked  to  the 
deck  ;  a  shackle  slippeil  loosely  ou  the  bar,  and  was 
secured  to  the  ankle  of  the  prisoner. 

"Methought  I  Ijiy 
Worse  than  the  mutines  iu  the  bilboes.*' 

Hatnltt. 

Bilge.  1.  (Shipbuilding.)  The  flat  portion  of  a 
ship's  bottom.  Here  water  collects,  and  is  called 
bilye-walcr.  The  water  is  derived  from  leakage  and 
condensation.  The  bilgs-tcater  alarm  announces  any 
unusual  depth  ;  the  hilge-pumps  remove  it. 

2.  (Coopcriny.)  The  protuberant  middle  portion 
of  a  ca.sk. 

Bilge-board.     (Shipbuilding.)     The  board  cov- 
ering till-  liniViers  where  the  bilge-water  collects. 
Bilge-keel.      (Shipbuilding.)      A    longitudinal 
beam    or   plate    on    the 
bilge  of  a  vessel,  for  pro- 
tection from  rubbing ;  or, 
in  the  case  of  iron  vessels 
without    true    keels,    to 
prevent    rolling.       Used 
with  vessels  baring  flat 
bottoms  and  light  draft. 
The    "Warrior"    and 
some  other  British  iron- 
clads have  bilge-keels. 

Bilge-piece.  (Ship- 
iLTightiiig.)  An  angle- 
iron  or  wooden  stringer 
placed  at  intervals  along  the  bilge  of  an  iron  ship  to 
stay  and  stifiVn  the  frame. 

Bilge-plank.  (Shipwrighting.)  Strengthening 
planks  of  till'  inner  or  outer  skin,  at  the  bilge. 

Bilge-pump.     (Xautical.)     a.  One  for 
pumping  the  water  fromtlie  bilge  of  a  vessel. 
In  its  old  form  it  had  a  rod  carrying  a  disk 
(called  a  burr),  to  which  is  nailed  a  hollow 
invei'ted  cone  of  strong  leather,  the  upper 
edge   of   which   is   equal   to   the    diameter   of   the 
chamber.     When  it  is  thrust  down  it  collapses,  al- 
lowing the  water  to  pass  ;  when  it  is  raised,   the 
leather  cap  spreads  by  the  weight  of  the   column, 
and  makes  a  tight  joint  with  the  sides  of  the  cham- 
ber. 

Fomierly  also  known  as  a  J«rr-pump. 
Bilge-pumps  are  fitted  to  marine  engines  as  a  se- 
curity to  tile  ship  in  case  of  extraordinary  leakage, 
as  well  as  to  save  the  work  of  the  crew  in  pumping 
the  hoUl  dry.  The  bilge-pipes  should  be  made  of 
lead,  which  suffer  less  corrosion  than  cupper  from 
the  acidulous  bilge-water  of  wooden  ships. 

b.  A  pump  to  withdraw  water  when  the  ship  is 
laying  over  so  that  the  water  cannot  reach  the  lim- 
bers which  are  readied  by  the  main  pumps. 

Bilge-Twa-ter  A-larm'.  (Xaufiml.)  The  ordi- 
nary form  of  these  alarms  is  a  well  iu  the  hold  and  a 
float  whose  rise  is  made  to  free  an  escapement  and 
sound  an  ordinary  clock-alarm  mechanism.  In  many 
cases  the  stem  of  the  float  is  either  graduated  to  show 
the  hight  of  the  water,  or  has  a  rack  which  operates 
a  spur-wheel  and  turns  an  indicator-finger  on  a  dial. 
These  may  be  read  as  occasion  requires,  but  are  not 
properly  alarms  unless  with  them  is  associated  a 
device  to  call  attention  to  the  condition  of  the  appa- 
ratus. 

One  form  of  bilge-water  alarm  has  a  vertical  rec- 
tangular box  A  permanently  placed  in  the  water 
whose  rise  is  to  be  announced.  The  float  B  rises 
with  the  water,  and  its  stem  B'  has  an  obliijue  slot  b, 
in  which  a  pin  moves  and  gives  motion  to  a  bar  C 
connected  to  clock-work.    The  latter  is  placed  in  any 


Fig.  675. 


1^'^     ^>7 


Hydraulic  Indicator. 

convenient  position,  and  connected  to  the  bar  Ijy 
wire  or  rods,  so  as  to  trip  the  escapement  of  the  clock- 
alarm  when  the  float  reaches  a  certain  hight.  The 
figures  represent,  respectively,  the  indicator -dial, 
the  slotted  stem  and  moving  bar,  the  clock-woik, 
and  a  vertical  section  through  the  float  and  the  lower 
part  of  the  trunk. 

In  another  form  a  tube  is  bent  to  conform  to  the 

rig.  676. 


LealC'Alarm, 


transverse  sectional  shape  of 
the  vessel,  and  is  provided 
with  a  whistle  at  each  end. 
At  the  lowest  midship  jior- 
tion  the  bilge-water  .is  ad- 
mitted at  a  gauze-covered 
opening.  WTien  a  consider- 
able amount  of  bilge-water 
has  collected  in  the  pipe,  the 
rolling,  of  the  vessel  causes 
the  water  to  expel  the  air 
at  alternate  ends  of  the  pipe, 
and  sounds  an  alarm. 

Bilge-wa'ter  Dis- 
charge'. (XauHcid. )  A 
device  to  secure  automatic 
discharge  to  the  bilge-water. 
A  tube  extending  from  the 
limber  through  the  outer  skin 
has  a  rear  opening  through 
which  a  current  is  induced 
as  the  vessel  passes  through 
the  water. 

Bilge-vira'ter  Gage. 
{yuutial.)      A    derice    for 


Fig.  677. 


Bilgt-WatfT  Gage. 


BILGE  way; 


282 


BILLIARDS. 


showing  the  depth  of  bilge-water  in  the  hoUl.  A 
grailiiatej  stem  extending  upward  from  a  float  in  the 
well  where  the  bilge-water  collects.  As  the  float 
rises,  the  graduations  are  read  by  the  officer  of  the 
watch. 

Bilge'TVay.  {Shipbui/diiuj.)  The  foundation  of 
the  ci-'hl/r  supporting  a  .ship  upon  the  s/idiiiij-wnys 
during  building  and  launching.  The  sliiiiiiij-imi/.'i 
consist  of  planks  3  or  i  inches  wide  supported  on 
blocks,  and  the  bilgeways  of  the  cradle  slip  thereon. 
The  bilgeways  are  about  five  sixths  the  length  of  the 
ship,  and  are  about  2  feet  6  inches  square.  The 
cradle  is  the  carriage  which  bears  the  ship  into  the  wa- 
ter anil  separates  from  the  ship  by  the  act  of  floating. 

Bill.  1.  (AgricuUiirc.)  A  hook-shaped  cutting- 
iiuph'mcnt,  used  in  heavy  pruning,  hedging,  etc.  A 
bUl-h'iok. 

2.  (H'eajmit.)  A  hook-shaped  blade  on  a  stafl', 
formerly  used  ;  the  halberd  of  the  infantry  soldier. 

"  HaTO  a  care  that  your  bills  be  not  stolen." 

Dogberry. 

The  bill  or  bill-hook,  under  the  name  of  falx  or 
falcula,  was  a  common  weapon  among  the  Romans. 
A  similar  implement  was  used  by  the  Greeks.  The 
figures  of  Perseus  and  Saturn  are  represented  thus 
armed.  With  this  wea|)on  Jupiter  wounded  Typhon 
and  Hei-cules  slew  the  Leruieau  Hydra. 

3.  {Nautiiri/.}  The  point  on  the  end  of  the  arm 
of  an  anchor  beyond  the  fluke  or  palm  ;  the  pec.  It 
is  the  first  part  to  penetrate  the  ground,  and  is  made 
slightly  hooking.     See  Anchui;. 

4.  {Shipwrightiny.)  The  end  of  a  compass  or 
knee  timber. 

5.  (JfiricuHurc.)     A  mattock. 

6.  The  point  of  a  hook. 

Bill-board.  (Sldphaildiny.)  An  iron-covered 
board  or  double  planking  which  projects  from  the 
side  of  the  ship  and  serves  to  suppoi-t  the  inner  fluke 
of  the  anchor. 

Bil'let.  (Saddkri/.)  a.  A  strap  which  enters  a 
buckle. 

h.  A  pocket  or  loop  which  receives  the  end  of  a 
buckleil  strap. 

Bil'let-head.  (Xauliad.)  A  piece  of  wood  at 
the  liiuv  of  a  whale-boat  around  which  the  harpoon- 
line  runs  ;  a  loggerhead. 

Bil'leted  Ca'ble.    (Architecture.)    Cabled  mold- 
ing witli  cinctures. 
Bil'let-ing-roll.  {Rolling-Mill.)    A  set  of  rollers 
for  reducing  iron  to 
Fig.  678.  shape,  to  nuTchant- 

able  bar.  In  the 
illustration  the  pass- 
es are  shown  with 
flattening  and  edg- 
ing grooves. 

Bil'let -mold'- 
ing.  (Architcdiirc.) 
An  ornament  used 
in  string  courses 
and  the  archivolts 
of  windows  and 
doors.  It  consists 
of  cylindrical  blocks 
witli  intervals,  the 
blockslying  length- 
wise of  the  cornice. 
Sometimes  in  two 
rows.breakingjoint. 
Bil'let-note. 
A  folded  writing-paper  6  by  8  inches. 

BUl-hold'er.  A  device  by  means  of  which  bills, 
meniorunilums,  or  other  slips  of  paper,  are  held  and 


Billeting-RoU. 


secured,  so  as  to  be  readily  referred  to  and  withdrawn 
as  required. 

There  are  numerous  forms  :  one  consists  of  an  up- 
per and  a  low'er  band,  whose  distance  apart  may  be 
regulated  by  means  of  two  elastic  stra})S  fastened 
by  hasps  or  fa.steners,  which  allow  the  straps  to  be 
taken  up  or  let  out  as  required. 

Another  form  is  a  spring  clasp  ;  a  third  is  a  wire 
for  iinpaUug,  either  suspended  or  standing  on  a  foot. 

Bill-hook.  A  thick,  heavy  knife  with  a  hooked 
end,  useful  for  chopping  off  .small  branches  of  trees 
or  cutting  ayiart  entangled  vines,  roots,  etc. 

When  a  short  handle  only  is  attached,  this  imple- 
ment is  sometimes  called  a  hand-bill. 

Its  lighter  forms  correspond  in  their  application 
to  the  Spanish  machete. 

The  bill  is  made  of  a  weight  and  shape  proportioned 
to  the  work. 

The  long-liandled  bill  a  is  called  a  scimiter ;  the 
handle  four  feet  long. 

The  short-handled,  light-tool  h  is  called  a  dress- 
hook,  and  is  used  for  trimming  oH' twigs,  pruning  or 
cutting  back  the  smaller  limbs  to  preserve  the  shape 
of  a  hedge,  shrub,  or  ornamental  tree 

The  other  two  figures,  c  d,  represent  varieties  of 
bill-hooks  for  heavier  work.     Tlie  illustrations  are 


^ 


T~T- 


from  English  tools ;  the  bill-hook  is  but  little  known 
among  us.  The  axe,  hedge-shears,  pruning-knife, 
and  occasionally  the  corn-knife  pressed  into  service 
as  a  machete,  do  the  work  in  the  United  States.  One 
of  the  principal  uses  of  these  tools  in  England  is  for 
hedging.  Tlus  is  on  the  advance  with  us  ;  but,  as 
usual,  we  have  contrived  a  machine,  founded  on  the 
principle  of  the  luirveslcr,  which  is  drawn  by  horses 
and  trims  the  hedge  to  any  required  shape.  See 
Hepci:  Pl.vnteks  and  Cmppehs. 

Bil'liard-cue.  The  rod  witli  which  the  billiard- 
ball  is  struck.  It  is  sometimes  tipped  with  a  vulcan- 
ized rubber  block. 

Bil'liard-mark'er.  A  counting  apparatus  for 
registering  the  points  and  games  at  billiards.  There 
are  many  varieties. 

Bil'liards.  A  game  of  skill,  played  on  a  smooth, 
level  table  of  peculiar  construction,  with  hard,  elas- 
tic  balls  ]iroiie!led  by  a  tapering  stick  called  the  cue. 
It  was  invented  either  in  France  or  Italy,  probably 
during  the  sixteenth  century.  The  invention  is 
generally  ascribed  to  Henrique  Dei-igne,  an  artist 
in  the  reign  of  Charles  IX.,  1571.  The  game  is 
spoken  of  by  Shakespeare. 

In  1578,  during  the  reigii  of  William,  Prince  of 
Orange,  permission  was  given  to  some  residents  of 
Amsterdam  to  keep  billiard-tables. 

"  Up  all  of  us  and  to  billiards."  —  Pepys,  1665. 

"  After  dinner  to  billiards,  where  I  won  an  an- 
gel." —  Ibid. 


BILLON. 


283 


BINDING-CLOTH. 


Billiard-tables  of  the  best  (juality  have  marble 
tops  covered  with  cloth.  The  general  appearance 
is  well  known.     The  full-size  table  is  6  feet  by  12, 

havingsi.x  pock- 
Fig.  680.  ets,  one  at  each 
corner  and  two 
opposite      each 
other     at     the 
midlength       of 
the  table.     The 
cushions  are  the 
ledges    limning 
around   the   ta- 
ble, which  pre- 
vent   the    balls 
from  being  pro- 
jected   over   its 
edges  ;  they  are 
lined  with  resil- 
to  canse  the  balls  to  rebound,  and 
levices  have  been  contrived 
of  which   have    been   the 


^f^yf^f^^^^^J^JJ^^T-. 


Billiard- IhbU  Cushion. 


ient  material 

various  materials  and 

for   this   purpose,   many 

subjects  of  patents.     The  cue  was  introduced  about 

1670. 

Carom  tables,  destitute  of  pockets,  have  come  into 
great  favor.  The  different  modes  of  constructing 
the  cusliions  have  fomied  the  subjects  of  many  pat- 
ents. 

A  Kansas  billiard-table  is  thus  described  :  "  Firet, 
in  the  middle  of  the  Hoor  was  an  enonnously  large  bo.x, 
on  which  was  laid  about  a  wagon-load  of  sandstone, 
covered  with  about  eight  yards  of  blue  jean.  The 
jiockets  were  made  of  old  boot-legs  ;  for  cues  they 
had  old  hoe-handles  ;  mock-oranges  served  for  balls  ; 
and  to  count  this  lovely  game  they  used  dried  apples 
strung  on  a  clothes-line." 

Billon.  {Alloi/.)  A  German  coin-alloy  of  cop- 
per and  silver,  the  former  predominating. 

Billy.  1.  {Jl'ool -Maniifaditrc.)  A  slubbing- 
machine  in  which  the  partially  compacted  slivers  of 
wool,  in  the  condition  of  airdings  or  rolls,  are  joined 
end  to  end  and  receive  a  slight  twist,  —  the  prelim- 
inary operation  in  wool-spinning.      See  Slubbisg- 

M.ICUINE. 

2.   .\  policeman's  mace  or  club. 

Billy-gate.  ( IVool-ilanufadure.)  The  moving 
carriage  in  a  slubhiiuj-machinc, 

Bi'na-ry-en'gine.  Usually  an  engine  having 
one  cylinder  whose  piston  is  impelled  by  steam, 
which,  having  done  its  work  there,  is  exhausted  into 
another  part  of  the  apjiaratus,  where  it  is  allowed 
to  communicate  its  unutilized  heat  to  some  liquid 
volatile  at  a  lower  temperature  ;  the  vapor  of  this 
second  lii|uid,  by  its  expansion  in  a  second  cylinder, 
yields  additional  useful  force.  Ether,  chloroform, 
and  bisulphide  of  carbon,  liave  all  been  tried. 

Bind'er.  1.  (Carpcutnj.)  A  lic-bcam.  A  bind- 
ing-joist supporting  transvereely  the  bridging-joists 
above  and  the  ceiling-joists  below,  to  shorten  the 
bearings.     See  Joist  ;  Fuoon. 

2.  [Shipbuilding.)  A  principal  part  of  a  ship's 
frame,  such  as  keel,  transom,  beam,  knee,  etc. 

3.  (Sewing-machine.)    A  device  for  folding  a  bind- 

Fig  681. 


S/nillU-Binder. 


ing  about  the  edge  of  a  fabric  and  sewing  it  thereto. 
See  "  Sewing-machine  Attachments,"  a  complete  di- 
gest to  1872,  by  George  W.  Gregory,  Wasiiiugton, 
D.  C. 

4.   (Agriculture.)    n.  An  attachment  to  a  reaping- 
machine  which  binds  the  gavels  into  sheaves. 

b.  A  wisp  of  straw,  a  cord,  wire,  or  other  band  for 
binding  a  sheaf  of  grain. 

.'>.   (IFcai-iiig.)      A  lever  Fig.  682. 

applied  in  a  shuttle-bo.\  to 
arrest  the  shuttle  and  pre- 
vent its  rebounding. 

6.  (Bookbinding.)  A  cov- 
er for  music,  magazines,  or 
papei's,  forming  a  tempo- 
rary binder  to  keep  them 
in  order  for  convenicut  ref- 
erence. 

Bind'er-frame.  A 
hanger  with  adjustable 
bearings  by  which  the  an- 
gular position  of  the  shaft- 
ing may  be  regulated  to 
suit  the  plane  of  motion  of  the  belting. 

Fig.  6S3. 


■^i- 


S^Iu.'^i^'Biit'Jer. 


Binder-Frame. 

Bind'er's  Board.  (Bookbinding.)  A  thick  sheet 
of  hard,  smooth,  calendered  pasteboard,  between 
which  printed  sheets  are  pressed  to  give  them  a 
smooth  surface.  Also  the  stiff  pasteboards  which 
fonn  the  basis  of  the  sides  of  book  covers. 

Bind'ing.  (Bookbiufling.)  The  jmtting  of  a  cover 
on  a  book.  In  the  trade,  binding  is  ])utting  on  the 
sides  :  following  the  operations  oi  folding,  gathering, 
seifing,  rounding,  and  edge-cutting,  and  preceding 
the  covcrUif],  tooling,  lettering,  and  edge-gilding. 

Various  kinds  of  binding  are  known  as^ 


Antique, 

Beveled, 

Boards, 

Buff, 

Calf, 

Cloth, 

Crushed, 

Full, 

Half. 


India-rubber, 

Levant, 

Morocco, 

Muslin, 

Koan, 

Russia, 

Sheep, 

Vellum, 

Velvet,  etc. 


Bind'ing-cloth.  (Fabric.)  Dyed  and  stamped 
muslin  for  covering  books.  The  dyed  cloth  is  passed 
between  engraved  rollers,  or  is  worked  after  being 
cut  into  patterns  of  the  required  size.    The  engraved 


BINDING-GUIDE. 


284 


BINNACLE. 


cylinders  of  hard  steel  confer  the  impress  character- 
istic of  the  back  and  sides  along  with  embossed  de- 
signs over  the  surface  in  sharp  relief.  It  is  a  cheap 
and  good  substitute  for  leather,  which  it  has  nearly 
superseded  for  general  use. 

Bind'ing-guide.  (Sewing -Machine.)  The  device 
is  adapted  to  receive  a  binding  and  fold  it  about  the 
edge  of  a  piece  of  material  to  be  bound.     Are  of  two 

Fig.  6S4. 


vent  the  spreading  of  the  arched  roofs  of  the  furnace 
and  iron  clianiber.     See  Puudling-fuunace. 

Bind'ing-raft'er.  (Carpentry. )  A  longitudinal 
timber  in  a  roof,  sujiportiug  the  rafters  at  a  point 
between  the  comb  and  eave.     See  PuiiLIX. 

Bindings.  1.  (Shipbuilding.)  The  timbers  of 
a  sliip  which  hold  the  frames  together.  Such  are 
the  beams,  knees,  clamps,  water-ways,  etc. 

2.  (Nautical.)  The 
iron  wrought  arouml 
the  driul-i'tji's. 

Bind'ing-scre'w. 
A  set- screw  which 
binds  or  clamps  two 
parts  together.  The 
term  is  applied  espe- 
cially, in  instruments 
of    graduation    and 


BiH'ting-Guide 

general  classes  :  1.  A  flattened  tube  folded  gradually 
on  itself  longitudinally  from  near  its  receiving  to  its 
delivering  end,  but  with  a  space  left  for  the  edge  of 
the  material.  (See  patent  to  Sweet,  December  20, 
1853.) 

2.  Adjustable  hooks  projecting  through  the  face 
of  a  guide  and  focing  each  other  ;  the  binding  is 
directed  by  the  guide  and  hooks,  the  material  to  be 
bound  rests  between  the  hooks,  and  the  latter  are 
adjustable,  to  lap  the  binding  more  or  less  on  either 
side.     (See  patent  to  PiticF.,  June  19,  18t>0.) 

Some  binders  turn  in  or  hem  the  edges  of  a  bias 
strip  of  cloth  as  it  is  applied  for  a  binding.  (See 
patent  to  DorcLAs,  Octobers,  1858.) 

Bind'ing-joist.  (Carpentry.)  A  joist  whose 
ends  rest  upon  the  w-all-plates,  and  whicli  support 
the  bridging  or  floor  joists  above  ami  the  ceiling  joists 
below.     A  binder.     Se.e  Joist  ;  Floor. 

The  binding-joist  is  employed  to  carry  common 
joists  when  the  area  of  the  Hoor  or  ceiling  is  so  large 
that  it  is  thrown  into  bays.  With  large  floors  the 
binding-joists  are  supported  by  girders.  See  Gird- 
er. 

Binding-joists  .should  have  the  following  dimen- 
sions :  — 


Length  of  Bearing. 
Feet. 

Depth. 
Indies. 

Width 
Inches 

6 

6 

4 

8 
10 

7 
8 

4^ 
5 

12 
14 

9 

10 

54 
6 

16 
18 

11 
12 

64 

7 

20 

13 

74 

Bind'ing-plate.  One  of  the  side-plates  of  a 
puddling  or  boiling  furnace,  which  are  tied  together 
by  bolts  across  the  furnace,  and  by  flanges,  and  serve 
to  bind  the  parts  of  the  furnace  together  and  pre- 


Bimiin^-Screw. 

measurement,  to  a  screw  which  clamps  a  part  in  a 
given  position  of  adjustment.  A  screw  by  which 
the  wire  of  a  galvanic  battery  is  held  in  close  contact 
with  other  metallic  jiortions  in  the  circuit. 

Bind'ing-screw  Clamp.  (Galvanism.)  A  device 
used  with  \oltaic  batteries  ;  the  lower  portion  is  a 
clamp  for  the  .zinc  or  copper  element,  which  is  sus- 
pended in  the  bath  ;  the  upper  has  a  hole  for  the 
conductor-wire,  and  a  screw  which  comes  forcibly 
down  upon  it  to  ensure  contact. 

Bind'ing  -  strakes.  (Shipb^dlding.)  Tliick 
strakcs,  jdanking.  m  wales,  at  points  where  they 
may  V>e  l»olted  to  knees,  shelf-])ieces,  etc. 

Bind'iag-wire.  Tlie  wrapping-wire  for  attach- 
ing pieces  which  are  to  be  soldered  together,  or  to 
hold  in  intimate  contact  tin;  parts  concerned  in  a 
voltaic  circuit. 

Bind-rail.  (Hydraulic  Engineering.)  A  piece 
to  which  the  heads  of  piles  are  secured  by  mortising 
or  otherwise,  serving  to  tie  several  of  them  together 
and  as  a  foundation  for  the  flooring-joists  or  stringers. 
A  cap. 

Biug.  (Mining. )  A  jilace  for  receiving  ore  ready 
for  smelting.  The  bing-hole  is  the  opening  through 
which  it  is  thrown. 

Bilik.  (Cotton-Manufacture.)  A  stack  of  cotton 
in  a  bin  or  on  the  floor,  consisting  of  successive  lay- 
ers of  cotton  from  different  bales  laid  in  alternating 
strata,  in  order  to  blend  them.     A  bunker. 

The  supply  of  cotton  for  the  machinery  is  taken 
by  raking  down  the  take  so  as  to  mi.\  the  cotton  of 
the  successive  layers  at  each  take. 

Bin'na-cle.  (Fr.  habittacle).  (Nautical.)  A  case 
or  box  for  containing  the  compass  of  a  ship  and  a 
liglit  by  which  it  is  illuminated  at  night. 

It  is  placed  immediately  in  front  of  the  wheel  or 
steering-apparatus,  and  secured  to  the  deck,  usually, 
by  metal  stays.  The  after  portion  has  glass  win- 
dows, so  that  the  compass  is  at  all  times  visible  to 
the  helmsman,  who  stands  at  the  wheel. 


BIXOCLE. 


28c 


BINOCULAR  MICROSCOPE. 


Fig.  686. 


Bin'o-cle.  (Op- 
tics.) A  Binocu- 
lar Telescope 
(which  see). 

Fig.  687. 


Bi-noc'u-lar 
Eye-piece.  (Op- 
tics.) One  in  which 
the  eye-piece  is  so 
constructed  and 
applied  to  the  ob- 
ject-gla.ss  as  to  di- 
Einnacle.    .  vide    the    optical 

pencil  transmitted 
to  the  latter,  and  form,  as  to  each  part  nf  the  di- 
vided (lencil,  a  real  or  virtual  image  of  the  object 
beyond  the  place  of  division. 

Bi-noc'u-lar  Glass.  (Optics.)  An  eye-glass  or 
telescope  to  which  both  eyes  may  be  applied. 

Alhazen,  the  Saracen,  who  flourislied  in  Egj-pt 
and  in  Spain  x.  D.  1100,  "was  the  first  to  correct  the 
Greek  misconception  a.s  to  the  nature  of  vision,  show- 
ing  that  the  rays  of  light  come  from  the  external  ob- 
ject to  the  eye,  and  do  not  issue  from  the  eye  and 
impinge  on  external  things,  as  up  to  his  time  had 
been  supposed.  His  explanation  does  not  depend 
upon  mere  hypothesis  or  supposition,  but  is  plainly 
based  upon  anatomical  investigation  as  well  as  on 
geometrical  discu.ssion.  He  determines  that  the 
retina  is  the  seat  of  vision,  and  that  impressions 
made  by  light  upon  it  are  conveyed  along  the  optic- 
nerve  to  the  brain.  With  felicity  he  explains  that 
we  see  single  when  we  use  both  eyes,  because  of 
the  formation  of  the  visual  images  on  symmetrical 
portions  of  the  two  retinas."  —  Draper. 

The  camera-obscura  of  Leonardo  da  Vinci,  b.  1452, 
was  an  imitation  of  the  mechanical  structure  of  the 
eye. 

Samuel  Pepys,  in  "His  Diari-,"  records  a  conver- 
sation with  Dr.  Scarborough  on  board  the  "Charles," 
foiTuerly  tlie  "  Nazeby,"  on  the  voyage  of  Charles  II. 
from  the  Hague  to  Dover,  ilay  2-t,  1660.  Dr.  Scar- 
borough remarked  that  custom  taught  children  to  di- 
rect the  axes  of  the  two  eyes  convergingly  upon  an 
object,  and  presumed  that  the  visual  image  of  but 
one  eye  was  appreciated  at  a  time.  Dr.  Scarliorough 
does  not  seem  to  have  deduced  from  this  that  the 
images  differed,  and  thus  imparted  the  sensation  of  ro- 
tundity or  saliency  to  the  object,  nor  the  other  fact 
that  the  angle  of  convergence  of  the  axes  gave  the 
impression  of  distance.  He  came  very  near  to  these 
great  deductions. 

A  good  illustration  of  the  principle  of  binocular 
vision  is  furnished  by  the  stereoscope,  invented  by 


Professor  Wheatstone,  and  forming  one  result  of  his 
discoveries.  When  we  are  looking  at  a  raised  object 
with  one  eye,  the  result  is  just  the  same  as  if  we 
looked  at  a  flat  surface,  so  far  as  the  colors,  shades, 
etc.,  are  skillfully  imitated  ;  but  when  we  look  with 
both  eyes,  the  ini.age  in  the  right  eye  is  not  exactly 
like  that  in  the  left,  because  we  view  it  from  a  differ- 
ent point  of  sight.  It  is  true,  that  this  difference 
depends  only  on  the  small  distauce  between  the  eyes, 
but  this  suffices  to  produce  different  ocular  images. 
Wheatstone  has  shown  that  our  appreciation  of  raised 
objects  depends  mainly  on  this  circumstance  ;  and 
his  stereoscope,  or  binocular  glass,  is  an  ingenious 
contrivance  for  making  two  plain  pictures  seem  to 
coalesce  into  one  rilievo,  or  raised  oljject. 

Bi-noc'u-lar  Mi'cro-scope.  (Optics.)  The  in- 
vention of  the  binocular  microscope  followed  that 
of  the  stereoscope  by  Profes.sor  Wheatstone,  which 
led  to  a  general  appreciation  of  the  value  of  binocu- 
lar vision. 

Professor  Riddel,  of  New  Orleans,  and  after  him 
Wenham,  of  London,  made  attempts  to  adapt  the 
principle  to  microscopes.  Professor  Nachet,  of 
Paris,  devised  a  construction  in  which  the  pencil 
of  rays  issuing  from  the  objective  is  divided  by  an 
equilateral  triangular  prism,  and,  issuing  from  the 
right  and  left  sides  respectively,  the  divided  pencils 
are  received  by  similar  prisms,  which  give  them  a 
direction  parallel  to  their  original  course  ;  the  inter- 
val of  separation  being  detenuined  by  the  distance 
between  the  central  and  lateral  prisms. 

Wenhani's  binocular  microscope  has  but  a  single 
prism,  which  reflects  one  half  of  the  rays  passing 

Fig.  689. 


Wenham^s  Binorutar  Microsrope. 

through  the  object-glass  into  the  additional  tube  of 
the  binocular  body. 

This  instrument  can  be  used  as  a  monocular  or 
binocular.  In  the  former  case  the  prism-box  is  drawn 
back  so  as  to  allow  the  whole  of  the  rays  from  the 
object-glass  to  pass  into  the  straight  body. 


BINOCULAR  TELESCOPE. 


286 


BISCUIT  MAKING   MACHINE. 


Bi-noc'u-lar  Tel'e-scope.  (Optics.)  A  pair 
of  telescopes  mounted  in  a  stand,  and  liaving  a  paral- 
lel adjustment  for  the  width  between  the  eyes.  The 
tubes  have  a  coincident  horizontal  and  vertical  ad- 
justment for  altitude  and  azimuth. 

Galileo  invented  the  binocular  telescope  with  which 
he  experimented  in  the  harbor  of  Leghorn  on  a  ves- 
sel in  rough  weather  in  the  year  1(517,  with  a  view 
to  the  moreconvenient  observation  of  Jupiter's  satel- 
lites on  board  ship.  The  invention  has  usually  been 
attributed  to  the  Capuchin  monk  Schyrleus  de 
Kheita,who  had  much  e.xperience  in  optical  matters, 
and  was  seeking  to  find  the  means  of  constructing 
telescopes  which  would  magnify  four  thousand  times. 
Bi'uot.  (Agriculture.)  A  kind  of  double-mold 
board-plow.     (English.  ) 

Bird-bolt.  A  thick,  pointless  arrow  to  kill  birds 
without  piercing  them. 

Bird-cage.  A  box  or  case  of  wire,  small  sticks, 
wicker,  or  otlu"r  suitable  material,  forming  open- 
work, for  confining  birds.  Pepys  states  that  he 
bought  two  fine  cages  for  his  "canary-birds.  (Di- 
arif,  January  '25,  1661.)     See  C.4GE. 

Bird-call.  A  short  metallic  cylinder,  with  a  cir- 
cular perforated  plate  at  each  end  ;  used  to  make  a 
trilling  noise,  as  a  decoy  for  birds. 

Bird-house. 
Fig- 689.      ,  A    bo.K    for,  birds, 

usually  set  on  a 
pole  planted  in  the 
ground  to  prevent 
access  of  cats  and 
other  vermin.  May 
be  made  an  archi- 
tectural feature, but 
is  usually  a  modest 
affair,  put  up  for 
the  pleasure  of  see- 
ing the  birds  and 
the  satisfaction  of 
affordingthem  com- 
fort and  protection. 
Bird'ing-piece. 
A  fire-arm  for  kill- 
ing birds.  A  shot- 
gun or  FowLlNG- 
piKi'E  (which  see). 
Bird-or'gan. 
A  small  barrel-or- 
gan, used  in  teach- 
ing birds,  especial- 
ly the  bulllinch,  to 
sing. 

Bird's-mouth. 
(Carpentry.)      The 
notch  at  the  foot  of  a  rafter  where  it  rests  upon  and 
against  the  plate. 

Bird's-nest.  (Nautical.)  A  lookout-station  at 
a  mast-head  for  a  seaman  who  watches  for  whales. 

Bird-trap.  A  two-winged  flap-net  sprung  by 
liand,  or  a  bo.\-trap  supported  on  a  figure-of-4,  with 
a  trigger  to  be  touched  by  the  bird  or  sprung  by  a 
person  on  watch.  The  netting  of  birds  by  the  former 
method  is  well  pictured  in  the  ancient  Egyptian 
paintings. 

Bi'reme.     (Nautical.)     A  two-banked  galley. 
Bir'lin.     (Nautical.)     Bior-linn  ;  a  galley  of  the 
Hebrides. 

Bir'rua.  (Fabric.)  An  old-time  coarse  woolen 
cloth. 

Bis-cay'an  Forge.    A  furnace  in  which  mallea- 
ble iron  is  obtained  direct  from  the  ore.     See  Cata- 
lan. 
Bis'cuit.     1.  (Bread.)    a.  A  hard  cake  of  unfer- 


Btrd-Hjuse. 


mented  bread,  suitable  for  sea  use.  Formerly  it  was 
baked  a  second  time  to  e.xpel  the  moisture  more  com- 
pletely, in  order  that  it  might  keep  without  molding. 
A  cracker. 

b.  A  small  baked  cake,  rendered  spongy  by  carbonic- 
acid  gas  resulting  from  fermentation,  or  adding  soda 
and  an  acid.  Or,  a  small  baked  cake  with  shorten- 
ing of  lard  or  butter. 

2.  Articles  of  pottery  molded  and  baked  in  an 
oven,  preparatory  to  the  glazing  and  burning.  In 
the  biscuit  form,  pottery  is  bibulous,  but  the  glaze 
sinks  into  the  pores  and  fuses  in  the  kiln,  forming  a 
vitreous  coating  to  the  ware. 

Biscuit,  by  its  derivation,  means,  ttoice  bcCked,  and 
is,  or  was,  true  of  the  edible  biscuit ;  but  the  name  as 
applied  to  pottery  is  derived  from  the  similarity  which 
the  ware  in  this  stage  bears  to  the  edible  biscuit. 
It  is  a  favorite  material  for  statuettes  and  ornaments, 
owing  to  its  soft  tone  and  creamy  uuglaring  sur- 
face. 

Bis'cuit-mak'ing  Ma-chine'.  Previous  to  the 
introduction  of  machines  for  kneading  the  materials, 
rolling  the  dough,  and  cutting  out  the  biscuits,  the 
flour  and  water  were  mixed  and  kneaded  by  hand, 
and  then  placed  on  a  platform  where,  by  means  of  a 
hinged  lever  called  a  break-staff,  the  process  is  com- 
pleted, the  person  sitting  on  the  break  and  bouncing 
up  and  down,  and  at  the  same  time  traveling  in  the 
arc  of  a  circle,  leaving  the  dough  in  a  thin  sheet, 
vei'y  compact  and  comparatively  dry.  This  was  re- 
moved from  the  platform,  cut  into  slices,  molded  by 
hand,  pricked,  and  bakecL 

The  biscuit-machine  of  tlie  Navy  Victualling  Es- 
tablishment, Portsmouth,  England,  is  thus  desciibed 
in  the  United  Service  Journal :  — 

"  The  first  operation  in  making  the  biscuits  con- 
sists in  mixing  the  meal  and  water.  13  gallons  of 
water  are  poured  into  a  trough,  and  then  280  pounds 
of  meal.  The  lid  is  shut  down,  and  an  apparatus, 
consisting  of  two  sets  of  knives,  is  made  to  revolve 
among  the  flour  and  water  by  machinery.  Tlie  mix- 
ing lasts  2A  minutes,  during  which  the  stirrers  make 
26  revolutions. 

"The  lumps  of  dough  are  then  thrown  under  the 
breaking-rollers,  which  are  cylinders  of  iron  weighing 
about  1,500  pounds  each,  and  moved  by  machinery 
upon  the  bench  whereon  the  dougli  is  laid.  The 
dough  is  thus  formed  into  masses  about  6  feet  long, 
3  feet  broad,  and  several  inches  thick.  The  mass, 
being  as  yet  imperfectly  kneaded,  is  cut  into  sections 
about  12  X  18  inches  of  the  fhickness  mentioned,  and 
is  again  and  again  mashed  out  flat  by  the  traversing 
roller,  being  doubled  upon  itself  after  each  rolling. 

"  The  dough,  now  perfectly  kneaded,  is  carried  by 
machinery  to  the  rollers,  where  it  is  made  into  sheets 
of  the  required  thickness.  The  cutting  is  efi'ected 
by  a  plate,  consisting  of  a  network  of  52  sharp-edged 
hexagonal  frames,  each  as  large  as  a  biscuit.  Tlie 
fianie  is  moved  slowly  up  and  dowu  by  machinery, 
and  the  workman,  watching  his  ojiportunity,  slides 
under  it  the  sheet  of  dough,  which  is  about  the  size 
of  a  leaf  of  a  dining-table.  The  cutting-frame,  in 
its  descent,  indents  the  sheet,  not  cutting  it  ijuito 
through,  but  leaving  sufficient  substance  to  enable 
the  workman  at  the  mouth  of  the  oven  to  jerk  the 
whole  mass  of  biscuits  undivided  into  the  oven.  A 
follower  in  each  of  the  cutter-frames  moves  up  and 
down,  giving  way  as  the  cutters  are  pressed  upon 
the  dough,  and,  as  the  cutters  rise,  ejecting  the 
dough  from  the  frames. 

"The  establishment  has  9  ovens,  each  11  x  13  feet, 
and  17i  inches  in  hight.  They  are  heated  by  sepa- 
rate furnaces,  so  constructed  that  a  blast  of  hot  air 
and  fire  sweeps  through  them,  and  gives  to  the  inte- 


BISECTING  DIVIDERS. 


287 


BIT. 


rior  the  requisite  dose  of  heat  in  an  incredibly  short 
space  of  time.  Fifteen  minutes  is  sufficient  for  bak- 
ing, and  the  biscuit  are  afterwards  placed  for  three 
days  in  a  drying-room  heated  to  80'  or  90°,  which 
completes  the  process. 

"  The  producing  capacity  of  the  machinery  is  1,790 
pounds  of  biscuit  per  hour." 

Bi-3ect'ing  Di-vid'ers.  Proportional  dividers 
whose  legs  are  permanently  pivoted  at  one  third  of 
their  length  from  the  shorter  end,  so  that  the  dis- 
tance between  the  two  points  at  that  end,  when  the 
dividers  are  opened,  is  just  one  half  that  measured 
by  the  longer  legs. 
Bi-aect'ing  Gage.  The  bar  has  two  cheeks,  one 
adjustable.  The  ends 
Fig  690.  of  the  toggle-bar  con- 

nect to  the  respective 
cheeks,  and  at  the 
pivot  of  the  toggle  is 
a  pencil  or  scribe-awl 
wliich  mark.s  a  medi- 
an line  between  the 
facing  sides  of  the  two 
cheeks. 

Bis'mutb.   Equiv- 
alent,   212;    symbol, 
£i :   specific  gravity, 
9.823  ;    fusing-point. 
Bisecting  Gage.  497°  F.     A    reddish- 

white,    hard,    brittle 
metal,  of  radiated  crystalline  structure. 

Its  principal  use  is  as  an  ingredient  in  alloys,  es- 
pecially those  which  are  designed  to  fuse  at  low  tem- 
peratures, such  as  the  solders  and  fusible  plugs  for 
steam-boilers. 

The  oxide  of  bismuth  is  a  cosmetic.  See  Alloys, 
under  the  heads  of  white  metals ;  solders  ;  fusible 
alloys. 

Bis'muth  Fur'nace.  At  Scneeberg,  in  the  Sa.xou 
Erzegebirge,  bismuth  is  reduced  in  a  furnace  similar 
to  that  shown  in  the  cut.     The  raw  mineral  is  in- 

Fig.  691. 


Bismuth  Furnace. 

.serted  into  the  higher  ends  of  the  iron  tubes  P,  which 
are  then  shut.  The  lower  ends  of  the  tubes  are 
closed  by  plates  having  an  aperture  near  the  lower 
edge,  through  which  the  melted  metal  flows,  and  is 
received  in  clay-pots  c,  which  are  kept  hot  by  a  fire 
beneath.  In  this  state  it  contains  a  proportion  of 
sulphur  and  arsenic,  which,  however,  may  be  removed 
by  fusing  the  metal  with  one  tenth  its  weight  of 
niter. 

Bisque.  (Porcelain.)  The  baked  ceramic  articles 
which  are  subsequently  glazed  and  burned  to  form 
porcebiin.     See  Biscuit. 

Bis'tou-ry.  {.Suroical.)  From  Pistori,  a  French 
town  where  these  knives  were  eai-ly  made. 

A  surgical  instrument  for  making  incisions,  having 
a  handle  and  a  blade,  which  may  be  either  fixed  or 


Fig.  692. 


Bistouries. 

movable,  and  variously  formed  to  adapt  it  to  spe- 
cial purposes.  Bistouries  are  known  as  straight, 
curved,  sharp,  probe,  etc. 

Bi-sul'phide  of  Car'bon  En'gine.  A  com- 
pound engine  in  which  the  vapor  from  bisulphide 
of  carbon  is  employed  in  the  second  cylinder  instead 
of  steam  as  a  motive-power.     A  binary  engine. 

Two  engines  are  used  in  the  Ellis  aiTangement. 
They  may  be  coupled  together  or  used  independently. 
One  of  these  engines  is  run  by  steam  in  the  usual 
way,  and  its  exhaust  taken  to  heat  the  boiler  that 
drives  the  other  engine  :  this  boiler  is  filled  with  a 
mixed  volatile  liquid,  consisting  principally  of  the 
bisulphide  of  carbon,  which  boils  at  110  F.,  and  at 
the  usual  temperature  of  exhaust  steam  gives  a  press- 
ure of  65  pounds  to  the  inch.  This  boiler  is  heated 
by  passing  the  exhaust  steam  through  its  flues  on  its 
way  from  the  cylinder  to  the  atmosphere,  and  the 
vapor  which  is  produced  in  it  is  used  to  drive  the 
second  engine.  The  exhaust  vapor  from  this  enpne 
is  condensed  to  liquid  by  cooling,  and  pumped  into 
the  boiler  again,  and  used  continuously  with  veiy 
little  loss. 

Bit.  1.  (Lodcsmithing.)  The  part  of  a  key 
which  enters  the  lock  and  acts  upon  the  bolt  and 
tumblers.     See  Key. 

The  bit  of  a  key  consists  of  the  web  and  the  jcards. 
The  web  is  the  portion  left  after  the  wards  are 
notched,  sawn,  or  filed  out. 

In  the  permutations  locks,  each  separate  piece 
composing  the  acting  part  of  the  key  is  termed  a 
bit.  These  fit  upon  the  stem  of  the  key,  from  which 
they  are  removable,  and  are  interchangeable  among 
them.selves,  so  as  to  allow  the  key  to  be  set  up  with 
various  combinations  agreeing  with  the  set  of  the 
tumblers. 

2.  ( JVood-working.)  a.  A  boring  tool  used  by 
attachment  to  a  brace,  whereby  it  is  rotated.  An 
auger  has  many  points  of  resemblance  to  a  bit,  but 
has  a  cross-handle  whereby  it  is  rotated,  whereas  a 
bit  is  stocked  in  the  socket  of  a  brace,  and  is  rotated 
thereby. 

The'following  are  the  varieties  of  Boring- Bits,  and 
their  adjuncts  :  — 


Annular  bit. 

Auger. 

Auger-bit. 

Awl. 

Bit-holder. 

Boring-bit. 

Brad-awl. 


Broach. 

Bung-borer. 

Center-bit. 

Chamfering-bit. 

Coal-boring  bit. 

Cone-bit. 

Countersink-bit. 


BIT. 


288 


BIT. 


Dowel-bit. 

Drill. 

Drill-bit. 

Ducks-bill  bit. 

E.^iiaiuUiig-bit. 

r^iucet-bit. 

Felloe  auger. 

Flute-bit. 

Freneh-bit. 

German-bit. 

Gimlet-bit. 

Gouge-bit. 

Grooved  bit. 

Hollow  auger. 

Shell-auger. 

Lip-bit. 


Nose-bit. 

Opening-bit. 

Piercel. 

Pod-bit. 

Plug-center  bit. 

Pump-bit. 

Quill-bit. 

Keaming-bit. 

Shell-bit. 

Spiral  bit. 

Spiral-rib  bit. 

Spoon-bit. 

Terrier. 

Twisted  bit. 

Vent-bit. 

Wimble. 


The  (jourjc-bil  {a,  Fig.  693),  before  the  invention 
of  the  pod,  spoon,  and  twisted  bits,  resembled  the  half 
of  a  reed  split  longitudinally,  and  had  a  sharp  end 
like  a  gouge.  This  was  also  known  as  the  quill-bit, 
or  shell-hit. 

Jt  was  improved  by  giving  a  quarter-round  end  to 
the  senii-cyliudrical  shank,  the  sharp  end  working  at 
the  bottom  of  the  hole  and  removing  a  spiral  chip 
instead  of  depending  upon  the  penetration  of  the 
.sharp  end  of  the  tube,  as  in  the  gouge-bit.  This 
was  a  great  improvement,  and  was  the  pod-bil,  or 
lip-bit. 

Tlie  change  to  the  spoon-bit  (J)  was  merely  giving 
a  conoidal  end  to  the  tool,  which  enabled  it  to  enter 
more  accurately  at  a  given  spot.  This  is  the  dowel- 
bit,  being  used  by  coojjers  on  barrel-heads,  and  by 
furniture-makers  on  table-leaves.  This  is  also  called 
the  duck's-bill  bit. 

The  nose-bit  ov shell-auger  (c),  when  on  alarge  scale, 
has  the  first  example  of  a  table  or  routing  cutter, 
which  is  afterwards  so  prominent  a  feature  in  the 

Pig.  693. 


Boring-Eits. 

screw-augers.  It  has  a  long  barrel,  and  the  large 
sizes  are  used  by  the  pump-makers,  and  called  pump- 
bits. 

One  form  of  countersink-bit  has  a  cutting  enlarge- 
ment on  the  shank,  which,  according  to  its  shape, 
may  make  a  suitable  depression  for  the  chamfered 
head  of  a  screw,  its  usual  purpose,  or  may  serve  to 
sink  a  bolt-head  or  nut  out  of  sight  in  the  material. 
See  Cil.iMFER. 

In  another  form,  attached  to  the  shaft  of  a  boring- 
bit  is  a  countersink,  or  cutting  lip,  that  will  enlarge 
the  hole  bored  by  the  bit,  it  being  adjustable  on  the 
bit,  and  having  a  gage  to  determine  the  depth  of  hole 
or  countersink. 

The  countersink  has  two  faces,  either  of  which 
may  be  presented  to  the  work.  One  has  a  tooth  and 
router,  which  makes  a  square-bottomed  countersink  ; 


and  the  other  has  a  chamfering  lip,  whicli  makes  a 
conical  countersink. 

The  duimfering-bit  {d),  for  opening  holes  so  as  to 
admit  the  conical  heads  of  the  ordinary  wood-screw, 
consists  of  a  conical  reamer  with  teeth.  It  may  be 
employed  on  wood,  metal,  or  other  material  which 
is  to  receive  the  head  of  the  wood-screw. 

The  gage  is  adjustable  on  the  countersinker,  and 
the  latter  on  tlie  .stem  of  the  bit,  so  the  hole  may  be 
made  of  a  regulated  depth,  and  the  countersink  also. 

Other  gages  adaptable  to  the  use  of  bits  are  shown 
under  the  head  of  Augeh-gaoe  (which  see). 

The  e.cpanding  center-bit  [e)  consists  of  a  shank  and 
center-point,  and  a  lancet,  or  chisel-shaped  cutter, 
whose  distance  from  the  center  is  regulated  by  slip- 
ping the  bar,  like  that  of  a  beam-compass,  in  the 
socket  of  the  head,  a  set  screw  maintaining  it  at  its 
adjustment.  This  serves  for  cutting  out  disks,  or 
for  cutting  circles  for  inlaying. 

For  cutting  hard  wood,  such  as  the  finger  and  key 
holes  of  Hutes,  bits  ai-e  employed   . 
with  a  square  point  and  two  di-  Fig  C94. 

ametrical  cutting-lips  {cj.  Fig.  694); 
the  smaller  one  approaches  very 
closely  the  characterof  adrill,  in- 
to which,  indeed,  many  of  the  bits 
sensibly  glide,  especially  those 
adapted  for  woi'king  in  hard 
woods,  and  other  materials  hard- 
er than  wood,  such  as  bone  and 
metal. 

The  French  bit  (h),  for  hard 
wood,  is  a  diill,  and  as  such  is 
used  in  a  lathe-head.  The  cen- 
ter-|ioint  and  two  sides  merge 
into  an  easy  curve,  which  is 
sharpened  all  the  way  round  and 
a  little  beyond  the  largest  part.  Boring-Eiis 

The   German  jtod-bit   {k.    Fig. 
695)  has  a  long  elliptical  pod  and  a  screw-point, 
makes  a  taper  to  the  end  of  the  hole  unless  it  is 
driven  clear  through. 

The  center-bit  consists  of  three  parts  :  a  center 
point  or  pin,  filed  triangularly,  which  serves  as  a 
guide  for  ]iosition  ;  a  thin  cutting-point  or  nicker 
that  cuts  through  the  fibers  and  circnniscribes  the 
hole  ;  and  a  broad  chisel-edge  or  louter,  placed  ob- 
liquely, and  tearing  up  the  wood  within  the  circle 
marked  out  by  the  point. 

C'enter-liits  are  also  made  with  plug  centers, 
so  as  to  follow  in  a  hole  previously  made,  the  cir- 
cular culler  and  router  enlarging  the  hole.  See 
Auger. 

Another  form  of  the  center-bit  is  that  of  the  wine- 
cooper,  which  consists  of  a  conical  jdug  armed  with  a 
bit  at  its  end.  The  hole  having  been  made,  the  plug 
instantly  di'ops  into  the  hole  and  prevents  the  loss 
of  li(iuor.     See  AuoEii. 

An  annular  bit,  consisting  of  a  center-point  with- 
out the  router,  but  having  one  or  more  cutting  teeth, 
is  u.sed  to  cut  out  disks  of  metal,  wood,  horn,  bone, 
shell,  or  paper  for  buttons.  It  is  then  called  a  but- 
ton-tool. (See  c.  Fig.  693. )  See  Atiger,  Axnulau, 
where  several  are  represented,  which  only  ditt'er  in 
size  from  the  button-tool.  This  tool  also  approaches, 
in  princi]ile  and  action,  the  Trephine  and  Crown 
Saws  (which  see). 

Twisted  drills,  difieringinsome  iletails,  are  in  much 
favor  among  American  mechanics,  but  for  some  reason 
are  not  so  i)opular  in  Europe.  They  are  an  Ameri- 
can invention,  and  the  subject  having  been  treated 
onc('  under  Auc.Ens  (which  see),  it  will  not  be  well 
to  duidicate  the  remarks,  or  perhaps  necessary  to  add 
to  them  here. 


It 


BIT. 


•289 


BIT-KEY. 


Tliere  are  four  iiiodes  of  forniing  the  twist,  tliough 
they  are  not  ei|iially  jiopidar  or  coiuraon  :  — 

A  ribbon  coiled. 

A  flat  plate  twisted. 

A  spiral  rib  on  a  straiglit,  central  stem. 

A  spirally  grooved  cylinder. 

The  spiral  ribbon  m  is  a  bar  liaving  a  half-round 
section.  This  is  twisted  so  ivs  to  tlirow  the  Hat  side 
to  the  exterior  to  form  the  outside  of  tlie  cylinder  ; 
the  inside  is  not  filled  up  by  the  nu'tal,  but  makes 
a  hollow  spiral,  and  the  bottom  end  has  a  single 
cutting-lip. 

Tlie  twisted  flat  bar  n  assumes  the  form  of  a 
double-threaded  screw,  no  central  vacancy  existing 
in  the  twist.  Tlie  end  terminates  in  a  worm  which 
leads  the  auger  into  its  work,  as  in  the  gimlet,  and 
each  of  the  two  lips  has  a  cutting  tooth  and  a  rout- 
ing cutter. 

Fig  095 


Spiral-Bits. 

The  spiral-rib  bit  o  is  known,  especially  in  Eng- 
land, as  the  American  bit,  and  lias  a  cylindrical  shaft, 
around  which  is  twisted  and  brazed  a  single  fin  or 
rib ;  or  the  bit  maybe  swaged  between  dies,  or  twisted 
from  a  central  stem  with  a  single  straight  rib. 

Behind  the  worm,  as  in  example  p,  may  be  a  small 
diametric  mortise  for  the  rece]>tion  of  a  detached  cut- 
ter which  has  the  nicking-poiiit  and  cutting-lip  of 
the  ordinary  center-bit.  The  cutter  is  kept  in  its 
central  position  by  a  squore  notch  which  embraces 
the  central  shaft  of  the  bit,  against  which  it  is  forced 
by  a  wedge.     Cutters  of  varying  sizes  may  be  used. 

The  (jroovcd  bit  s  has  a  cylindrical  stem  and  spiral 
groove.  The  gi-oove-shanked  gimlet  is  an  example 
of  it. 

The  Cook  and  the  Kasson  bits,  in  which  tlie  cutting- 
lips  are  formed  by  sharpening  the  curved  edges  of 
the  worm,  are  referred  to  under  Auger  (which  see). 
They  cut  admirably. 

The  reaming  bit  is  a  broach  of  hardened  steel, 
generally  four-sided,  and  used  to  enlarge  holes  in 
metal. 

Expanding-bits  are  useful  in  two  ways  :  — 

To  render  a  single  bit  applicable  for  boring  holes 
of  varying  sizes. 

_  To  enlarge  the  size  of  a  hole  beneath  the  surface, 
giving  it  an  undercut  or  dovetail  character. 

One  fonn  of  expandiiuf-bit,  t,  has  a  central  portion 
which  has  the  point,  and  a  hinged  portion  which  car- 
ries the  scribe  and  the  router.  The  movalile  portion 
is  set  by  a  screw,  so  as  to  regulate  the  radius  of  the 
hole. 

Another  form,  u;  has  three  radial  cutters,  which 
are  expanded  by  means  of  a  taper  wedge  and  an  axial 
.screw.     The  latter  is  operated  by  a   screw-diiver. 


Fig.  696. 


Expanding-Bits* 

whose  end  is  introduced  into  the  socket,  the  thread- 
ed end  of  which  is  the  means  of  securing  it  to  the 
brace,  chuck,  or  mandrel. 

b.  The  cutting-iron  of  a  plane.     See  Plane-bit. 

c.  The  cutting-iron  inserted  in  the  revolving  head 
of  a  planing,  nioluing,  tonguing,  and  grooving,  or 
similar  machine. 

d.  The  cutting-blade  of  an  axe,  hatchet,  or  simi- 
lar tool,  as  distinguished  from  the  pole,  which  forms 
a  hammer  in  some  tools. 

3.  (Harness.)  The  iron  part  of  a  bridle  which  is 
inserted  in  the  mouth  of  a  horse,  and  having  rings 
by  which  the  chcek-slrajys  and  reins  are  attached. 
See  BuiDLE-BlT. 

4.  {Jaw-Tools.)  The  jaw  of  a  tongs,  pinchers,  or 
other  similar  gi-asping-tool,  e.  g.  flat-bit  tongs. 

5.  (Tinman's  Tools.)  The  copper  piece  of  a  sol- 
dering-tool  riveted  to  an  iron  shank.     A  copper-bit. 

6.  (Metal -  ll'orking .)  A  boring-tool  for  metal, 
many  of  which  are  called  hits ;  as,  half -round  bit. 
rose-bit,  cylinder-bit.     See  DniLL. 

7.  The  metallic  connecting  joint  for  the  ribs  and 
stretchers  of  umbrellas. 

A  P|-shaped  piece  of  metal  swaged  into  shape  and 
clamped  or  soldered  to  the  lib,  which  is  secured  to 
it  by  a  wire  pin  passing  through  an  eye  in  the  stretch- 
er and  holes  in  each  of  its  legs.  The  cross-formed 
blank  is  bent  up  to  embrace  the  back  of  the  rib  and 
closed  on  to  it  ;  the  legs  are  pierced  with  holes  for 
the  joining-pin  ;  Middle-hit ;  Get. 

Bite.  {Printing.)  An  imperfect  portion  of  an 
impression,  owing  to  the  frisket  overlapping  a  por- 
tion of  the  form  and  keeping  the  ink  from  so  much 
of  the  paper. 

Bite-in.  (Engraving. )  The  process  of  corroding 
an  etched  plate.     See  Etching. 

Bit-key.     A  key  adapted  for  the  permutation 

Fig.  697. 


aaaas 


Bit-Key. 


BIT-STOCK. 


290 


BLACKING. 


Bit-Slock. 


lock,  the  steps  being  formed  by  movable  bits,  a.s  in 

the  Hobbs  lock. 

Bit-stock.  Tlie  handle  by  which  a  bit  is  held 
and  rotated.  It  has  a  Hat  but- 
ton iijion  which  the  pressure  is 
-X  exerted,  and  is  curved  about  mid- 
way into  a  D-shape,  to  atlbrd  con- 
venient grasp  to  the  hand.  Also 
called  a  brace.  The  sjiecial  de- 
vices usually  relate  to  niean.s  for 
(irmly  holding  and  readily  releas- 
ing the  bit'  lu  Fig.  698,  the 
end  of  the  shank  of  the  bit  abuts 
against  a  sliding  center-piece  C 
hacked  by  a  spring.  The  shoul- 
der of  the  tool  is  embraced  by 
the  jaws  a  a  on  the  end  of  the 
bit-stock ;  these  are  closeil  or 
opened  by  a  sleeve  D,  which  has 
an  inclined  slot  traversed  by  a 
pin,  wliich  jirescrihes  the  longi- 
tudinal motions  of  the  sleeve. 

Bit-pinch'ers.  (Locksmilh- 
iiiff.)  Pinchers  having  curved  or 
recessed  jaws. 

Bitt.  {Naulical.)  Primarily, 
a  post  secured  to  several  decks, 

and  serving  to  fasten  the  cable  as  the  ship  rides  at 

anchor.     Rklin()-bltt ;  tmcrping-bitt. 

Other  bitts  are  used  for  certain  purposes  ;  as  — 

a.  The  jmwl-bitls,  to  which  the  pawls  of  the  wind- 
lass are  secured. 

b.  The  cari-ick  or  loindlass  bitts,  in  which  the  bar- 
rel of  the  windlass  is  journaled. 

c.  Wiiuh-bitls,  similar  in  purpose  to  h. 

The  heel  of  the  bowsiuit  is  stepped  between  bow- 
sprit-bitls,  and  is  prevented  from  canting  up  by  a 
cross-piece  bolted  to  the  bitts. 

d.  Belaying-bitts  are  smaller  than  ridiruj-hilts,  and 
consist  of  two  upright  posts  and  a  cross-piece.  They 
are  used  for  belaying  the  larger  ropes,  such  as  the 
sheets  and  braces. 

For  belaying  ropes  in  order  of  size,  — 

A  riding-bitt.  A  belaying-cleat. 

A  kevel.  A  belaying-pin. 

A  belaying-bitt. 

Bit'ter-end.  (Nautical.)  The  part  of  the  cable 
abaft  the  bitts.  The  last  end  of  a  cable  in  veering 
out.     The  clinching  end. 

Bitt-heads.  (Skipbuildiny. )  The  upright  tim- 
bers bolted  to  several  decks,  and  serving  as  posts  to 
which  the  cable  is  secured.  They  correspond  to  bol- 
lards on  a  wharf  or  quay.     Knight-heads. 

Bit'ting-rig'ging.  (Saddler ij.)  A  bridle,  sur- 
cingle, baek-strap,  and  crupper.  The  bridle  has  a 
gag-rein  and  side-reins,  the  latter  buckling  to  the 
surcingle.  The  rigging  is  placed  on  young  horses 
to  give  them  a  good  carriage,  but  must  be  released 
occasionally,  as  the  bent  position  of  the  neck  and 
elevation  of  the  head  is  unnatural,  and  takes  time  to 
acquire. 

Bitt-stop'per.  (Nautical.)  A  rope  rove  through 
a  knei'  of  the  liding-bitt  and  used  to  clinch  a  cable. 

Bi-zet'.  (Diamond-Cattinrj.)  The  upper  faceted 
portion  of  a  brilliant-cut  diamoml  which  jirojects 
from  the  setting.  It  has  one  third  of  the  whole 
depth  of  the  gem,  being  cut  in  32  facets,  which  oc- 
cupy the  zone  between  the  girdle  and  the  table.     See 

BlUMJANT. 

Black.  The  pigment  which  absorbs  all  the  light 
rays  is  usually  carbon  in  some  form. 

Charcoal  is  ju'cpared  by  heating  wood  to  redness  in 
a  position  protected  from  the  oxygen  of  the  atmosphere. 


Bone-black  is  prepared  by  the  distillation  of  bone 
in  retorts. 

Animal  charcoal  is  another  name  for  bone-black. 

Irory-bldck  is  a  bone-black  obtained  from  cuttings, 
raspings,  dust,  and  scrajis  of  ivory. 

Lauip-lilack  is  the  soot  obtained  by  collection  from 
the  buridng  of  impure  and  refuse  resinous  matters 
and  oils. 

Spanish-blctck  is  the  carbon  of  cork. 

Peach-black  is  obtained  from  peach-stones. 

Frankfort-black  is  the  carbon  oljtained  from  the 
marc  of  grapes,  wine-Ices,  peach-kernels,  and  bone- 
shavings. 

German-black  is  another  name  for  the  Frankfort. 

Vine-black  is  the  carbon  of  the  grapevine. 

Gra2Jhite,  also  called  plumbaiju  and  black-lead 
(misnomers),  is  a  form  of  mineral  carbon.  See  Bone- 
black  ;  CiiAP.coAL  ;  Lamt-black,  etc. 

Blackboard.  A  diagram  boanl  used  in  schools 
aPid  lecture-rooms  for  the  public  demonstration  of 
problems,  the  exhibition  of  examples,  and  the  illus- 
tration of  propositions  in  natural  philosophy,  etc. 
They  are  prepared  by  closely  joining  together  well- 
seasoned  boards  planed  smooth,  and  painting  them 
with  sevei'al  coats  of  black  paint  mixed  with  hnely 
pulverized  pumice-stone  or  similar  material,  so  as  to 
impart  a  slight  roughness  to  the  face,  that  the  chalk 
employed  in  writing  may  leave  distinct  marks  on  the 
board  and  yet  rub  olf  freely. 

Black'en-ing.  1.  (Founding.)  An  impalpable 
powder,  usually  charcoal,  employed  by  molders  to 
"dust  "  the  "  partings  "  of  the  mold. 

2.  (Leathcr-Manufaeturc.)  A  solution  of  sulphate 
of  iron  applied  to  the  grain  side  of  the  skin  while 
wet ;  it  unites  with  the  gallic  acid  of  the  tan,  and 
produces  a  black  d3'e. 

Black  Flux.  (Mctallurgij.)  A  material  used  to 
assist  in  the  melting  of  various  metallic  substances. 
It  is  made  by  mixing  equal  parts  of  niter  and  tartar, 
and  deflagrating  them  together.  The  black  sub- 
stance which  remains  is  a  compound  of  charcoal  and 
the  carbonate  of  potassa. 

Black-ground  H-lu'mi-na-tor.  (Optical  In- 
strument.) One  in  which  an  o)iai|Ue  surface  is  intro- 
duced behind  the  object,  while  illuminating  rays  are 
directed  around  and  upon  it.  For  forms  of  this  see 
SroT-LEXs  ;  Pai'.abolic  Illuminatoh. 

Black'lng.    A  composition  for  polishing  leather. 

Recipes.  Liquid  blacking  :  1.  Ivory-black,  5  oz.  ; 
treacle,  4  oz.  ;  sweet  oil,  j  oz.  ;  triturate  until  the 
oil  is  tlioroughly  mixed  in  ;  then  stir  in  gradually  J 
pint  each  of  vinegar  and  beer  lees. 

2.  Ivory-black,  1  lb.  ;  sperm-oil,  2  oz.  ;  beer  and 
vinegar  each  one  pint,  or  sour  beer  1  quart. 

3.  Bryaxt  and  Jajies's  patent  india-rubber  liq- 
uid blacking  :  india-rubber  (in  small  pieces),  18  oz.  ; 
hot  rape.seed-oil,  9  lbs.  (1  gall.)  ;  ivory-black,  in 
fine  powder,  60  lbs.  ;  treacle,  45  lbs.  ;  add  gum-ara- 
bic, dissolved  in  vinegar,  1  lb. ;  triturate  the  nnxture 
in  a  paint-mill ;  place  in  a  wooden  vessel,  and  arid 
12  lbs.  sulphuric  acid  ;  stir  daily  J  hour  for  14 
days;  then  add  3  lbs.  of  gum-arabic,  and  repeat  the 
stirring  daily  for  14  days,  when  the  blacking  will  be 
ready  for  use. 

Paste  :  — 

Ivory-black  ....  4  pounds. 
Molasses  ....  3  pounds. 
Sperm-oil  (hot)  .  .  .9  ounces. 
Gum-arabic  ...         1  ounce. 

Vinegar  .         .         .         .12  ounces. 

Mix  ;  stir  occasionally  during  6  days.  More  vine- 
gar will  liquefy  the  conqiound. 

The  addition  of  sulphuric  acid  to  ivory-black  and 


BLACKISG-BEUSH. 


291 


BLACKSMITH'S  TOOLS. 


sugar   produces  sulphate  of  lime,  and   soluble  acid 
phosphate  of  lime,  which  makes  a  tenacious  paste. 
Liebig's  reeiiie  :  — 


Fig.  700. 


Ivon'-black 
Molasses  . 
Hydrocliloric  acid 
Sulphuric  acid 
Water . 


ad.  lib. 


Harness-blacking  :  1.  Glue  or  gelatine,  4  oz.  ; 
gum-arabic,  3  oz.  ;  water,  j  pint  ;  dissolve  by 
heat ;  add  treacle,  7  oz.  ;  ivory-black  (in  very  fine 
powder),  5  oz.  ;  and  gently  evaporate  until  of  a 
proper  consistency  when  cold,  stirring  all  the 
time.     To  be  kept  corked. 

2.  Mutton-suet,  2  oz.  ;  beeswa-t,  6  oz.  ;  melt,  add 
sugar  candy,  6  oz.  ;  soft  soap,  2  oz.  ;  lampblack,  2J 
oz.  ;  indigo  (in  fine  powder),  h  oz.  ;  when  thor- 
oughly incorporated,  add  oil  of  tuqientine,  J  pint. 

3.  Beeswax,  1  lb.  ;  ivoiy -black,  J  lb.  ;  prussian 
blue,  1  oz.  (ground  in  linseed-oil,  2  oz.) ;  oil  of  tur- 
pentine, 3  oz.  ;  copal  varnish,  1  oz.  ;  niLx  well  to- 
gether, and  form  into  cakes  while  wann. 

4.  To  the  last,  while  still  hot,  add  soft  soap,  4  oz.  ; 
oil  of  tui-pentine,  6  oz.  ;  put  into  pots  or  tins  while 
still  wami. 

Black'ing-brush.  A  brush  for  cleaning,  black- 
ing, or  polisliing  boots  ;  a  stitf  brush  for  removing 
dirt  ;  a  soft  brush  for  applying  the  blacking,  and  a 
medium  bmsh  for  polishing.  A  blacking  and  a  pol- 
ishing brush  on  the  respective  sides  of  the  same 
brush-back  is  the  usual  arrangement. 

Black'ing- 
Kg.  689.  case.    A    case 

forblackingand 
brushes.  That 
sho^\Ti  in  Fig. 
699  has  a  re- 
ceptacle in  the 
chair-seat 
which  contains 
the  appliances 
and  also  a  foot- 
rest.  The  seat 
b  is  hinged,  and 
ser^'es  as  a  cover 
to  the  recepta- 
cle. 

Black-jack. 
(Mining. )  A 
native  sulphu- 
retofzinc.  Also 
known  as  mock- 
lead.  See 
Blende. 

Black-lead. 
A  native  form 
of  carbon  some- 
times contain- 
ing traces  of  iron.  The  terms  hlacl'-lcad  and  phim- 
hago  are  misnomers,  as  the  article  has  no  lead  in  its 
composition,  though  it  gives  a  mark  like  lead  when 
dra^vn  over  a  surface.  Gniphilc  is  the  preferable  term, 
lefening  to  its  uses  in  \Triting  and  drawing.  See 
GK.\rHITE. 

Black-lead'ing  Ma-chine'.  A  machine  for 
coating  the  surfaces  of  electrotype  molds  \vith  plum- 
bago. The  carriage  which  supports  the  mold  is 
moved  gradually  along  the  bed  l>eneath  the  brush, 
which  has  a  quick,  \-ibraton,'  movement  in  the  same 
ilirection.  The  graphite,  being  sprinkled  on  the 
mold,  is  caused  to  penetrate  the  recesses  of  the  let- 
tei-s  in  the  niatrLx  by  the  penetrating  points  of  the 
bristles. 


Black-plate.  The  sheet-iron  plate  before  tin- 
ning. 

Black'smith's  Chis'el.  Blacksmith's  chisels, 
for  cutting  iron  bars,  are  divided  into  two  principal 
classes,  for  hot  and  for  cold  iron,  distinguished  from 
each  other  by  the  diiferent  angles  of  the  cutting  edge, 
and  by  the  former  kind  having  a  wooden  handle  in- 
serted through  an  eye  at  right  angles  to  the  length 
of  the  chisel. 

The  hardy  is  a  chisel  having  a  tang  fitting  into  a 
hole  in  the  anvil.  (See  Anvil.)  When  used  upon 
hot  iron,  the  chisel  has  a  withe  of  hazel  or  other  soft 
wood  wound  around  it. 

Black'smith's  Tools.    See  the  following  :  ^ 


BtackiTt%-Case. 


.\nvil. 

Barnacles. 

Bar-shoe. 

Batterv-forge. 

Beak. " 

Bellows. 

Black-work 

Bore. 

Butteris. 

C'alking-anvil. 

Calking-tongs. 

Calking-tools. 

Calking-vise. 

Calk-shai-pener. 

Calk -swage. 

Cauter\". 

Chisel.' 

Clincher. 

CoUar-tool. 

Coujiler. 

Creaser. 

Cutting-shoe. 

Die. 

Drift. 

Foot-rest. 

Forge. 

Forge,  Portable 

Forging-machine. 

Fuller. 

Fullering-tool. 

Hammer. 

Hand-hook. 

Hardy. 

Hoof-spreader. 

Horse-holder. 

Horseshoe. 

Horseshoe  an^nl. 

Horseshoe  machine. 


Horseshoe  nail. 

Horseshoe  nail-machine. 

Horseshoe  vise. 

Jam-weld. 

Jumping. 

Lunette. 

Slandrel. 

Jlitcr-iron. 

Jlonkey. 

Oliver. 

Ox-shoe. 

Fliers. 

Porter. 

Pinck-punch. 

Pritchel. 

Punch. 

liiveting-tools. 

Kounding-tool. 

Seaiing-iron. 

Slake-trough. 

Sledge. 

Snap-head. 

Stifle-shoe. 

Stock. 

Stock  and  dies. 

Stocks. 

Striker. 

Swage. 

Swage-block. 

Tap. 

Tilt. 

Tilt-hanmier. 

Tire-bender. 

Tire-heater. 

Tire-shrinker. 

Toe-calk. 

Tongs. 

Top-tool. 


BLACK-STRAKE. 


292 


BLANKET-WASHER. 


Triblet. 
Tuyei-e. 
Tw'itch. 


Upsettiiig-machiue. 
Weldincr-swa'Tt'. 


Black-strake.  (Shipbuilding.)  The  strake next 
bc'low  tile  lijwiT  or  gun-deck  jiorts. 

Black  Tin.  {Mining.)  Tin  ore,  washed  and 
dressed,  beaten  into  a  black  powder,  and  ready  for 
smelting. 

Black-'wall' Hitch.  (Nautical.)  A  bend  to  the 
back  of  a  tackle-hook  or  to  a  rope,  made  by  passing 
the  liight  round  tlie  object  and  jamming  it  by  its 
own  standing  part.     See  HiTcii, 

Black-Tvork.  The  work  of  the  blacksmith  in 
contradistinction  to  bright-work  or  the  work  of  the 
silversmith. 

Blade.  In  a  mechanical  sense  this  is  a  sharp 
instrument,  relatively  long,  thin,  and  Hat.  It  is 
applied  to  objects  which  have  the  proportions  of  a 
knife  or  sword,  such  as  the  sharp-edged  beaters  in 
lieinp  or  flax  brakes,  the  cutters  in  some  descriptions 
of  corn-harvesters,  and  to  other  objects  which  have 
the  function  of  knives  or  cutters. 

A  blade,  in  nsual  jjarlance,  is  that  of  a  knife,  sword, 
axe,  adz,  saw,  and  is  less  frequently  applied  to  the 
tools  which  are  driven  endwise,  such  as  the  chisel 
and  gouge. 

1.  (Nautical.)  a.  The  part  of  the  anchor-arm 
which  receives  the  palm,  forming  a  ridge  behind  the 
latter. 

b.  The  wash  of  an  oar  ;  that  part  which  is  dipped 
in  I'owing. 

2.  The  locb  of  a  saw. 

3.  (IFcapoii.)  a.  The  ifarfe  of  a  bayonet  consists 
of  the 

Point,  Flat, 

Back,  Fullers  or  grooves. 

b.  The  flat  metallic  portion  of  a  knife  or  sword 
which  is  secured  in  the  handle  or  hilt  by  a  tang. 
The  blade  of  a  sword  consists  of  the 
Shoulder ;  at  the  junction  of  the  tang. 
Forte ;  half  the  blade  nearest  the  guard. 
Foible  or  faible;  half  the  blade  nearest  to  thepoint. 

Tang.  Flat. 

Point.  Edge. 

Back. 

4.  (Agriculture.)  The  share  of  a  shovel-plow, 
cultivator,  or  horse-hoe.    These  are  of  various  forms. 

Fig.  701. 


Plow  and  Cultivator  Blades. 

5.  (Shijnorighting.)  The  float  or  vane  of  a  pad- 
dle-wheel or  )iropeller. 

Blanc'ard.  (Fabric.)  A  linen  cloth  of  Nor- 
mandy, made  of  half-bleached  thread. 

Blan'chard  Lathe.  A  lathe  for  turning  irregu- 
lar forms,  invented  by  Tliomas  Blanchard.  It  was 
the  first  successful  lathe  for  turning  gun-stocks,  axe- 
handles,  shoe-lasts,  etc.    The  idea  was  partly  elicited 


in  Brunei's  block-turning  machine.  See  Blook- 
.M.VKiNG  MAnniXE  ;  Lathe. 

Blanched  Cop'per.  (.Metal lurqij.)  An  alloy 
coiii[>osedot  copper,  8  oz.,  and  A  oz.  of  neutral  ar.seui- 
cal  salt,  fused  together  under  a  llux  of  calcined  bo- 
ra.Y,  charcoal-dust,  and  fine  powder-ed  glass. 

Tin  or  zinc  is  addeil  in  the  white  tombac  of  the 
East  Indies,  —  muck  silver. 

Blauch-im'e-ter.  An  instrument  for  measuring 
the  bleaching  power  of  a  chloride.     See  Chlorim- 

ETER. 

Blanch'ing.     (yfetallurgy.)    Tinning  of  copper. 

Blank.  1.  (Archilccture.)  Blank  doors  or  blank 
zvindoir.i  are  imitations,  and  used  for  ornamentation 
or  to  secure  uniformity  in  the  design. 

2.  (Metal-working.)  a.  A  piece  of  metal  brought 
to  the  required  shape  and  ready  for  the  finishing 
operation,  whatever  it  may  be. 

b.  A  planchct  of  metal,  weighed,  tested,  and  milled, 
is  a  blank  ready  for  the  die-press,  which  converts  it 
into  a  coin. 

c.  A  strip  of  softened  steel  made  into  the  requii'cd 
shape  is  a  blank,  which  cutting  and  tempering  trans- 
form into  afile. 

d.  A  piece  of  iron  with  a  flaring  head,  and  other- 
wise properly  shaped  ready  for  nicking  and  thread-  ^ 
iug,  is  a  screw-blank,  which  Avith  the  final  operations 
becomes  a  screw. 

The  list  might  be  prolonged,  but  the  above  is  suf- 
ficiently indicative. 

Blaiik-car'tridge.  An  inclosed  charge  of  pow- 
der without  shot.  Used  for  firing  warnings  or  sa- 
lutes and  in  exercising  troops. 

Blank-cut'ting  Ma-chine'.  (Metal-working. ) 
A  machine  for  cutting  out  \iie.;es  of  metal  for  fabri- 
cation into  articles ;  such  as  keys,  files,  buttons, 
etc. 

Blank'et.  1.  (Fabric.)  A  coarse,  heavy,  open, 
woiden  fabric,  adapted  for  bed  covering,  and  usually 
napped.  It  may  be  twilled  or  otherwise.  A  name 
applied  to  any  coarse  woolen  robe  used  as  a  wrap- 
ping. 

'*  Antiphancs,  that  witty  man,  pays : 
'  Cooks  come  from  Elis,  pots  froai  Argos, 
Corinth  blankets  sends  in  barges.'  " 

ATaETimvs  (A.  D.  g20). 

The  poncho  is  a  blanket  with  a  hole  in  the  center 
for  the  head  to  go  through.  It  is  worn  by  the  South 
Americans,  Mexicans,  and  Pueblo  Indians. 

2.  (Printing.)  A  piece  of  woolen,  felt,  or  pre- 
pared iiibber,  placed  between  the  inner  and  outer 
tympans,  to  form  an  elastic  interposit  between  the 
face  of  the  type  and  the  descending  platen. 

Blank'et  -wash'er.  A  machine  for  washing 
printer's  blankets.     Ordinarily  it  consists  of  a  vat 

Fig.  702. 


Banliet-Washer. 

and  rollers,  the  blanket  being  alternately  soaked  and 
squeezed.  In  the  illustration  a  scraper  or  doctor  is 
used  to  clean  the  roller.  A  similar  machine  is  used 
for  calicoes  and  other  fabrics. 


BLANK-TIRE. 


293 


BLAST-FURNACE. 


Blank-tire.    A  tire  without  a  flange. 

Blare.  (Xautical.)  A  paste  of  liaii-  and  tar  for 
calking  the  seams  of  boats. 

Blast.  1.  (.^/cto^^(W^■i/t(/.)  An  artificial  cuiTent 
of  air  to  urge  a  fire  ;  as,  hot-blast :  cold-b/ast. 

2.  {-Engineering.)  The  exploding  of  a  bursting 
charge,  for  rending  rocks,  etc.     See  Blasting. 

3.  (Slcam-Euginccring.)  Exhau.st  steam  directed 
>ip  a  chimney  to  urge  a  tire. 

Blast-en'gine.  (Pneumatics.)  a.  A  ventilating 
machine  on  shipboard  to  draw  foul  air  from  below 
and  induce  a  current  of  fresh  air. 

A  machine  for  urging  the  fire  of  a  furnace.  See 
Blowei:. 

Blast-fur'nace.  (Met(dlu,rgij.)  A  furnace  into 
which  a  current  of  air  is  artificially  introduced,  to 
assist  the  natural  draft  or  to  supply  an  increased 
amount  of  oxygeu  to  a  mineral  under  treatment. 

Fig  703. 


!      A,  shaft,  fire-room,  tunnel ;  the  internal  cavity. 

B,  helhj  ;  the  widest  part  of  the  shaft. 

C,  lining,  shirt;  the  inner  coat  of  fire-bricks. 


Btast-Furnace  Sectioru 


'  of  brick 


Blast- Fitmaee, 

Fig.  703  is  a  perspective  view  of  the  furnace.  The 
hot-blast  apparatus  is  seen  at  the  left.  In  front  is 
the  sand-bed,  into  which  the  metal  flows  to  form 
pigs. 

The  parts  of  a  blast-furnace  are  named  as  fol- 
lows :  — 


D,  secmid  lining,  casing ;  an  outer  casing 
with  an  interval  between  it  and  the  former. 

E,  stuffing ;  the  filling  of  sand  or  coke-dust  be- 
tween the  lining  and  casing. 

F,  mantle,  oilter-stack,  building  ; 
the  outer  wall  of  masonry. 

G,  mouth,  furnace-top ;  the  open- 
ing at  top  for  the  ore,  coal,  and 
limestone. 

H,  landing,  platform ;  the  stage 
or  bank  at  the  furnace  mouth. 

I,  vail,  crourn,  dome;  the  W'all 
around  the  furnace-top. 

K,  boshes;  the  lower  part  of  the 
furnace  descending  from  the  bellg. 

L,  hearth ;  the  pit  under  the 
bo.shes,  by  which  the  melted  metal 
descends. 

M,  crucible  ;  the  hearth  in  which 
the  cast-iron  collects.  The  low"est 
part  is  the  sole. 

N,  dtim  ;  a  stone  at  the  end  of 
the  fire-hearth. 

Tap-hole  :  an  opening  cut  away 
in  the  hardened  loam  of  the  dam. 

0,  tymp-arch,  working-arch,  folds,  fauhls  ;  the 
arch  of  the  mantle  which  admit  to  the  fire- 
hearth. 

P,  tuyere-arch,  Umjer-arch ;  arch  of  the  mantle 
which  leads  to  the  tuyeres. 


BLAST-FURNACE. 


294 


BLASTING. 


Q,  tuyere,  twyer,  twerc ;  tlie  cast-iroii  pipe  which 
forms  thu  nozzle  for  the  blast. 

R,  S,  arches  for  ventilation. 

T,  channels  in  the  masonry  for  the  escape  of  moist- 
ure. 

A  large  Welch  blast-furnace  contains  150  tons  of 
ignited  material  (iron-ore,  coke,  and  lime.stone-IUix), 
and  requires  20,000  cubic  feet  of  air  per  minute.  Tlie 
weight  of  the  air  thrown  into  the  furnace  every  2-t 
hours  is  nine  times  the  weiglit  of  the  charge  of  fuel, 
ore,  and  flux. 

Bhist- furnaces  are  now  built  as  much  as  103i  feet 
liigh,  27  i  feet  at  the  bosh,  and  8  feet  at  the  hearth. 
Tlie  average  make  of  such  a  furnace  is  550  tons  weekly. 
The  consumption  of  coke  is  16  cwt.  per  ton  of  iron 
made,  and  9^  cwt.  of  limestone  per  ton  of  iron  wlu'U 
forge-iron  is  produced.  The  blast  is  supplied  by  si.v 
tuyeres  to  each.  A  cast-iron  pipe  is  carried  around 
each  surface,  from  which  smaller  pipes  branch  off  at 
equal  distances  to  the  tuyeres.  These  pipes  are  cov- 
ered by  a  non-conducting  composition,  but  wrought- 
irou  pipes  may  be  used  in  place  of  these,  lined  with 
fire-brick  inside  four  inches  in  thickne.ss.  The  fur- 
naces are  plated  outside,  and  closed  at  the  top  on 
the  cup  and  cone  principle.  The  blowing-engine  for 
the  two  furnaces  has  a  67-inch  steam-cylinder,  130- 
inch  blowing-cylinder,  10^  foot  stroke.  The  stoves 
used  heat  the  blast  to  1,400°.  Four  stoves  are  re- 
quired for  each  furnace.  Each  stove  has  two  rows 
of  pipes  ;  there  are  nine  double  pipes  in  each  row, 
11  feet  in  length  ;  the  inpe  is  of  the  flat  form,  the 
two  passages  in  each  being  13  inches  by  4  inches 
inside,  divided  by  a  partition  1  inch  thick,  the  whole 
of  tlie  metal  being  of  that  thickness,  which  renders 
them  much  lighter  than  the  old  form  of  pipes. 

The  blast  enters  at  one  side  of  a  row  of  pipes,  and 
must  pass  through  nine  double  pipes  before  it  makes 
its  exit  at  the  other  side.  The  figures  apply  to  the 
Cleveland  ore,  England.     See  Smelting. 


Fig.  705. 


Fig  706. 


Laboratory  Blast-Fiimace. 

A  small  blast-furnace 
for  the  laboratory,  such  as 
that  used  by  Faraday  at 
the  Royal  Institution, 
consists  of  an  outer  pot, 
which  is  bored  for  the 
nose  of  the  bellows,  and 
an  inner  pot,  whose  hot-  Blnsi-Fiinum. 

tom  was  cut  off  and  the 

interior  fitted  with  a  grating.  Pounded  glass-pot 
powder  was  packed  while  wet  in  the  interval  between 
the  two  pots.  Tlie  fuel  is  coke.  The  outer  pot  is 
18  inches  high  ami  13  inches  external  diameter. 
The  inner  pot  has  74  internal  diameter  at  top  and  5 
inches  at  bottom. 

Fig.   706  shows  a  view,  partly  in  section,  of  an 


Blast- Furnace. 


arrangement  in  which  an  annular  boiler  surmounts 
the  ore-chamber  of  tlie  furnace,  and  its  steam  passes 
by  a  pipe  to  a  tube,  where  it  is  associated  with  a  hot- 
blast  from  an  air- 
pump,  and  the  Fig.  707. 
combined  fluids 
are  drive  n 
through  the  tuy- 
eres into  the 
furnace.  The 
air-pump  C 
keeps  up  a  uni- 
form blast,  and 
is  itself  driven 
by  the  steam 
from  the  boiler 
B.  Hot  air  and 
superheated 
steam  are  min- 
gled and  injected 
into  the  furnace 
at    the    tuyeres 

Fig.  707  shows 
a  somewhat  dif- 
ferent form  of 
furnace,  with  the 
boiler  in  section. 

The  jacket-boiler  surmounts  the  ore-chamber,  form- 
ing the  tunnel-head  of  the  furnace.  An  inclined 
chute  passes  through  the  boiler,  and  is  the  means  of 
supiilying  the  ore  and  coal.  The  pipes  conducting 
the  steam  are  laid  in  cement. 

Blast-hearth.  (MdaUuryy.)  The  Scotch  ore- 
heartli  fir  ivihicing  lead  ores. 

Blast-hole.  {Hydraulics.)  The  induction  water- 
hole  .it  the  bottom  of  a  pump-stock. 

Blast'ing.  The  process  of  rending  rocks,  etc., 
by  means  of  boring,  filling  the  hole  with  an  explo- 
sive, and  then  firing  it  oil',  liniirovements  apper- 
tain to  the  modes  of  drilling  the  holes,  the  composi- 
tion of  the  explosive,  and  the  means  of  igniting. 

Gunpowder  is  said  to  have  been  first  used  for 
blasting  in  Germany  or  Hniigary,  A.  D.  1620  ;  and 
some  German  miners,  brought  to  England  by  Prince 
Rupert,  introduced  the  practice  at  the  copper  mine 
of  Eckford,  in  Staffordshire,  the  same  year. 

The  preliminary  operation  in  lilasting  consists 
in  boring  or  drilling  holes,  in  which  are  to  be  placed 
the  charges  of  gunpowdi'r  or  other  explosive  mate- 
rials employed  to  rend  the  rock. 

The  iin]ilemeiits  ordinarily  used  fen'  this  purpose 
are  the  jumper,  or  drill,  the  hammer,  and  the  scrajier. 
Tlie  juniper  is  a  bar  of  iron,  in  length  propor- 
tioned to  the  depth  of  hole  to  be  bored,  and  is  faced 
with  steel  for  a  part  of  its  length  :  tho.se  of  H  inches 
diameter  and  ujiward  are  worked  by  three  men,  two 
of  whom  strike  alternately  on  the  end  of  the  juniper 
with  hammers,  while  the  tliird  turns  it  so  as  to  con- 
stantly present  the  cutting  edge  to  a  fresh  surface  of 
stone. 

This  is  a  slow  and  laborious  operation,  experience 
having  .shown  that  in  granite  tliive  men  working  as 
above  with  a  juin]ier  of  3  inelies  diameter,  sudi  as  is 
used  for  boring  lioles  from  9  to  1 5  feet  deep,  would  not 
penetrate  more  than  about  4  feet  per  day  on  an  aver- 
age ;  or  with  a  24-ineh  jumper,  6  feet  per  day,  the 
last  being  employed  for  holes  from  5  to  10  feet  deep. 

Churn-jumpprs  are  so  called  from  the  manner  in 
which  tliey  are  worked,  liy  a  vertical  churning  or 
pounding  movement,  no  hammer  being  employed  ; 
they  have  a  steel  bit  at  each  end,  are  usually  worked 
by  two  men,  and  are  generally  of  smaller  diameter 
than  those  which  are  worked  by  a  hammer  ;  in  drill- 


BLASTING. 


295 


BLASTING. 


imj  holes  that  are  vertical  or  nearly  so,  and  in  mod- 
erately hard  rock,  they  are  found  more  advantageous 
than  the  others,  two  men  being  able  to  bore  about 
16  feet  per  day  with  a  churn-jumper  of  IJ  to  IJ  in 
diameter.  They  are  sometimes  used  with  a  spring 
rod  and  line,  much  in  the  manner  of  the  most  prim- 
itive way  of  boring  artesian  wells. 

General  Burgoyue  mentions  seeing  the  same  device 
in  use  in  blasting  the  calcareous  rocks  of  Marseilles, 
at  the  foot  of  the  hill  on  which  the  fort  of  Notre 
Dame  de  la  Garde  now  stands. 

The  common  way  of  charging  the  hole  is,  where 
the  moisture  is  not  e.vcessive,  to  pour  loose  powder 
into  it  to  a  certain  depth,  depending  on  the  judgment 
of  the  miner  (oue  third  the  depth  of  the  hole  is  a 
common  allowance  under  ordinary  circumstances)  ; 
the  needle,  which  is  a  wire  sufficiently  long  to  reach 
Wi'U  down  into  tlie  charge  of  powder,  and  provided 
with  a  handle  to  enable  its  easy  withdrawal,  is  then 
inserted  and  the  hole  tamped,  a  wad  of  hay,  straw, 
dry  turf,  or  other  suitable  raateri.d,  being  first  placed 
over  the  powder  ;  the  tamping  is  performed  by  ram- 
ming down  small  fragments  of  broken  brick  or  of 
stone  which  does  not  contain  silex  to  endanger  strik- 
ing tire,  by  means  of  an  iron  bar  called  a  tampiug- 
rod  ;  when  the  hole  is  tamped  nearly  up  to  the  level 
of  the  ground,  an  inch  or  two  of  moist  clay  is  usually 
pla:;id  over  the  tamping,  and  the  needle  withdrawn  ; 
it  nny  be  remarked  that  the  needle  should  be  fre- 
quently turned  as  the  ramming  proceeds,  so  that  it 
may  I33  witlidrawn  without  disturbing  the  tamping. 
The  priming  is  effected  by  pouring  fine  grained  pow- 
der down  the  hole  left  by  the  needle,  or,  what  is  bet- 
ter, straws  filled  with  powder  are  pushed  down,  com- 
municating with  the  blasting  charge  ;  a  bit  of  slow- 
match  or  touch-paper,  calculated  to  burn  long  enough 
to  allow  the  workman  to  retire  to  a  place  of  safety, 
is  then  ignited,  and  placed  in  contact  with  the  prim- 
ing. 

In  the  construction  of  the  Southeastern  Railway 
400,000  cubic  yards  of  compact  chalk  were  lifted 
from  the  face  of  the  Round  Down  Cliff,  two  miles 
west  of  Dover,  England,  at  a  single  blast. 

Three  charges  were  employed,  placed  in  chambers, 
70  feet  apart,  the  center  and  largest  one  being  placed 
at  a  salient  point  72  feet,  and  those  on  each  side  each 
56  feet  distant  from  the  face  of  the  clitl'.  The  charges 
of  powder  were  7,500  lbs.  in  the  main  chamber,  and 
5,500  lbs.  in  each  of  the  others.  Shafts  tapering 
from  bottom  to  top  were  driven  downward  from  a 
driftway  previously  cut  in  the  rock,  and  from  the 
bottoms  of  these  shafts  galleries  were  cut  at  right  an- 
gles to  the  driftway.  Tliese  were  also  enlarged  at 
their  inner  e.Ktremities,  to  secure  the  tamping.  The 
chambers  were  cut  at  right  angles  to  the  galleries. 
After  charging,  a  dry  wall  of  chalk  was  built  across 
the  moutlis  of  the  chambers  ;  the  galleries  and  shafts 
were  tamped  with  the  same  material,  and  the  tamp- 
ing was  extended  into  the  driftway  10  feet  on  each 
side  of  each  shaft.  Three  Daniell's  batteries  and 
three  sets  of  wires  were  used  for  firing  the  mines, 
which  was  done  simultaneously.  The  mass  of  rock 
removed  averaged  380  feet  in  hight,  360  in  length, 
and  80  in  thickness.  See  Aktesian-well  ;  Tux- 
N'EL ;  Well-borin'g  ;  and  Specific  Inde.xes  under 
Civil  Exgineeuixg  and  Mining. 

See  Raymond's  "Mines,  Mills,  and  Furnaces": 
J.  B.  Ford  &  Co.,  N.  Y.,  1871.  Blake's  "  Mining 
Machinery":  New  Haven,  1871.  Also,  "  Blasting 
and  Quarrying  of  Stone  and  Blowing  up  of  Bridge-s," 
by  LieutenHnt-General  Sir  J.  Burgoyne  of  the  Eng- 
lish Military  Engineers.  No.  35  of  Weale's  Rudi- 
mentary Series  :   London. 

The  following  table  from  General  Sir  Charles  Pas- 


ley's  "  ilemoranda  on  Mining"  will  give  the  means 
of  calculating  the  space  occupied  by  any  given  ciuan- 
tity  of  powder  in  round  holes  of  different  sizes,  from 
one  to  six  inches  :  — 


Diameter 
of  the 
hole. 

Powder  contained 
in  one  inch  of  liote. 

Powder  contained 
in  one  foot  of  hole. 

Depth  of  liole 
to  contain  1 
lb.  of  powder. 

Inches. 

lb.        oz. 

lb.         oz. 

Inches. 

1 

0       0.419 

0      5,028 

38197 

li 

0     o.yi2 

0     11.304 

16.976 

2 

0       1 07(5 

1       4.112 

9549 

25 

0       2.013 

1     15  416 

6.112 

3 

0       3.770 

2     13.240 

4  244 

3J 

0      5.131 

3     13572 

3118 

4 

0       6.702 

5      0.424 

2,387 

4i 

0      8.482 

6      5.784 

1886 

5 

0     10.472 

7     13.664 

1.528 

5i 

0    12.671 

9       8.052 

1.263 

6 

0     15.080 

11       4.960 

1.061 

The  following  table  shows  the  quantity  of  powder 
required  to  lift  from  its  bed  rock  of  usual  weight 
(about  IJ  tons  to  the  perch)  and  ordinary  consistence. 


Line  of  least 

Charts  of 

Line  of  least 

Charges  of 

resistance. 

powder. 

resistance. 

powder. 

Feet. 

lb.      02. 

Feet. 

lb.     oz. 

1.0 

i 

4 

2       0 

1.6 

H 

4.6 

2      13* 

2,0 

4 

5 

3      14* 

2,6 

7J 

6 

6      12 

3,0 

13J 

t 

10      Hi 

3.6 

1        51 

8 

16        0 

The  obstruction  known  as  Blossom  Rock  in  the 
harbor  of  San  Francisco  was  removed  by  construct- 
ing a  coffer-dam  around  a  portion  of  the  rock,  a  po- 
rous sandstone,  and  excavating  its  interior,  leaving 
a  shell  about  6  feet  thick,  supported  by  props,  to  re- 
sist the  pressure  of  the  water.  The  space  excavated 
measured  140  by  50  feet,  and  varied  in  depth  from 
4  to  29  feet.  23  tons  of  powder  were  used,  part  of 
which  was  inclosed  in  water- proof  casks,  and  the  re- 
mainder in  iron  tanks.  These  were  connected  by 
insulated  wires  with  an  electric  battery.  When  all 
was  ready,  the  coffer-dam  was  removed,  and  the  wa- 
ter permitted  to  fill  up  the  excavation,  acting  as  a 
tamping.  The  result  is  represented  to  have  been  en- 
tix'ely  successful. 

Maillefert's  process  in  removing  Way's  R:cf  in  the 
Hurl-Gate  (Hell  Gate)  obstruction,  on  the  East  Riv- 
er, N.  Y.,  consisted  in  depositing  a  quantity  of  pow- 
der on  the  surface  of  the  rock  to  be  removed,  and 
then  exploding  it.  There  is  no  cumbrous  apparatus 
used.  A  sounding-pole  to  ascertain  the  de])th,  a 
boat  to  contain  the  operators,  and  an  electric  battery, 
are  the  machinery  employed.  The  explosion  is  ef- 
fected by  electricity,  and  it  is  the  same  thing  whether 
the  operators  are  stationed  near  or  far,  they  need 
never  be  in  danger. 

The  force  of  the  current  is  such  as  to  render  it 
difficult  to  fix  drilling  apparatus.  The  process  was 
successfid  on  prouunences  and  to  a  certain  extent ; 
where  a  broad  area  was  flat,  the  value  of  the  process 
rapidly  diminished. 

Sheiburne's  apparatus  on  the  Frying-jjan  Rock,  in 
the  same  estuary,  was  a  heavy  stamping-drill,  oper- 
ated by  a  steam-engine,  and  acting  in  a  tube  which 
directed  its  blows  ;  the  hole  obtained  receiving  a 
charge  of  nitro-glycerine. 

The  work  of  removing  the  obstructions  in  the  East 
River  has  now  devolvecl  upon  the  United  States  En- 
gineers, under  General  Newton.  They  are  proceed- 
ing by  building  cofl'er-dams  and  driving  headings.  It 
is  a  regular  tunneling  business,  and  when  the  whole 


BLASTING-FUSE. 


296 


BLAST-MACHINE. 


rojf  is  blown  oH'  and  the  [lilLirs  biokeu  olT,  thf  new 
viver-bottoni  will  be  the  bottom  of  the  drifts,  phis 
what  of  the  rock  may  fall  baok  into  the  hole.  Sueh 
can  be  grappled  and  removed. 

Nitro-glyeerinc,  diialin,  dynamite,  and  various  oth- 
er corapovmds  of  territic  energy,  are  used  in  these  great 
engineering  projeets.  It  is  understood  that  nilru- 
glyeerine  has  been  the  jirineijial  agent  in  tlie  Jlount 
Cenis  tunnel,  as  it  has  been  for  some  years  past  in 
the  Hoosac. 

The  idea  of  blasting  by  a  torpedo  in  the  bottom  of 
an  oil-well,  to  open  crevices  and  increase  the  How  of 
oil,  seems  to  liave  been  entertained  by  a  number  of 
persons,  inehiding  Professor  Hare,  but  was  reduced 
to  praetiee  by  Colonel  Roberts.     See  Toiii'EDO. 

Blast'ing-fuse.  The  conunou  blasting-fuse  is 
merely  a  tube  tilled  with  a  comiiosition  which  will 
burn  a  sufficient  length  of  time  to  allow  the  person 
tiring  it  to  reach  a  place  of  safety  before  it  is  burnt 
out. 

Safety-fuse,  by  which  the  charge  can  be  fired 
by  a  man  at  a  considerable  distance,  is  also  gen- 
erally employed.  Some  of  these  consist  of  a  tape  „ 
of  soft  material  saturated  with  a  higlily  iiifiam- 
mable  compound  (fulminates  are,  we  believe, 
employed  in  some  to  increase  the  speed  of  the 
Hame),  and  covered  with  an  envelope  of  water- 
proof material.  Firing  by  electro-battery  is 
nuich  .safer. 

Blast'ing-nee'dle.  A  long  taper  piece  of 
copper,  or  iron  with  a  copper  point  ;  used  when 
tamping  the  hole  for  blasting,  to  make  by  its 
insertion  an  aperture  for  a  fuse  or  train. 

Blast'ing-pO'w'der.  Itwas  formerly  thought 
that  a  slow-burning  powder,  containing  a  com- 
paratively small  jiroportion  of  niter,  —  about  62 
per  cent,  — was  more  etlective  for  blasting  pur- 
poses, allowing  more  time  to  proilnce  a  rending 
effect  upon  rock  before  being  consumed  than  the 
quicker  and  stronger  powder  used  in  tire-arms  ; 
but  the  tendency  now  is  toward  the  use  of  sub- 
stances of  far  greater  rapidity  of  ignition,  and  t-^ 
greater  e.xpansion  in  the  act  of  assuming  the 
gaseous  state,  than  even  the  strongest  gunpow- 
der. 

Among  more  than  thirty  patented  compositions  for 
blasting  powder  are  the  following  ingredients.  The 
specitio  combination  in  each  ease  might  be  given 
would  .space  permit. 

1.   Forms  of  carbon  :  — 


Gambler. 
Brown  coal. 
Peat. 
Logwood. 
Bark. 

Carbolic  acid. 
Aloes. 
Para  (fine. 
Fatty  matters 
Kesins. 


Burnt  cork. 

Charcoal. 

Lycopodium. 

White  sugar. 

Sawdust. 

Horse-dung. 

Starch  of  tlour. 

Petroleum  products. 

Cutch. 

Tannin. 

2.   Metallic  salts,  etc. 

Chi.  potash. 

Red  sulph.  arsenic. 

Ferro-cyan.  jjotassium. 

Nitrate  of  potassa. 

Sulphur. 

Chloride  of  sodium. 

Cvanuret  of  zine. 

Barilla. 

Blast'ing-tools.  Baron  LiMihaber  of  Paris  ob- 
tained a  patent  in  France,  1845,  for  a  mode  of  en- 
larging tlie  lower  part  of  a  blast-hole  by  the  ajipli- 


C'arbouate  of  soda. 
Nitrate  of  lead. 
Amraoniacal  salts. 
Nitrate  of  soda. 
Carbazotate  of  ]iotasli. 
Azotate  of  potash. 
Nitrate  of  iron. 
Nitric  acid. 


cation  of  muriatic  or  other  acid  1  part,  diluted  in 
water  3  parts. 

A  tube  (A',  Fig.  708)  is  inserted  in  the  hole  and 
externally  sealed  around  the  lower  end  with  a  com- 
position which  prevents  the  rising  of  the  vapors  of 
the  acid  in  the  space  between  the  tube  and  the  sides 
of  the  hole.  The  acid  is  poured  into  a  funnel  and 
down  an  inner  tube,  the  annular  space  forming  a  duct 
for  the  esca])e  of  the  gas,  the  spent  liquid  escaping 
at  a  bent  spout.  The  hole  is  then  emptied  by  a 
siphon  or  pump,  and  dried  to  prepare  it  for  the  charge. 

The  principal  blasting  tools  are  — 

The  hanimcr,  for  striking  the  borer. 

Borer,  orjamjicr.     Drill. 

Gad ;  a  wedge  for  driving  into  oi)enings  made  by 
a  pick. 

Pick. 

Scraper :  for  clearing  the  hole. 

Nadlc,  or 2> rim iiKj- wire ;  a  thin  copper  rod  whose 

Fig.  708. 


Fig.  709. 


Blasting-Tools. 

withdrawal   leaves   a  vent   whereby  the  charge   is 
reached. 

Clayiwj-har,  taw jiiny- iron,  or  rammer  :  for  driv- 
ing down  the  tamping. 

The  fuse,  or 
malch. 

a  e  /,  scrapers 
for  clearing  the 
blasting-hole. 

b  h  i,  needles 
for  pricking  the 
cartridge. 

c,  tamping-bar. 

d,  drill. 

(I,  bar  for  ram- 
ming in  the  car- 
tridge. 

k,  funnel  and 
pipe  for  introduc- 
ing acid  to  enlarge 
the  bottom  of  tlie 
hole. 

Blast-ma- 
chine'. {I'llCll- 
maUcs.)  A  fan  A 
inclosed  within  a 
box  B,  to  which 
the  wings  C  are 
attai-hed,  so  that 
the  whole  revolves  Blast-Machine. 


BLAST-METER. 


291 


BLENDE. 


together.  It  is  closely  fitted  within  a  stationaiy 
exterior  case  D,  into  which  it  is  journaled.  Air  is 
admitted  at  the  sides  around  the  axis,  and  forced 
out  through  an  a]ierture  at  tlie  peripher)-  by  the 
rajiid  rotation  of  the  fan,  which  may,  by  belt  and 
pulley  connections,  be  driven  at  the  rate  of  1,S00 
revolutions  per  minute.     See  Blowku. 

Blast-me'ter.  (Pneumatics.)  An  anemometer 
,appUed  to  the  nozzle  of  a  blowing  engine. 

Blast-noz'zle.  The  orifice  in  the  deliveiy-end 
of  a  blast-jiipe.     A  tuyere. 

Blast-pipe.  (Steam-Enginc.)  A  pipe  conveying 
the  escape-steam  from  the  cylinders  up  the  smoke- 
stack of  the  locomotive  to  aid  the  draft.  Its  inven- 
tion is  ascribed  to  George  .Stephenson. 

Blaz'ing  Com'et.    A  form  of  pjTotechnics. 

Blaz'iug-off.  Oldal-iirorking.)  Tempering  by 
means  of  1  tuning  oil  or  tallow  spread  on  the  spring 
or  blade,  which  is  heated  over  a  fire. 

Bleach'ing.  The  art  of  removing  color  from  fab- 
rics, etc.  It  Has  knowii  in  India,  Egjpt,  and  Syria, 
and  in  ancient  GaiU. 

As  at  present  practiced,  the  process  dates  back  only 
to  the  beginning  of  the  present  century. 

Linen  was  formerly  sent  from  England  to  Holland 
to  be  bleached.  This  was  ])erformed  by  several 
months'  exposure  to  air,  light,  and  moisture. 
The  linens  were  spread  on  the  ground  and  sprinkled 
with  pure  water  several  times  daily.  They  were 
called  Hollands,  and  the  name  stil!  survives. 

In  1749  the  system  of  buckincj  and  croftiny,  that 
is,  soaking  in  alkaline  l\'e  and  spreading  on  the 
grass,  was  introduced  into  Scotland.  After  five  or 
six  repetitions  of  these  processes,  the  linen  wivs 
dipped  in  sour  milk  and  then  crofted.  The  processes 
were  repeated.  The  cotton  manufacture  at  this  time 
was  in  its  earliest  infancy. 

The  next  improvement  was  the  substitution  of 
dihite  sulphuric  acid  for  sour  milk.  This  reduced 
the  time  one  half. 

Scheele,  in  177i,  had  discovered  chlorine;  and 
Berthollet,  in  17S4,  ascertained  that  an  ai:|ueous  so- 
lution of  chlorine  discharged  vegetable  colors.  This 
he  communicated  to  Watt,  and  it  was  soon  adopted 
in  Scotland  with  linen.  Berthollet  added  potash  to 
the  water  to  preserve  the  health  of  the  workmen  and 
the  texture  of  the  goods. 

Dr.  Henry,  of  Slanchester,  substituted  lime  for 
pobish,  the  goods  being  passed  through  a  cream  of 
lime  and  then  exposed  to  chlorine.  This  formed  a 
chloride  of  lime  on  the  cloth. 

In  179S,  Tennant,  of  Glasgow,  adopted  a  saturated 
solution  of  chloride  of  lime,  and  subsequently  im- 
pregnated dry  lime  with  the  gas,  making  bleaching 
powder. 

Bleaching,  of  cotton  goods  especially,  is  conduct- 
ed on  a  systematic  large  scale,  and  includes  singeing 
and  washing  ;  the  former  to  remove  the  fibrous  down 
from  the  surface,  and  the  latter  to  remove  the  dirt 
and  impurities  acquired  in  spinning  and  weaving. 

The  following  process  is  employed  for  cotton 
goods ; — 

In  singeing,  the  cloth  is  passed  rapidly  over  a  red- 
hot  roller,  which  removes  protruding  fibers. 

The  cloth  is  then  placed  in  the  dash-wheels  A  A 
A  (Fig.  710),  which  rotate  on  horizontal  axes,  and 
have  quadrantal  compartments  which  hold  the  cloth. 
Water  is  introduced  through  the  hollow  axes,  and  a 
rapid  rotation  subjects  the  cloth  to  the  combined 
effects  of  agitation  and  the  da.shing  of  the  water. 

The  cloth  is  next  bucked,  or  washed  by  an  alkaline 
solution  which  removes  the  greasy  and  resinous  mat-  j 
ters.     The  goods  are  placed  on  the  grated  bottom  of 
a  vat,  in  the  center  of  which  is  a  stand-pipe  by  which 


the  stream  of  boiling  alkaline  solution  is  brought  in 
a  shower  upon  the  cloths.      A  deflecting  plate  on 


the  top  of  the  stand-pipe  distributes  the  water  upon 
the  cloths,  through  which  it  percolates  and  finds  its 
way  down  through  the  grating,  to  be  again  pumped 
up.     See  BucKixG-KiER. 

This  shower  of  boiling  alkaline  solution  is  main- 
tained for  about  seven  hours,  after  which  the  cloth 
is  again  washed  in  the  wheels. 

The  cloths  are  now  elumickecl  by  steeping  for  si.x 
hours  in  a  dilute  solution  of  chloride  of  lime,  after 
which  they  are  steeped  in  what  is  called  a  sourhtg 
vat ;  this  is  a  bath  of  very  dilute  sulphuric  acid, 
which  disengages  the  chlorine  from  the  lime,  and 
brings  the  gas  into  intimate  contact  with  the  fiber, 
which  is  thereby  bleached. 

The  washing,  boiling,  bleaching,  and  souring  are 
repeated  as  may  be  necessary  to  produce  the  complete 
effect. 

The  process  takes  from  24  to  48  hours,  and  the 
cloths  are  handled  by  machinery. 

Linen  is  now  bleached  in  a  similar  way,  but  the 
operation  is  more  troublesome  and  requires  a  longer 
time,  on  account  of  the  gieater  affinity  of  the  mate- 
rial for  coloring  matter. 

Wool  is  bleached  by  exposing  it  to  the  action  of 
fuller's-earth  and  soap  in  a  fulling-mill,  after  which 
it  is  washed  and  dried.  When  it  is  intended  to  pre- 
serve it  white,  it  is  usually  run  through  water  tinged 
with  indigo,  or  exposed  to  the  fumes  of  burning  sul- 
jihur.  The  last  method,  unless  very  carefully  con- 
ducted, is  apt  to  cause  the  goods  to  acquire  a  harsh 
feeling,  which  is  removed  by  washing  in  soap  ar.d  wa- 
ter, but  this  usually  reproduces  the  original  yellow- 
ish-white tinge. 

Silk  is  bleached  by  boiling  in  white  soap  and  wa- 
ter, and  then  carefully  rinsing  it.  When  required  to 
be  very  white,  the  material  is  usually  subjected  to  the 
fumes'of  burningsulphur.  Straw isgenerally  bleached  _ 
by  the  fumes  of  sulphur,  but  oxalic  acid  or  chloride 
of  lime  is  ]ireferable. 

Bleach'ing  Povvr'der.    Chloride  of  lime. 

Bleb 'by -glass.  Glass  with  blisters  and  air- 
bubhles. 

Bleed 'lug.  (Boolcbinding.)  Cutting  into  the 
printed  matter  of  a  book  when  cutting  the  edges. 

Blende.     {Mining.)    Otherwise  known  as  black- 


BLEU-TURQUIN. 


298 


BLIND-SLAT  CUTTER. 


jack.  A  native  suliihiiret  of  zinc,  wliieli  is  treated 
by  roasting,  and  destructive  distillation  in  combina- 
tion with  charcoal  in  a  vessel  from  which  the  air  is 
excluded. 

By  access  of  air  the  metal  burns  and  passes  off  as 
the  white  oxide,  which  is  collected  and  forms  a  pig- 
ment kiiiiwii  as  zinc-white. 

Bleu-tur'quin.  A  kind  of  marble  taken  from 
the  (|uarrie.s  of  Genoa  and  elsewhere.  It  is  of  a  deep 
blue  upon  a  white  ground,  mixed  with  gray  spots 
and  large  veins. 

Blind.  For  apparatus  to  assist  the  blind  in  writ- 
ing, printing,  or  reading,  see  Embossing-type  for 
THE  Blind;  Puinting  fou  the  Blind  ;  Writing- 

FKAME. 

Grenville's  invention  (English)  for  teaching  the 
blind  was  in  1785. 

1.  (Carpcnlfij.)  A  sun-screen  or  shade  for  a  win- 
dow. 

Owto'rfc  blinds  are  known  as  Spanish,  Florentine, 
Venetian,  or  shutter. 

Inside  blinds  are  known  as  Venetian,  dwarf,  spring, 
common  roller,  wire-gauze,  perforated  zinc,  etc. 

2.  {FortijicatioH.)  A  bomb-proof  shelter  for  men 
or  provisions.  Blindaf/e ;  blinded  cover. 

3.  {Harness.)  Flai)s  on  a  driving- 
bridle  to  restrain  the  horse  from  look- 
ing sideways  or  to  the  rear.  A  mod- 
ern form  of  blinder  only  prevents  the 
backward  view.    Blinder  ;  blinker. 

Blind'age.  1.  {Fortification.)  a. 
A  screen  of  wood  faced  with  earth  as  a 
protection  against  fire. 

b.  A  mantelet.  At  Sebastopol  the 
Russians  used  blindages  for  covering 
theirenibrasures,  composed  of  a  grating 
of  iron  rods  covered  with  canvas. 

2.  {Harness.)  A  hood  lor  covering 
the  eyes  of  a  runaway  horse,  as  a  means 
of  stopping  him.  Koeiilek's  patent  has  one  strap 
which  pulls  a  hood  over  the  eyes  and  another  which 
closes  the  nostrils.  Another  device  is  a  choke- 
strap  connected  through  the  gag-loop  to  the  driv- 
ing-rein. 

BUiid  A're-a.  [Architecture.)  A  space  around 
the  basi  iiieiit-wall  of  a  house  to  keep  it  dry. 

Blind  Ax'le.  An  axle  which  runs,  but  does  not 
communicate  motion.  It  may  form  the  axis  of  a 
sleeve-axle.  It  may  become  a  lire  axle  at  intervals. 
A  (kad  a.rle. 

Blind-block'ing.  {Bookbindinrj.)  The  orna- 
mentatiuii  uf  book-covers  by  pressure  of  an  en- 
graved or  i(im]iosed  block  with  heat  but  without 
gold-leaf. 

Blind  Bri'dle.  A  bridle  having  attached  flaps 
or  liliuds.     ."^I'l'  Ili.ixD. 

Blind  Buckler.  {Nautical.)  A  hawse-hole 
stopper. 

Blind'ers.  (Harness.)  Flaps  over  the  eyes  of  a 
horse  used  in  carriage-harness.     See  Blind. 

Blind'ing.  .\  cutting  of  sand  and  fine  gravel, 
usually  about  an  inch  and  a  half  deep,  laid  over  a 
newly  ])aved  road,  to  iiU  by  degrees  the  joints  be- 
tween the  stones. 

Blind  Lev'el.  {Mining.)  A  level  or  drainage 
gallery  which  lias  a  vertical  shaft  at  each  end,  and 
acts  MS  an  inverted  siphon. 

Blind  Op'e-ra-tor.  A  device  by  which  the 
blind  may  be  ujhmumI  or  closed  from  the  inside,  and 
held  in  any  jiosition  desired,  either  closed,  fully  o))en, 
or  at  any  intermediate  position,  in  all  of  which  it 
may  be  securely  locked.  Attached  to  the  frame  of 
the  blind  is  a  rod  upon  which  slides  a  sleeve  pivoted 
to  the  outer  end  of  an  arm  secured  to  the  axis  of  a 


worm-gear  seated  in  a  recess  in  the  window-sill  and 
gradually  rotated  by  a  wonn,  the  whole  covered  by 
a  metallic  plate. 

Fig.  711. 


Blind  and  Shutter  Fastener. 


In  another  form,  the  pintle  of  the  blind-hinge 
has  a  bevel-wheel  operated  by  a  bevel-piuion  ou  the 


Fig.  712. 


Fig.  713. 


Fig.  714. 


Blmd-Stat.        Blind-Slat  Chisel. 


shaft,  which  passes  through  the  frame  of  the  window- 
casing,  and  has  a  knob  inside  the  room.  A  bolt  en- 
gages a  disk  on  the  shaft,  and  locks  the  latter,  and 
consei|uently  the  blind,  in  any  iiosition. 

Blind-slat.  An  obliiiuely-set  slat  in  a  shutter, 
serving  to  shed  rain  and  yet  admit  some  light.  In 
some  cases  they  are  adjustable  by  means  of  a  bar  C, 
which  is  secured  by  .staples  to  the  edges  of  the  slats. 
2)  is  a  spring  to  press  against  the  slats  and  hold  them 
to  adjustment.  Such  shutters  are  known  as  Vene- 
tian or  Louver. 

Blind-slat  Chis'el.  A  hollow  chisel,  specially 
adapted  for  cutting  the  mortises  in  a  common  blind- 
stile  for  the  leeeption  of  the  ends  of  the  slats. 

Blind-slat  Cut'ter.  {Carpentry.)  A  machine 
which  i-uts  blind-slats  from  the  plank  and  finishes 
the  sides  and  ends. 

The  plank  is  placed  within  the  ways  and  fed  along 
till  it  touihesastop,  when  a  transverse  cut  severs  a 
section,  which  is  removed  by  a  feed-roller  to  the  place 
whei-e  it  is  sawed  into  strijis.  The  action  of  the  rol- 
ler is  intemiittent,  and  during  its  intervalsof  rest  the 
rotary  tubular  cutters  are  successively  forced  into 
the  opposite  sides  of  the  block  and  form  openings. 
The  surfaces  are  planed  and  gudgeons  made  on  their 
extremities  by  automatic  operations. 


BLIXD-SLAT  PLANER. 


299 


BLIXD-WEAVING  LOOM. 


Blind-Slat  Cutler. 

Blind-slat  Plan'er.  {Carpeninj.)  Awood-plan- 
\n<i  machini;  with  side  and  edge  cutters  adapted  to 
act  upon  a  narrow  slat  suitable  for  Venetian  shuttei'S 
and  blinds.  The  cutter  which  acts  upon  the  upper 
side  is  adjustable  to  adapt  it  for  making  slats  of  the 
required  thickness  ;  the  edge-cutters  have  a  shajie 
to  give  the  rounded  edge,  aud  one  of  them  is  adjust- 


try.) 


liole  at  a  time,  and  is  suitable  for  blind, 
sash,  door  stiles,  wagon-work,  etc. 
The  arbor  is  raised  or  lowered  by 
screws  a  a,  and  brought  forward  to 
the  work  liy  means  of  the  lever  b.  It 
is  proWded  with  space-rack. clamps  c  c 
for  holding  the  stulf,  wliich  will  gage 
the  lioles  any  desired  distance  apart, 
and  wliich  avoids  [lie  necessity  of  set- 
ting out.  The  tight  ami  loose  jiulleys 
are  6J  inches  in  diameter,  3  inch  face, 
and  shoiikl  make  6*25  revolutions  per 
minute,  which  will  give  2,500  to  the 
bit.  e  is  the  belt  which  conveys  mo- 
tion to  tlie  arlxjr. 

In  the  macliine  (Fig.  718)  the  bit- 
arbor  a  is  vertical,  is  driven  by  the 
belt  e,  and  the  start"  lies  on  the  rest. 
It  has  a  pawl  aud  ratchet  arrangement 
for  feed,  dispensing  with  the  nece.ssity 
for  laying  out  the  holes.  The  bit  is 
drawn  down  hy  tlie  treadle  c. 
Blind-stile  Ma-chine'.  (Caiimi- 
Machines  which  get  out  the  stulf  are  but  saws 

Fig.  717. 

/ 


Btind-Sat  TeTuming-Machinf 


shape,  machines  are  adapted 
for  boring  the  holes  for  the 
slats,  or  making  the  mortises 
by  meansof  piercing, — that  is, 
by  a  hollow  chisel  of  the  shape 
of  the  slat-section, — orniaking 


able  as  to  distance,  to  make  slats  of  the  required 
width. 

Tliere  are  several  patented  machines  of  this  class. 

Blind-slat  Ten'on-ing-ma-chine'.     (Cnrpen- 
try. )     A  macliine  for  cutting  tenons  on  the  ends  of  I  them  by  a  chisel  repeatedly  re- 
blind-slats  where  they  are  to  enter  the  stiles  of  the  •  ciprocatcd  while  the  stuff  is 
blinds.     (Fig.  716.)  j  fed  along,  as  in  the  ordinary 

As  the  disks  G  rotate,  they  carry  around  the  cut-  mortising-machine.  Some  of 
ter-heads,  whereby  a  tenon  is  cut  upon  each  end  of  the  machines  space  as  well  as 
the  blank  slat,  -is  soon  as  the  blank  R  is  inserted, 
the  operator,  by  means  of  a  clutch,  causes  the  cutter- 
heads  to  revolve  entirely  around  the  emls  of  the  slat, 
when  they  are  arrested  until  the  finished  blank  is 
removed  and  a  new  blank  inserted.  The  cutter-head, 
may  be  set  towards  or  away  from  the  center  of  the 
disk -shafts,  in  oi-der  to  cut  larger  or  smaller  tenons. 
The  cutter-heads  have  a  rotary  movement  \ipon  their  ,  tion  of  gold-Vaf. 
own  a.xes,  and  also  revolve  aiound  the  axes  of  their  Blind -^eav'ing  Loom. 
su)iportiiig  disks.  \  (Weaving.)      A    loom   which 

Blind-stUe  Bor'ing-ma-chine'.  {Carpentry.)  j  has  its  warps  far  apart,  aud 
A  machine  for  boring  in  blind-stiles  the  holes  for  '  an  automatic  device  for  pla- 
the  reception  of  the  tenons  on  the  ends  of  the  .slats,    cing  within  the  shed  the  thin 

The  machine  (Fig.  717)  is  arranged  for  boring  one  wooden  slips  which  form    the 


bore  or  mortise  ;  that  is,  feed 
the  stuff  along  the  distance  be- 
tween slats  after  each  stroke. 
Blind  -  tool  'ing.  ( Book- 
Mncliixj. )  The  ornamental  im- 
pressions of  heated  tools  upon 
leather  without  the  interposi- 


B!iii4-,StiU  Boring- 
Machine. 


BLIND-WIRINO   MACHINE. 


300 


BLOCK. 


filling  or  woof.  As  the  shed  i.s  opened,  a  rod  with 
a  gripper  on  the  end  i.s  passed  through  the  shed, 
eatches  a  slip,  and  draws  it  between  the  warps,  leav- 
ing it  there.  This  is  i-epeated  between  each  move- 
ment of  the  harness. 

Blind-wir'iug  Ma-chine'.  (C'ar2ycnlri/.)  A 
macliine  for  the  insertion  of  the  staples  which  con- 
nect the  rod  to  the  blind.  The  blind-frame  a  is  held 
by  adjustable  slides,  and  the  rod  b,  with  its  staples 
or  rings  already  inserted,  is  laid  along  upon  the  slats 


Blind-  Wiring  Machine. 


e,  the  lings  presented  sideways.  The  staples  to  be 
driven  straddle  the  wire  h  and  feed  down  it,  being 
driven  one  at  a  time  by  the  lever  c  and  plunger  il, 
so  that  one  leg  of  the  staple  passes  through  the  eye 
on  the  rod  h,  and  both  of  them  enter  the  slat  «.  The 
frame  is  fed  forward  the  distance  between  the  slats 
after  each  operation. 

Fig.  720  shows  a  somewhat  similar  form  of  ma- 
chine in  which  the  stnjiles  feed  down  the  incline  /;, 
and  are  driven  into  the  slats  e  as  the  lever  c  is  de- 
Fig.  720. 


Crosbt/^s  Blind-  Wirer. 

pressed.  The  lifting  of  the  lever  moves  forward  the 
blind-frame  by  means  of  a  pawl  which  engages  the 
raclc  m. 

BUnk'er.     (SufWenj.)     A  blind. 

Blis'ter-steel.  .Steel  foimed  by  roasting  bar- 
iron  in  contact  with  carbon  in  a  cementing  furnace. 
It  is  so  called  from  its  blistered  appearance.  To  im- 
prove the  qu.ility,  it  is  subjected  to  two  subsequent 
processes,  whicli  convert  it  into  sfear-steel  and  casl- 
steel. 

Block.  A  grooved  pulley,  rotating  on  a  pintle, 
and  mounted  in  a  easing  called  a  sIkU.,  which  is  fur- 
nished with  a  hook,  eye,  or  strap  by  which  it  may  lie 
attached  to  an  object.  It  is  used  for  changing  the 
direction  of  motion  of  ropes  used  in  transmitting 
]iower,  and,  by  compounding  two  or  more  such 
sheaves,  to  increase  the  mechanical  power  of  ropes, 
whosje  rate  of  motion  is  decreased  in  an  equivalent 
degree  thereby. 

The  parts  of  a  block  are  :  — 


The  shell,  pulley-frame,  or  body  of  the  block  is 
maile  of  a  tough  wood,  or  sometimes  of  iron  ;  it  has 
one  or  two  grooves,  called  scores,  cut  on  each  end  to 
retain  the  simp  which  goes  around  it.'  The  shell  is 
hollow  inside  to  receive  the  sheave  or  sheaves,  and 
has  a  hole  through  its  center  to  receive  the  sheave- 
pin,  called  the  pintle ;  this  is  lined  with  bronze  or 
gun-metal,  called  a  houchin//  or  buskin;/.  When  the 
shell  is  made  of  one  piece,  it  is  called  a  morlise- 
blvck ;  when  more  than  one  are  employed,  it  is 
ternieil  a  macle  block.  The  side  plates  of  the  shell 
are  cheeks. 

The  sliewve  or  wheel  is  of  lignum-vita;  or  iron,  and 
has  a  peripheral  groove  for  the  rope,  called  iheyorge. 
It  has  a  bushing,  called  a  coal;  around  tlie  ]iintle-hole. 
The  space  between  the  sheave  and  its  block,  through 
which  the  rope  runs,  is  called  the  swalloio  or  channel. 
It  answers  to  the  throat  of  some  other  machines  ;  the 
pass  in  a  rolling-mill. 

The  pin  or  pintle  is  the  axis  or  axle,  and  is  usually 
of  iron,  passing  through  the  bushing  of  the  shell  and 
the  coak  of  the  shmve. 

The  strap,  stroji,  iron-binding,  grommct,  or  cringle, 
is  a  looj)  of  iron  or  rope,  encircling  the  l>lock,  and 
affords  the  means  of  fastening  it  in  its  jilace.  The 
hook  of  iron-strajiped  blocks  is  frequently  made  to 
work  in  a  .swivel,  so  that  the  several  parts  of 
the  rope  foi'ming  the  tackle  may  not  become  "  foul" 
or  twisted  around  each  other. 

For  strapping  with  rope  in  the  counnon  way,  the 
rope  is  cut  li  times  the  circumference  of  the  block, 
and  stretched  ;  it  is  then  wormed,  by  winding-in 
spun-yarn  or  marline  between  the  intervals  of  the 
strands  ;  jmrccled,  which  operation  consists  in  wind- 
ing a  canvas  strip  around  the  above  ;  and  then  served 
or  closely  wound  around  with  marline,  until  just 
sufficient  is  left  at  each  end  for  .splicing  ;  it  is  then 
spliced  with  a  shoit  splice,  the  fag-ends  of  the  strands 
cut  off,  and  served  over  the  splice. 

In  many  cases  blocks  are  strajiped  with  eyes  or 
thimbles  in  the  ends,  or,  instead  of  the  loop,  have  a 
tail,  as  is  the  case  with  jigger  blocks ;  in  tliis  case 
they  are  called  tail -blocks. 

The  2)urchasc-h]ock  is  double-strapped,  having  two 
scores  in  the  shell  for  the  purpose  ;  the  rope  is 
wormed,  parceled,  and  served,  or  may  be  wormed  and 
parceled  only,  and  spliced.  It  is  then  doubled  up 
so  i^s  to  bring  the  splice  at  the  bottom  of  the  block. 
The  seizing  is  put  on  the  usual  way,  except  it  is 
crossed  both  ways  through  the  double  paits  of  the 
strap.  The  straps  of  these  blocks  are  so  large  and 
stiff  that  a  purchase  should  be  enqiloyed  to  set  them 
securely  in  the  scores  of  the  blocks,  ami  bring  them 
into  their  proper  place. 

Blocks  receive  names  from  peculiarities  of  struc- 
ture, from  their  materials,  uses,  arrangement  in  the 
tackle,  mode  of  connecting  them  to  objects,  etc.  See 
under  the  Ibllowiug  heads  .  — 


Bee-block. 

Block  and  tackle. 

Buckler. 

Bull's-eye. 

Cat-block. 

Cheek-block. 

Clew-garnet  block. 

D-blork. 

Dead-eye. 

DitlVrcutial-block. 

Double-block. 

Eujihroe. 

Fall-block. 

Fiddle-block. 

Fish-block. 


Fly-block. 

Oiu-block. 

Heart-block. 

Hook-block. 

Iron-block. 

Jack-block. 

Jewel-block. 

Long-tackle  blocli 

Jloukev-bhick. 

JIuHlc-'block. 

Ninepiu-block. 

Pulley-block. 

Purchase-block. 

Quarter-block. 

Ilam-block. 


BLOCK. 


301 


BLOCKING. 


Rouse-about  block. 

Eunuiiig-bloek. 

Sheave. 

ShelL 

Shoe-block. 

Shoulder-block. 

Single-block. 

Sister-block. 

Siueatoii's  block. 

Snatch-block. 

Spring-block. 

Standing-block. 


Strap-block. 

Tack-block. 

Tackle-block. 

Tail-block. 

Thick-and-thin  block. 

Top-block. 

Treble-block. 

Tye-block. 

Uvrow. 

Viol-block. 

Waist-bloi'k. 

Warping-block. 


The  puUej'-block,  with  two  or  more  she.aves,  was 
well  known  to  the  Romans.  A  block  with  three 
sheaves  was  called  trispastos.  Tackle  witli  two  sheaves 
in  the  lower  block  and  three  in  the  upper  one  was 
called  pcntaspastos.  The  tackles  were  variously  ar- 
ranged, much  as  at  the  present  day,  and  the  derrick 
spars  and  masts  were  secured  by  guys. 

A  large  number  of  obelisks  were  removed  from 
Egypt  to  Rome,  Constantinople,  and  Aries,  and  gave 
employment  to  comple.K  and  powerful  tackle. 

Blocks  do  not  appear  to  have  been  known  in  an- 
cient Egypt ;  the  ropes  were  rove  through  rings. 

2.  (Carpentry.)  A  square  piece  of  wood  fitted  in 
the  reentering  angle  formed  by  the  meeting  edges 
of  two  pieces  of  board.  The  blocks  are  glued  at  the 
rear  and  strengthen  the  joint. 

3.  (Hat-makinr) .)  A  cylinder  of  wood  over  which 
a  hat  or  bonnet  is  shaped  in  the  process  of  manufac- 
ture. 

4.  (Saddlery.)  A  former  or  block  on  which  a 
piece  of  wet  leather  is  molded  by  hanmiering  or 
pressing. 

5.  (Ordnance,  etc.)  In  the  ordnance  service  the 
term  block  is  applied  to  two  different  articles,  which 
have  very  different  functions  ;  one  kind  being  short 
pieces  of  scantling,  used  for  elevating  cannon  and 
supporting  them  in  position  a  short  distance  from 
the  ground,  or  in  assisting  in  their  transfer  from 
higher  to  lower  levels,  and  vice  versa.  These  are 
designated  as  whole,  half,  and  quarter  blocks, 
and  have  a  uniform  length  of  20  and  width  of  8 
inches,  their  respective  thickness  being  8,  4,  and  2 
inches. 

Gin-blocks  are  the  pulleys  through  which  the  fall 
of  a  gin  is  rove,  and  are  known  as  single,  double,  or 
treble  blocks,  according  as  they  have  one,  two,  or 
three  sheaves  ;  the  sheave  is  of  brass  and  the  shell 
of  wrought-iron. 

The  varieties  of  blocks  are  more  fully  described 
under  the  heads  enumerated  in  the  list  above. 

Fig   721. 


ally  set  over  towards  the  saw  the  thickness  of  one 
board,  plus  the  kerf,  between  the  cuts.  In  the  more 
modern  and  improved  form  the  head  and  tail  blocks 
are  set  simultaneously.  In  the  circular  saw-mill 
the  knees  resting  on  the  head  and  tail  blocks  are 
moved,  pushing  the  log  H  on  the  lilocks  B,  as  in 
Fig.  721,  wliere  the  knee  C  is  o]ier;.ted  by  a  spur 
pinion  D  and  racks  be.  See  also  Cn;cfL.\R  Saw  ; 
Hk.vd-block. 

Block  and  Tack'le.  A  term  including  the 
block  and  the  rope  rove  througli  it,  for  hoisting  or 
obtaining  a  purchase.     See  Tackle. 

Block-book.  (Prinliny.)  A  book  whose  pages 
are  inqiressions  from  engraved  blocks,  each  of  which 
formed  a  page.  This  was  a  very  old  ()rieiital  inven- 
tion, and  did  not  differ  especially  from  the  calico- 
printing  of  China,  India,  Arabia,  and  Egypt,  the 
books  and  placards  of  China,  and  the  printed  play- 
ing-cards commonly  used  in  Europe  many  years  be- 
fore Coster,  Guttenberg,  and  Faust. 

The  great  invention  was  movable  types.  See 
Printing. 

Block-fur'nace.    (Metallurgy.)    A  blomary. 

Block-house.  (Forlijication.)  A  structure  of 
heavy  timber  or  logs  for  military  defence,  having  its 
sides  loopholed  for  musketry.  When  of  large  size, 
it  may  be  provided  with  ports  or  embrasures  for  ar- 

Fig.  722. 


Head-Block  to  Saw-Mllh. 

6.  {Saw-mill.)     One  of  the  frames  on  which  an 
end  of  a  log  rests  in  a  saw-mill.     The  log  is  usu- 


Block- House. 

tillery.  The  plan  may  be  square,  rectangular,  or 
polygonal.  If  it  is  desired  to  obtain  flanking  arrange- 
ments, the  house  may  be  made  in  the  form  of  a  cross. 
When  more  than  one  story  high,  the  upper  one  is 
sometimes  made  to  project  over  the  lower,  so  as  to 
obtain  a  direct  downward  fire.  A  ditch  is  dug  around 
the  block-house,  the  earth  from  whicli  is  thrown  up 
around  the  lower  part  of  the  house  ;  the  roof  may 
also  be  covered  with  earth. 

Block-in-course  Ma'son-ry.  (Masonry.)  A 
kind  whicli  difi'ers  from  ashlar  masonry  chieHy  in 
being  built  of  smaller  stones.  The  usual  depth  of  a 
course  is  from  seven  to  nine  inches. 

Block'ing.  1.  (Leather.)  The  process  of  bend- 
ing leather  for  boot-fronts  to  the  required  shape. 
See  Cr.i>tPiNG. 

2.    (Bookbinding.)      Impressing  a  pattern   on   a 


BLOCKING-COURSE. 


302      BLOCK-LETTER  CUTTING-MACHINE. 


book-cover 


by    a    plate 
Fig.  723. 


association  of  tools 
under  pressure. 
It  is  called  blind 
or  gold  lilocking. 
In  the  latter  case, 
gold-leal'  is  used ; 

yin  the  former,  the 
bare  block. 
„,    , .  3.  (Carpentry.) 

Bochng.     ^  A  mode  of  seciir- 

ing   together    the   vertical    angles    of   wood-work. 
Blocks  of  wood  are  glued  in  the  inside  angle. 

Block'ing-course.  (Architecture.)  The  upper 
couise  of  stones  or  brick  above  a  cornice  or  on  the 
toji  of  a  wall. 

Blocking -down.  (Shed  -  metal  Workiwj.) 
Sheet-metal  is  blocked  down  upon  a  mold  or  shape 
by  laying  above  it  a  thick  piece  of  lead,  wliich  latter 
Is  struck  by  the  mallet  or  hammer.  This  mode  is 
sometimes  adopted  to  bring  a  plate  partially  to  shape 
before  swaging  it  betwei^n  the  dies. 

Block'ing-ket'tle.  (Hat-making. )  A  hot  bath 
in  whicli  hats  are  softened  in  the  process  of  manu- 
facture, so  as  to  Ije  drawn  over  blocks. 

Block'ing-press.  A  bookbinder's  screw-press  in 
wliieh  blocking  is  performed.  It  has  less  power  than 
the  embossing-press,  which  operates  with  large  dies, 
being  used  for  ornamentation,  requiring  but  a  com- 
paratively small  pressure. 

The  die  is  adjusted  in  the  upper  bed  (or  plate), 
and  is  heated  by  meaui  of  gas-jets  coming  down 
through  a  cavity  at  its  back.  The  book-covers  are 
introduced  scriatiin  upon  the  lower  bed  by  the  op- 
erator, wdio  by  a  turn  of  the  handle  brings  the  upper 
bed  down  with  a  gentle  and  eipiable  pressure,  fixing 
the  gold-leaf,  when  this  is  employed,  ui)on  the  sur- 
face, previously  prepared  for  the  purpose.  A  boy, 
who  assists,  removes  the  superHuous  portions  with  a 
rag,  which  becomes  thoroughly  saturated  with  the 
precious  metal  in  the  course  of  use,  and  is  sold  to 
the  refiners. 

Block-let'ter.  (Printing.)  Type  of  large  size 
cut  out  of  W(^o  len  blocks. 

Block-let'ter  Cut'ting-ma-chine'.  Block-let- 
ters, or  wooden  type,  are  generally  made  of  cherry, 
cut  endwise.  They  are  made  of  sizes  from  2  or  3 
line  Pica  up  to  150-line  Pica,  more  than  two  feet  in 
length. 

Fig.  724  illustrates  a  machine  for  cntting  these 
types.  The  wood,  having  been  carefully  planed  to  a 
true  surface  ami  even  thickness,  is  cut  into  blocks 
of  suitable  size,  and  the  outlines  of  the  letters  formed 
as  a  guide  in  cutting.  A  block  is  placed  in  the 
chuck  A,  fi.xed  in  the  slide  B,  which  may  be  moved 
back  and  forth  in  a  guide,  and  to  which  a  rotary 
motion  may  also  be  imparted  by  means  of  a  gear- wheel 
and  screw  operated  from  the  pulley  C. 

Below  this  is  another  slide  D,  caiTying  an  arm  E, 
which  supports  a  n  upright  bar,  with  a  rod  7^  attached 
to  the  chuck  A.  Below  all  is  a  circular  plate  piv- 
oted to  the  table,  and  ca])able  of  being  turned  in  any 
desired  position  and  secured  there,  for  adjusting  the 
work  to  the  projjer  angle  previous  to  cutting. 

The  cutter  G  is  fixed  in  a  sjiindle  which  is  rotated 
by  the  pulleys  H  I,  the  latter  on  a  shaft  driven  by 
either  of  the  fast-pulleys  at  J,  operated  by  a  band- 
wheel  K  on  the  treadle-shaft.  The  box  carrying  the 
cutter-spindle  has  vertical  adjustment  for  varying 
the  dejith  of  cut,  and  may  also  be  moved  laterally 
by  a  screw  and  crank.  A  lever  is  provided  for  lift- 
ing the  cutter  clear  of  the  work. 

By  means  of  the  bar  and  rod  E,  F,  and  pulley  C, 
and  their  connections  with  the  slide  5  and  chuck  yi, 
in  conjunction  with  the  slide  D,  the  work  may  be 


Fig.  724. 


Block-Letler  Cuuing-Mackine. 

moved  in  any  direction,  causing  the  cutter  to  produce 
any  combination  of  right  lines  or  curves. 


Fig.  725. 


®     ® 


Tools  for  Block-Letter  Cutting-Machine. 


BLOCK-MAKING   MACHINE. 


Olio 


BLOCK-PRINTING. 


Fig.  72.5  shows  various  forms  of  cutters,  some  of 
whicli  are  designed  for  making  any  number  of  circles 
of  uniform  diameter,  and  others  for  clearing  out  the 
wood  from  those  parts  not  designed  to  show  in 
printing. 

Block-mak'ing  Ma-chine'.  The  first  set  of 
machinery  fnr  nialving  blocks  for  tackle  was  the  in- 
vention of  the  elder  ISrunel,  and  was  constructed  by 
Maudslay.  Tlie  invention  of  "  the  ingenious  Amer- 
ican mechanic,"  as  Mr.  Tomlinson  calls  him,  w'as 
endorsed  by  General  Bentham,  the  Inspector-General 
of  Naval  Works,  and  sanctioned  by  the  Lords  of  the 
Admiralty  in  a  remarkably  short  space  of  time,  — one 
year.  The  work  on  the  machinery  was  commenced 
in  1802,  and  was  finished  in  1808.  The  machines 
were  set  up  in  Portsmouth  Dock-yard,  and  a  dupli- 
cate set  was  made  for  Chatham  Dock-yard,  to  be 
used  in  case  of  accident,  but  has  not  been  needed. 
For  twenty-five  years  the  machines  required  no  essen- 
tial repairs.  The  cost  was  §230,000,  and  the  saving 
per  annum  over  hand  labor  is  variously  estimated 
from  S83,000  to  §150,000.  P.runel  received  .S5  per 
day  for  superintendence,  .'55,000  for  the  working 
models,  and  a  grant  of  $83,000  when  completed. 

The  machines  are  in  three  dificrent  sets,  fifteen  in 
a  set,  for  making  difi'erent  sizes  ;  each  set  having  a 
certain  range  of  adjustahUity  as  to  the  sizes  of  blocks 
turned  out. 

The  different  blocks  made  by  these  machines  are 
as  follows  :  — 

Thick  block,  with  1,  2,  3,  or  4  sheaves, 


and  from  4  to  28  inches  in  length 

.     72  sizes. 

Thin  blocks,  6  to  26  inches 

48     " 

Clew-garnet  and  clew-line  blocks     . 

.     10     " 

Sister-blocks 

20     " 

Topsail-sheet  blocks 

.     20     " 

Fiddle  or  viol  blocks  .         .         .         . 

24     " 

Jack-blocks    ..... 

.     20     " 

214  sizes. 

The  first  set  makes  blocks  4  to  7  inches  in  length, 
with  wooden  pins,  at  the  rate  of  700  per  day. 

The  second  set  makes  blocks  8  to  10  inches  in 
length,  with  iron  pins,  at  the  rate  of  520  per  day. 

The  third  set  makes  blocks  11  to  18  inches  in 
length,  at  the  rate  of  200  per  day.  Total,  1,420  per 
day. 

Two  machines  are  employed  for  making  dead-eyes 
from  5  to  9  inches,  and  from  1 0  to  1 9  inches  in  diameter. 

One  large  boring-machine,  not  included  in  the 
above. 

Two  machines  for  making  the  iron  pins. 

Total,  50  machines. 

These  machines  are  driven  by  a  steam-engine  of 
32-horse  power. 

AVith  these  machines  4  men  do  the  work  of  50  in 
making  shells,  and  6  men  do  the  work  of  60  in  mak- 
ing sheaves  ;  total,  10  men  doing  the  work  of  110 
previously  working  by  hand.  The  amount  actually 
supplied  was  about  135,000  blocks  per  annum  from 
1808  to  1816.  1,500  blocks  are  required  in  rigging 
a  ship  of  the  line,  besides  dead-eyes,  .say  160. 

The  sawing-machines  are  employed  on  one  side  of 
the  house  to  cut  the  elm  and  ash  timbers  into  parallel- 
opipedons  of  tlie  required  sizes  and  shapes  ;  and  the 
block-making  machines  on  the  other  side  are  em- 
ployed to  reduce  these  blocks  to  shape,  fashioning 
the  outside  and  the  mortise,  and  to  make  and  coak 
the  sheaves. 

The  machines  are  as  follows  :  — 

1.  The  reciprocal inr/  cross-cut  sate,  which  is  used 
on  large  timber  to  cut  into  lengths  timber  of  large 
size. 


2.  A  circular  civss-cict  saic,  for  operating  on  tim- 
bers of  smaller  diameter. 

3.  The  reciprocating  rippinri-saw,  for  cutting  the 
jufjylcs,  or  cylindrical  blocks  of  timber,  into  parallel- 
opipedons  of  the  required  proportions. 

4.  The  circular  rippinij-siiw,  for  performing  the 
same  o]ieration  on  small  timber. 

5.  Tlu'  hoTing-raachiiic,  for  boring  a  hole  through 
the  shell  to  start  the  mortise,  and  boring  the  hole 
for  the  pintle.     See  BoniXG-M.\cinNE. 

6.  The  mortisinri-machinc,  which  completes  the 
hollowing  out  of  the  shell,  making  the  full  opening 
for  the  sheaves.     See  MonTi.sixG-MACHiNE. 

7.  The  comer-saw,  to  bring  the  shell  to  an  ap- 
proximate shape,  ready  for  the  next  machine.  See 
COHXER-.S.A.W. 

8.  The  shajnng-macMne,  which  turns  the  outside 
of  the  shell  to  form.     See  Siiapixg-m.\chixe. 

9.  The  scorincj-maehine,  which  cuts  the  scores  on 
the  shell  for  the  reception  of  the  straps  by  which  it 
is  slung.     See  Scoring-machine. 

This  completes  the  dressing  of  the  slulls  of  the 
blocks,  except  .some  smoothing  where  the  wood  is 
roughed  up  in  dressing. 

10.  For  making  the  sheaves  three  kinds  of  saws 
are  employed.  -4  reciprocating  saw  is  used  for  mak- 
ing disks  of  wood  by  cro.ss-eutting  liguum-vitfe  logs. 
A  circular  saw  is  used  for  cross-cutting  smaller  logs. 
A  crenvn-saw  and  center-bit  are  used  for  rounding 
the  sheaves  and  boring  the  center-hole. 

11.  The  coahinci-machinc  cuts  three  semicircular 
cavities  at  equal  distances  around  the  hole  made  by 
the  bit.  This  cavity  is  for  the  reception  of  the  coak 
or  bush  of  bell-raetal,  which  forms  a  socket  for  the 
center-pin. 

12.  A  eirilliiig-machine,  for  perforating  the  three 
semicircular  projections  of  the  coak  for  the  recep- 
tion of  short  wire  ]iins  or  rivets,  by  which  the  coak 
is  attached  to  the  sheave. 

13.  A  riveting-machine;  two  small  tilt-hammers 
for  riveting  the  wires  which  hold  the  coaks  in  their 
places. 

14.  A  broaching-cnrjinc,  which  reams  out  the  cen- 
ter-hole. 

15.  A  facing-lathe  turns  the  flat  sides  of  the 
sheaves  and  makes  the  groove  in  the  periphery. 

The  iron  center-pins  are  turned  in  a  lathe,  and 
then  polished  by  being  fixed  in  a  vertical  revolving 
axle,  and  forced  down  into  a  die  immersed  in  oil,  and 
hold  three  pieces  of  hard  steel,  between  which  the 
pin  is  pressed  as  it  turns,  and  becomes  completely 
jiolished. 

Block-print'iiig.  A  mode  of  printing  cotton 
cloth  or  paper  for  hangings,  in  which  the  pattern  is 
engraved  in  relief  upon  a  block,  which  is  dabbed 
upon  the  color  and  impressed  by  hand  upon  the 
material,  which  lies  upon  a  table  before  the  work- 
man. When  the  pattern  is  in  several  colors,  difi'er- 
ent blocks  of  the  same  size  are  employed,  the  raised 
pattern  in  each  being  adapted  for  its  special  portion 
of  the  design.  The  e.xact  corrcsponilence  of  each 
jjart,  as  to  position,  is  secured  by  pins  on  the 
blocks,  which  ]  pierce  small  holes  in  the  material 
and  indicate  the  exact  position.  This  is  a  register- 
ing system  similar  to  that  adopted  in  chromatic 
printing,  and  in  all  forms  of  lithographic  printing 
in  which  more  than  one  color  is  used. 

This  mode  of  printing  was  nearly  superseded  by 
the  system  of  Perrot,  in  whiili  the  calico  passed  be- 
tween a  square  prism  and  three  engraved  blocks, 
which  were  brought  in  apposition  to  three  faces 
of  the  prism,  and  delivered  their  separate  impres- 
sions thereupon  in  succession.  Each  block  was 
inked  after  each  impression,  and  the  cloth  was  drawn 


BLOCK-TEETH. 


304 


BLOWER. 


through  by  a  wiiuling  eyliiider.  The  lilocks  were 
pressed  against  the  clotli  by  springs.  This  was  a 
great  improvement  upon  block-printing,  being  nearly 
twenty  times  i\.s  rapid  ;  but  the  cylinder  or  roller 
printing  has  outstripped  them  both,  performing  as 
much  labor  as  100   block-printers.      See   Calicu- 

MIINTING. 

Block-teeth.  (Denial.)  Two  or  more  teeth  made 
in  a  block  carved  by  hand  from  ivory,  whale's  or 
walrus's  teetli,  etc. 
Block-tin.  Tin  cast  into  ingots. 
Blom'a-ry.  {Mctitllurtji/.)  The  first  forge  tli rough 
which  iron  is  passed.  The  pig-iion,  having  been 
puddled  and  balled,  is  brought  to  the  hammer  or 
squeezer,  which  makes  it  into  a  bloom.  Bloom- 
anj. 

Blond-lace.  A  silk  lace  of  two  threads  twisted 
and  fnrmed  in  hexagonal  meshes. 

Bloom.  1.  (Mdidluiiiii.)  A  loop  or  ball  of  pud- 
dled iron  deprived  of  its  dross  by  shingling  or  squeez- 
ing. 

2.  {Leather  Maniifacture.)  A  yellowish  ])0wdery 
coating  on  the  surfece  of  well-tanned  leather,  by 
whicli  its  quality  is  adjudged.  It  may  arise  from 
a  deposit  of  surjilus  tannin,  and  thus  be  an  indica- 
tion that  the  process  is  fully  accomplished.  Oak- 
bark  tanning  yields  the  best  bloom,  and  some  of  the 
quick  pn  cesses  none  at  all. 

Bloom'er-plt.  A  tan-pit  in  which  hides  are 
subjected  to  tile  action  of  strong  ooze.  So  called 
because  the  conclusion  of  the  process  brings  a  bloom 
on  the  skin.     Also  called  a  layer. 

The  ])its  containing  a  weaker  solution  are  called 
handlers. 

Bloom-hook,  (ifctallurgti.)  A  tool  for  handling 
the  heated  bloom,  drawing  it  towards  the  shingler, 
moving  it  under  the  hammer,  etc.     Bloom-longs. 
Blot'ter.     A  device  for  absorbing  the  superfluous 
ink    I'rom   paper    after 
i'ig.  726  writing.       The    blotter 

may  be  merely  a  thin 
book  interleaved  with 
bibulous  paper,  or  a 
pad  or  cushion  covered 
with  blotting-paper,  a 
or  b,  and  having  a  han- 
dle, being  used  after  the 
mannerofastamp.  An- 
other form  consists  of  a 
roller  c  covered  with 
successive  layers  of  blot- 
ting-paper, and  revolv- 
ing on  an  a.xis,  a  han- 
dle being  attached  for 
convenient  use.  The 
layers  of  paper  may  be 
removed  as  they  be- 
come soiled,  and  fresh 
paper  substituted. 
Blot'tlng-pad.  A 
few  sheets  of  blotting-paper  on  the  writing-table  or 
desk,  to  form  a  soft  bed  for  the  writing-paper. 

Blot'ting-pa'per.  A  thick,  bibulous,  unsized 
paper,  tised  as  a  pad  on  the  desk  or  to  imbibe  supei-- 
huous  ink  from  undried  manuscripts. 

Blow'er.  A  machine  for  creating  an  artificial 
current  of  air  by  pressure.  A  plenum  engine,  as 
contradistinguished  from  a  vacuum  engine,  such  as 
an  as])irator. 

1.  Blowers  are  used  to  increase  drafts  in  furnaces  ; 
to  furnish  vital  air  to  close  and  fetid  places,  as  mines, 
■wells,  cisterns,  holds  of  ships,  etc.  ;  to  furnish  a  cur- 
rent of  warmed,  cooled,  moistened,  or  medicated  air 
to  public  buildings  or  others  which  are  liable  to  be 


Blollers. 


closely  occuiiied  ;  to  furnish  a  drying  atmosphere  in 
lumber,  grain,  or  meal  kilns,  powder-mills,  etc.  ;  to 
assist  in  evaporating  lluids  by  removing  the  steam 
Irom  the  vicinity  of  the  boiling  syrup  or  other  solu- 
tion ;  to  raise  fiuids  on  the  principle  of  the  Gilfard  in- 
jector, as  in  some  of  the  ejectors  used  in  deep  oil-wells ; 
to  assist  in  the  dispersion  of  Kquids,  as  in  atomizers, 
and  some  ice-making  machines. 

The  fan-blower  is  believed  to  have  been  invented 
by  Teial,  1729.     The  water-bellows  by  Hornblower. 

Blowing-machines  were  erected  by  Smeaton  at  the 
Carron  Iron  Works,  1760. 

The  liot-air  blast  was  invented  by  James  Neil.son, 
of  Gla.sgow,  and  patented  in  1828. 

Wooden  bellows,  in  which  one  open-ended  box  is 
made  to  slip  within  another,  with  valves  for  the  in- 
duction and  edui'tion  of  air,  were  used  at  Nuremberg, 
1550.  They  were  used  in  the  next  century  for  smelt- 
ing, blaeksmithing,  and  for  organs.  Such  a  machine 
is  in  princijile  the  same  as  Fig.  106,  and  the  con- 
verse of  that  shown  in  Fig.  114. 

P.  Fanncnschmid  of  Thuringia  appears  to  have 
made,  about  1621,  a  much  more  efi'ective  blower  than 
was  previously  used  by  the  metallurgists  of  his  sec- 
tion. This  was  a  flat  vane  teciprocating  in  a  sector- 
shaped  box  and  having  an  inlet  valve  for  the  air. 
At  the  hinging-point  of  the  vane,  the  edge  of  the 
sector,  an  eduction  pipe  proceeds  from  the  box. 
Slips  of  wood  on  the  edge  of  the  vane  were  pressed 
against  the  sides  of  the  box,  to  prevent  the  leakage 
of  air. 

Somewhat  similar  to  this  is  the  oscillating  or  pul- 
sating piston  (Fig.  727). 

The  i'ans  D  />'  are  oscillated  in  a  semi-cylindrical 
case  with  an  upper  exit  at  F-,  and  two  valves  B  B 

Fig.  727. 


Btowpr. 

opening  upwardly  ;  the  fans  have  .also  valves  open- 
ing towards  each  other.  The  alternate  oscillating 
motion  of  the  fans  is  produced  by  crank  connection 
//  /  with  a  driven  pulley  G. 

The  earlier  modern  forms  of  machine-blowers  con- 
sist of  cylinders  with  jiistoirs,  the  ditterences  between 
them  consisting  principally  in  the  means  for  counnu- 
nicating  motion  and  for  securing  a  uniform  blast ; 
an  arrangement  for  this  inirpose  is  shown  in  the  fig- 
ure, consisting  of  two  connected  cylinders,  one  of  them 
provided  with  a  discharge-pipe  ;  by  the  descent  of 


BLOWER. 


505 


BLOWER. 


the  jiiston  in  the  first  cylinder  the  air  is  force<l  into 
the  otlier  cylinder  through  a  valve  which  rises  to 
allow  its  passage.  At  the  same  time  the  piston  of 
the  secoud  cylinder  is  caused  to  rise,  aud,  ou  reach- 
Fig.  728. 


Piston-Biower 

ing  its  highest  point,  commences  its  descending  mo- 
tion, closing  the  communicating  valve  and  forcing 
the  air  through  the  discharge-pipe,  while  the  first 
piston  rises,  filling  its  cylinder  with  air,  to  be  simi- 
larly forced  into  the  second  cylinder,  and  thence 
expelled  as  before. 

In  other  forms  of  blowing  apparatus  on  this  prin- 
ciple, the  air  is  forced  from  the  blowing  cylinders 
into  a  reservoir,  whence  it  issues  by  the  force  of  its 
compression.  Such  is  that  used  at  Woolwich,  Eng- 
land (shown  in  Fig.  729).     The  beams  of  the  pistons 

Fi„'.  7C0. 


Woolwich  Blowers. 

are  so  connected  that  when  one  is  at  the  top  of  the 
-stroke  another  is  midway  of  its  cylinder  and  the  third 
at  its  lowest  point,  maintaining  very  nearly  uniform 
pressure  in  a  wind-chest  below  with  which  each  cyl- 
inder communicates. 

Blov\ers  on  the  fan  jirinciple  are  the  favorite  sub- 
jects of  the  exercise  of  the  ingenuity  of  modern  in- 
ventors in  this  line. 

20 


In  these  the  air  is  admitted  through  an  aperture 
at  or  near  the  axis  of  the  rotating  fan,  whence  it  is 
driven  toward  the  perijihery  by  means  of  curved  arms, 
and  discharged  througli  an  opening  in  the  case. 

In  Schiele's  compound  blowing-fan,  two  fans  are 
combined  on  the  s  ime  sliaft,  so  as  to  act  successively 
on  the  same  air.  By  the  first  tlie  air  is  driven  into 
a  chamber  between  the  fans,  at  a  pressure  of  perhaps 
six  ounci'S.  The  second  receives  the  air  at  this  pres- 
sure and  compresses  it  as  much  more,  so  that  it  is 
delivered  at  length  into  the  furnace  at  a  pressure  of 
twelve  ounces  per  square  inch. 

Lloyd's  noiseless  fan  consists  of  a  drum  formed  or 
two  flat  hollow  cones  of  thin  metal,  brought  near  to- 
gether by  their  bases,  and  connected  by  a  series  of 
curved  partitions  extending  from  the  center  to  the 
circumference.  The  cones  are  open  about  the  ver- 
texes,  and  an  axis  of  revolution  supports  the  whole 
by  being  the  common  origin  of  all  the  curved  parti- 
tions. This  drum  rotates  within  a  closed  box,  and 
discharges  the  air  received  at  the  center  through  a 
tangential  outlet.     See  F.\x. 

Other  rotary  blowers  are  on  the  principle  of  the 
rotary  pump  or  rotary  engine,  having  two  portions 
which  revolve  in  apposition. 

In  Fig.  730,  a  represents  a  blowing-machine  hav- 
ing two  similarly  shaped  elongated  cams  A  B,  the 
projections  of  each  of  wliich  fit  into  the  depressions 
of  the  other.  These  are  arranged  in  a  suitably  shaped 
bo.x  C,  aud  driven  by  pitmen  so  arranged  that  por- 

Fig.  730. 


Rotary  Blowers. 

tions  of  the  peripliery  of  each  blower  shall  be  con- 
stantly in  close  jiroximify,  wliile  the  two  ends  or 
wings  of  each  move  in  ]iroximity  to  the  cun-ed  sides 
of  the  box.  The  rotation  of  the  two  blowers  in  op- 
posite directions  draws  the  air  through  an  opening 
in  one  side  of  the  box,  and  forcibly  discharges  it 
through  a  blast-pipe  at  the  other. 

Root's  blower,  b,  is  similar  in  principle  to  the 
foregoing  ;  the  projections  of  the  cams  are,  however, 
rounded  off  so  as  to  fonn  circular  arcs,  while  the 
depth  of  the  depressions  is  decreased,  causing  a  lon- 
ger lap  on  the  abutting  surfaces,  so  as  to  provide 
against  tlie  escape  of  air  in  the  wrong  direction. 

In  c  a  series  of  bellows,  provided  with  suitable 
valves,  are  radially  arranged  around  a  tube  surround- 
ing the  axis  of  a  wheel.  A  heavj'  block  moving  in 
guides  descends  by  gravity  on  approacliing  a  ver- 
tical position,  admitting  air  during  the  lower  part 


BLOWER. 


306 


BLOWER. 


and  forcing  it  out  tlnougli  the  central  tube  during 
the  upper  jiart  of  the  revolution. 

Bloweis  luive  been  nuide  liaving  an  eccentric  drum, 
witli  radial  pistons  or  valves,  wliich  rotates  within 
an  exterior  casing  ;  or  the  interior  of  the  case  may 
be  itself  eccentric  and  the  drum  central  on  its 
shaft, —  the  pistons,  in  either  case,  being  reciprocated 
alternately  back  and  forth  in  slots  in  the  drum,  as 
that  portion  of  its  periphery  in  wliiclitheyare  situated 
approaclies  or  recedes  from  the  side  of  the  casing. 

The  principle  of  the  rotary  pump  is  entirely  appli- 
cable to  tlie  blower,  ar.d  a  machine  of  this  Icind 
whicn  causes  a  current  of  water  to  ascend  may  be 
made  to  create  a  blast  of  air. 

The  hijcirostatic  bellows  is  formed  by  a  body  of  wa- 
ter falling  through  a  pipe  or  pipes  a  a,  pierced  with 

Jig.  731. 


him  machine  soufflanle  a  colonne  d'cau.  The  water 
is,  liowever,  merely  employed  to  pack  the  working 
l)arts  and  jtrevent  iViction. 

^/  A  are  two  compressing  cylinders  having  inner 
and  outer  walls,  tlie  space  between  which  is  lilled 
with  water  up  to  a  certain  level,  as  a.  B  B  are  cyl- 
inders which  are  reciprocated  within  this  annular 

Fig.  733. 


Hydrostatic  Bellows. 

a  number  of  holes  inclined  inwardly  and  downward- 
ly. The  current  of  water  draws  air  in  at  tliese  ori- 
fices, and  carries  it  down  into  the  chamber  b  below, 
where  it  is  compressed,  and,  separating  from  the 
water,  rises  into  a  trunk  on  the  upper  part  of  the 
chamber,  whence  it  is  conducted  by  a  jiipe  to  the 
forge.  The  water  dashes  ujiou  a  table  c  in  the  cliam- 
ber,  which  assists  in  the  separation  of  the  air,  and 
then  escapes  by  a  ti'ap  beneath  the  water-level.  The 
force  of  the  blast  is  proportionate  to  the  volume  and 
fall  of  the  water,  and  is  regulated  by  a  .sluice. 

Thirion's  hydraulic  pressure-blower  is  termed  by 

Fig.  732. 


TTlirion^s  Hydraulic  Pressiire-Blower. 


Sturtevant^s  Blower. 

space  by  a  driven  pulley  and  cranked  shaft  /.  The 
regulator  comprises  an  annular  outer  cylinder  E  and 
an  interior  cylinder  F.  The  outer  cylinder  is  par- 
tially filled  with  water,  and  the  inner  has  a  vertical 
motion  therein,  limited  by  the  guide  H  rigidly  sus- 
pended from  the  sliaft  /. 

Tlie  upward  movement  of  either  cylinder  B  admits 
air  throush  the  valves  b,  which  is  forced  by  the 
downward  movement  through  the  valves  c  c  in  the 
enlarged  iiortion  of  the  pipe  C  D,  into  the  upper 
cylinder  F  of  the  regulator,  through  the  valves  e  e. 
The  weight  of  the  cylinder  F  Ibrces  the  air  into  the 
central  tube  g,  which  forms  the  upper  part  of  the 


BLOWEK  AND   SPREADER. 


307 


BLOWING-MACHINE. 


blast-pipe  ff,  under  an  amount  of  pressure  regulated 
by  weights  in  the  scale-pan /tixed  on  the  top  of  the 
guide-rod  of  the  cylinder. 

Sturtevant's  blower  has  spoked  wheels,  having 
conical  annular  disks  mounted  on  an  axis  dri\'en  by 
two  belts  to  prevent  tendency  to  wabbling.  The  air 
enters  between  the  spokes  around  the  axis,  and  is 
driven  forcibly  by  the  curved  floats  which  s|)an  the 
s|)ace  between  the  annular  disks,  being  dischar^'ed 
into  the  peripheral  receiving-chamber  ^4,  whence  it 
reaches  the  horizontal  eduction-pipe  shown  in  the 
lower  part  of  the  figure.  Within  eadi  of  the  band- 
pulleys  is  an  oil-collector  ff,  whioh  intercepts  super- 
fluous oil  and  conducts  it  to  the  oil-chamber  /,  whence 
it  may  be  drawn  by  a  faucet.  The  shaft  C  is  sup- 
ported in  tubular  bearings  at  E  E,  sustained  in  brack- 
ets by  means  of  ball-joints  /,  whereby  the  bearings 
are  able  to  accommodate  themselves  to  the  shaft 
while  in  revolution.  The  oilers  ;/  for  the  journal  of 
the  shaft  C  are  near  the  end,  and  have  dripping 
wicks  whicli  feed  the  lubricant  in  regular  quantity  ; 
the  oil-collectors  H  intercepting  any  superfluity,  as 
already  stated.  The  set  screws  g  </  afl'ord  means  for 
adjusting  the  shaft  C  lengthwise,  so  as  to  bring  the 
wheel  to  its  proper  position  in  the  case. 

Another  form  of  blower,  if  the  term  lie  admissible, 
is  a  steam-jet,  which  induces  a  current  by  produ- 
cing a  partial  vacuum.  It  is  used  in  providing  the 
vacuum  in  front  of  the  traveling-carriage  of  a  pneu- 
matic tube,  a  jet  of  steam  issuing  from  an  annular  noz- 
zle concentric  with  that  eml  of  the  tube  toward  which 
the  carriage  is  moving.  The  steam  or  vapor  carries 
along  with  it  a  current  of 
air  which  is  drawn  from 
the  tube.  It  is  more  cor- 
rect to  call  this  a  substi- 
tute for  the  blower. 

The  steam  -jet  for  the 
ventilation  of  mines  was 
used  long  ago,  and  then 
abandoned.  It  has  since 
been  tried  very  success- 
fully at  a  colliery  at  Old- 
ham, England,  in  which 
the  satisfactory  tlowof  near- 
ly 23,000  cubic  feet  of  air 
per  minute  was  obtained. 

2.  An  iron  plate  tem- 
porarily placed  in  front 
of  an  open  fire,  to  urge 
the  combustion. 

3.  A  machine  for  sepa- 
rating the  hair  from  the 
fur  fibers.   See  Blowing- 

MACiriN'E. 

Blo'w'er  and  Spread'er.  {Cottrm- Manufacture.) 
A  ma'hine  for  spreading  cotton  into  a  lap,  the  ac- 
tion of  beaters  and  blower  being  conjoined  for  the 
purjiose.     See  CoTTON-CLE.\NiXG  Machine. 

Blow-gun.  Used  by  the  Barbados  Indians  of 
Brazil  and  other  aborigines  of  South  America.  A 
similar  contrivance  is  employed  by  some  of  the  Jla- 
lays,  by  whom  it  is  called  "sumpitan."  The 
arrows  are  about  fifty  inches  long,  made  of  a  yellow 
reed  and  tipped  with  hard  wood,  which  has  a  spike 
of  cocourite  wood  poisoned.  The  spike  is  cut  half 
through,  so  as  to  breajc  off  in  the  wound,  that 
the  arrow-shaft  may  drop  and  be  recovered.  See 
Air-gun. 

Blow'ing-cyl'in-der.  {Pneumatics.)  A  form 
of  bloirt}iff-eni:fnie. 

Smeaton  introduced  the  blowing-cylinders  at  the 
Carron  iron-works,  and  by  the  power  and  volume  of 
blast  made  effective  the  earnest  and  repeated  attempts 


of  the  English  to  smelt  iron  by  the  use  of  the  coke 
of  pit-coal.  This  was  in  17(50,  and  utilized  the  in- 
vention of  Abraham  Darby,  of  Colebrookdale,  in 
1735. 

Blow'ing-en'gine.  Properly,  one  applied  to 
the  duty  ot  driving  a  blower  ;  sometimes  it  is  in- 
tended to  mean  a  machine  by  which  an  aitificial 
draft  by  plenum  is  obtained.  For  such,  see 
Blciweu. 

Blow'ing-fur'nace.  (Glass-making.)  A  fur- 
nace in  which  articles  of  glass  in  process  of  manu- 
facture are  held  to  soften,  when  they  have  lost  their 
plasticity  by  cooling. 

Blow'in'g-pipe.  (Glass-making.)  The  glass- 
blower's  pipe  ;  liiijttiiig-iron  ;  a  poiitil. 

Blow'ing-ma-chine'.  1.  One  for  creating  an 
artificial  dralt  by  Ibrcing  air.     See  Blower. 

2.  (Hal-making.)  A  machine  for  separating  the 
"kemps"  or  hairs  from  the  fur  fibers.  The  fibers 
are  fed  from  an  endless  apron  between  rolls  to  a  re- 
volving picker  in  a  closed  chamber,  wdiicli  tosses  the 
mass  upwards  against  a  horizontal  gauze  partition, 
througli  which  the  air  escajies,  whence  they  fall  on  to 
a  second  apron,  which  carries  them  to  a  second  cham- 
ber, where  this  operation  is  repeated.  The  coarse 
and  heavier  hairs  fall  by  their  gravity  into  boxes  in 
the  bottom  of  the  chamlier.  The  operation  twice  or 
thrice  repeated  completes  the  separation,  when  the 
fur  is  ready  for  the  forming-machine  which  makes 
the  bat  for  felting. 

Fig.  734  represents  the  ordinary  fur  blowing-ma- 
chine. 

Fig.  734. 


Elowin^-Machine. 

The  mixed  fur  and  hair  is  placed  on  the  endless 
apron  rt,  and  is  fed  into  the  rollers  c  e,  which  feed 
the  rotating-picker  d.  This  sejiarates  it,  and  tosses 
the  mass  up  toward  the  wire-gauze  sci'een  e,  which 
allows  the  air  to  escape,  and  causes  the  mass  to  fall 
on  the  second  endless  apron  g,  which  carries  it  into 
the  second  apartment.  While  the  disintegrated 
mass  nf  fur  has  thus  been  passing  through  the  first 
apartment,  the  lieaviest  and  coarsest  hairs  and  the 
dust  have  by  reason  of  their  weight  fallen  into  the 
boxes  /(.  t. 

The  mass,  on  passing  into  the  second  apartment, 
is  treated  in  a  precisely  similar  way,  and  is  usually 
conducted  from  thence  into  a  third  apartment,  where 
it  is  operated  on  in  the  same  way,  and  finally  de- 
livered in  a  fit  state  for  manufacture. 

3.  (Cotton- Mamifacturc.)  A  part  of  the  batting- 
machine,  or  a  machine  in  which  cotton  loosened  by 
willowing  and  scutching,  one  or  both,  is  subjected  to 


BLOWING-OFF. 


308 


BLOW-PIPE. 


■1  draft  of  air  occasioned  by  a  fan,  wliich  removes 
the  <lust  and  otlier  light  small  refuse  from  the  liber. 
See  ISatting-jiachi.ne. 

BloTv'ing-off.  (Sleam-Engine.)  The  process 
of  ejecting  the  supor-salted  water  from  the  boiler, 
in  order  to  prevent  the  deposition  of  scale  or  salt. 

Blow'iiig-pot.  (Piift'.ri/.)  A  pot  of  colored 
slip  lor  the  ornamentation  of  pottery  wliile  in  tlie 
lathe.  Thi^  pot  has  a  tube,  at  which  the  mouth  of 
the  workman  is  jjlaeed,  and  a  spout  like  a  ipiill,  at 
which  the  slip  exudes  under  the  pressure  of  the 
breath.  Tlie  ware  is  rotated  in  the  lathe,  while 
the  hollows  previously  made  in  the  ware  to  receive 
the  slip  are  thus  tilled  up.  Excess  of  slip  is  removed, 
after  a  certain  amount  of  drying,  by  a  spatula  or 
knife,  known  as  a  tintniasin.. 

Blo-w'ing-through.  (Slcam-Eiujiae.)  The  pro- 
cess of  clearing  the  engine  of  air  by  blowing  .steam 
through'  the  cylinder,  valves,  and  condenser  before 
starting. 

Blow'ing-tube.  (Glass-iimkinri.)  Pnnf.i/ ;  Pon- 
til.  An  iron  tube  from  four  to  Kvc  feet  in  length, 
and  with  a  bore,  according  to  the  character  of  the 
work,  of  from  one  third  to  one  inch  in  diameter.  The 
metal,  as  the  molten  glass  is  called,  is  gathered  on 
the  larger  end,  which  is  thrust  into  the  glass-pot, 
and  the  mouth  is  applied  to  the  smaller  end  to  blow 
the  glass,  making  it  hollow  by  a  body  of  air  ;  the 
shape  of  the  object  being  determined  by  swinging, 
by  I'olling  on  the  marocr,  by  tongs,  and  other  tools. 
See  Glass-bi.iiwing. 

Blow-oif  Cock.  {Stcnin-E)ir/i)ifi.)  A  faucet  in 
a  steam-boiler  for  allowing  a  quantity  of  water  to 
escape,  to  rid  the  boiler  of  mml ;  or,  in  marine 
engines,  of  a  strong  solution  of  .salt. 

Blow-off  Pipe.  {Steam- E II ffiiw.)  A  ]iipe  at 
tlif  lower  part  of  a  steam-boiler  by  which  sediment  is 
driven  out  occasionally. 

Blow-o'ver.  (Glass.)  An  arrangement  in  blow- 
ing glass  bottles  or  jars  in  molds  in  which  the  sur- 
plus glass  is  collected  in  a  chamlier  above  the  lip  of 
the  vessel  with  but  a  thin  connecting  portion,  so  that 
the  surplus  is  readily  broken  otf  without  danger  to 
the  vessel  itself. 

Blow-pipe.  A  tube  through  which  a  current 
of  air  is  forced,  in  order  to  direct  a  flame  and  con- 
centrate its  heat  at  a  particular  spot. 

The  origin  of  this  instrument  is  unknown,  though 
it  is  undoubtedly  of  very  great  antiipiity. 

Among  the  earliest  illustrations  of  metallnrgic 
operations  may  be  cited  the  little  furnace  with 
cheeks  to  concentrate  the  heat  upon  the  crucible, 
and  the  tire  urged  by  the  l^low-pipe.  There  seems 
to  be  a  purpose  to  direct  tiie  tlanie  upon  the  cruci- 
ble in  the  manner  of  a  blow-pipe;  for  the  blast-fur- 
nace and  foot-bellows  were  well  known  at  that  time, 
and  are  shown  in  the  ancient  paintings  of  Kourua, 
Thebes. 

Fig.  735. 


The  blow-pipe  is  used  by  goldsmiths,  jewelers, 
and  others,  in  soldering  of  metals,  and  by  glass- 
blowers  in  sealing  glass  tubes. 

It  is  made  of  various  forms  for  special  uses. 

Fig.  736. 


Bow-Pipe  (Thebes). 


a.  Common  or  simplest  form  of  blow-pipe. 

b.  Two-part  blow-pipe  having  a  Imlb  near  the 
small  end,  com]iosed  of  two  hemispheres  in  which 
the  moisture  from  the  breath  is  coudeuied,  and  which 
may  be  unscrewed  for  convenience  of  carrying  in  the 
pocket. 

c.  Gahn's  blow-pipe  made  in  four  separable  parts. 

d.  Woilaston's  lilow-j)ipe  ready  for  use. 

e.  Woilaston's  blow-pipe  with  its  lower  end  and 
beak  slid  in  for  cairiage  in  the  iiocket. 

/.  Dr.  Black's  blow-pipe.  The  smaller  end  is  the 
mouth-])ieee,  and  the  larger  condenses  the  moisture. 

While  the  use  of  the  blow-pi])e  dates  from  distant 
antiquity,  yet  its  use  in  mineralogy,  in  deteiniining 
the  nature  of  the  metals  in  ores,  dates  from  Antony 
von  Suab  in  1738,  and  Cronstedt,  20  years  later. 
The  subject  may  be  satisfactorily  pursued  in  "  Platt- 
ner  on  the  Blow-pipe,"  and  by  consulting  a  late  work, 
"System  of  Instraction  in  the  practical  Use  of  the 
Blow-pipe." 

The  7-1(1  iiciiir/  ilanie  is  produced  by  blowing  the 
flame  of  the  lamp  aside  by  a  weak  current  of  air  im- 
]iinging  on  the  outer  surface,  the  flame  being  un- 
changed except  in  direction.  Unconsumed  carbon, 
at  a  white  heat,  giving  the  yellow  color  to  the  flame, 
aids  in  the  reduction  of  the  substance. 

The  o.r:dizinff  flame  is  formed  by  blowing  a  strong 
current  into  the  interior  of  the  flame,  perfecting  the 
comhu-stion.  The  object,  being  intensely  heated,  and 
exposed  to  the  surrounding  air,  becomes  oxidized. 

In  Fig.  737  is  shown  an  apparatus  charging  the 
air-chamber  by  mechanical  means  instead  of  by  the 
breath.  Such  devices  are  now  much  used  by  jewel- 
ers, mechanical  dentists,  and  in  certain  departments 
of  analytical  chemistry. 

It  consists  of  a  table  having  a  chamber  into  which 
air  is  forced  by  a  pump  2,  operated  by  a  treadle  5, 
maintaining  a  continuous  blast  through  the  pipe  3, 
to  which  is  attached  a  flexible  tube,  enabling  the 
flame  of  the  lamp  i,  on  the  table,  to  be  thrown  in 
ajiy  direction. 

The  compound  or  oxyhyilrogen  blow-pipe,  invented 
by  Dr.  Robert  Hare,  of  Philadelphia,  in  the  early 
part  of  the  present  century,  surpasses,  in  the  inten- 
sity of  the  heat  it  produces,  anything  that  had  pre- 
viously been  attained.     The  flame  is  formed  by  unit- 


BLOW-PIPE. 


309 


BLOW-THROUGH  VALVE. 


Fig.  737.  ing  the  two  g.i-ses, 

oxygen  and  hy- 
drogen, from  sep- 
arate re.fervoii's  in 
a  single  jet,  in  the 
proportion  to  form 
water,  —  namely,  2 
volumes  of  hydro- 
gen, 1  of  oxygen, 
—  the  compound 
being  ignited  just 
beyond  theirpoint 
of  mixture.  No 
^,=' substances  are 
found  capable  of 
resisting  the  high 
temperature  ob- 
tained by  this 
TabU  Kow-Pipe.  blowpipe.      Car- 

bonate of  magne- 
sia is  very  difficult  to  melt,  but  even  this  is  reduced 
into  grains  of  enamel  of  suliicient  hardness  to  scratch 
glass.      Platinum  melts  instantly,  and  golil  in  con- 
tact with  borax  is  entirely  volatilized.      Pure  lime 
and  its  compounds  emit  a  tlame  of  amethystine  tinge 
as  they  melt.   Quartz  crys- 
tal melts  with  a  beautiful 
light;  piecesof china-ware 
are    fused    into    crystals, 
and  flints  jjroduce  trans- 
parent glass.     The  inten- 
sity of  the  light  emitted 
in  fusing  pure  lime  caused 
this  invention  to  be  rec- 
ommended by  Lieutenant 
Drummond,  of  the  British 
Engineers,  as  an  illumina- 
tion  for  lighthouses,  and 
it  is  now   known  as  the 
Drummond    light.       Dr. 
Hare  used  an  instrument 
terminating  in  fifteen  jet 
pipes  of  platinum.    These 
were  adjusted  so  as  to  pa,ss 
through    a    vessel    filled 
with  ice  or  snow,  to  jire- 
Vent  the  gases   becoming 
heated,    and    obviate   the 
danger  of  an  explosion  by 

a  retrocession  of  the  flame  into  a  single  pipe.  Dr. 
Clarke,  of  Cambridge,  England,  inclosed  in  the  pipe 
containing  the  two  gases  a  great  number  of  layere 
of  fine  wire  gauze,  to  prevent  explosion  ;  though  his 
experiments  were  successful  in  a  scientific  view,  the 
apparatus  proved  too  dangerous  for  common  use.  JL 
Goldsworthy  Gurney  contrived  an  instrument  in 
which  the  gases  were  forced  from  their  reservoirs 
through  a  tube  to  the  bottom  of  a  chamlier  contain- 
ing water,  the  gas  rising  through  the  water  and  pa.ss- 
ing  immediately  to  the  burner  ;  a  .stitf  jiasteboard 
cap  closjly  covered  the  reservoir,  sufficiently  strong 
to  retain  the  gas,  which,  in  case  of  an  explosion, 
■would  be  easily  thrown  ofi',  and  retrocession  of  the 
flame  into  the  gas-chamber  prevented  by  the  volume 
of  water.  A  bottle  or  flask  half  filled  with  mercury 
or  oil  of  turpentine,  connecting  by  leaden  tubes  be- 
tween the  reservoir  and  jet,  like  the  arrangement  of 
a  Woulf  s  bottle,  has  also  been  used  to  prevent  ex- 
plosion. The  gas  rises  in  bubbles  through  the  con- 
tents of  the  bottle  or  Mask,  and  in  case  of  an  explo- 
sion retrocession  of  flame  is  prevented,  either  by  the 
mercury  being  driven  into  the  pipe,  forming  a  me- 
chanical obstruction,  or  in  case  of  an  explosion  on 
the  surface  of  the  turpentine,  a  non-explosive  com- 


poimd  is  formed  by  the  excess  of  carbonaceous  mat- 
ter, rendering  it  impossible  for  the  flame  to  reach  the 
re-servoir. 

The  airo-liydrogcn  blow-pipe  is  a  modification  of 
the  oxyhydrogen  blow-pipe  invented  by  Dr.  Hare, 
of  Philadelphia  ;  the  modification  being  the  inven- 
tion of  Count  de  Eichmont,  of  France. 

The  elastic  tube  h  supplies  hydrogen  from  the 
generator,  and  the  pipe  a  supplies  atmospheric  air 
from  the  small  pair  of  double  bellows  J,  worked  by 
the  foot  of  the  operator  and  compressed  by  a  constant 
weight  «■.  The  two  pipes  meet  at  the  arch  and  pro- 
ceed by  a  third  pipe  e  to  the  small  jet  ;',  from  whence 
proceeds  the  flame.  All  the  connections  are  by 
elastic  tubes.  In  using  the  machine,  the  hydrogen 
is  ignited  and  the  size  of  the  fiame  regulated  by  the 
stop-cock  /(' ;  the  air  is  then  admitted  through  a! 
until  the  flame  assumes  a  tine  pointed  character, 
with  which  the  work  is  united  after  the  general 
manner  of  blow-pipe  soldering,  except  that  a  strip 
of  lead  is  used  instead  of  solder,  and  generally  with- 
out any  flux.     .See  Birxing. 

The  gas-generator  Is  charged  through  the  .stopper- 
hole  1  with  curly  shreds  of  sheet  zinc,  and  the  stop- 
per leplaced.     The  pipe  of  communication  between 

Fig.  73S. 


Airo-Hydrogen  Blow-Pipe, 

the  upper  and  lower  chambers  being  plugged  or 
closed  by  a  leaden  stop-cock,  the  upper  chamber  is 
charged  with  dilute  sulphuric  acid  (1  acid,  6  water). 
As  the  acidulateil  water  reaches  the  zinc,  hydrogen 
gas  is  evolved  by  the  decomposition  of  the  water, 
and  pa-sses  off'  by  cocks  i  and  h'.  When  the  out- 
flow ceases  by  the  closure  of  cocks  4  and  h',  gas  gener- 
ated fills  the  chamber,  and,  pressing  on  the  surface  of 
the  liquid  in  chamber  1,  drives  it  into  the  upper 
chamber,  so  that  the  evolution  of  gas  is  stopped. 
When  gas  is  withdrawn,  the  liquid  returns  and  the 
production  of  gas  is  resumed.  The  generator  cham- 
bers are  of  lead,  to  preserve  them  from  the  action  of 
the  acid. 

In  the  oxyhydrogen  blow-pipe,  oxygen  1  volume 
and  hydrogen  2  volumes  are  united  in  proportions 
to  constitute  water.  In  the  airo-hydrogen  blow- 
pipe the  same  gases  are  in  the  same  proportions,  but 
the  oxygen  is,  so  to  speak,  diluted  by  four  times  its 
bulk  of  nitrogen. 

Blovsr-through  Valve.  {Steam  -  Engine.)  A 
valve  commanding  the  ojiening  through  which  boiler- 
steam  is  admitted  to  a  condensing  steam-engine 
to  bloir  through  and  expel  air  and  condensed  water, 
which  depart  through  the  way  of  the  snifting-valve. 


BLOW-TUBE. 


310 


BOARD. 


This  is  the  first  operation  in  starting  an  engine  of 
this  character,  the  condenser  being  tlien  brouglit 
into  operation  to  condense  the  vap  )rous  contents  of 
tile  eyliniler  and  make  tlie  lirst  strolce. 

Blow-tube.  1.  The  hollow  iron  rod  used  by 
glass-makers  to  gather  metal  (melted  glass)  I'rom  the 
pots,  to  blow  and  form  it  into  the  desired  shape.  A 
poHty.     (Fr.  pontil.) 

2.  A  tube  through  which  arrows  are  driven  by  the 
breiith.      See  r>i,o\v-GU"N;   AlR-GUN. 

Blovsr-up  Pan.  (Siigfir-Machiiicry.)  A  pan  used 
in  dissolving  raw  sugar  preparatory  to  the  process  of 
refining.  Steam  is  introduced  by  means  of  pi|)es 
coiled  round  within  the  vess 'Is  to  dissolve  the  su- 
gar, which  thence  becomes  a  dark,  thick,  viscous 
lii^uid  ;  a  small  portion  of  lime-water  is  admitted  to 
the  sugar,  and  constant  stirring  with  long  slender 
rods  assists  the  process  of  linuefaction.  The  blow- 
up pans  are  generally  rectangular,  ti  or  7  feet  long, 
3  or  4  feet  wide,  and  3  feet  deep,  with  peitbrated 
co|)per  pipes  near  the  bottom,  though  the  holes  of 
wliich  steam  is  blown  into  the  sugar. 

Blovsr-valve.  (Slcxni-Enrjia':.)  The  valve  by 
which  the  air  e.\pelled  from  the  cylinder  escapes 
from  the  condenser  on  the  downward  stroke  of  the 
piston  when  a  steam-engine  is  first  set  in  motion. 
The  s)iiftinf]-valve. 

Blub'ber-guy.  {NauticU.)  A  rope  stretched 
between  the  niiinmist  and  foremast  heads,  and 
serving  for  the  suspension  of  the  speck-purchase 
wsii.  in  flensing  whales  under  the  orders  of  the  speck- 
tioiixr. 

Blub'ber-spade.  (N'autical.)  A  keen-edged, 
spad'-like  knil'c,  attached  to  a  pole,  used  by  whale- 
men in  removing  the  layer  of  fat  or  blubber  wliich 
encases  the  body  of  a  whale. 

Thecarea^is,  stripped  of  the  blubber,  is  called  krawf. 

Blue-light.  A  signal  light  burning  with  a  steady 
blu!  color. 

Blue-lights  are  mxde  of  a  composition  of  9  lbs.  10 
oz.  saltpeter,  2  lbs.  64  oz.  sulphur,  11  oz.  red  orpi- 
ment.  The  miterials  are  well  pulverized  and  tluu'- 
oughly  incorporated,  and  a  sutiicient  nuantity 
for  a  charge  is  pressed  into  a  hemispherical  cup  of 
seasoned  wood,  having  a  handle  about  ten  inches 
long.  These  cups  are  covered  with  cartridge-paper 
pasted  over  the  mouth,  and  are  primed  with  ipiick- 
match.  When  lighted,  they  are  held  by  the  handle 
until  the  coni'iosition  burns  out. 

Blue-mst'al.  (ilctdlanpi.)  One  condition  of 
copper  in  course  of  refining.  The  names  co.irsc-mclaf^ 
fine  or  blue  mdal,  co'irsc  copper,  and  rose-copper  oc- 
cur in  that  order.     S.;e  Coi'i'EU. 

Blu'ing.  1.  (M;t%l-w irking.)  The  process  of 
he  iting  steel  until  it  assumes  a  blue  color.  See 
Tempkring. 

2.  (Dijciiig.)  Coloring  goods  by  a  solution  of 
indigo. 

Blun'der-bus.  A  short  gun  with  a  large  bore, 
for  carrying  a  large  charge  of  balls  and  slugs,  to  be 
used  at  close  quarters.  In  former  times,  the  same 
body  of  troops  seem  to  have  been  armed  part  with 
carbines  and  part  with  blunderbusses  (Dutch,  don- 
di'.rbns,  thunder-gun).  It  is  now  disused,  and  we 
seldom  hear  of  it  except  in  accounts  of  old  houses 
anl  mansions  where  it  is  provided  against  burglars. 
This  is  a  mere  reminiscence,  aii'.l  has  no  practical 
bearing  upon  the  modern  armorer's  art. 

Blua^'ing.  (Polleri/.)  The  jirocess  of  mixing 
clays  for  the  manufacture  of  porcelain.  The  proper 
proportions  of  the  clays  and  the  needful  ipiantity  of 
water  are  placed  over  night  in  a  trough  about  2.V 
feet  deep.  The  ingredients  are  intimately  mixed 
by  the  blunger  (corrupted  imiii  plunger),  which  is  a 


long  blade  shaped  like  a  spatula,  but  larger  than 
a  shovel,  and  having  a  cross-handle  by  which  it  is 
wielded.  The  material  is  mi.xed  till  it  liecomes  a 
smooth  and  plastic  mass,  a  pint  of  which  weighs 
from  24  to  2tj  ounces,  according  to  the  ingredients. 

Tile  work  is  sometimes  done  in  a  pug-mill,  wliich 
saves  very  hard  manual  labor. 

Bluiik.     (Fabric.)    A  heavy  cotton  Scotch  cloth. 

Blunt-file.  A  file  which  has  but  slight  taper. 
It  is  a  grade  between  the  regular  taper  and  the  dcacl- 
pavallcl  files. 

Blunt-hook.  (Surgery.)  An  obstetric  hook 
for  witluliawing  the  fcctus  without  piercing  or  tear- 
ing. 

Blunts.  A  grade  of  sewing-needles  whose  pointed 
ends  are  less  finely  attenuated  than  the  sharps. 
Betwcens  are  a  middle  grade  in  this  respect. 

Board.  1.  (Wood-working.)  a.  A  sawed  piece 
of  wood,  relatively  broad,  long,  and  thin,  exceeding 
41  inches  in  width  and  less  than  2J  inches  in  thick- 
ness. The  term  plaitk  is  ])roperly  ajiplied  to  a  grade 
thicker  than  boards,  though  the  two  terms  are  often 
used  indiscriminately.  What  in  shipwrighting,  etc., 
are  called  plank,  would  in  house-carpentry  usually 
come  under  the  denomination  of  scantling. 

According  to  the  British  system,  iir-boards  under 
nine  inches  in  breadth  are  called  deals,  and  boards 
of  greater  width  jjla.nks. 

h.  A  rived  slab  of  wood  ;  as,  a  clapboard. 

The  following  terms  obtain  :  — 

Fcidlicr-edgcd :  one  edge  thinner  than  the  other. 

Listed:  the  sap-wood  removed. 

Edge-shot;  the  edge  planed. 

Wrought  ;  planed  on  the  side. 

Matched ;  tongued  and  grooved. 

Jointed  ;  lined  and  edge-jdaned  so  as  to  come  to- 
gether correctly. 

2.  A  Hat  piece  of  plank  or  a  surface  coraposed  of 
several  pieces,  used  in  many  trades  ;  as,  — 

Modeling-board:  a  templet  having  the  profile  of 
the  gun  or  cylinder  formed  by  the  loam-molding 
process. 

Follow-board ;  a  supporting- board  on  which  a  pat- 
tern lies  in  molding. 

Molding-board :  flask-board  on  which  the  box  is 
placed  in  saud-niolding. 

Dead-head  board,  cascalel  -  board,  back-board, 
molding-out  board,  are  also  used  in  loam-molding 
operations. 

3.  (Paper.)  A  thick  paper,  composed  of  several 
layers  pasted  together  ;  pasteboard.  There  are  vari- 
ous terms  employed  to  exjjress  diHerent  varieties. 

a.  Cardboard  is  made  of  thicknesses  of  more  com- 
mon paper  pasted  together,  and  having  a  fine  quality 
for  surfaces. 

b.  Bristol-board  has  fine  paper  throughout  its  sub- 
stance. 

c.  Mill-board  is  made  of  coarse  material,  with  a 
glossy  surface  produced  by  heavy  rolling. 

d.  Enameled-board  has  a  coating  of  wdiite  lead  or 
other  pigment. 

c.  Glazed  board  has  a  smooth  glazed  surface. 

/.    Tar-board  is  made  of  junk  and  ro|ie. 

g.  Straw-board  is  a  yet  poorer  quality,  made  of 
straw-])aper. 

/t.  Pressing-boards ;  very  hard  and  smooth  calen- 
dered boards,  between  which  printed  sheets  are 
pressed. 

4.  (Bookbinding.)  a.  A  flat  slab  of  wood  used  by 
bookbinders.  They  are  known  by  names  indicating 
their  purpose ;  as,  backing,  burnishing,  cutting, 
gilding  boards,  etc. 

b.    Pasteboard  sides  for  books. 

5.  A  level  table  or  platform  on  which  a  game  is 


BOARD-CUTTING   KNIFE. 


311 


BOAT. 


played  ;  as,  chess,   checker,  backgammon,  cribbage  i  motion,  adju.stable  in  extent,  upon  the  lower  roll  S. 
boards.  j  The  upper  and  lower  roll  respectiveh-  are  moved  a 

Board- cut'tmg  Knife.  (Bookbinding.)  A  |  certain  distance  at  each  rotation  of  the  drive-wheel 
hinged  knife  a  with  a  counter-weight  c,  and  a  treadle  I  by  the  ratchets  V  and  R  respectively.  The  recipro- 
b  to  assist  in  making  the  cut.     The  board  or  pile  of  l  cation  of  the  upper  roll  is  by  means  of  the  lever  G, 

I  adjustable  pivot-box  H,  and  pitman  /. 
Fig.  "39'  I      Ju  Fig.  741  is  a  simpler  form  of  boarding  and 


Fig.  741. 


^^^^^^Ig^ 


^i^" 


Board-Cutting  Knife. 

boards  is  laid  upon  the  table  and  pushed  up  against 
the  gage,  which  is  set  for  the  width  of  the  pieces  to 
be  cat. 

Board'ing.  (Leather.)  The  process  of  rubbing 
leather  with  a  board  to  )•«!«?  the  grain  after  it  has 
been  shaved,  daubed,  and  dried. 

Board'ing -gage.  (Carpcnlnj.)  A  graduated 
scribiug-tool  used  as  a  me.^urer  of  width  and  dis- 
tance in  weather-boarding  sides  of  houses. 

Board 'ing-joists.  (Carpentnj .)  Joists  in  naked 
flooring  to  wliicli  the  boards  are  fixed. 

Board'ing-ma-chiae'.  In  Fig.  740  is  shown 
a  machine  in  which  the  leather  is  carried  between 


740 


Boarding  Mach t'i 

two  endless  aprons  T  S.  which  revolve  intermittingly 
so  as  to  feed  in  the  leather  occasionally,  while  at  the 
same  time  the  upper  apron  T  has  a  reciprocating 


Boarding- Machine, 

graining  machine,  in  which  a  spring-pad  is  recipro- 
cated over  a  spring-bed. 

Board'ing-net'ting.  (Xautical.)  Strong  net- 
tings of  cords,  to  prevent  boarding  of  a  ship  in 
battle. 

Board'ing-pike.  (Xaitlical.)  A  pike  used  on 
shipboard  to  repel  boarders. 

Ship-spears  or  boarding-i)ikes  are  represented  in 
the  sea-liglit  at  Jledinet  Al.ioo,  in  Egypt. 

Board-rack.  (Prinliiu/. )  Side  boards  with  cleats 
to  hold  shelves  for  standing  matter. 

Boast'er.  (Masonry.)  A  stone-mason's  chisel, 
having  an  edge  two  inches  wide,  used  in  dressing 
down  the  surface  of  stone.  It  is  intermediate  in 
width  between  the  inch-tool  and  the  h7-ood  tool,  which 
are  respectively  1  inch  and  3i  inches  wide. 

Boast'ing.  1.  (Mnsonrii.)  Dressing  off  the  sur- 
face of  stone  with  a  broad  chisel  and  mallet. 

2.   (Sculpture  and  Carving.)     The  roughing  out 
of  an  ornament,  giving 
the  general  contour  pre-  Fig.  742. 

vious  to  the  commence- 
ment of  the  raffles  and 
other  details. 

Boast'ing-chis'el. 

A   steel    chisel    with 

fine  broad  edge,  used 

by  marble-workers  for 

dressing   stone   to   a 

nearly  smooth  sur- 
face preliminary  to  the 
use  of  the  htond-tool. 
Foinis  adapted  to  vari- 
ous kinds  of  woik  are  shown  in  Fig.  742. 

Boat.     A  small  water-craft. 

Boats  were  one  of  the  earliest  devices  of  nature  to 
enable  some  of  the  denizens  of  the  ancient  deep  to 
maintain  themselves  with  ease  upon  the  surface  of 
the  waters,  which  their  physical  structure  rendered 
them  ill  qualified  to  do  without  au  e.'ctraneous 
support. 

Such  were  the  numerous  cephalopod  mollusks,  as 
the  ammonites,  the  orthoeeiatites,  and  other  varieties 
having  chambered  shells,  which  flourished  in  the  wa- 
ters of  the  ancient  world,  and  at  a  later  epoch  the 
nautili,  species  of  which  still  inhabit  our  warmer 
seas.  Nor  are  contrivances  of  this  kind  confined 
alone  to  existences  designed  to  jiermanently  inhabit 
the  waters  ;  a  similar  provision  is  made  for  the  tem- 
porary support  of  some  insects  whose  larvae  attain 
their  development  in  watei-,  as  the  gnat  tribe,  includ- 
ing that  peculiarly  social  and  familiar  insect,  the 


l\ 

Boasting-  Chisels. 


BOAT. 


312 


BOAT. 


mosquito,  wlicsp  tenilev  regard  for  tlie  human  rac;« 
is  so  toiiL'liiugly  manifested  and  loudly  jiroLdaimed. 
"A  beast  familiar  to  man  and  signifying — love." 

The  Itoat  formed  by  tin;  female  gnat  consists  of 
from  2oU  to  35IJ  eggs,  and  though  each  is  heavy 
enough  of  its/lf  to  sink  in  water,  the  whole  struc- 
ture is  perfectly  buoyant.  Though  hollow,  it  never 
fills  with  water,  as  the  surface  has  a  certain  repellent 
action.  This  little  craft  has  been  likened  to  a  river 
wherry,  being  sharp,  higli  fore  and  aft,  convex  be- 
low, concave  above,  and  always  lloating  keel  down. 

The  canoe  was  probably  the  first  form  of  boat  which 
succeeded  the  simple  raft,  which  had  supplanted  the 
humble  log  upon  whieli  mm  first  entrusted  himself 
upon  the  waters.  It  was  mach  easier  to  partially 
burn  out  a  large  log,  and  then  finish  the  work  with  a 
pointed  stone,  than  to  construct  in  any  other  way, 
with  similar  tools,  a  vessel  combining  et|ual  conven- 
ience and  speed,  and  aeeordiiigly  we  find  the  canoe 
thus  constructed  among  most  primitive  nations.    - 

The  canoe  was  the  ordinary  form  of  boat  in  the 
New  World  when  discovered  by  Columbus.  During 
his  fourth  voyage  he  landed  on  one  of  the  Guanaja 
Islands,  and  was  visited  by  a  larga  tradiug-canoe  re- 
markable for  its  size  and  freight.  It  was  eight  feet 
wide,  but  formed  of  a  single  tree.  An  awning  in- 
closed a  cabin  occupied  by  the  wives  and  children  of 
the  cacique,  and  it  was  propelled  by  twenty-five 
rowers.  It  was  supposed  to  have  come  from  Yuca- 
tan, forty  miles  distant.  The  voyagers  were  clothed 
with  cotton  mantles  ;  their  bread  was  made  of  Indian 
corn,  and  th'V  liad  a  beer  on  board  made  of  the  same 
grain.  They  had  also  copper  bells,  plates,  and  hatch- 
ets as  freight. 

Tlie  endurance  and  sea-going  qualities  of  some 
boats  of  this  description  are  almost  incredible  ;  those 
of  the  South  Sea  Islanders  and  of  the  inhabitants  of 
the  northwest  coast  of  America  often  make  voy- 
ages of  hundreds  of  miles,  the  latter  in  an  inclement 
and  tempestuous  ocean  ;  instances  are  known  of  the 
South  S^'a  Island  eauoi's,  accidentally  blown  otl"  ftom 
their  own  islaml,  keeping  atloat  for  months  and 
drifting  hundreds  of  leagues. 

A  farther  advance  consisted  in  the  employment  of 
someplialile  substance,  ashidesor  birch-bark,  sewn  to- 
gether, where  the  proper  materials  could  be  procured. 

Ulysses,  thi^  hero,  made  his  own  boat. 

"  The  boats  wliicli  come  down  the  river  [Euphrates] 
to  Babylon  are  cinnilar,  and  made  of  skins.  The 
frames,  which  are  of  willow,  are  cut  in  the  country  of 
the  Armenians,  above  Assyria,  and  on  these,  which 
serve  for  hulls,  a  covering  of  skins  is  stretched  out- 
side, and  thus  the  boats  are  made  without  either  stem 
or  stern,  (juite  round  like  a  shield."  —  Herodotus, 
I.  193. 

The  modern  boats  of  the  Euphrates  are  of  closely 
-  woven  willow  payed  with  liitutnen. 

For  capability  of  living  in  a  heavy  sea  or  landing 
in  a  heavy  surf,  no  boat  constructed  can  compare 
with  the  catamaraTi  (which  see),  a  simple  raft  formed 
of  three  or  more  logs  of  light  wood,  connected  to- 
gether by  woollen  cross-ties,  and  having  a  slightly 
elevated  platform  for  its  occupants  to  sit  on  ;  tlicsc 
are  in  common  use  on  the  co;ists  of  Hindostan  and 
South  America,  especially  for  landing  goods  and  [las- 
seugers  through  a  lieavy  surf,  which  they  do  in  safe- 
ty, when  a  common  ship's  boat  would  be  ahnost  in- 
stantly dashed  to  ]iieces. 

Boats  built  of  boards  or  planks  being,  in  civilized 
countries,  of  easier  and  cheaper  construction  tlian  any 
others,  anil  combining  great  strength  with  lightness 
and  facility  of  re|iair,  are  generally  employed  for 
most  purposes,  though  of  late  years  boats  made  of 
corrugated  sheet-metal  have  come  into  use  to  a  con- 


siderable    ex-  Fig.  "-43. 

tent.  These 
cond.iine  dura- 
bility, safety, 
strength,  and 
lightness  in 
the  highest 
possible  de- 
gree, and  fot 
life-boats  oi 
for  use  in  har- 
bors, where  es- 
tablishments 
at  which  they 
can  be  repaired 
are  easily  ac- 
cessible, they 
seem  to  unite 
every  desira- 
ble requisite  ; 
but  the  impos- 
sibility of  their 

repair  by  an  or-  i.uui- 

dinary  carpenter,  or  with  the  means  usually  at  hand 
on  board  ship  or  in  most  foreign  ports,  renders  them 
objectionable  in  that  respect,  though  when  properly 
made  they  are  little  liable  to  accident.  See  LlFE- 
Bo.vr. 

Paper  boats  are  made  by  fitting  sheets  the  length 
of  the  boat  over  a  model  of  the  e.xact  form  ;  succes- 
jsivc  sheets,  breaking  joint,  are  laid  on  with  a  coat  of 
\'arnish  between  each.  Model  and  paper  envelope 
are  I'cmoveil  to  a  drying-room,  and  then  payed  with 
Ijoiled  oil  and  turpentine,  anil  then  with  shellac  var- 
nish. The  .shell  is  then  fitted  with  an  inner  frame, 
thwarts,  and  tlie  usual  appendages. 

Ship's  boats  are  named  aeeording  to  their  sizes  or 
the  nature  of  their  duty.      They  arc  known  as  — 

Launch,      "^ 

Long-boat,  | 

Barge, 

Pinnace, 

Yawl, 

Galley, 

Gig, 
Cutter, 
Jolly-boat, 
Dingy,        ) 

Boats  are  also  known  by  their  purpose  or  duty  ; 
as,  — 

Advice-boat,  Snag-boat, 

Canal- boat.  Stone-boat, 

Disiiatch-boat,  Submarine-boat, 

Ferry-boat,  Surf-boat, 

Ice-boat,  Tender-boat, 

Life-boat,  Torpedo-boat, 

Packet-boat,  Tug-boat, 

Passage-boat,  Whale-boat,  etc. 
Pilot-boat, 

Also  by  specific  names  of  various  imports  ;  as,  — 

Bateau,  Keel, 

Coracle,  Jletallic-boat, 

Buggy-boat,  Punt, 

Bunder-boat,  Scow, 

Caique,  Sectional-boat. 

Dory,  Skilf, 

Flat-boat,  Steam-boat, 

Folding-boat,  Wherry,  etc., 
Gondola, 

most  of  which  are  described  under  their  respective 
lieails. 


Carvel-built. 


1 


Clinker-built. 


BOAT-BRIDGE. 


313 


BOAT-DETACHING   HOOK. 


Boat-bridge.  A  boat-bridge  consists  of  a  track 
laiil  on  a  num  Ijf  r  of  boats  ancliored  jiarallel  iu  tlie 
stream,  or  moored  to  ropes  or  chains  which  pass  from 
bank  to  bank. 

The  bridge  thrown  across  the  Hellespont  by  Xerxes 
when  he  inraded  Greece,  4S0  B.  c,  had  a  length  of 
500  paces,  and  was  supported  on  ships  used  as  pon- 
tons. Suspension  cables  of  flax  and  biblos  united 
the  ships,  transverse  beams  were  laid  on  the  cables  ; 
the  beams  supported  plank  and  earth,  and  the  army 
marched  across,  bag  and  baggage. 

Many  years  after,  there  appears  to  hare  been  a 
more  permanent  construction  of  this  nature  in  the 
same  vicinity. 

"At  Abj'dosisthe  Zeugma  [or  Junction], a  bridge 
of  boats  which  could  be  unfixed  at  pleasure  for  the 
passage  of  vessels."  —  Str.vbo. 

Cyrus,  according  to  Xenophon,  eros.sed  the  Mean- 
der on  a  bridge  supported  by  seven  boats. 

Bridges  of  boats  were  in  general  use  iu  the  Middle 
Ages,  and  are  still  used  on  the  Continent  of  Europe. 
One  at  Strasbourg  is  1,300  feet  long,  and  there  is 
another  at  Cologne.  One  across  the  Seine  at  Kouen 
was  constructed  by  Xicolas  in  1700. 

Boat-biidges,  in  a  military  point  of  riew,  are 
classed  as  ponton-bridges,  tlie  pontons  or  bateaux 
and  the  road-bed  being  tiunsported  on  wagons  with 


the  army,  and  thrown  across  streams  as  necessity 
may  occur.  The  bateau.x  are  mooii;<l  to  ropes  se- 
cured to  trees  or  other  safe  objects  on  the  respective 
sides  of  the  river.     See  PoNToN-BRlDGE. 

Boat-car.  A  car  adapted  for  transporting  boats 
up  and  down  inclined  planes. 

The  Morris  and  Essex  Canal  in  the  State  of  New 
Jersey  leads  from  Jersey  City,  on  the  Hudson,  to  Eas- 
ton,  on  the  Delaware,  and  connects  these  two  rivers. 
The  breadth  at  the  water-line  is  32,  and  at  the  bottom 
16  feet,  and  the  depth  is  4  feet.  It  is  101  miles  in 
length,  and  is  said  to  have  cost  §3,000,000.  It  is  pe- 
culiar as  being  the  only  canal  in  America  in  which 
the  boats  are  moVed  from  different  levels  by  means  of 
inclined  planes  instead  of  locks.  The  whole  rise  and 
fall  on  the  Monis  Canal  is  1,557  feet,  of  which  223  feet 
are  overcome  by  locks,  and  the  remaining  1,334  feet 
by  means  of  23  inclined  planes,  having  an  average  lift 
of  5S  feet  each.  The  boats  which  navigate  this  canal 
are  8J  feet  in  breadth  of  beam,  from  60  to  SO  feet  iu 
length,  and  from  25  to  30  tons  burden.  Tlie  greatest 
weight  ever  drawn  up  the  planes  is  about  50  tons. 
The  boat-car  used  on  this  canal  is  shown  in  elevation 
and  plan,  the  boat  being  shown  in  dotted  lines.  It 
consists  of  a  strongly  made  wooden  crib  or  cradle  a, 
oil  which  the  boat  rests,  supported  on  two  iron  wagons 
running  on  four  wheels,  upon  plate-rails  laid  on  the 


Fig.  744 


Boat-  Car. 


inclined  planes,  and  raised  and  lowered  by  means 
of  machinery  driven  by  water-wheels.  The  railway  on 
which  the  car  runs  extends  along  the  bottom  of  the 
canal  for  a  short  distance  from  the  lower  e.vtremity  of 
the  plane  ;  when  a  boat  is  to  be  raised,  the  car  is  low- 
ered into  the  water,  and  the  boat,  being  floated  over 
it,  is  made  fast  to  the  part  of  the  framework  which 
projects  above  the  gunwale,  as  sho\vn  in  the  draw- 
ing at  d.  The  machinery  is  then  put  in  motion,  and 
tlie  car,  bearing  the  boat,  is  drawn  by  a  chain  to  the 
fop  of  the  inclined  plane,  at  which  there  is  a  lock 
for  its  reception.  The  lock  is  furnished  with  gates 
at  both  extremities  ;  after  the  car  has  entered  it,  the 
gates  next  the  top  of  the  inclined  plane  are  cioted, 
and,  those  next  the  canal  being  opened,  the  water 
flows  in  and  floats  the  boat  otf  the  car,  when  she 
proceeds  on  her  way.  Her  place  is  supjilied  by  a 
boat  traveling  iu  the  op]josite  direction,  which  en- 
ters the  lock,  and,  the  gates  next  the  canal  being 
closed  and  the  water  run  off,  she  grounds  on  the 
car.  The  gates  next  the  plane  are  then  opened,  the 
car  is  gently  lowered  to  the  bottom,  when  it  enters 
the  water,  and  the  boat  is  again  floated. 


Iig-  745. 


Boat-de-tach'ing 
Hook.  (Xatdical.)  One 
adapted  to  be  suddenly  cast 
loose  when  a  boat  lowered 
from  the  davits  touches  the 
water.  It  is  inipoitant  that 
the  hooks  which  engage  the 
eye-bolts,  stem  and  stern, 
should  be  instantly  and 
simultaneously  disengaged 
when  the  boat  touches 
water.  This  is  done  by  up- 
setting the  hooks,  the  open- 
ing of  sister-hooks,  or  the 
tripping  of  a  trigger. 

In  Fig.  745  the  boat  is 
attached  to  the  davit-blocks 
by  the  hooks  of  pivoted  levers 
connected  together  so  as  to 
ensure  simultaneous  release. 
The  pivot-supports  of  the 
hook-levers  have  projections  Boat-detaching  Hook. 
preventing  release  before  the  hooks  are  turned  up. 


BOAT-HOOK. 


314 


BOB. 


In  Fig.  746  the  incurved  lower  ends  of  the  levers 
form  jaws,  which  are  operated  by  a  toggle  at  the 


loose.  Of  this  character  i.s  the  device  sliown  in  Fig. 
748,  in  which  the  eyes  of  the  davit-fall  blocks  are 
engaged  by  pivoted  hooks  at  the  stem  and  stern  re- 
.spectively  of  the  boat.     The  hooks  are  detained  by 


Davit-Blork  Hook. 

upper  ends  of  the  levers.     Each  half  of  the  hook 
forms  a  mousing  for  tlie  other. 

In  Fig.  747  the  hook  or  link  at  the  end  of  each 
davit-fall  passes  under  one  braneli  of  a  pivoted  arm, 
the  other  branch  of  which  has  a  ]irojection  held  by 
a  pivoted  catcji,  turning  on  a  shaft  running  length- 
wise of  the  boat.  By  turning  a  handle  attaohed  to 
this  shall,  the  two  catches  retaining  the  arms  sinml- 


Boat- DetaclUng  Tackle. 

links,  which  are  simultaneously  withdrawn  by  lever 
connection  with  a  rotating  shaft  amidships. 

There  are  various  modilications  of  this  form  of  the 
device. 

In  Fig.  749  the  davits  are  hinged  in  such  man- 
ner as  to  swing  fieely  in  vertical  jilanes  toward  and 
from  tlie  water,  and  to  vibrate  above  and  below  a 
horizontal  plane  intersecting  their  axis  of  motion. 

Fig.  749. 


tancously  release  them,  allowing 
them  to  slij)  olf  the  hooks  or  links 
of  the  davit-faUs. 

Boat-hook.     A   pole   whose 
end  is  furnished  with  an  iron  having  a  point  and 
a  hook.     It  is  used  for  lu)KIiugon  to  a  boat  or  other 
object,  and  is  a  part  of  the  boat's  appurtenances. 

Also  known  as  a  rjaff ;  setter;  scUing-pule ;  pole- 
hook  :  hitcker. 

The  coiitm  vniifnrium  of  the  ancients. 

Boat  Low'er-iiig  and  De-tach'ing  Ap-pa- 
ra'tus.  Tbe  (irdiTiary  boat  lowering  and  lu)isting 
apparatus  consists  merely  of  two  falls  passing  through 
double  blocks  and  suspended  fiom  the  davits.  The 
lower  blocks  hook  into  rings  at  each  end  of  the  boat, 
and  are  unhooked  by  hand  after  the  boat  is  lowered. 
In  lowering  a  boat  in  a  heavy  sea,  this  arrangement 
is  troublesome  an<l  inconvenient,  as  a  failure  to  de- 
tach both  hooks  .simultaneously  m.iy  lead  to  the 
swaniiiing  of  the  boat.  To  remedy  this,  and  to  ena- 
ble both  ends  of  the  boat  to  be  cast  olf  at  one  opera- 
tion, a  number  of  contrivances  have  been  devised. 
These  devices  generally  take  the  form  of  menus  for 
casting  loose  the  hooks  fore  and  aft  with  absolute 
certainty  and  .simultaneously.  Sunjetimes  it  is  a 
rod  which  is  withdrawn  so  as  to  let  the  hooks  fly 


Boat-Lowning  Davits. 

Curved  sections  are  applied  to  the  upper  ends  of 
the  davits,  which  are  hinged  at  their  lower  ends,  so 
that  said  sections  can  be  turned  around  indepen- 
dently of  the  standards  to  which  they  are  attached. 

The  davits  are  counterpoised  by  a  force  sufficient 
to  raise  them  without  the  boat,  but  easily  overcome 
l>y  the  weight  of  the  boat. 

Bob.  1.  {Mel(i.!-v'orliii>(i.)  A  small  buff-wheel 
n.sed  in  polishing  the  insidcs  of  s)ioons.  It  is  a  disk 
of  leather  nearly  an  inch  thick,  known  as  sea-cow  or 
buH-Mck.  It  is  perforated,  mounted  on  a  spindle, 
ami  turned  into  a  nearly  spherical  form. 

2.  (Hoiri!oci>j.)     The  weight  of  a  pendulum. 

3.  The  suspended  liall  of  a  plumb-line. 

4.  The  shifting  weight  on  the  graduated  arm  of  a 
steelyard. 

5.  (Miniw/.^  A  rocking-post  framed  into  a  piv- 
oted bar  and  driven  by  the  crank  of  the  water-wheel 
or  engine-shaft.  To  one  end  of  the  beam  is  sus- 
pendeil  the  juimp-rod,  and  the  other  is  counter- 
weighted  to  balance  the  said  rod. 

ti.   {Steam- Engine.)     A  working-beam. 


BOBBIN. 


315 


BOBBIN   AND  FLY  FRAME. 


Fig.  760. 


Engint-Bob. 

Bob'bin.      {Sewintj-Machinc.)      A    small    spool  I 
adapted  to  receive  thread  and  to  be  applied  within 
a  shuttle. 

(Spinniytg.)  A  spool  with  a  head  at  one  or  both 
ends  to  hold  yarn.  It  has  one  lieaJ  when  it  serves 
as  a  cop  in  spinning,  as  a  thread-holder  in  shuttles 
of  looms,  and  as  cop  in  warping-niachines.  In  spin- 
ning or  warping  it  is  slipped  on  a  spindle  and  re- 
volves therewith,  being  held  thereon  by  a  spring  or 
by  the  tightness  of  its  fit. 

It  has  two  heads  when  useil  as  a  spool  for  sewing- 
thread,  as  a  bobbin  for  sewing-machine  shuttles, 
and  sometimes  as  a  warp-holder  in  looms  where  each 
warp  is  independent. 

The  Wheeler  and  Wilson  sewing-macliine  has  a 
circular  bobbin  of  lentieular  shape,  wliich  liolds  the 
lower  tliread,  and  is  dropjied  through  the  loop  of 
the  upper  thread,  distended  for  that  purpose  by  the 
rotating  hook. 

Braiding-machine  bobbins  have  two  heads,  the 
ujiper  one  notched  as  a  ratchet,  to  receive  the  stop- 
ping-arm attaclied  to  the  let-oil'  meclianism.  Guee- 
halgh's  Patent,  April  13,  1869.  The  bobbin  ro- 
tates freely  on  its  sliaft  ;  its  thread  passes  tlirough 
an  eye  in  a  standard  and  one  in  a  tension-weight 
sliding  thereon.  The  stopping-arm  is  attached  to 
a  sleeve  on  tlie  standard,  and  is  supported  in  the 
ratchet-openings  of  the  bobbin-hea-l  until  the  ten- 
sion-weiglit  is  raised  by  the  thread  to  trip  it  and 
release  the  bobbin,  which  tlien  rotates  freely  and 
pays  off  the  tliread  until  tlie  slack  allows  the  ten- 
sion-weight to  fall  and  release  the  stopping-arm, 
whieli  again  engages  with  the  liead  of  the  bobbin. 

Bobbins  are  variously  constructed,  and  of  divers 
materials. 

Materials, — clay,  wood,  ivory,  hard  rubber,  por- 
celain, glass,  papier-mache,  corrugated  metal,  mal- 
lealde  ca.st-iron. 

Having  metallic  barrels  and  disks  of  the  same  for 
heads  ;  of  wood  turned  ;  of  cylinders  with  one  head 
each,  and  slipping  one  into  the  otlier  telescopically  ; 
witli  paper  bodies  ;  polygonal  prisma  with  buttons 
on  tlie  ends  ;  having  a  number  of  different-sized  cir- 
cumferential grooves. 

Bob'biii  and  Fly  Frame.  The  ordinary  rov- 
i)ni-iit!(L'h(tu'  of  the  cotton  manufacture.  Its  duty  is 
to  draw  and  twist  the  sliver,  and  wind  the  roving  on 
a  li'^liltin. 

Tlie  bobbins  containing  the  slivers  are  mounted  in 
several  rows  on  a  creel  which  has  skewers  for  their 
reception.  Each  sliver  passes  between  a  pair  of 
guides,  which  give  it  a  horizontal  traversing  motion, 
so  that  it  shall  not  bear  upon  a  constant  part  of  the 
surfaces  of  the  drawing-rollers  between  which  it  next 
passes.  Tliese  drawing-rollers  are  arranged  in  pairs 
(see  Dii.A.wis-c.-Fr..\ME),  and  have  a  relatively  in- 
creasing rate  of  speed,  the  second  revolving  faster 
than  the  first  and  the  tliird  faster  than  the  second. 
This  proportion  may  be,  say,  first  rollers  1  inch  in 
diameter  and  60  turns  per  minute  ;  delivering  roll- 
ers, 1|  inches  in  diameter  and  ISO  turns  per  minute. 
By  this  proportion  tlie  first  roller  would  deliver  188.4 
inches  per  minute,  while  the  frojil  or  delivery  pair 


passes  705.5  inclies  per  riiinute,  the  roving  be- 
coming elongated  3j  turns  by  the  operation. 
After  leaving  the  rollers  tlie  sliver  is  received 
^    by  the  si)indles,  wliich  are  arranged  in  two  rows 
^    for  economy  of  room .    The  vertical  spindles  are 
driven  by  bevel-wheels  from  bevel-pinions,   or 
horizontal  shafts  extending  the  whole  length 
of  the  machine.     Supported  upon  each  spindle 
is  a  flyer,  which  has  a  hollow  axis  and  a  hol- 
low  arm,   through    both  of   which  the  roving 
passes  in  order  to  reach  the  bobbin,  whicli   is 
placed   upon   the     spindle,     and     revolves    loosely 
thereon  by  its  own  positive   motion,  derived   from 
bevel-gearing,  shown  beneath  it  in  the  figure.     The 
lower  bevel-gearing  is  for  the  rotation  of  the  spin- 
dle a.nd  flyer,  and  gives  tlie  twist.     The  upper  bev- 
el-gearing  is    for  the    rotation  of   the    bubbin,  and 
winds  the  roviiiff  thereon.     The  flyer  has  one  tubu- 
lar anil  to  lead  the  roving,  and  one  solid  arm  which 
acts  as  a  counterbalance  to  the  former  to  prevent 
agitation  during  the  rotation  at  high  speed,  say  1,300 
revolutions  per  minute. 

The  bobbin  has  two  motions,  —  one  around  the 
spindle  on  which  it  is  sleeved,  and  one  up  and  down 
on  the  spindle.  The  former  is  for  the  winding  on  of 
the  roving,  and  the  latter  to  distribute  the  roving 
in  coils  alongside  each  other  along  the  length  of  the 
bobbin. 

There  are  three  inetjualities  to  the  motion  of  the 
bobbin, —  one  in  the  rate  of  its  revolution,  another 
in  the  length  of  its  vertical  traverse,  and  a  third  in 
the  rate  of  its  traverse.  The  ineijuality  of  rotation 
is  for  the  purpose  of  winding  erpial  roving  in  equal 
time,  notwithstanding  the  increasing  diameter  of  the 
cop.  The  rate  of  winding  on  is  of  necessity  eipial  to 
the  rate  of  delivery  from  the  front  pair  of  diawing- 
roUers,  and  it  follows  tliat  the  rate  of  winding  must 
be  uniform.  As  layer  after  layer  of  coils  accumulates 
upon  the  bobbin,  the  latter  receives  a  decrease  of 
speed  exactly  equivalent  to  its  increase  of  diameter. 
This  is  accomplished  by  ro"c-pulleys  by  which  the 
driving-band  is  shifted  to  a  part  of  the  (^riroi -pulley 
having  a  larger  diameter,  the  band  having  a  constant 
rate.     See  Cone-puli.eys. 

The  vertical  motion  of  the  bobbins  is  by  means  of 
raising  and  lowering  the  cnppiv<j-rail  on  which  the 
whole  row  or  the  two  rows  of  bobbins  rest,  sliding 
the  bobbins  up  and  dow'n  on  the  spindles.  The  ine- 
quality of  length  of  vertical  motion  is  for  the  pur- 
pose of  giving  a  gradually  decreasing  length  to  each 
successive  layer  of  coils,  giving  a  conical  end  to  the 
completed  co]i,  so  that  each  layer  contains  an  ec|ual 
length  of  roving,  its  diminution  in  length  counter- 
balancing its  increase  in  diameter.  Tlie  inequality 
of  rate  of  vertical  motion  is  to  enable  the  yarns  to 
lie  compactly  side  by  side  in  the  coils,  notwithstanding 
the  changes  in  the  rate  of  revolution  due  to  changes 
in  the  diameter  of  the  cop. 

While  the  fici.9t  depends  upon  the  rotation  of  the 
s/nndle  and  flyer,  the  degree  of  twist  depends  upon 
the  ratio  between  the  delivery  at  the  front  pair  of 
drawing-rollers  and  the  revolutions  of  the  spindle. 
"The  winding  on  of  the  twi.sted  roving  upon  the 
bobbin  is  effected  by  giving  to  the  bobbin  such  a  ve- 
locity that  the  difference  between  the  motion  of  the 
surface  of  the  bobbin  and  the  motion  of  the  deliver- 
ing end  at  the  arm  of  the  tiyer, shall  e(]ual  the  sur- 
face-motion of  the  roller  or  the  sujiply  of  the  sliver. 
The  spindle  and  bobbin  being  driven  by  different 
movements  and  at  different  rates,  the  winding  is 
effected  either  by  making  the  bobbin  revolve  a  little 
faster  than  the  spindle,  or  the  spindle  faster  than 
the  bobbin.  If,  for  example,  the  bobbin  revolves  50 
times  while  the  spindle  only  revolves  40,  40  turns  of 


BOBBIN  AND   FLY  FRAME. 


316 


BOBBINET. 


the  bobbin  will  have  nothing  to  do  with  the  wind- 
ing ;  but  there  are  10  turns  of  the  bobbin  above 
tliose  of  the  Hyer,  which  will  perioral  the  winding. 
Hence  the  40  turns  of  the  spindle  produce  twist, 
while  the  50  turns  of  the  bobbin  produce  10  coils  of 
the  roving  upon  its  barrel." — Tomlinson. 

Bobbin  and  lly  frames  are  of  two  kinds,  coarse  and 
Ji)u\  or  first  and  second. 

The  cnarse,  or  first,  bobbin  and  fly  frame  acts  upon 
slivers  from  cans  tilled  at  tlie  drawing-frame  and 
placed  at  the  back  of  the  machine. 

The  fine,  or  seeond,  bobbin  and  fli/  frame  acts  upon 
rovinijs,  or  slubbiiii/s  as  they  are  often  called,  from 
bobbins  lilled  at  tlie  Krst  frame  and  placed  on  the 
sK'evrrs  of  the  creel  placed  behind  the  roUer-beani. 

The  object  of  the  repetition  is  to  obtain  a  greater 
degree  ol  drawimj  and  twist  than  could  be  safely  im- 
parted at  the  first  operation,  when  the  slirer  or  card 
end  had  but  little  coherence. 

In  the  coarse  bobbin  and  ily  frame  it  is  usual  to 
make  the  spindle  revolve  ([uicker  than  the  bobbin, 
and  in  tlie  line  frami!  to  nwke  it  go  slower.  The  re- 
lation of  the  speeil  ami  jn'oportions  are  well  explained 
by  Dr.  Ure  with  an  elaborateness  impossible  within 
our  limits. 

In  the  coarse  roving-frames  the  spindles  make  on 
an  average  750  revolutions  per  minute,  turning  oli' 
for  each  spindle  400  inches  per  minute  or  666J  yards 


per  hour.  In  the  fine  frame  there  is  more  twisting 
[lower,  and  this  produces  about  533  yards  per  hour. 
In  the  coarse  frame  the  sliver  is  elongated  from  four 
to  si.v  times,  one  quarter  of  the  draft  being  between 
the  first  and  second  pairs  of  roUer.s,  and  the  remain- 
ing three  rpiarters  between  the  second  and  the  deliv- 
ery pairs  of  roUeis. 

As  the  drawing-rollers  and  the  spindles  are  driven 
by  positive  though  determinate  motions  from  the  same 
shaft,  the  number  of  twists  to  an  inch  of  the  sliver 
delivered  from  the  front  pair  of  drawing-rollers  is 
uniform  after  the  work  is  started,  irrespective  of  the 
rate  of  winding  on  the  bobbin  or  the  actual  sjieed 
of  the  machine.  The  relation  is  ailjustable  before 
starting  by  changeable  gearing  inteivening  between 
the  main  shaft  and  the  spur-w-heels  of  the  drawing- 
rollers.  If  tlie  drawing-rollers  pay  out  TOB  inches 
of  sliver  and  the  fiyers  make  1,300  revolutions,  the 
amount  of  twist  will  be  nearly  Ijf  to  an  inch.  This 
is  but  slight,  but  is  usual  in  the  first  roving-machine, 
a  draw  ami  twist  being  afterwards  given  in  the  sec- 
ond roving-machine ;  the  processes  being  repeated 
either  in  the  throstle  or  the  inide,  in  one  of  which 
the  yarn  is  finished. 

For  the  adjustment  of  different  degi'ees  of  twist  in 
dilferent  yarns  a  differential  gearing  is  used.  See 
Equatioxal  Box. 

B,  main  shaft,  driven  by  a  band  from  the  engine. 


Fig.  751. 


Bobbin  ami  Fit/  Frante. 


2,  3,  5,  7,  8,  C,  D,  train  for  driving  drawing- 
rollers. 

F  F,  long  horizontal  shaft  below  the  beam  /,  driven 
by  gearing  from  the  main  shaft,  and  driving  the 
spindles  G. 

h,  copping-beam  on  which  the  bobbins  rest,  and 
which  is  fitteil  with  slides  to  the  end  frames  Z. 

9,  flyev  pressed  on  to  the  to)i  of  the  spindle. 

A',  pulley  for  the  chain  of  the  weight  which  coun- 
terbalances tlie  weight  of  the  co|i|)ing-rail. 

H,  horizontal  shaft  carrying  the  bevel  gears  by 
which  are  rotated  the  clisks  in  the  copping-rail  /(,  on 
which  the  bobbins  are  fixed  to  rotate  as  they  trav- 
erse up  and  down  on  the  spindles  U. 

C,  K,  L,  21,  M,  22,  25,  shafting  and  train  driving 
the  pinion  and  rack  36,  by  which  the  copping-rail 


is  vertically  actuated ;  right  and  left  bevel-wheels  22 
(anil  another  not  shown),  sliding  on  shaft  M,  to  en- 
gage alternately  with  pinion  21,  to  give  the  motions 
of  the  copiiiiig-rail. 

32,  33,  34,  train  connected  with  the  conc-puVey 
for  variable  speed,  and  drieing-shaft  //,  which  re- 
volves the  bobbins  by  the  intervention  of  bevel- 
gears.  The  wheels  are  connected  by  elbow-lirdcs,  so 
as  to  mesh,  irrespective  of  the  vertical  iiosition  of 
the  cii|i]iiiig-iail  h  and  its  adjuncts. 

Bob-biu-et'.  {Fabric. )  .\  machine-made  cotton 
net,  originally  imitated  from  the  lace  made  by  bob- 
bins upon  a  pillow. 

It  con.sists  of  a  series  of  parallel  threads  which 
may  be  considered  as  jCTtcju-threads,  and  two  systems 
of  obliiiue  threads  which  proceed  from  the  right  to 


BOBBIN-LACE. 


317 


BOBBIN-WIKDER. 


BotMnet. 


Fig.  752.  the  left,  ami  from 

thelefttotheri>;lit 
re  .spe  c  t  i  vely. 
Each  weft  thread 
has  a  single  turn 
around  each  cross- 
ing of  a  warp,  and 
the  contrary  strain 
of  the  respective 
•weft  threads  gives 
aserpentine  course 
to  the  warps. 

The  thread  that 
makes  the  bobbin- 
'  et  is  supplied  part- 
1  ly  from  bobbins 
'  and  partly  from  a 
warp.  The  bob- 
bins are  small 
brass  pirns,  and 
swing  with  a  pen- 
dulous motion  between  the  warp-threads  so  as  to 
wrap  the  weft  round  the  warp. 

The  bobbinet-maohine  was  oiiginally  derived  from 
the  stocking-frame,  invented  by  the  unfortunate 
William  Lee,  M.  A.,  of  Cambridge,  1589. 

Lee  was  successively  patronized  by  Elizabeth  and 
by  Henry  IV.  of  France.  The  Ibrmer  liked  the 
stockings  well  enough,  but  refused  Lee  a  patent,  as 
the  invention  was  so  valuable  that  it  would  command 
the  market.  The  a.ssassiuatiou  of  Henry  deprived 
Lee  of  a  more  generous  patron,  and  he  fell  into  pov- 
erty, obscurity,  and  an  untimely  grave. 

Hammond  (about  1768)  modified  a  stocking-frame 
to  make  a  coarse  imitation  of  Brussels  ground  ;  this 
was  the  ;j/it-niachine. 

In  1784,  the  warp-fravic  was  invented,  for  making 
tcar/)-I(i€e. 

In  the  next  decade,  the  bobbin-frame. 
In  1809,  Heathcote  invented  the  bobbinct  machine. 
This  is  a  complicated  machine,  used  in   but  few 
localities.     The  parts  are  very  numerous,  the   mo- 
tions intricate,  and  the  machine  cannot  be  readily 
explained  within  the  limits  admissible  in  this  work. 
Bob'bin-lace.   {Fabric.)    Lace  made  upon  a  pil- 
low with   bobbins.     The  pillow  is  a  hard  cushion 
covered  with  parchment  on  which  the  pattern   of 
the   meshes  is  drawn.     Pins  are  inserted  into  the 
lines   of  the   pattern   and   determine   the    meshes. 
Thicker  thread,  called  gimp,  is  interlaced  with  the 
meshes,  according  to  the  pattern  ou  the  parchment. 
The  thread  is  wound  upon  bobbins,  and  is  twisted, 
crossed,  and  secured  by  pins.     See  P[LLO\v-L.\CE. 
Bobliiii-stand.     A  frame  for  holding  the  bob- 
bins for  wai-ps  of  a  loom,  threads 
of  a  warping-machine,  and  yarns 
of  a  spinning-machine. 

The  bobbin  or  reel  rotates  on 
a  spindle  fixed  in  a  base-plate. 
It   is    covered   with   a   metallic 
disk,    supported   a   little    above 
the  top  of  the  spool  on  a  shoul- 
der of  the  spindle,  and  held  down 
hy  a  screw-nut.     An  improved 
form  provides  flanges  or  annular 
lips  projecting  from  the  base  and 
\^    cap  to  inclose  the  spool-heads, 
— -^  and    prevent    the    twine    from 
Bobbin-Siand.        catching   under   the    heads.      It 
is  surmounted  with  a  twine-eutter. 
BobTjin-wind'er.     1.   (  Wmcing. )     The  thread 
or  yarn  is  diiected  to  the  eye  of  the  guide,  which  is 
at  the  end  of  a  shaft  automatically  raised  and  low- 
ered, to  lay  the  thread  spirally  anil  conically  on  the 


Fig.  754. 


Bobbin-Winder  [/or  Looms) 

bobbin  hy  a  lever  n  bearing  against  a  cam  b,  so  shaped 
that  as  the  layers  of  thread  are  built  up,  the  length 
of  throw  increases  ;  the  bobbin  c  is  sujiported  on  a 
fixed  shaft  cl  rotated  continuously. 

2.  (Seunng-Machive.)  A  device  adapted  to  re- 
ceive a  shuttle-bobljin  and  rotate  it  so  that  it  may 
be  wound  with  thread.  The  winders  are  usually 
operated  by  being  turned  in  contact  with  the  driv- 
ing-wheel, balance-wheel,  or  band.  Some  winders 
are  supplied  with  an  automatic  tliread-distributor, 
to  lay  the  thread  evenly. 

Windersforthe  shuttle- 
bobbins  of  sewing-machines 
have  arrangements  for  lay- 
ing the  thread  regularly. 
A  traverse  guide  is  auto- 
matically reciprocated  to 
lay  the  thread  evenly  and 
compactly,  or  the  bobbin 
is  reciprocated  to  receive 
it.  When  filled,  the  wind- 
ing ceases  by  a  stoji-mo- 
tion  or  through  an  alarm. 

In  the  illustration,  the 
arbor  on  which  the  bobbin 
is  placed  is  rotated  by 
the  temporary  contact  of  a 
friction-wheel  against  the 
fly-wheel  of  the  machine. 

The  vibrating  presser  D 
is  T-shaped,  and  is  piv- 
oted by  its  lower  end  to  a 
horizontal  bar  E,  and 
acted  on  by  a  spring  s. 
The  upper  portion  or  T- 
head  of  this  presser 
somewhat  longer  than  the  bobbin  t',  but  that  jiortion 
which  impinges  against  the  thread  on  the  bobbin  is 
of  such  width  as  to  be  received  between  the  heads  of 
the  bobbin.  S  re]iresents  the  vertical  rod  on  «  hich 
the  spool  T  is  applied.  B  rejiresents  a  rod  which 
is  provided  with  fixed  thread-guides  0-  fi  and  a  hori- 
zontal vibrating  thread-guide  I. 

The  winder  for  lenticular  spools  of  sewing-machines 
has  a  spindle  on  which  the  bobbin  is  held  while  be- 
ing rotated  by  the  power  of  the  sewing-machine. 


Bobbin-  Winiler  (for  Shuttk- 
Bobhins  of  SiU'in£;-Mfic/iinfs). 


BOB-SLED. 


318 


BODY. 


Tlie  thread  fiom  the  spool  L,  instead  of  being  held 
by  the  lingers  ius  tlie  bobbin  revolves,  is  passed 
around  the  tension  B,  and  thence  to  the  bobbin  A. 
On  operating  the  sewing  machine  the  thread  will  be 
wound  up  on  the  bobbin  A,  by  the  rotation  of  the 

Fig.  756. 


Bobbin-Winder. 

shaft  //,  compactly  and  uniformly  by  the  action  of 
the  tension  B.  This  will  continue  until  the  bobbin 
A  is  tilled,  when  the  thread  will  override  and  slip 
over  the  edge  of  the  bobbin,  down  upon  the  knife  C, 
and  be  instantly  cut  otf. 

Bob-sled.    A  compound  sled  composed  of  two 


Bob-  Sleds. 

short  sleds,  one  in  front  and  another  behind,  con- 
nected together  longitudinally  by  a  reach. 

Bob-sleigh.  A  sleigh  made  up  of  two  short  (bob) 
sleighs  connected  by  a  reach  or  coupling.  In  the 
illustration,  the  reach  is  ciirved  upward  to  allow 
tlie  fore  bob  to  pass  beneath  the  reach  in  turning. 

Fig.  758. 


The  body  is  supported  on  pendent  bars  and  hanging 
links. 

Bob'stay.  (Xnitticnl.)  One  of  the  chains  or 
ropes  which  tie  the  bowsprit  end  to  the  stem,  to 
enable  it  to  stand  the  upward  strain  of  the  fore- 
stays. 

Bob'stay-piece.  {Shiplniilding.)  A  piece  of 
timber  stepped  into  the  main  piece  of  the  head,  and 
to  which  the  liobstay  is  secured.     See  Stem. 

Bo'cal.  (Glass.)  A  glass  jar  with  a  .short,  wide 
neck. 

Boc'a-sine.  (Fahric.)  A  kind  of  calamanco  or 
woolen  sfuir. 

Boc'ca.  {CI hiss.)  The  round  hole  in  a  glass- 
furnace  from  which  the  glass  is  taken  out  on  the 
end  of  the  pontil. 

Boc'ca-rel'la.  (Glass.)  A  small  loccn  or  mouth 
of  a  glass-liirnace.      A  nose-hole. 

Boc'ci-us-light.  A  form  of  gas-burner  invented 
by  ]5oceius,  and  consisting  of  two  concentric  metal- 
lic cylinders  placed  over  the  Hame  and  within  the 
usual  lamp  glass,  so  as  to  modify  the  combustion 
and  increase  the  brilliancy  of  the  light. 

Bock'ing.  (Fabric.)  A  coarse  woolen  fabric, 
originally  made  at  Bocking,  England. 

Bod'kin.  Anciently,  a  dagger.  (Wv\s\i,  bidvgyn, 
a  dagger  ;  diminutive  of  bidug,  a  sword.) 

"  Might  his  quietus  make  with  a  bare  bodkin." 

1.  (PriiithKj.)  A  printer's  awl,  for  jiicking  letters 
out  ol^a  column  or  page  in  correcting. 

2.  (Bookhindinij.)  A  pointed  steel  instrument 
for  piercing  holes,  used  by  bookbinders  and  others. 

3.  A  large-eyed  and  biunt-pointed  threading  in- 
strument for  leading  a  tape  or  cord  through  a  hem. 

Bod'y.  The  principal  portion  of  an  object ;  such 
as  — 

Body  of  a  carriage  or  wagon  ;    the 
part  to  contain  the  load. 
Of  a  type  ;  the  shank. 
Of  a    boiler,    ban-el,    or   bell  ;    the 
main    portion   as   distinguished   from 
the  appendages. 

Of  a  column  ;   the  F'S-  '59. 

straight  portion  be- 
tween the  capital  and 
the  base. 

Of  apump ;  thebar- 
rel. 

Of  a  spoke  ;  the 
part  between  the  hub 
and  felly  tenons. 

Of  a  still  ;  the 
chamber  containing 
the  wash  ;  the  cucur- 
bit. 

Of  an  implement ; 
the  part  stocked,  as 
of  a  plow. 

1.  (Printing.)  The 
shank  of  a  type,  indi- 
cating size,  as  agate 
face     on     nonpareil 


Bob  Sleigh. 


PtoW-IiOUl/. 


BODY-HOOP. 


319 


BOILER-FEEDER. 


body  ;  larger  than  the  usual  body  of  agate,  and  there- 
fore having  the  effect  of  spacing  or  putting  the  let- 
ters more  widely  apart. 

2.  (Mumc.)  The  upper  and  resonant  portion  of 
an  organ-pipe  above  the  reed  or  the  mouth,  by  which 
vibration  is  imparted  to  the  air. 

3.  (Vehicle.)  The  bed,  box,  or  receptacle  for  the 
load. 

4.  (AgricuMurdl  Implements.)  The  portion  of  an 
implement  engaged  in  the  active  work  ;  as,  "  various 
bodies  of  plows  may  be  attached  to  a  plow-stock,  ac- 
cording to  the  work  in  hand." 


c,  ridging  body. 

d,  digging  body. 

(Nautical.)    The  bauds  of  a  built 


a,  subsoil  body 
6,  potato  body. 

Bod'y-hoop. 

mast. 

Bod'y-loop.  (Vehicles.)  An  iron  bracket  or 
strap  by  which  the  body  is  supported  upon  the 
spring  bar. 

Bod'y  of  a  Place.  {Forlifimtion.)  a.  The 
works  ne.xt  to  and  surrounding  a  town,  in  the  form 
of  a  polygon,  regular  or  irregular.  —  Gkiffiths. 

b.  The  space  inclosed  \vithin  the  interior  works  of 
a  fortification. 

Bod'y-plan.  (Shipbuilding.)  An  end  elevation, 
showing  the  icatcr-Unes,  buttock  and  bow  lines,  di- 
agonal lines,  etc. 

Bod'y-post.  (Shipbuilding.)  The  post  at  the 
forward  end  of  the  openiug  in  the  dead-wood  in 
which  the  screw  rotates. 

Bog-cut'tdng  Ploiw.  An  implement  for  cutting 
andturningup  boggy  or  peaty  soil  for  fuel  or  chemical 
uses.     In  the  example,  the  pronged  sole-plate  D  has 


Bo°-  Cutting  Ptoiv. 

cutters  attached  beneath,  and  is  followed  by  a  mold- 
board  E  attached  to  the  standard.  A  colter  may 
be  placed  on  the  left  prong  of  the  sole-plate. 

Bo'gie.  (Steam-Engine.)  A  four-wheeled  truck 
supporting  the  fore-part  of  a  locomotive,  and  turn- 
ing beneath  it  to  some  extent,  if  necessary. 

Bo'gie-en'gine.  (Steim-En/iinc.)  Alocomotive- 
engine  employed  at  a  railro.ad  station  in  moving  cars 
and  making  up  trains.  The  driving-wheels  and 
cylindei-s  are  on  a  truck  which  is  free  to  turn  on  a 
center-pin. 

Bo'gie-frame.  (Railroad  Engineering.)  A  four- 
wheeleii  truck,  turning  on  a  pivoted  center,  for  sup- 
porting the  front  part  of  a  locomotive-engine. 

Bo-he'mi-an  Glass.  (Glass.)  A  clear  crown 
glass,  a  silicate  of  potash  and  lime,  a  little  of  the 
silicate  of  alumina  being  substituted  for  the  oxide 
of  lead.  The  silica  for  this  glass  is  obtained  by 
pounding  white  quartz. 

Boil'er.     A  vessel  in  which  liquid  is  boiled. 

1.  Household-boilers  are  kettles,  saucepans,  and 
clothes-boilers. 

2.  The  boiler  for  raising  steam  may  be  fairly 
called  a  steam-generator.     See  Steam-boiler, 

3.  The  dyer's  boiler  is  called  a  copper. 
i.  That  of  the  sugar- worker  is  a  j'un. 

5.  That  of  the  distiller,  a  still. 

6.  The  chemist's  boiler  may  be  a  retort,  alembic,  etc. 

7.  Lard  and  tallow  rendering  is  peiformed  iu  a  di- 
gester, or  tarUc. 


The  list  below  includes  many  of  the  different  kinds 
of  boilers — not  the  varieties  of  the  kinds — and 
their  parts.  Most  of  them  are  described  under  their 
respective  heads. 

Agricultural  boiler.  JIan-holc. 

Air-heating  boiler.  Jliid-collector. 

Bath-heater.  Shid-plug. 

Blow-oH'  pipe.  Jlud-valve. 

Boiler-alarm.  MultiHue-boiler. 

Boiler-feeder.  Multitubular  boiler. 

Boiler-float.  Portable    boiler  and  fur- 
Boiler-prover.  nace. 

Boiler-tube.  Pressure-gage. 

Brine-pump.  Priming-valve. 

Brine-valve.  Safety-])lug. 

Caravan-boiler.  Safety-tube. 

Cast-iron-boiler.  Safety-valve. 

Colfee-boiler.  Salinometer. 

Cold-water  boiler.  Scale-borer. 

Cold-water  pump.  Sectional  steam-boiler. 

Comish  boiler.  Sediment-collector. 

Culinary  boiler.  Skimmer. 

Cylinder-boiler.  Soap-boiler. 

Detector,  Low-water  Steam-boiler. 

Domestic  boiler.  Steam-boiler  alarm. 

Egg-boiler.  Steam-cock. 

Feeder,  Boiler.  Steam-coil. 

Feed-head.  Steamer. 

Feed-pipe.  Steam-gage. 

Feed-pump.  Steam-generator. 

Feed-water  apparatus.  Steam-heating  apparatus. 

Float.  Steam-jacket. 

Flue.  Steam-pressure  gage. 

Flue-brush.  Teakettle. 

Flue-cleaner.  Tube. 

Flue-surface.  Tube-brush. 

Foam-collector.  Tube-cleaner. 

Fusible  plug.  Tube-cutter. 

Gage-cock.  Tube-door. 

Gage-glass.  Tube-expander. 

Generator,  Steam  Tube-fastener. 

Giti'ard  injector.  Tube-feiTule. 

Heating  surface.  Tube-flue. 

High-pressure  alarm.  Tube-plate. 
Hot-water  heating-appa-  Tube-plate  stay. 

ratus.  Tube-plug. 

Hot-water  pump.  Tuhe-scaler. 

Hot-well.  Tube-sheet. 
Incrustation   in    boilers,   Tube-stopper. 

Removing  Tubular  boiler. 
Instantaneous  generator.   Wagon-boiler. 

Jacket.  Wash-boiler. 

Lagging.  Water-back. 

Lard-boiler.  Water-bridge. 

Lard-renderer.  Water-gage. 

Lock-up  safety-valve.  Water-heater. 

Low-water  alaim.  Water-indicator. 

Low-water  detector.  Water-injector. 

Low-water  indicator.  Water-leg. 

BoU'er-a-larm'.  .\n  apparatus  or  device  for 
indicating  a  low  stage  of  water  in  steam-boilers. 
See  Steam-boilf.r  Al.\rm  ;  Low-\v.\tf,k  Alaum. 

Boil'er-feed'er.  An  ariangement,  usually  auto- 
matic and  self-regulating,  for  supplying  a  boiler  with 
water.  The  simple  force-pump  or  injector,  as  worked 
by  the  engine  or  boiler,  may  or  may  not  have  self- 
regulating  devices  by  which  a  nearly  constant  water- 
level  is  maintained,  but  there  are  other  devices  by 
which  the  variation  in  the  water-level  is  made  to 
bring  into  or  withdraw  the  operative  parts.  See 
Feed-water  Appakatus. 

One  automatic  arrangement  is  shown  in  Fig.  761. 
When  steam  is  admitted  through  the  short  leg  of 


BOILER-FLOAT. 


320 


BOIS-DURCL 


the  siiilioiv  into  thci  clianihcr  above,  the  weiglit  ceases 
to  balance  the  Ihiat,  ami  tlie  latter,  siiikiiij,',  opens  the 
water-siiiiiily,  whieli  eeasi's  as  the  water  rises  in  the 


761. 


Boiler-Feeder. 

boiler  above  the  opening  of  the  said  leg  of  the  siphon. 
The  water-level  in  the  boiler  at  which  steam  shall 
be  so  admitteil  is  regulated  by  adjusting  the  said 
leg. 

Boil'er-float  {Slcam-Eiigine.)  A  float  which 
rises  ami  falls  with  the  changing  hight  of  water 
in  a  steam-boiler,  and  so  turns  off  or  on  the  feed- 
water. 

Boil'er-fur'nace.  (Sieam-Enginc.)  One  spe- 
cifically adaiitetl  for  the  heating  of  a  steam-generator. 
The  shapes  vary  with  tliose  of  the  boilers  themselves, 

Fig,  762. 


Boiler-Furnace . 

the  latter  being  cylindrical,  wagon-shaped,  vertical, 
etc.  The  illnstration  is  an  example  of  a  downward 
draft-furnace,  in  whiidi  ri  h  are  the  fuel-doors,  .S'  the 
draft-damper,  B  the  furnace,  E  the  fire-bo.x,  H  the 
steam-space. 
Boil'er-i'ron.     Rolled  iron  of  J  to  J  inch  thick- 


ness, nsed  for  nudiing  steam-boilers,  tanks,  the  .''kin 
of  ships,  etc. 

Boil'er-pro-tect'or.    A  non-conducting  cover- 
ing to  inrvrnt  the  escape  of  heat.     Among  the  de- 
vices lor  this  purpose  may  be  cited,  — 
F<:U,  treated  in  various  ways.     Asbestos. 
Ldciging. 

Allied  to  the  above  in  position,  if  not  in  duty,  are 
water-jackets  to  utilize  the  heat,  .air- Hues  and 
shields  to  protect  suiTounding  bodies  against  the 
radiated  heat. 

Boil'er-prov'er.  {Hydraulics.)  A  force-pump 
with  pressure-in- 
dicator, used  to  Fig.  763. 
try  the  power 
of  a  boiler  to  re- 
sist rupture  under 
a  given  stress  of 
hydraulic  pres- 
sure. 

Boil'er-  stay. 
{Sti'Kvi  -  Kinjinc.) 
Atie-barbywhich 
the  flat  plates 
on  the  opposite 
sides  of  boilers 
are  connected, 
in  order  to  enable 
them  to  resist  in- 
ternal pressure. 
The  stays  cross  an 
intervening  water 
or  steam  space.  Boilcr-Prover. 

Boil'er-tube. 
(Slcain-Eiiginc.)  The  tubes  by  wliich  heat  from 
the  furnace  is  diffused  tlirongh  the  mass  of  watei'  in 
locomotive  and  othci-  boilers  of  tlie  smaller  class. 
They  are  usually  arranged  longitudinally  of  the 
boiler,  and  are  lifted  by  steam  and  water-tight  con- 
nections to  its  heads.  A  tube  carries  water  ;  a  flue 
carries  flame  and  the  volatile  products  of  combustion. 
Boil'er-y.  A  salt-house  or  jdace  where  brine  is 
evaporated. 

Boil'ing-fur'nace.  {Metallurgy.)  A  reverber- 
atory  furnace  employed  in  the  decarbonization  of 
cast-iron  to  reduce  it  to  the  condition  for  mechanical 
treatment  by  hammer,  squeezer,  and  rolls,  by  which 
it  is  brought  into  bar  or  jilate  iron.  The  term  boil- 
ing refers  to  the  bubbling  which  takes  place  during 
the  process  of  conversion,  and  the  word  is  somewhat 
local.  This  modification  of  the  puddling-fnrnace 
was  invented  by  Hall,  and  consists  mainly  in  some 
differences  in  the  propoition  of  the  parts,  the  use  of 
cinder,  and  of  a  gieater  heat. 

The  furnace  is  lieated  to  an  intense  heat  by  a  fire 
urged  with  a  blast.  The  cast-iron  sides  are  double, 
and  a  constant  circulation  of  water  is  kept  pass- 
ing through  the  chamber  thus  made,  in  order  to 
preserve  the  structure  from  fusion  by  the  heat. 
The  inside  is  lined  with  lire-brick  covered  with 
metallic  ore  and  slag  over  the  bottom  and  sides, 
and  then,  the  oven  being  charged  with  the  pigs  of 
iiou,  the  heat  is  let  on.  The  pigs  melt,  and  the 
oven  is  filled  with  molten  iron.  The  puddler 
constantly  stirs  this  mass  with  a  bar  let  through  a 
hole  in  the  door,  until  the  iron  boils  up  or  "fermhits," 
as  it  is  called.  This  ebullition  is  caused  by  the 
combustion  of  a  portion  of  the  carbon  in  the  iron, 
and  as  soon  as  the  e.xcess  of  this  is  consumed,  the 
cinders  and  slag  separate  from  the  semilluid  mass, 
whii'h  the  puddler  stirs  and  forms  into  balls  of  such 
a  size  as  he  can  convenientlv  handle,  which  are  tak- 
en out  ;iml  carried  on  ball-ti'olleys  to  the  sipieezer. 
Bois-dur'ci.     A  compound  of  sawdust  from  hard 


BOLAS. 


321 


BOLT. 


wood,  such  as  rosewood  or  ebony,  mixed  with  blood 
and  other  cementing  material,  and  used  to  obtain 
medallions  or  other  objects  by  pressure  in  molds. 

Bo'las.  A  form  of  missile  used  by  the  Paraguay 
Indians,  the  Patagonians,  and  the  Bs.juinianx.  The 
holii.i  of  the  Patagoniaus  has  several  varieties.  That 
used  in  war  consists  of  a  single  ball  of 'hardened  clay 
or  rounded  stone,  weighing  about  a  pound,  and  fast- 
ened to  a  stout  I'ope  of  sinew  or  skin.  This  they 
sometimes  throw  at  their  adversary,  rope  and  all, 
but  generally  they  prefer  to  strike  his  head  with  it, 
like  a  slung-shot. 

For  hunting,  they  use  two  similar  stones,  fastened 
together  by  a  rope,  which  is  generally  three  or  four 
yards  long.  One  of  the  stones  the  hunter  takes  in 
his  hand,  and  then,  whirling  the  other  round  his 
head,  throws  both  at  the  object  he  wishes  to  entan- 
gle. Sometimes  several  balls  are  used,  bjit  two  is 
the  usual  number.  They  do  not  try  to  strike  the 
object  with  the  balls,  but  with  the  rope,  and  then, 
of  course,  the  balls  swing  round  in  diti'ereut  direc- 
tions, and  the  thongs  are  wra|iped  around  the  ob- 
ject. It  is  said  tliat  the  natives  can  use  the  bolas 
etfectually  at  eighty  j'ards. 

The  bolas  of  the  Esijuimaux  consists  of  a  number 
of  walrus  teeth  atta  hed  to  the  ends  of  strings  whose 
other  ends  are  united  into  a  knot. 

Bo-lec'tion.  (Joinery.) 
Moldings  surrouniUng  the 
panels  of  a  door,  gate,  etc.,. 
and  which  project  beyond 
the  genei-al  face  of  the  .same. 
BoI'lard.  (Nrmliml.) 
a.  A  large  post  or  bitt  on  a 
whaif,  dock,  or  on  shipboard, 
for  the  attachment  of  a  haw- 
ser or  warp,  in  towing,  docking,  or  warping. 

b.  A  rundle  in  the  bow  of  a  whale-boat  around 
which  the  line  runs  in  veering  ;  called  also  logjcr- 
liend. 

Bollard-tim'ber.  {Shipwrighling.)  A  timber, 
one  on  each  side  of  the  bowsprit  near  the  heel,  to 
secure  it  laterally.      A  l-niijhthead. 

Bo-log'na-vi'al.  {Glais.)  A  .small  imannealed 
vessel  of  glass,  open  at  tlie  upper  end  and  rounded 
at  the  bottom  end,  which  is  thick.  It  will  with- 
stand a  moderate  blow  on  the  bottom,  but  is  cracked 
by  dropping  into  it  a  small,  angular  piece  of  flint. 

It  is  an  example  of  the  inherent  strain  and  unsta- 
ble static  condition  incident  to  unannealed  glass. 

See  .^XNE.iLIN'G. 

Bol'ster.  1.  [Vehklc.)  The  transverse  bar  over 
the  axle  of  a  wagon,  which  sup|)orts  the  bed,  and  into 
whicli  are  framed  the  standards  which  secure  the 
bed  laterally. 

In  the  illustration,  rubber  springs  are  interposed 
between  the  axle  and  the  bolster.      Pistons  beneath 

Fig.  765. 


Fig.  76i. 


L 


Bjtection  Molding 


Wagon-BotstfT. 

the  bed  pass  through  the  bolster  and  rest  upon  the 
springs,  so  as  to  give  an  elasticity  to  the  bed  up  and 
do^vii  between  the  standards. 

2.   (Mackinenj. )     a.  A  bed-tool  a  in  a  punching- 
21 


!  machine.  The  perforated  part 
on  which  a  plate  rests  wlien  the 
punch  b  drives  out  the  bur  or 
planchct.  It  has  an  opening  of 
the  same  size  and  shape  as  the 
punch  itself. 

b.  A  perforated  block  of  wood 
on  which  sheet-metal  is  laid  lor 

;  punching. 

3.  (Mtisic.)     The  raised  I'iilge 
which  holds  the  tuning-pins  of  a    Bolster  and  Punch. 
piano. 

4.  (Xautical.)  a,  A  piece  of  timber  adjoining  the 
hawse-hole,  to  prevent  the  chafing  of  the  hawser 
against  the  cheeks  of  a  shiji's  bow. 

Ti.  A  cushion  within  the  collar  of  a  stay,  to  keep 
it  from  chafing  on  the  nia.st. 

c.  A  piece  of  wood  or  roll  of  canvas,  upon  which 
a  rope  rests,  to  keep  it  from  chafing  sometliing  or  to 
give  it  a  proper  beaiing. 

5.  (Carpcntn/.)  a.  A  horizontal  cap-piece  laid 
upon  the  top  of  a  post  or  pillar,  to  shorten  the  bear- 
ing of  the  beam  of  a  string-piece  above. 

4.  One  of  the  transverse  pieces  of  an  arch  center- 
ing, running  from  rib  to  rib  and  suii]iorting  the 
foussoir.s. 

6.  {Saddlery.)    A  padded  ridge  on  a  saddle. 

7.  {Ordiutnce.)  A  block  of  wood  fixed  on  the 
stock  of  a  siege-gun  carriage,  on  which  the  breech 
of  the  piece  rests  when  it  is  shifted  backward  for 
transportation. 

8.  (Mailroad  Engincerirtg.)  The  principal  cross- 
beam of  a  railroad  truck  or  car  body. 

9.  {Civil  Enginci-Ting.)  The  re.sting-2ilac€  of  a 
truss-bridge  on  its  pier  or  abutment. 

10.  {Cutlery.)  a.  The  shoulder  of  such  instra- 
ments  and  tools  as  knives,  chisels,  etc.,  at  the  junc- 
tion of  the  tang  with  the  blade  or  the  shank,  as  the 
case  may  he. 

b.  A  metallic  plate  on  the  end  of  a  pocket-knife 
handle. 

11.  {Spinnivg-ifaehinfry.)  The  spin-die-bearing 
in  the  rail  of  a  spinning-frame.  It  forms  a  sleeve- 
bearing  for  the  vertical  spindle  some  distance  above 
the  lowiM-  bearing,  which  is  called  the  step. 

Bol'ster-plate.  (Vehicles.)  An  iron  plate  on 
the  under  side  of  the  bolster,  to  diminish  the  wear 
caused  by  its  friction  on  the  axle. 

Bolt.  1.  (Mdcldnery.)  A  stout  metallic  pin, 
employed  for  holding  objects  together  ;  frequently 
screw-threaded  at  one  end  to  receive  a  nut. 

Bolts  may  be  divided  into  two  iirincipal  classes, 
namely,  those  which  are  intended  for  fastening 
objects  together  permanently  ;  and  movable  bolts, 
such  as  lock,  sash,  door,  and  gate  bolts.  Lock- 
bolts  are  usually  operated  by  means  of  a  key,  while 
the  last-mentioned  are  protruded  and  retracted  by 
hand. 

Bolts  of  the  first  class,  —  that  is.  for  permanently 
fastening  objects  (and  not  mere  sliiling  catches^  may 
be  distinguished,  first,  by  their  construction  or  mode 
of  application  ;  secondly,  by  their  application. 

As  to  construction,  the  difl'erence  may  regard  the 
shape  of  the  head  ;  as,  round,  square,  hexagon,  octa- 
gon, saiieered,  countcrsunk-licaclcd,  clinch,  collared, 
chamfered,  diamond,  convcr,  etc. 

Some  structural  peculiarity  of  the  head  ;  as,  eye, 
double-headed,  hook,  ring,  T-hcadrd,  etc. 

The  mode  of  securing  ;  as,  screw,  fox,  forelock, 
clinch,  rivet,  ray,  bay,  barb,  jag,  key. 

As  to  the  nature  and  purjiose  of  their  application 
tliey  may  be,  — assembling,  jixh,  foundation,  bring- 
ing-lo,   rarriugc,   drirc,  fender,  leu-is,  .set,    shackle, 
wagon-skein,  tire,  king,  scarf,  through,  etc. 


BOLT. 


322 


BOLT. 


The  following  li.st  of  bolts  is  appro.ximately  com- 
plete ;  it  includes  otliei'  than  hokliiiy-holts. 

Asseinbliiig-bolt.  Holding-down  bolt. 

Barbed  bolt.  Hook-bolt. 

Bay-bolt.  Jagged  bolt. 

Bringing-to  bolt.  Key-bolt. 

Carriage-bolt.  Lewi.s-bolt. 

Clineh-bolt.  Pointed  bolt. 
Countersunk-heailed  bolt.  li;ig-bolt. 

Diamond-headed  bolt.  Ring-bolt. 


Door-bolt. 

Drive-bolt. 

Eye-bolt. 

Fender-bolt. 

Fish-bolt. 

Flour-bolt. 

Fhish-liolt. 

Forelock-bolt. 

Foundation-bolt. 

Fo.\-bolt. 

Half-turning  liolt. 


Kiveted  bolt. 

Rose-headed  bolt. 

Round-headed  bolt. 

Searf-bolt. 

Screw-bolt. 

Set-bolt. 

Shackle-bolt. 

Sqnare-headed  bolt. 

Shingle-bolt. 

Tire-bolt. 

Wugon-skein  bolt. 


Assembling-holt,  one  by  which  the  separate  por- 
tions of  an  object,  made  in  detachable  parts,  are 
secured  togetlier  ;  as  the  assembling-bolt  of  a  gun- 
carriage. 

A  barbed  or  jatjcfcd  bolt  has  prongs  projecting  ex- 
teriorly and  backwardly. 

A  bay-holt  is  barbed  to  prevent  retraction. 

A  briiiginfj-to  bolt  has  an  eye  at  one  end,  and  a 

nut  and  screw  at  the  other.    It  is  used  in  keying  up. 

Carriage-holts  are  of  various 

Fig.  767.  kinds  for  different  parts  of  the 

work. 

«,  cari'iagi^-holt, 

b,  tire-ho\t. 

c,  wagon-skein  bolt. 
A  c?j»t7i-bolt  is  one  whose 

point  is  tunied  over  by  ham- 
mering. 

A  counlersunk-hcaded  bolt 
is  one  with  a  conical  head  to 
till  a  countersink  (3,  Fig.  768 ; 
b,  Fig.  767). 

A    diamond-headed   bolt  is 

Bolls.  one  whose  head  is  shaped  like 

a  rhomb  or  lozenge. 

A   double-ended   bolt  (0,   Fig.    768)  is    used    for 

holding  together  three  objects  independently  of  each 

other.     It  has  a  thread  and  nut  on  each  end. 

A  drive-boll  is  a  tool  used  by  shipwrights  and 
other  wood-workers  for  setting  bolts,  etc.,  Iwme  ; 
that  is,  fixing  them,  or  giving  them  the  last  drive. 
One  used  to  expel  another.  A  drift. 
An  cj/c-bolt  or  ege-keaded  bolt  (6,  Fig.  708)  is 
used  for  securing  a  gland  to  a  stuffing-box,  or  for 
other  purposes,  such  as  to  receive  a  ring,  lever,  or 
rope. 

A  fender-holt  is  one  whose  head  projects  so  as  to 
protect  or  fend  otf  objects  from  the  exposed  surface 
which  it  unites  to  another. 

A  fish-holt  is  one  by  which  a  fish-bar  is  fastened 
to  a  rail,  as  at  the  meeting-point  of  two  railway 
rails. 

A  flush-holt  is  one  whose  head  is  let  doivn  even 
with  the  surface  (3,  Fig.  768). 

A  forelock  bolt  is  one  having  a  slot  in  its  end  for 
receiving  a  key  or  cotter  to  prevent  retraction. 

A  foundat.ion.-ho\t  is  a  long  bolt  holding  a  bed- 
plate down  to  the  niasoniy  or  heavy  framing  sub- 
structure. 

A  fox-holt  is  one  with  a  split  end  into  which  a 
wedge  is  driven. 

A  half-turning   bolt  is  one   having  a  half-screw 


I  thread  on  one  side  and  engaging  in  a  similarly 
threaded  socket.  On  pushing  tiie  bolt  in  and  giv- 
I  ing  it  a  half-turn  it  becomes  locked,  and  is  unlocked 
by  a  corresponding  rcvei'se  movement. 

A  holding-down  bolt  is  similar  to  a  foundation- 
bolt. 

A  hook-holt  is  one  with  a  hook-head. 

A  Jugged  bolt  has  barbs  to  the  shank. 

A  A'e//-bolt  is  secured  by  a  cotter  or  wedge  jjass- 
ing  through  a  slot  in  the  shank.  Such  an  one  is 
used  in  shipbuilding  for  securing  the  false  keel.  A 
forelock  bolt. 

A  lewis  bolt  (7,  Fig.  768)  is  used  for  fixing  on  to 
a  block  of  stone  ;  for  this  purpose  a  hole  is  cut  in 
the  stone  large  enough  at  the  top  to  admit  the  thick 
end  of  the  wedge-shaped  bolt,  which  is  barbed  at  the 
angles  and  run  with  lead. 

The  jminled  bolt  is  a  round  bolt  with  an  end  that 
may  be  clinched. 

A  7V(f/-bolt  is  one  having  a  jagged  end  to  prevent 
its  being  drawn  out  from  timber,  etc. 

A  ring-holt  is  one  which  has  an  eye  for  receiving 
a  ring. 

A  riveted  bolt  is  one  whose  point  end  is  battered 
and  ujiset. 

A  rose-headed  bolt  is  one  whose  head  forms  part 
of  a  sphere.  The  resemblance  to  the  rose  is  very  re- 
mote (4,  Fig.  768). 

A  round-headed  bolt  has  a  head  cylindrical  or 
formed  as  a  segment  of  a  s]ihere. 

A  scaif-holt  is  a  shipbuilder's  bolt  used  for  secur- 
ing the  false  keel. 

A  screw-holt  is  one  having  a  screw-thread  on  the 
whole  or  a  considerable  portion  of  its  length. 

Bolts  of  lii'onze  were  used  in  ancient  Egyjit,  but 
Iiad  no  thread.  One  in  Dr.  Abbott's  collection  has 
tlje  square  head  for  turning. 

"There  are  many  kinds. 

1  is  a  screw-holt  having  a  square  head  «,  a  short 
round  shank  b,  washer  c,  and  nut  d;  by  this  screw- 
bolt  the  pieces  c  f  are  fastened  together. 


Scmv-Boits. 


2  sliows  a  screw-holt  in  which  the  latter  is  tapped 
with  the  object  /,  and  the  portion  c  tightly  fastened 
down  thereon  by  the  nut  d. 


BOLT. 


323 


BOLT-CUTTER. 


3  has  a  coiintcrsunk-lwud  wliich  sinks  into  the 
hoily  of  /  so  as  to  become  Hush  with  the  surface  of 
the  latter. 

•4  is  a  round-headed  bolt  which  hns  a  lip  to  pre- 
vent turning  when  the  nut  is  screwed  on  or  otf. 

5  is  a  douhle-headi:il  bolt  which  has  a  7iut  on  each 
end,  and  by  which  two  pieces  c  e  arc  secured  to  the 
portion/,  whose  recess  holds  the  collar  (j  of  the  bolt. 

6  shows  two  views  of  an  cj/c-bolt,  represented  as 
fastening  a  gland  to  a  stuffing-bo.v. 

7  is  a  lewk-ho\t  whose  barbed  shank  i  is  sur- 
rounded by  lead  k  poured  into  the  under-cut  mor- 
tise in  the  block  /. 

8  shows  two  views  of  a  T-headed  bolt,  to  fasten 
a  plate  accessible  only  from  one  side.  • 

A  sfi-bolt  is  one  used  by  shipwrights  in  closing  up 
the  planks. 

A  sh'tcklc-\>n\t  is  one  having  an  eye  for  the  inser- 
tion of  a  clevis,  which  is  held  by  a  pin  and  key. 

The  square-headed  bolt  has  a  f[aadrilateral  head 
adapted  to  be  grasped  by  a  wrench. 

Tlie  T-hi;adi;d  bolt  is  used  to  fasten  against  a  plate 
which  is  only  accessible  from  one  side.  In  this  case 
a  slotted  hole  is  made  in  the  plate,  of  the  size  of  the 
T  head  of  the  bolt,  wliich  is  then  passed  through  and 
turned  round  at  right  angles  to  the  hole. 

A  through-holt  is  one  which  goes  Ihrour/h  the 
pieces  which  are  to  be  fastened  together.  Such  are 
clinch-bolts,  and  bolts  secured  by  nut  and  washer. 

A  lirc-ho\t  is  an  ordinary  nut  and  washer  bolt, 
used  for  securing  tires  to  the  fellies  of  wheels. 
The  nut  and  washer  are  applied  on  the  interior  of  the 
fe^lv,  and  the  head  countersunk  into  the  tire.  See 
b,   Fig.  767. 

A  loagon-skcin  bolt  is  a  peculiarly  shaped  bolt 
without  a  nut,  and  is  used  for  fastening  the  skeins  to 
the  spindles  of  wagon-axles.     (See  c.  Fig.  767.) 

Rule  for  the  computation  of  the  weight  of  bolts  :  — 

IVrourjhl-iron :  sr|uare  the  radius  of  the  bolt,  and 
multiply  it  by  10,  the  product  will  give  the  weight 
in  pounds  per  foot. 

C  1st-  iron :  subtract  from  the  above  result  -/j-,  or 
.074  of  the  result.  —  Horatio  Allex. 

Tbe  following  standard  for  screw-threads,  bolt- 
li-'ads,  and  nuts  has  been  adopted  by  the  United 
American  Railway  Master  Car- Builders'  Associa- 
tion :  — 


Diameter  of 
Bolt. 


i 


To' 

4 


s 

1 

n 
n 

u 

li 
IS 

ij 


Number  of 

Threads  ppr 
Inch. 


20 
18 
16 
14 
13 
12 
11 
10 


6 

5 
5 


Diameter  of 
Bolt. 


Number  of 

Threads  per 

Inch. 


2 

2i 

2* 

n 

3 

H 
H 
H 

4 

H 

ih 

ii 

5 

5i 

5i 

5i 
6 


44 

il 

4 

4 

3A 

3i 

3i 

3 

3 

21 

2J 

2i 
2i 

21 

2i 


The  distance  between  the  parallel  sides  of  a  bolt- 
head  and  a  nut  for  a  rough  bolt  shall  be  equal  to 
one  and  a  half  diameters  of  the  bolt  plus  one  eighth 
of  an  inch. 


The  thickness  of  the  heads  for  rough  bolts  shall 
be  ecjual  to  one  half  the  distance  between  their  par- 
allel sides. 

The  thickness  of  the  nut  .shall  be  equal  to  the 
diameter  of  the  bolt.  The  thickness  of  the  head  for 
a  hnished  bolt  shall  be  equal  to  the  thickness  of  the 
nut. 

The  distance  between  the  parallel  sides  of  a  bolt- 
head  and  nut,  and  the  thickness  of  the  nut,  shall  be 
one  si.xteenth  of  an  inch  less  for  linished  work  than 
lor  rough. 

2.  {Locksmithing .)  That  portion  of  a  lock  which 
is  protruded  beyond  or  retracted  within  the  case  or 
bo.ving  by  the  action  of  the  key,  and  wliich  engages 
with  the  keeper  or  jamb  to  form  a  fastening. 

The  thick  protruding  portion  is  the  bull-head,  and 
the  fiat  part  within  the  lock  is  the  bolt-plate. 

3.  {Household  Hardware.)  A  movable  bar  pro- 
truded or  retracted  by  hand  to  fasten  or  release  a 
door,  gate,  wiiidow-.sasli,  etc.  It  is  usually  affi.xed 
to  the  movable  object,  and  is  received  into  a  staple, 
box,  or  perforated  plate  attached  to  the  post,  jamb,  or 
style,  as  the  case  may  be. 

Bolts  are  distinguished  by 

Shape ;  as,  square,  roxind  (e),  flat  (a),  barrel  (e),  etc. 
Purpose  ;  as,  shutter,  .vish,  etc. 
Construction  ;     as,   eluiin   (c),  spring  mortise  (b), 
necked  (d),  dormant,  catch,  flush,  drop,  etc. 

Or  by  mere  trade-names  ;    as,  cottage,  tower,  etc. 
Some  of  the  names  are  synonyms. 

Fig  769. 


4.  (Milling.)  A  sieve  of  very  tine  stuff,  for  sepa- 
rating the  bran  and  coarser  particles  from  flour.  See 
Fl.OUK-BOLT. 

5.  {IVood-u-orking.)  a.  A  rough  block  from  which 
articles  are  to  be  made  ;  as,  a  bolt  for  riving  into 
shingles,  spokes,  etc. 

b.  A  number  of  boards  adliering  together  by  the 
stiib-shot. 

6.  (Fabric.)     A  piece  or  roll  of  cloth. 

A  bolt  of  canvas  is  about  40  yards  long,  and  the 
stuff  is  from  22  to  30  inches  wide. 

7.  (Nautical.)  The  iron  rod  beneath  a  yard,  to 
w'hich  a  square  sail  is  attached. 

8.  [Ordnayicc.)  An  elongated  solid  projectile  for 
rilled  cannon,  as  the  'Wbitworth  and  .\iTOstrong  guns. 

9.  {Bookbinding.)  The  fold  in  the  fore-edge  and 
head  of  a  folded  sheet. 

Bolt-au'ger.  An  auger  used  by  shipwrights  in 
sinkiuiT  Imles  for  bolts. 

Bolt-chis'el.  (itachinery.)  A  cold  chisel  for 
cutting  off  the  e.\tra  length  of  a  bolt.  A  cross-cut 
chisel.     A  deep  chisel  with  a  narrow  edge. 

Bolt-cut'ter.  {Jfochincnj.)  a.  A  tool  for  cut- 
ting otl'  bolts.  It  usually  consists  of  a  sleeve  with  a 
radial  cutter  setting  inwardly  and  rotated  around  the 


BOLT-EXTRACTOR. 


324 


BOLT-HEADER. 


bolt  to  be  cut  by  means  of  a  handle.     In  the  exam- 
ple, the  cu'cular  cutter-holder  or  hub  is  supported 

Fig.  770. 


SoU-  Culler 

and  partly  inclosed  by  a  thick  ring  with  inwardly 
projecting  flanges  at  the  edges.  The  inner  surface 
of  this  ring  is  divided  into  three  sections,  each  of 
equal  eccentricity  to  the  hub,  and  against  which  the 
outer  ends  of  the  cutters  abut  ;  these  are  adjustable 
to  or  from  the  center,  by  rotating  the  hub  in  the 
proper  direction  by  means  of  a  handle  attached 
thereto,  the  extent  of  whose  motion  is  controlled  by 
an  adjustable  stop  formed  liy  a  set  screw  jiassing 
tliro\igh  an  arm  projecting  irora  the  standard  on 
which  the  tool  is  supported. 

6.  A  machine  for  cutting  tlie  thread  on  bolts.  It 
consists  of  a  framing  A  in  which  the  revolving  man- 
drel B  works.  This  has  the  dies  at  one  end  C,  which 
are  operated  as  follows. 

When  the  machine  is  started,  the  cone  D  is 
shipped  up  so  that  the  ends  of  the  levers  E,  resting 
on  it,  are  raised.     These  levers  being  fastened,   or 


having  a  fulcrum  on  the  die-plate,  depress  the  dies 
so  that  they  may  engage  with  tlie  bolt  to  be  cut  ; 
this  is  held  between  the  jaws  F,  operated  by  the 
hand-wheel  C.  As  soon  as  the  bolt  is  cut,  the  han- 
dle //,  when  lifted,  disengages  the  dies  from  the 
bolt,  so  that  it  can  be  taken  back  without  running 
on  the  thread, thus  saving  time  and  avoiding  injury. 
The  mandrel  73  is  hollow,  and  allows  the  bolt  to  en- 
ter it  while  the  carriage  is  drawn  along  with  the 
guides  /. 

The  bolt-thread  cutter  adapted  to  the  uses  of  the 
machinist  is  known  as  the  stock  and  dies.  Similar 
tools  are  used  by  gas-fitters,  plumbers,  and  steam- 
fitters  in  thri'ading  the  ends  of  the  welded  iron  tubes 
now  so  mucli  u.sc.l  in  litting  houses  with  "all  tlie 
luoderu   conveniences. "     Some  of    these   tools    are 


made   with  two  shanks   like   tongs,  others  with  a 
stationary  and  a  sliding  Jaw  like  a  wrencli. 

Bolt-ex-tract'or.  A  tool  or  imidemeut  for  ex- 
tracting bolts  liy  a  lifting 
force.  In  the  e.Kaniple,  the 
hydraulic  jack  has  a  foot 
wliich  has  wedge-shaped  jaws 
sliding  in  inclined  slots  with- 
in a  cavity,  whereby  a  great 
force  may  be  applied  in  an 
advantageousnianner,  the  line 
of  draft  Ijeing  directly  in  the 
line  of  the  axis  of  the  bolt. 
The  jaws  have  barbs  to  in- 
crease yii  ir  grip  on  the  bolt. 

Bolt-feed'er.  (Millhig.) 
A  device  for  regulating  the 
rate  of  passage  of  the  meal  to 
the  (lour-bolt.  In  the  exam- 
ple, the  nu'al  is  subjected  in 
the  cylindrical  case  to  the 
action  of  the  radial  arms  H 
of  the  rotating  shaft.  This 
shaft  bears  the  saucer-shaped 
disk  F,  whicli  stops  the  lower 
end  of  the  cylinder.  The 
lower  section  of  the  cylinder 
slides  on  the  upper,  and  reg- 
ulates the  size  of  the  anuular 
exit-opening  leading  to  the 
ventilating    case    containing 


Boll-EllrarloT. 


the  fan.     From  this  case  it  passes  to  the  chute  if. 


Fis,  773. 


BoU-Feeder. 

Bolt-head.  {Glnss.)  A  long  glass  matrass  or 
rei  I'iver  witli  a  straight  neek- 

Bolt-head'er.  (.Machincnj .)  A  machine  for 
swaging  down  the  end  of  a  bolt-blank  to  form  a 
head  ;  the  form  of  this  depends  ujion  that  of  the  die. 
In  the  example,  the  swinging  holders  i  L  cause  the 
cutter  to  produce  a  drawing  cut,  and  are  made  to 
move  simultaneously  with  the  die  toward  the  bar, 
when  the  front  end"  of  the  blank  is  cut  off.  The 
separated  blauk.is  then  held  by  the  holders,  and  its 
rear  end  is  between  the  stationary  die  G  and  the  re- 
eijirocating  die  E,  when  the  punch  I  moves  forward 
and  heads  tlie  same.  The  holders  and  dies  are  then 
simultaneously  drawn  apart,  and  the  finished  bolt  is 
released.  The  die  E,  in  the  holder  D,  is  recipro- 
cated by  the  cam  or  .shaft  C,  and  the  recoil  s\i\mgF ; 
tlie  punch  is  actuated  by  the  cam  d  on  the  shaft  B. 


BOLTIXG-CLOTH. 


BOLT-THREADEK. 


Fifi  774. 


ThfCiiiigJes  forbend- 
ing-oii  the  sail,  and  for 
the  attaclmient  of  the 
jeef-tackle,  are  worked 
in  anil  aiound  the  bolt- 
rijjH.i.      .See  Sail. 

Bolt-rope  Nee'- 
dle.  {.\'iiutiml.)  A 
strong  needle  for  sew- 
ing a  siiil  to  its  bolt- 
rojic. 

Bolt-sawr'ing  Ma- 
chine'. (  ll'uud-iroi-k- 
itiif. )  For  sawing  su- 
peifluons  wood,  sueh  as 
corners,  from  stuti'  to 
be  turned.  It  has  an 
iron  carriage  with  cen- 
tei-s  between  which  the 
work  is  chucked  while 
being  fed  to  the  circu- 
lar saw.     (Fig.  776.) 


BoU-Headins  Machine. 


Bolt'ing-cloth.     (Milling.)     Cloth   of  hair  or 

other   substance  with  meshes  of  various  sizes  for 

sieve*. 

Bolt'ing-chest.     (Hilling.)      The   inclosure   or 

case  of  a  Jlourini;-bolt. 

Bolt'lng-liutch      (iniling.)     A  tub  or  box  into 

which  tl'Uir  or  meal  is  bolted. 
Bolt'ing-mill.     {Milling.)    A  machine  in  which 

Hour  is  separated 
from  the  otfal  of 
various  grades. 
The  meal  from  the 
stones  is  pa.ssed 
through  cylin- 
drical sieves  hav- 
ing meshes  of  va- 
rying degrees  of 
fineness,  at  dif- 
ferent parts  of  its 
lengtliorthrough 
various  sieves. 
In  the  illustra- 
tion the  several 
stones  of  the  mill 
are  shown  ;  the 
meal  from  the 
stones  passing 
down  to  the  well 
of  the  elevator, 
which  raises  it  to 
the  upper  bolt, 
from  which  it 
passes  down- 
ward to  others  in 
succession. 
Bolt-mak'ing 
Ma-chine'. 
{M tf  c h  i  n  crtj.) 
One  in  which 
though  this  is 
as  the  threading 
heading  by  swag- 
See   BOLT- 


Bolling-Mia. 


bolts  are  threaded  and  headed, 
usually  done  in  separate  machines 
is  done  by  cutters  on  the  cold  iron  ; 
ing  •  upon   the   end   of  the   hot  blank. 

HEADF.R  ;    B0LT-THEE.\DER. 

Bolt-rope.    (Xantiivil.)    A  rope  around  the  mar- 
gin of  a  sail  to  strengthen  it.     It  is 
A  Iccch-rope,  up  the  sides. 
A  hcitd-rope,  .along  the  top. 
A/oot-roj>e,  at  the  bottom. 


Bolt-Trhnvutt^  Machine. 


Bolt-scre-w'ing  Ma-chine'.  .\  machine  for 
cutting  screw-threads  on  bolts,  by  K.xing  the  bolt- 
head  to  a  revolving  chuck,  and  causing  the  end  which 
it  is  reipiired  to  screw  to  enter  a  .set  of  dies,  which 
advance  .ns  the  bolt  revolves.     A  l/olt-lliraiilcr. 

Bolt-sprit.  {Xauticnl. )  Another,  now  disused, 
name  f.ir  BriwspiiiT  (which  see). 

Bolt-strake.  [Shipbuilding.)  That  strake  or 
wale  through  which  the  beam-fastenings  pass. 

Bolt-thread 'er.  [Mochincry.)  A  machine  for 
cutting  screw-threads  on  bolts.  In  that  shown  in 
Fig.  777,  the  head  E,  containing  the  cutters  C,  sur- 


Fig. 


Boll-  T/ir'arlrr. 


BOMB. 


326 


BOND. 


rounds  tlie  hollow  mandrel  B,  and  is  reciprocated  by 
means  of  the  lever  l'\  moving  along  the  graduated 
arc  M.  As  the  head  E  is  advanced,  the  tixed  bolt 
enters  the  bore  of  the  mandrel,  and  is  threaded  by 
the  cutters  C.  The  cutter-head  may  be  rotated  by 
hand  or  otherwise. 

In  Fig.  778,  the  bolt-head  enters  a  rectangular 
recess  in  the  longitudinally  .sliding  stock.  The  dies 
are  secured  to  jaws  C  C  pivoted  to  the  tubular  spin- 
dle B  of  the  head-stock.  Tlie  forward  ends  of  the 
jaws  are  brought  together  by  toggle-levers  at  their 
rear  ends.  The  toggle-levers  D  1)  are  pivoted  to  a 
circuniferentially  grooved  collar  E,  turning  with  the 
mandrel  A,  but  slid  thereon  by  a  haud-lever  O. 


Harpoon-Ball,  or  Eoinb- Lance. 


BombolQ. 


Bolt-  Threader. 

Bomb.  (Ordnance.)  A  spherical  hollow  shot, 
fired  from  a  mortar  or  hnwitzcr,  and  filled  with  ex- 
plosive material  wliich  is  lighted  by  a  time  or  per- 
cussion fttsc. 

Bombs  were  used  at  the  siege  of  Naples  in  1434. 
Mortars  for  bombs  were  cast  at  Buckstead,  England, 
1543.     .Sec  Siim.L. 

Bom'bard.  (Ordmtncc.)  An  ancient  mortar  of 
large  lion-,  us^'d  to  throw  stone  shot. 

Bom'bar-do.  (.Music.)  A  wind-instrument  like 
a  bassoon,  and  used  as  a  base  for  the  oboe. 

Bom'ba-zine.  {Fabric.)  A  mixed  .silk  and 
wonlen  twilled  stufi'.  The  warp  is  silk  and  the 
welt  worsted. 

Bomb-chest.  A  box  filled  with  explosive  pro- 
jectiles or  materials,  and  buried  in  the  earth,  in 
military  mining. 

Bomb-ketch,  (ri'sscls.)  A  small, strongly  built 
vessel,  ketcli-rigged,  on  which  one  or  more  mortars 
are  mounted  for  naval  bombardments. 

Mortar-vessels  are  saiil  to  have  been  invented  by 
T?eyneau,  and  to  have  been  first  used  at  the  siege  of 
Algiers  in  liiS-2. 

Bomb-lance.  A  harpoon  which  carries  a  charge 
of  explosive  material  in  its  head.  In  the  example, 
the  head  is  chaiged  with  powder,  and  when  the  har- 


Bom'bo-lo.  (Glass.)  A  spheroidal  re- 
tort in  which  camphor  is  sublimed.  It  is 
miidi-  of  Ihin  Hint-glass,  weighs  about  one 
piiund,  and  is  12  inches  in  diameter.  It  is 
heated  in  a  sand-bath  to  2C0°  Fall.,  which 
is  gradually  increased  to  400°.  For  the  de- 
tails of  the  operation,  see  UiiE  ;  Camphor. 

Bomb-proof.  (Fortifcalion.)  A  struc- 
ture in  a  lortifieation  which  is  so  covered 
with  earth  as  to  be  secure  from  the  penetra- 
tion of  cannon-balls  by  the  ordinary  or 
plunging  fire.  It  may  be  a  structure  of 
stone,  brick,  or  wood,  but  must  have  strength 
to  bear  a  heavy  load  of  earth,  which  converts  it  into 

Fig.  78a. 


Eomb-Proof. 


Fig.  779. 


iiVWe 


poon  penetrates  the  fish,  the  bar  which  is  pivoted 
oblii]ueIy  in  the  head  serves  to  release  the  sjuing- 
actuated  hanmier,  which  explodes  the  cap  and  bursts 
the  charge-chamber. 

A  form  of  bomli-lance  which  has  been  very  success- 
ful is  shown  in  Fig.  780.  It  is  a  cast-iron  tiibe  about 
12  inches  long  and  1  inch  diann'ter,  carrying  in  a 
charge-chanjber  100  grains  of  gunpowiler.  It  is  fired 
from  a  gun,  and  the  match  is  lighted  in  the  act  of 
firing.  Prongs  tly  out  from  the  tube  to  prevent  re- 
traction of  the  missile. 


a  mound  in  which  shot  are  buried  without  penetrat- 
ing to  the  interior. 

Bcmb-shell.  A  spherical  or  cylindrical  case  of 
iron  loiiilnl  witli  powder,  and  burst  by  its  charge  on 
concussi<ni  or  alter  an  interval  of  time.  See  Shell. 
Bo-ua-ven'ture  -  miz'zen.  An  additional  or 
second  niizzcn-mast,  fornicily  used  in  some  large 
shijis. 

Bond.     That  part  or  those  parts  of  a  built  struc- 
ture which  tie  the  other  portions  together. 

1.  {Masonry.)     A  stone  or  brick   Mliich   is  laid 
with  its  length  across 
a     wall,     or     extends 
v^^  through     the     facing 

I— rS^~-~'= ^?'MtVigfaiiij.^,-v^j .--^     course   into   that   be- 

^..-,..:.  ^^^^M^^m>  hind,  so  as  to  bind  the 
'^-^'  facing  to  the  backing. 

Also  known  as   bind- 
ers: bond-stones ;  bind- 
perpc^id-stones,  header. 
a    heading-stone    passes 


ing-sUmes;  through-stones . 

Perpend    signifies    that 
through  the  whole  thickness  of  a  wall 

Binder,  that  it  extends  a  jiart  of  the  distance 
across. 

Heart-bond,  in  stone-walling.  In  this  there  are 
no  perpend-stones,  init  two  headers  meet  in  the 
middle  of  the  wall,  ami  the  joint  between  them  is 
covered  by  another  header. 

Chain-himd  is  the  building  into  the  masonry  of 
an  iron  chain  or  bar,  or  heavy  scantling. 


BOXD-PAPER. 


BOXE-BLACK  COOLER. 


Cross-bond.     A  block-bond  in  which  the  joints  of  ■ 
the  second  stretcher-course 
Fig.  783.  come  in  the  middle  of  the 

first  ;  a  course  of  header 
and  stretcher  intervening. 
See  c.  Fig.  783. 

Block  and  cross  bond.  The 
extrados  of  the  wall  is  put 
up  in  cross-bond  ;  the  intra- 
dos  in  -block-bond. 

2.  (Brickliaj hui .)  A  par- 
ticular mode  of  disposing 
bricks  in  a  wall  so  as  to 
tie  and  break  joint. 

The  EnijUsh  band  (a)  has 
courses  of  headers  alternat- 
ing with  courees  of  stretch- 
ers. 

In  the  Flonish  bond  (b) 
each  coiir.se  has  stretchers 
and  headers  alternately. 

A,  hinder. 

'-^ ' ' '         B,  stretcher. 

Wall-Bottds.  C,  bond  of  hoop-iron. 

D,  tinilier-bond. 

3.  (Roofing.)  The  distance  which  the  tail  of  a 
shingle  or  slate  overlaps  the  head  of  the  second  course 
below.  A  slate  27  inches  long,  and  having  a  manjin 
of  12  inches  goge  exposed  to  the  weather,  will  have 
3  inches  bond,  or  lap.  The  excess  over  twice  the  tjage 
is  the  bond. 

4.  (Carpenlrjj .)  Tie-timbers  placed  in  the  walls  of 
a  building  ;  asbimd-tinibers,  lintels,  and  wall-plates. 

Bond-pa'per.  A  thin,  uncalendered  papei-  made 
of  supciinr  stock,  and  used  for  printing  bonds  and 
similar  evidences  of  value. 

Bond-stone.  (Ma^onnj.)  A  stretcher  used  in  un- 
coursed  rubble-work ;  if  inserted  the  whole  thickness 
of  the  masonry,  itiscalleda^jcr/io/irfor  pcrpend-stoue. 

Bond-tim'ber.  [B ricklaifinj .)  One  put  length- 
wise int.)  a  wall  to  bind  the  brickwork  together, 
and  distribute  the  pressure  of  the  .superincumbent 
weight  more  cfiually.  It  also  affords  hold  for  the 
battens,  which  serve  as  a  foundation  for  interior  fin- 
ishing. 

Bone.  1.  {Sarveyincj.)  To  sight  along  an  object 
or  set  of  objects  to  see  if  it  or  they  be  level  or  in  line. 

2.  Physiologically  speaking,  the  material  of  the 
skeleton  or  framework  of  the  body. 

Chemically  considered,  a  compound  of  animal 
and  earthy  matters,  the  latter  giving  rigidity  to  the 
cellular  tissue. 

Mechanically  considered,  the  uses  of  bone  are  for 
turning,  inlaying,  handles  of  knives  and  tools,  bil- 
liard balls,  scales,  etc.  The  term  includes  the  ordinary 
bones  of  the  body,  ami  also  the  tusks  and  teeth  of 
the  elephant,  hippopotamus,  walrus,  and  whale. 

Bine  is  also,  when  deprived  of  its  animal  matters 
by  distillation,  used  as  a  defecating,  bleaching,  and 
filtering  material  in  the  treatment  of  sirups  and  dis- 
tilled liquors,  and  in  the  ]nirification  of  water. 
Bone-black  is  also  used  as  a  pigment  in  making  prin- 
ter's ink. 

Bone,  while  yet  fresh,  is  used  by  pastry-cooks  to 
prepare  a  clear  and  rigid  jelly. 

Bone  is  used  by  steel- workers  as  a  carbon  in  the 
hardening  of  steel. 

Whalebone  (so  called)  is  not  a  bone,  but  partakes 
of  the  nature  of  horn.     See  Baleex. 

Bone  is  used  by  hu.sbandmen  as  a  manure. 

Bones  blanched  in  an  open  tire,  removing  the  car- 
bon, yield  a  powder  which  is  used  in  making  the 
cupels  of  the  assayer,  in  making  phosphorus,  and  as 
a  polishing  material. 


Bone-black.  Produced  by  calcining  the  bone.« 
or  ivory  of  animals  in  close  vessels.  This  process 
le.aves  the  animal  charcoal,  consisting  of  the  earthy 
and  saline  portions  of  the  bone,  combined  with  car- 
bon, while  the  volatile  matters  are  distilled  over. 
Among  these  products  is  a  peculiar  oil,  which  is 
burned  in  lamps  in  close  chambers  ;  the  soot  which 
accumulates  on  the  sides  is  collected,  and  forms  the 
pigment  known  as  bone-black  or  ivory- black,  accord- 
ing to  ijuality. 

Bone-black  Clean'ing-appa-ra'tus.  A  de- 
vice for  purifying,  screening,  and  cooling  bone-black 
after  treatment  in  the  revivifying  retort.  In  Han- 
ford's  apparatus  the  hot  bone-black  trom  the  furnace 

Fig.  784. 


Hanford^s  Bone-Blactc  Cltaner. 

is  received  in  a  hojiper  E,  driven  by  force  of  air  from 
the  jmrnp  A  throuf;h  tlie  |ii|ie  I>,  is  received  in  a 
closed  chest  /,  having  an  inverted  coiucal  perforated 
deliector  i,  which  directs  tlie  larger  masses  down- 
ward, where  they  are  discharged  by  the  slanting 
Hoor  and  opening  A'.  The  smaller  particles  and  dust 
are  carried  by  the  blast  of  air  through  the  openings 
in  the  conical  screen  L,  the  second  screen  0,  and  the 
pipe  P,  to  the  next  chamber  Q.  A  jet  of  steam  is 
injected  into  the  pipe  P,  so  as  to  damp  the  dust  in 
passing  and  assi.st  in  its  deposition. 

Bone-black  Cool'er.  An  apparatus  for  cooling 
anin\al  charcoal  aftei'  its  removal  from  the  furnace. 

The  hot,  reburnt  coal  is  poured  into  hojipers, 
passed  through  an  annular  opening,  and  then  through 
pipes  into  a  car.     The  plates  against  which  it  jiasses 

Fig.  785. 


Bon'-Btark  CooUr. 


nONE-BLACK  FURNACE. 


328 


BONE-MILL. 


are  kept  cool  by  a  current  of  cold  air  through  a  sur- 
rouiuliiig  channel.  The  to|is  of  the  plates  may  be 
arrangcil  so  as  to  form  a  railroad-car  track,  over 
which  trucks  containing  the  iiot  coal  may  travel. 

Bone-black  Fui'nace.  No  material  ci|ual  to 
lioiR'-hlack  has  yet  been  discoverej  for  decolorizing 
.antl  pnriiying  saccharine  solutions.  After  a  certain 
quantity  of  sirup  has  been  filtered  through  it,  it  is 
necessary  to  revive  it  by  removing  the  gum,  sugar, 
and  other  vegetable  extract  tliat  has  tilled  its  pores 
and  deprived  it  of  its  \iseful  qualities,  Some  of 
tliese  matters,  such  as  gluten,  arc  not  soluble  in  wa- 
ter until  after  fermentation,  or  an  ccpiivalcnt  chem- 
ical tieatment.  The  practice  has  liecn  to  sntl'ei-  the 
bone-black  to  ferment  in  a  heap,  to  decompose  the 
organic  matter,  after  which  it  is  washed,  drieii,  and 
recalcined,  acquiring  again  its  full  decolorizing  pow'- 
er.s,  but  having  lo.st  a  [lortion,  due  to  the  crumbling 
in  the  various  processes  thiougli  which  it  is  passed. 
This  is  cah'ulatcd  by  Fleischman  to  be  from  12  to  15 
per  cent  per  annum  ;  by  an  English  author,  to  V)c  ti 
per  cent  on  each  turning  ;  and  by  a  writer  in  Har- 
per, who  has  studic<l  the  economy  of  the  Cuban  sys- 
tems, at  10  per  cent  for  eaidi  use,  which  is  probably 
an  extreme  calculation.  Much  depends  upon  the 
sy.stem  ado])teil  in  its  revivification.  This  is  done 
in  several  ways  ;  — 

1.  Calcination  in  iron  pots. 

2.  Calcination  in  retorts  ;  horizontal  or  vertical. 

3.  Purging  by  highly  lieated  steam. 

4.  Roasting  in  open  revolving-cylinders. 

5.  Washing  in  dilute  liydrochhn'ic  acid. 

6.  Washing  in  a  dilute  lye  of  potash  or  soda. 
Fig.  786  shows  one  form  of  furnace  for  revivifying 

bone-black,  in  which  the  bone-black  D,  charged  with 
inqiuiities,  is  deposited  in  tUe  hopper  '',  where  the 
withdrawal  of  .slides  E  ])ennils  it  to  fall  into  the  tubes 
A  A,  which  are  exposed  to  tile  heat  from  the  furnace- 
Fig.  786 


Bone-Btack  Furnace, 

grate  IT  rintil  the  impurities  are  discharged,  when, 
by  withdrawing  the  slides  F  F  on  the  bottom-plates 
B  B,  it  passes  into  the  tubes  a  a  h  h,  and  is  received 
into  the  vessels  c  c.  A' A' are  Hues  for  conducting 
olf  the  products  of  combustion  and  partially  drying 
the  black  before  it  is  admitted  to  the  tubes  A  A. 

Bone-black  Kiln.  A  chamber  or  retort  mounted 
in  a  I'uiiKicc  lor  re-burning  bone-black  to  rciEiove  im- 
puriticswith  whicli  it  has  become  saturated  or  impreg- 
nated during  its  use  as  a  defecator  and  filtering-mate- 
rial.   Eastwick's  bone-black  kiln  has  a  retort  in  three 


Bone-Btack  Kiln. 


lengths,  each  supported 
separately,  so  as  to  pre- 
vent the  weight  of  the 
whole  column  from  bend- 
ing the  lower  section  when 
heated  to  reilness.  The 
upper  section  is  the  re- 
ceiving ;  the  middle  sec- 
tion has  the  greatest  heat ; 
the  lower  section  is- not 
immediately  allected  by 
the  fire,  and  forms  the 
cooler.  At  the  foot  of 
the  latter  is  a  draw- 
damper  for  dischargi'. 

Bone  -el'-e-va'tor. 
(Surijical.)  A  lever  for 
raising  a  depressed  por- 
tion of  boiu',  as  a  part 
of  the  cranium,  for  in- 
stance. 

The  boys'  "sucker," a 
wet  disk  of  leatllerapplied 
to  the  part  and  then  raised 
by  a  sti-ing  in  the  center, 
has  been  suggested  for 
raising  depressed  por- 
tions of  fractured  skulls. 
Ewbank  humorously 
suggests  that  it  might 
be  used  to  cause  a  de- 
velopment  of   the   finer 

oigans  of  the  brain  by  application  over  those  phren- 
ological regions  deserving  of  encouragement.  In 
this,  however,  Nicodemus  Easy  was  consideralily 
ahead  of  Mr.  Ewbank,  for  the  old  gentleman  had  a 
complex  machine  where  suction  and  pressure  had 
each  its  part  to  play  in  raising  the  finer  sentiments 
and  depressing  the  baser  organs.  See  Marryat's 
"  Midsldpmnn  Easy." 

Bone-mill.     A  machine  for  grinding  bones  for 
fertilizer  or  for  making  bone-black. 

Bone-grinding  is  etlcctcd  by  passing  the  bones 
through  a  series  of  toothed  rollers  arranged  in  pairs, 
the  rollers  be- 
ing toothed  or 
serrated  in  dif- 
ferent degrees 
of  fineness,  and 
riddles  arc  pro- 
vided for  sift- 
ing the  bones 
into  sizes,  and 
they  are  then 
sold  as  inch, 
three-quarters, 
half-inch,  and 
dust. 

The    mill 

shown  in  Fig.  B'^^J - 

788  is  made  of 
iron,  and  is 
bolted  to  a 
foundation. 
P)Ones  placed 
in  the  hopper 
fall  through 
the  chute,  and 
are  broken  by 
a  crusher  at  its 
bottom.  They 
thence  pass  be-  Bone-Mill. 

tween  a  sta- 
tionary  grinding-plate   and   a   revolving   grinding- 


BOXES. 


329 


BOXXET-SHAPIXG  MACHINE. 


plate  B  C\  tiirncil  l>v  the  axis  and  pulley  E,  faced 
with  hollowing  dianiond-shapi/d  projections  arranged 
in  lines  radiating  from  the  center.  AVIiile  tliese  are 
dulled  at  one  edge  by  constantly  turning  the  niill  in 
one  direction,  they  are  sharpened  at  the  other,  ami 
the  motion  of  the  mill  is  reversed,  bringing  the  lat- 
ter into  action.  The  plate  B  G  \s,  adjusted  to  grind 
to  any  degree  of  fineness,  by  means  of  the  screw- 
wheel  and  hand-lever  shown  at  A. 

An  English  bone-mill  has  a  pair  of  rollers  with 
circular,  scpiare-edged  grooves,  like  those  of  a  i-oUing- 
iniU,  the  saUeut  faces  of  the  teeth  being  serrated  and 
meshing  with  those  of  the  opposite  roll.  The  plumber- 
block  of  one  roll  is  adjustable,  so  as  to  vary  the  dis- 
tance between  tlie  rolls  for  large  or  small  bones. 

The  machine  is  driven  by  two  horses  att.iched  to 
the  sweeps,  and  the  bones  ait  passed  through  several 


Bom-Uid. 

times,  the  rolls  being  set  up  a  little  each  time  by 
means  of  set  screws.  The  bones,  after  passing  be- 
tween the  rolls,  are  conducted  by  the  hopper  a  into 
a  revolving  screen  h,  which  is  driven  by  a  bevel- 
wheel  working  into  a  pinion  on  the  screw-shaft. 

"  Hadrian  (whose  bones  may  they  be  ground  and 
his  name  blotted  out  I)  [he  had  rebuilt  Jerusalem 
tuider  the  name  XXa.  t'apitolina,  dedicated  it  to  Ju- 
piter, and  forbade  a  Jew  to  enter  the  city  under  ]>aiu 
of  death]  asked  Uabbi  Joshua  Ben  Haunaiah,  '  How 
doth  a  man  revive  again  in  the  world  to  come  ? '  He 
answered  and  said,  'From  Lti-,  in  the  backbone.' 
Saith  he  to  him,  '  Demonstrate  this  to  me.'  Then  he 
took  Laz,  a  little  bone  out  of  the  backbone,  and  put 
it  in  water,  and  it  was  not  steeped  ;  he  put  it  into 
fire,  and  it  was  not  burnt ;  he  brought  it  to  the  mill, 
and  that  could  not  grind  it ;  he  laid  it  on  the  anvil 
and  knocked  it  with  a  hammer,  but  the  anvil  was 
cleft  and  the  hammer  broken." 

Bones,  (itask.)  A  musical  instrument,  if  it 
may  be  so  called,  by  which  the  rhythmical  beat  of  a 
tune  is  maintained  in  the  manner  of  castanets.  The 
name  is  derived  from  the  material  originally  used. 
A  i>air  of  bones  or  small  wooden  maces  is  held 
in  the  hand  and  separated  by  a  finger,  so  that  the 
protruding  ends  may  tap  against  each  other,  and  give 
a  sharp  snapping  sound.  'The  raps  are  governed  by 
the  play  of  the  hand. 

The  hones  are  the  usual  accompaniment  of  the  sa- 
ble harmonists,  and  the  instrument  is  popularly 
supposed  to  be  of  negro  origin.  It  is  a  legitimate 
African  tinkler,  having  been  used  in  ancient  Egj'pt 
as  far  back  as  the  prosperous  Theban  era.  Round- 
headed  pegs  (crola'a)  were  held  between  the  fingers 
of  the  dancers  in  the  festi\ities  of  Herculaneum,  and 
useil  after  the  manner  of  the  modern  bones  by  rat- 
tling in  the  hand.  The  maces  of  the  ancient  Egyp- 
tians were  metallic  and  sonorous  ;  those  of  the  Jap- 
anese are  of  wood.  The  elfect  desired  is  or  was 
substantially  the  same  in  the  cases  cited.  A  shar]) 
snap  to  beat  the  measure,  audible  above  the  hum  of 
the  people,  the  rub-a-dub  of  the  little  drums,  the 


clapping  of  hands,  the  twanging  of  the  .stiinged  and 
whistling  of  the  wind  instruments.  Casianct%VHif:i:s, 
soniicUcs,  ctjmbnis,  are  different  forms  of  striking  in- 
strnments.     See  Castanets  ;  Dia'M. 

Bon-grace.  (Naiilical.)  A  bow -grace  or  junk- 
fender. 

Bon'ing.  {Surfcyinr;.)  The  operation  of  level- 
ing by  means  of  tlie  eye. 

Bo'a'ing-stick.  (BuikUng.)  A  stick  with  a 
head  like  the  letter  T,  to  indicate  a  level  for  work 
or  construction.  A  number  of  such  sticks  over  a  site 
indicate  a  certain  level  for  the  tops  of  base  pieces  or 
foundation-blocks. 

Boning,  in  carpentry  or  masonry,  is  perfoimed  by 
placing  two  straight  edges  on  an  object  and  sighting 
on  theii-  upper  edges  to  see  if  they  range.  If  they 
do  not,  the  surface  is  said  to  be  hi  wind. 

Bon'net.  1.  {JFear.)  A  lady's  head-gear,  hav- 
ing a  crown  and  a  curved  brim  displayed  upward 
and  forward. 

2.  {Fort.)  A  portion  of  a  parapet  elevated  to  a 
traverse  to  intercept  enfilaile  fire. 

3.  {Muchiiicrij.)  a.  A  cast-iron  plate  covering 
the  openings  in  the  valve-chamber  of  a  pump,  and 
removable  for  the  examination  and  repair  of  the  valve 
and  seat. 

b.  A  metallic  canopy  or  projection,  as  of  a  fireplace 
or  chinmey.  A  cowl  or  wind-cap.  A  hood  for  ven- 
tilation, or  the  smoke-pipe  on  a  railway-car  roof. 

c.  The  dome-shaped  wire  spark-arresting  cover  of 
a  locomotive  chimney. 

4.  A  sliding  lid  for  a  hole  in  an  iron  pipe. 

5.  {Xaulia.ll.)  An  additional  piece  of  sail  added 
by  lacings  to  the  foot  of  a  jib,  or  a  schooner's  fore- 
sail.     It  is  used  during  light  winds. 

Bon'net  de  Prfitre!  [Fortification.)  Called 
also  [iriest's  caji  or  swallow-tail.  A  double  redan. 
See  Ki;i>A.v. 

Bon'net-shap'ing  Ma-chine'.  A  machine  in 
which  a  partially'  shaped  bonnet  is  pressed  down 
upon  a  fonning-block,  to  give  it  a  set  shape.  One 
die  has  the  e.xterior,  the  other  the  interior  shape  ; 
one  is  usually  heated  so  as  to  dry  the  bonnet  and 
make  it  rigid  in  its  aciinireu  form.  The  process  and 
machine  are  similar  to  the  hat-forming  machine,  the 
dill'ereni'e  being  princi))ally  in  the  shape  of  the  arti- 
cle.    See  Hat-fuiimini;  J1.\chike. 

Fig.  790. 


.vj/h^  J^t:uhint. 


BONNET-PRESSING   MACHINE. 


330 


BOOKBINDER'S  TOOLS,  K'lV. 


Bon'net-press'iug  Ma-chine'.  A  machine  by 
wliii'h  lioiini't.s  wliilf  oil  thf  Iniiiiing-block  are  jnv- 
senteil  to  tlie  tiat  or  pressev.  In  the  e.xainple,  the 
bonnet  is  pUicitd  crown  iipwanl  upon  the  former  /A', 
wliieh  has  a  rockinj;  adjustment  by  the  ratchet  S 
tipon  a  frame  C,  whose  pedestal  is  planted  on  the 
slide  /I,  which  has  a  traversing  motion  to  biing  the 
fornU'r  and  the  bonnet  beneath  thi'  presser  X  on 
the  end  of  the  horizontal  arm  J/.  This  has  a  pres- 
sure, by  means  of  springs,  on  the  stem,  while  the 
fornip.r  is  rotated  beneath  the  pressing-iron  by  means 
of  the  liand-crank  and  bevel-g.'aring. 

Bon'uey.     (Miaitig.')     An  isolated  bed  of  ore. 

Boii'ten.     {F'lltrk:)     A  narrow  woolen  stulf. 

Boo'by-hatch.  {Xinitical.)  Tlie  covering  of  the 
scuttle-way  or  small  hatchway  which  leads  to  the 
forecastle  or  ton-peak  of  small  sailing-vessels. 

Boo'by-hut.  (Vehicle.)  A  sleigh  wifh  a  hooded 
cover. 

Boo'by-hutch.  {Vehicle.)  A  roughly  built 
covered  carriag',  used  in  some  parts  of  England. 

Book.  1.  A  number  of  sheets  of  paper  bound 
together  on  edge,  known  as  the  biiidiiiff-elg;. 

Anciently,  books  consisted  of  a  continuous  roll 
formed  by  pasting  or  glueing  slieets  of  parchment  or 
papyrus  together.  They  .were  usually  furnished 
with  cases  into  which  they  were  placed  for  preserva- 
tion when  not  in  use.     See  I'afeu. 

Bjfore  the  discovery  of  p:i[)yrns  —  which,  how- 
ever, was  at  a  very  distant  period — inscriptions 
were  made  on  boards,  inner  lurk  of  trees,  afterwards 
on  skins.  Books  with  a  back  and  leaves  of  vellum 
were  mide  by  Attains,  King  of  Pei-gamus,  about  198 
B.  c.      See  P.\P,CHMKN"r. 

The  manuscript  rolls  in  Hercnlaneum  consist  of 
papyrus,  wiiich  is  charred  and  mitted  together  by 
the  lire.  Tlie  rolls  arc  nine  inches  long,  and  vary  in 
diameter  ;  eacli  forms  a  sep  irate  treatise.  The  "tirst 
printed  books  were  printed  on  one  side  only,  and  the 
pages  pasted  together  at  the  backs. 

Pliny  says  tliat  the  Parthians  write  upon  cloths. 
Livy  speaks  of  books  of  linen  inscribed  with  the 
names  of  magistrates  and  the  history  of  the  Roman 
Comnonwealth,  and  preserved  in  the  temple  of  the 
Goddiss  M.jneta. 

Aristotle  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  to  collect  a 
library  with  a  general  assortment  of  books.  (Stu.-viid.  ) 
Pisistratus  of  Athens  and  Polycrate?  of  Samos  had' 
libraries,  supposed  to  have  been  ijrincipally  poetical 
works. 

The  public  library  of  Pisistratus  was  removed  to 
Persia  by  Xer.xcs. 

The  library  of  Alexander  was  kept  in  two  precincts 
of  the  city,  the  Bruclieion  ami  the  Serapeum.  It 
contained  from  400,000  to  700,000  books.  Authori- 
ties (Gelliiis,  Jo^e[iluis,  and  Seneca)  differ.  Ptole- 
mies Soter,  PhiladBl])hus,  and  Euergetes  were  its  pa- 
trons. Philadelphns  added  the  famous  library  of  Aris- 
totle to  the  collection.  It  was  much  injured  by  fire 
in  the  sie^e  of  Julius  Ca35ar.  xVntony  added  to  it  the 
library  of  Pergamus,  collected  by  Eumenes.  It  was 
afterward  injured  by  Theodosius,  and  destroyed  by 
tlip  Arabs,  A.  D.  d46. 

The  first  public  libr.iry  of  Rome  was  founded  by 
Asinius  Pollio,  on  lit.  .\ventine.  This  was  followed 
by  th  ■  libraries  of  Augustus,  Octavia,  ami  Tiberius. 
Th^  Ulpian  iilirary  of  Trajan  was  attached  by  Uio- 
cletian  t.i  his  tliernuc. 

A  furnish  -d  library  was  discovered  in  Hercnlaneum. 
Rouiul  the  wall  it  had  numbered  cases  containing 
the  rolls. 

It  is  recorded  that  Plato  bought  three  works  of 
Philolaus,  the  Pythagorean,  for  ten  thousand  ilenarii, 
nearly  S  1500.   Aristotle  bought  a  few  books  of  Spen- 


cippus  for  three  Attic  talents,  nearly  .S2800.  Jer- 
ome, A.  11.  420,  states  that  he  ruined  himself  by  buy- 
ing a  copy  of  the  works  of  Origen.  Alfred  the  Great 
gave  an  estate  for  one  on  cosmograjihy,  A.  v.  872. 

The  book  of  St.  Cnthbert,  the  earliest  ornamen- 
tal book,  is  supposed  to  have  been  bound  about  .K.  D. 
650.  A  Latin  Psalter  in  oak  boards  was  bound  in 
the  ninth  century. 

In  more  modern  times,  Machlin's  Bible,  ornamented 
by  Tonikins,  was  valued  at  £  52.'i.  -V  suiperb  copy  of 
the  Bible  was  ininted  and  collected  by  llr,  Parker, 
of  Golden  Sipiarc,  London,  in  about  54  large  folio 
volumes,  with  7,000  illustrations  in  the  text  and 
mounted,  and  containing  original  drawings  by  Louth- 
erbouig  and  others,  was  insured  in  a  London  oHice 
for  £3000.  It  was  rattled  oH'  at  £  500O  ;  100  sub- 
scribers at  £  50  each.  Two  wagon-loads  of  a  book 
at  §25,000. 

A  standard  dictionary  of  the  Chinese  language, 
containing  40,000  charactei's,  was  made  by  Pa-out- 
bheabout  1100  E.  f.  (Mor.KisoN.)  The  Onomastikon, 
a  Greek  dictionary  of  Julius  Pollo.x,  was  written 
about  120  li.  c. 

Sze-ma-tseen,  the  Chinese  Herodotus,  wrote  in  thfl 
second  century  B.  c.  The  dictionary  Si-wun  was 
complied  about  148  B.  C. 

The  Spanish  Saracens  compiled  dictionaries,  lexi- 
cons, encyclopedias,  and  pharmacopceias.  The  His- 
loiical  Dictionary  of  Sciences  of  Mohammed  Ibu  Ab- 
dallah,  of  Granada,  is  a  notable  instance.  Avicenna 
also  wrote  a  large  number  of  works,  among  them  an 
Encyclopedia  ot  Human  Knowledge,  in  twenty  vol- 
umes. 

A  manuscript  copy  of  the  Evangelists,  the  hook 
on  which  the  English  kings,  from  Henry  I.  to  Ed- 
ward VI.,  took  their  coronation  oath,  was  bound  in 
oak  board.s,  nearly  an  inch  thick,  in  1100. 

Velvet  was  the  covering  in  the  loniteenth  century. 
Silk  soon  after.  Vellum  in  tlie  fifteenth.  It  was 
stamped  and  ornamented  about  1510.  Leather  came 
in  use  about  the  latter  date.  Cloth  binding  super- 
seded the  conimon  paper-covered  mill-l  cards  about 
ISSl.  Caouti  hone  backs  to  account  and  otlier  heavy 
books  w-ere  introduced  in  1841.  The  loUing  machine 
of  William  Burr  (England)  was  substituted  lor  the 
beating-hammer  about  1830.     See  BiiuKBiNDiNG. 

2.  (Gildimj.)  A  package  of  gold-leaf,  consisting 
of  25  leaves,  each  3J  x  3  inches  sipiaie  ;  they  are 
inserted  between  leaves  of  soft  paper  inlibed  with 
red  chalk,  to  prevent  adherenee. 

Book-back  Round'er.  1.  (Boolbindiny.)  A 
machine  which  acts  as  a  substitute  for  the  ham- 
mer in  rounding  the  back  of  the  book  after  cutting 
the  edge  and  ends.  It  is  usually  performed  upon 
the  book  b<-fore  the  cover  is  put  on. 

In  one  form  of  machine,  the  book  is  run  lietween 
rollers,  being  pressed  forward  by  a  rounded  strip 
which  rests  against  the  front  edge  and  determines 
the  form  thereof 

In  another  form,  the  book  is  clamped  and  a  roller 
passed  over  the  back  under  great  pressure. 

Aiiotlier  form  of  machine  is  for  molding  the  back- 
covers  of  books  to  a  given  curvature,  by  pressing 
between  a  heated  cylinder  of  a  given  radius  and  a 
bed-jilate  whose  eurvature  corresponds  to  the  presser. 

Book-bind'er.  A  ccnitrivance  of  the  nature  of 
a  temporary  cover,  for  holding  together  a  bunch  of 
newspapers',  pani)dilets,  or  similar  articles.  There 
are  manv  forms  of  the  device. 

Book-bind'er's  Tools,  etc.  See  under  the  fol- 
lowing heads  :  — 


Album. 
AU-along 


-'\rming-]»ress. 
Backing-board. 


BOOKBIXDING. 


331 


BOOKBINDING. 


Back-tools. 

Band. 

Band-driver. 

Bead. 

Beveling-machine. 

Binding. 

Bleeding. 

Blind-blocking. 

Blind-tooling. 

Blonkiiig. 

Blocking-press. 

Board. 

Book  (gold-leaf). 

Book-back  rounder. 

Bookbinder. 

Book-clam]). 

Book-folding  machine. 

Book-sewing  machine. 

Boss. 

C;vse. 

Case-nork. 

Corner. 

Covering. 

Cre.iser. 

Cropped. 

Cutting-press. 

Dentelle. 

Edge-bolt. 

Edge-cutting. 

Edging. 

Embossing. 

Fillet. 

Finishing-press. 

Fle.xible  binding. 

Folding. 

Folding-machine. 

Fore-edge. 

Forel. 

Forwarding. 

Fouudation-platc. 

Full-bound. 

Gather. 

Gilding-tool. 

Glaire. 

Glueing-machine. 

Glueing-press: 

Gouge. 

Grater. 

Guards. 

Half-binding. 

Hand-letter. 

Head. 


Head-band. 

In-boanls. 

Inside-tin. 

Interleave. 

Joint. 

Kettle-stitch. 

Knocking. 

Lacing. 

Law-binding. 

La)'ing-on  tool. 

Lettering-box. 

Lettering-tool. 

Marble-edge. 

Marbling. 

Mill-boai'd. 

Mitered. 

Overcasting. 

Pallet. 

Panel. 

Pawl-press. 

Plow. 

Pocket-book. 

Point. 

Polishing-iron. 

Polishing-tin. 

Porte-monnaie. 

Portfolio. 

Press-keys. 

Roll. 

Rolling. 

Rolling-press. 

Rounding. 

Run-up. 

Scratcher-up. 

Screw-press. 

Sewing. 

Sewing-table. 

Shaving-tub. 

Signature. 

Slip. 

Square. 

Stabbing  nia(  hicie. 

Stamp. 

Stcamboating. 

Stitching. 

Stove,  Bookbiniler's 

Tip. 

Tooling. 

Tools. 

Turning-up. 

"Whipjiing. 


Book-bind'ing.  The  art  of  attaching  together 
and  covering  the  slieets  composing  a  book. 

The  earliest  known  forms  of  bookbiiuling,  if  the 
term  be  held  to  include  all  modes  of  attaching  sheets 
together,  is  perhaps  the  Egyjitian,  which  consisted 
in  pasting  or  glueing  the  sheets  together  and  rolling 
them  upon  small  cylinders.  Tlie  sheets  were  un- 
rolled from  one  cylinder,  and,  after  reading,  rolled 
upon  the  otlier.  The  copy  of  the  Pentateuch,  in  the 
possession  of  the  small  band  of  Samaritans  yet  living 
at  Xablous,  the  ancient  Gerizim,  is  thus  preserved. 
It  is  claimed  by  its  possessoi-s  to  have  been  written 
by  a  grandson  of  Aaron.  The  book  of  the  law  in 
all  synagogues  is  thus  mounted. 

Another  ancient  mode,  the  precursor  of  the  more 
modern  system,  is  found  in  the  mode  of  stringing 
leaves  together  by  several  cords  p.issing  through  holes 
near  one  edge.  This  is  practiced  in  India  with  pieces 
of  leaves  neatly  cut  to  a  size.     See  Paper.  ;    Pen'. 

The  present  plan  of  fastening  the  leaves  to  a  back 
and  sides  is  believed  to  have  been  invented  bv  At- 


talus,  of  Pergamus,  or  his  son  Eumenes,  about  200 
B.  c.  This  king,  or  somebody  for  him,  invented 
parchment,  hence  called  y>c/v7«/»CHrt,  from  Pergamus. 
It  was  devised  as  a  substitute  for  papyrus,  on  which 
an  embaigo  had  been  laid  by  Ptolemy  of  Egj'pt,  wlio 
thus  sought  to  embarrass  the  rival  library  in  Asia 
Minor. 

The  oldest  bound  book  known  is  the  volume  of 
St.  Cuthbert,  circa  tioO. 

Ivory  was  used  for  book  covers  in  the  eighth  cen- 
tury ;  oak  in  the  ninth.  The  "  Book  of  Evangelists," 
on  which  the  English  kings  took  their  coronation 
oath,  was  bound  in  oak  boards,  A.  p.  1100. 

Hog-skiu  and  leather  were  used  in  the  fifteenth 
century. 

Calf  In  1550. 

Silk  and  velvet  as  early  as  the  fifteenth  century. 

The  Countess  of  Wilton,  in  her  "  Art  of  Xeedle- 
■work,"  says  the  earliest  specimen  of  needlework- 
binding  remaining  in  the  British  JIuseum  is  Fichetus 
(Guil.)  Rhetoricuni,  I.ibri  tres  (Inipr.  in  Menibranis), 
4to,  Paris  ad  Sorbona;,  1471.  It  is  covered  with  crim- 
son satin,  on  which  is  wrought  with  the  needle  a 
coat  of  arms,  a  lion  rampant  in  gold  thread  in  a  blue 
held,  with  a  transverse  badge  in  scarlet  silk  ;  the 
minor  ornaments  are  all  wrought  in  fine  gold  thread. 

The  ne.xt  in  date  in  the  same  collection  is  a  de- 
scription of  the  Holy  Land,  in  French,  written  in 
Henry  VII. 's  time.  It  is  bound  in  rich  maroon  vel- 
vet, with  the  royal  arms,  the  garter,  ami  motto  em- 
broidered in  blue,  the  ground  crimson,  and  the 
(leurs-de-lis,  leopards,  and  letters  of  the  motto  in 
gold  thread.  A  coronet  of  gold  thread  is  inwrought 
with  pearls;  the  roses  at  the  corners  are  in  red  silk 
ami  gold.  In  the  Bodleian  Library  is  a  volume  of 
the  Epistles  of  St.  Paul  (black  letter),  the  bind- 
ing of  which  is  embroidered  by  Queen  Eli2abeth  ; 
around  the  bordei's  are  L»tin  sentejices,  etc.  Arch- 
bishop Parker's  ' '  De  Anti(iuitate  Britannica;  Eccle- 
si;e"  (1572),  in  the  British  JIuseum,  is  bound  ingreen 
velvet, embroidered  withanimalsand Howers, in  green, 
crimson,  lilac,  and  yellow- silk,  and  gold  tliread. 

A  folio  Bible  which  belonged  to  Charles  I.,  date 
1527,  is  now  preserved  in  the  church  of  Broomfiekl, 
Essex,  Englanil.  It  is  bound  in  pur[ile  \-eIvet,  the 
aims  of  England  embroidered  iu  raised  w  ork  on  both 
sides. 

A  will  of  1427  devises  several  psalters  in  velvet 
bindings. 

Cloth  binding  superseded  the  paper  known  in 
England  as  "boards"  in  1823. 

India-nibber  backs  were  introduced  in  1S41. 

Tortoise-shell  sides  in  ISoO. 

Three  fine  specimens  of  old  bookbinding  are  in 
the  collection  of  James  S.  Gnnnell,  of  Wa.shmgton, 
D.  C,  and  deserve  notice  as  being  representative  of 
different  styles. 

1.  A  manuscript  breviary  of  the  fouiteenth  cen- 
tury, elaborately  illuminated  on  parchment,  has  a 
brown  calfskin  cover  over  sideboards  of  beech,  the 
bands  being  of  calfskin  passed  through  boles  in  the 
boards  and  wedged.  The  cover  is  elaborately  blind- 
tooled,  that  is,  not  gilded,  but  worked  by  pressure 
and  heat.  The  designs  are  in  square  panels  of 
geometric  figures. 

The  book  is  bound  in  folded  signatures  of  five 
double  sheets,  making  twenty  ji.ages  to  a  signature, 
and  the  first  letter  on  each  of  these  parcels  is  wnitten 
at  the  bottom  of  the  previous  parcel  for  the  direction 
of  the  binder. 

The  book  had  bra.ss  clasps,  and  contains  the  "di- 
rine  office  "  for  the  year.  It  is  in  remarkable  preser- 
vation. 

2.  "  Catalogus   factorum   et  gestorum    eorum    et 


BOOKBINDING. 


332 


BOOK-FOLDING   MACHINE. 


diversis  voluminihus  collectus,"  editwl  by  "  the  most 
reverend  fatlier  -in  Christ,  Peti'o  de  Natalibus." 
Printed  in  1514. 

Bound  in  wliite  vellum,  elaboi-ately  embossed  with 
salient  figures  representing  Faitli,  Hope,  and  (i'liar- 
ity,  kit-cat  lengtli  in  panels  of  tlie  eover,  surrounded 
by  scrolls  and  leafage.  The  binding  has  the  date 
of  1595,  and  the  vellum  was  evidently  embossed  by 
bein_g  stamped  while  wet  with  dies  engraved  in  ■in- 
taglio. The  panel  borders  were  made  by  hand-tool 
fillets,  not  rolls.  The  figures  are  repeated  in  a  man- 
ner which  shows  that  the  impressions  are  repetitions 
of  the  same  stamp.  The  vellum  was  probably  laid 
upon  a  material  which  would  yield  somewhat  to 
pressure  and  then  retain  its  form.  The  vellum  was 
then  dried  in  position. 

3.  A  copy  of  John  Minsheu's  folio  dictionary 
"Ductor  in  Lingua.s,"  published  in  1617,  and  dedi- 
cated to  James  I.  It  was  formerly  in  the  library  of 
Charles  I.,  is  bound  in  buff  leather,  and  has  the 
arms  and  crown  on  both  sides  of  the  cover. 

Tile  biiuling  of  books  varies,  and  the  following 
names  occur  ;  — 

Fiill-bnund ;  back  and  sides  leather. 
H'llf-hou'iid;  back  leather,  sides  jiaper  or  cloth. 
Clulli :  back  and  sides  covered  with  a  colored  fab- 
ric, usually  embossed. 
Micdiii ;  same  as  above. 

Boards ;  an  English  term.  The'  covers  were  of 
mill-board.  They  were  afterwards  covered  with  pa- 
j)er. 

Other  modes  are  known  by  the  kind  of  leather 
with  wliich  tliey  or  their  backs  are  full  or  ha// 
bound  ;  as,  Russia,  morocco,  roan,  calf,  sheep,  vel- 
lum, etc. 

In  one  form  of  caoutchouc  binding,  the  sheets  are 
folded  in   doulile    leaves,    clamped,    treated   on   the, 
back  with  sevei-al  coats  of  caoutchouc  in  solution. 
The  processes  of  bookbinding  are  about  as  follows  : 
Foldiiifj  the  sheets. 

Gatlieriiii/  the  consecutive  signatures. 
ItoUinfj  the  jiacks  of  folded  sheets. 
Sciviini,  after  saw-cutting  the  backs  for  the  cords. 
Maundiiip  the  backs  and  glueing  them. 
Hdc/e-ciUtiny. 

BinditKj ;  securing  the  book  to  the  sides. 
Cuvcriwj  the  sides  and  back  with  leather,  muslin, 
or  paper,  as  the  case  may  be. 
Toolinii  and  lMeri)ig. 
Edge-iiildinq. 

The  British  Museum  Catalogue  is  a  library  of  fo- 
lios in  itself.  Every  volume  is  stoutly  bound  in 
soliil  blue  calf,  with  its  lower  edges  faced  with  zinc, 
to  save  wear  anil  tear  from  the  violent  shoving  in  of 
the  volumes  to  their  places. 

The  museum  at  Cassel,  in  Germany,  has  a  collec- 
tion illustrating  European  and  other" trees.  It  is  in 
the  form  of  a  library,  in  which  the  back  of  each  vol- 
ume is  furnished  by  the  bark  of  some  ]iarticular 
tree,  the  sides  are  made  of  perfect  wood,  tlie  top  of 
young  wood,  and  the  bottom  of  old,  'NA'hen  opened, 
the  book  is  found  to  be  a  box,  containing  either  wax 
models  or  actual  specimens  of  the  flower,  fruits,  and 
leaves  of  the  tree. 

At  a  sale  of  rare  books  and  maniiscrijits  in  Paiis 
recently,  theri;  was  disposed  of  a  fourteenth  century, 
ilbnninated,  Gothic  edition  of  the  Bible,  with  ,gol(l 
clasp.s,  set  with  turquoises  and  bound  in  Iniman  skin. 
A  copy  of  the  "  Imitation  of  t'lirist,"  now  in  tlie 
Carmelite  library  at  Paris,  is  similarly  covered.  The 
human  skin  is  said  to  preserve  its  brilliant  whiteness 
forever,  while  all  other  parchments  will  turn  yellow. 
It  possesses,  besides,  the  advantage  of  being  easily 
embossed,   the  Bible  in  question  being    beautifully 


ornamented  with  flcurs  dc  lys,  scepters,  etc.  On 
the  other  hand,  it  absorbs  ink  so  freely  that  it  is  im- 
possible to  write  upon  it.  The  character  of  tlie  .skin 
is  determined  by 

the      microscope.  fig-  791. 

The  human  skin  ^n 
and  its  hair  are 
readily  distin- 
guished from 
those  of  other 
animals. 
Book-clamp. 

(Boukbi II  di ng .) 
a.  A  vise  ior 
holding  a  book 
while  being 
worked.  Adjust- 
ment is  made  by 
the  nuts  for  the 
thickness  of  the 
book,  and  the 
pressure  is  given 
by  the  lever  and 
eccentric. 

b.  A  holder  for 
school-books 
while  carrying 
them.  The  cords 
jiass  through  the 
upper  bar  A  and 
down  to  the  lower 
rotation  of  the  lianiU 


Book-  Clamp. 


bar  ;  they  are  tightened  by  the 


Fig.  792. 


Srlwo!-Book  Clamp. 

Book-edge  Lock.  A  lock  whereby  the  closed 
sides  (if  tile  buok-i'over  are  locked  shut. 

Book-fold'iug  Ma-chine'.  A  machine  for 
folding  sheets  I'm-  giilhriiiig,  sewing,  and  bindin,g. 

Chambers's  book-folding  machines  are  made  of 
various  sizes,  adapti'd  to  fold  sheets  to  various  di- 
mensions from  folio  ilownward. 

They  are  also  adapted  for  folding  two  separate 
sheets  together,  pasting  the  separate  pages  at  the 
back  ;  or  for  cutting  sheets  into  a  number  of  pieces 
and  folding  them  separately.  Insets  also  nuiy  be 
cut  ofl"  and  set  in  as  by  h.and. 

Fig.  793  will  give  an  idea  of  the  folding  process 
on  a  simple  machine. 

The  o]ierator  transfers  a  .sheet  to  the  table  A, 
which  has  a  transverse  slit  across  its  middle.  The 
revolution  of  the  pulleys  operates  a  rock -shaft  B,  car- 
i-ying  a  curved  arm  with  a  folder  V  at  its  extremity, 
which  presses  the  sheet  down  through  the  slit  in  the 
table,  where  it  passes  between  rollers,  which  double 
it  iind  deliver  it  into  a  receptacle  D,  at  the  end  of 
the  machine. 

To  fold  an  octavo,  the  once  folded  sheet  is  again 
presented  to  a  folding  ed,ge,  when  it  is  carried  to  a  sec- 
ond set  of  rollers,  wliieh  squeeze  it  Hat,  and  it  is  thence 
led  to  a  trough,  where  the  folded  sheets  are  collected. 


BOOK-HOLDER. 


33?, 


BOOMERANG. 


Fig.  793. 


Chambers's  Book-Folder. 

Book-hold'er.  A  readiiig-desk  top,  or  equiva- 
lent ilevice,  for  holding  an  open  book  in  reading 
position. 

Book'ing.  (AfjricuUure.)  The  arrangement  of 
tobacco-leaves  in  symmetrical  piles,  the  stems  in  one 
direction,  leaf\\\mn  leaf,  forming  a  booh. 

Book-sewr'mg  Ma-chine'.  The  ft*eder  is  com- 
posed of  two  plates  C  C",  inclined  each  toward  the 
other,  and  almost  touching  at  their  outer  ends. 
AVhen  the  feeder  is  in  tlie  position  shown  in  the  fig- 
ure, a  folded  "signature"  is  placed  over  it,  the  feeder 
is  brought  to  a  horizontal  position,  and  then  a  hori- 
zontal plate  moves  Ibrward  between  tlie  plates  of  the 
feeder,  and  carries  the  signature  to  the  points  of  the 
hooked  needles  A"  N",  which  are  then  driven  through 
the  saw-kerfs  in  the  back  of  the  signature,  and  in  tliis 
position  a  thread-carrier  lays  its  thread  in  the  hooks 
of  the  needles,  and  when  the  needles  are  carried 
back,  they  draw  a  loop  of  such  thread  through  the 
back  of  the  signature.  When  the  needles  pass  into 
another  signature,  they  draw  the  thread  then  laid 
within  their  hooks  through  the  loops  last  formed 


Jig.  794 


Qaai-a>  [ 


*:#C 


Book-Sexving  Machine. 

and  yet  on  their  shanks,  and  so  enchain  the  thread 
along  the  backs  of  and  secure  the  signatures  together. 
The  feeder  vibrates  alternately  from  a  vertical  to  a 


horizontal  position  ;  in  the  former  receiving 
the  signature  which  straddles  it,  and  in  the 
latter  forming  guides  for  the  horizontal  plate 
which  pushes  the  signature  of  the  feeder  up 
to  the  place  where  it  is  sewn. 

Book-mus'lin.  (Fabric. )  A  fine,  trans- 
parent gooils,  like  a  iSwiss  muslin.  It  comes 
lolded  in  hoiik  form.      Sei'  BvKE-MUSLiK. 

Book-per-fect'ing  Press.  (Frintivg.) 
One  which  prints  both  sides  oi  a  sheet  with- 
out intermediate  manipulation.  Someact  up- 
on the  respective  sides  in  immediate  succes- 
sion, others  have  automatic  feed  between 
impressions.  Such  are  the  Fcrd,  Bullock, 
Waller,  and  other  ])rinting-presses  of  the 
highest  character  and  efficiency. 

Bool-'work.  See  Buhl-work.  See  also 
Rei.snei;-\viii:k. 

Boom.  1.  (Nantical.)  a.  A  spar  for  ex- 
tending the  foot  oi  &  fore-and-aft  sail. 

The  boom   on  which  a  fore-and-aft  sail  is 

stretched  is    commonly  provided  with  jaws 

which   partially   encircle   the  mast,   and  are 

held  to  it  by  a  half-grommet  Strang  with  balls 

of  hard  wood  to  avoid  friction. 

b.  A  spar  rigged  out  from  a  yard  to  extend  the 
foot  of  a  studding-sail.  The  foo-e  and  vuiin  loicer 
yards,  and  the /ore  and  WiCiin  topsail  yards  have  stud- 
ding-sail  booms.  Each  is  secured  by  bocm-iroiis  on 
its  yard,  and  is  named  from  the  studding-sail  whose 
foot  it  stretches. 

The  heads  of  the  studding-sails  are  bent  to  stud- 
ding-sail yards  which  are  slung  from  the  studding- 
sail  booms  ami  the  fore  and  main  top-gallant  yard- 
arms.     The  stays  of  these  booms  are  caHed  giti/s. 

The  ring-tail  boom  is  ligged  out  like-  a  studding- 
sail  boom  at  the  end  of  the  spayikcr-hoom. 

c.  Tlie  booms  ;  the  space  on  the  spar-deck  between 
the  fore  and  main  masts,  where  the  boats  and  spare 
spars  are  stowed. 

2.  {Marine  Fortification.)  A  chain  or  line  of  con- 
nected spars  stretched  across  a  river  or  channel  to 
obstruct  navigation,  or  detain  a  vessel  under  the  fire 
of  a  Ibrt. 

3.  {Lumbering. )     A  spar  or  line  of  floating  timbers 
stretched  across  a  river,  or  inclojing  an  area  of  wa- 
ter, to  keep  .saw-logs  fiom  floating 
down  the  stream. 

Bocm'e-rang.  A niis.sile  formed 
of  a  lient  stick  with  a  rounded 
and  a  Hat  side,  and  used  by  the  Aus- 
tralian natives. 

Anjong  the  various  throwing- 
stieksof  savage  nations,  this  weap- 
on of  the  Australians  has  caused 
most  curiosity,  fromthe  apparently 
erratic  character  of  its  flight.  It 
is  a  curved  stick,  round  on  one 
side  and  flat  on  the  other,  about 
3  feet  long,  2  inches  wide,  and 
j  inch  thick.  It  is  gra.sped  at 
one  end  and  thrown  sickle-wise, 
either  upward  into  the  air,  or 
downward  so  as  to  strike  the 
ground  at  some  distance  from  the 
thrower.  In  tlie  first  case  it  flies 
with  a  rotatory  motion,  as  its  shape 
would  indicate,  and  after  ascend- 
ing to  a  great  hight  in  the  air,  it 
suddenly  returns  in  an  elliptical 
orbit  to  a  spot  near  its  staiting- 
point.  On  throwing  it  downward  to  the  groun(!,  it 
rebounds  in  a  straight  line,  pursuing  a  ricochet  mo- 
tion until  it  strikes  the  object  at  which  it  is  thrown. 


BOOM-IRON. 


334 


BOOT. 


Tlie  most  .singular  curve  described  by  it  is  wlieii 
itis  projected  uinvavd  at  an  aii{;le  about  45°,  when  its 
ilislit  is  always  backward,  and  tile  native  who  throws 
it  stands  with  his  back  to  the  object  lie  intends  to  hit. 
Theancient  Egyptians  used  curved  throwing-sticks ; 
but  their  shape  was  not  like  the  one  above  described, 
nor  their  tli<,'ht  anything  very  peculiar. 

The  Esipuniau.K  and  sonu'  Hrazilian  tribes  use 
throwing-sticks.  The  I'nrujiunis  have  the  palheta,  a 
missile  of  a  similar  kind. 

The  troiiibiish  is  a  throwing-stick  used  by  some  of 
the  interior  tribes  of  Africa. 

Another  form  of  mi.ssile  is  the  bol((^  of  the  Patago- 
nians.     .See  Bi)L.\s. 

The  boomerang  of  tlie  Moqui  Indians,  of  Sonora,  is 
a  flat  |>ointed  stick,  with  a  small  ornament  like  an 
acorn  at  the  handle  end. 

Boom-i'ron.  (Nautical.)  A  flat  iron  ring  on 
the  yard,  through  which  tlie 
studding-sail  boom  travels 
when  being  rigged  out  or  in. 
One  boom-iron,  called  the 
yard-arm  iron  (b  h),  is  li.xed 
at  the  end  of  the  yard,  and 
anotheriron,  called  the  quar- 
ter-iron (h),  is  placed  at  -]% 
of  the  length  of  the  yard 
from  the  outer  end. 

The  quarter  -  iron  has  a 
clasp  r  /l  n,  wdiich  embi'aces 
the  yard,  and  a  clasp  s  p, 
which  holds  the  heel  of  tlie 
studding-sail  boom,  d  is 
the  stop  of  the  yard,  and  to 
it  is  secured  the  check-block 
e  for  the  shcrfs. 

Boom-jig'ger.  {JVauti- 
cnl.)  \  tackle  for  rigging 
out  or  ruiiuiiig  in  a  topmast 
studding-sail  boom. 

Boom'kin.     (Nautical.) 
A  ])rojecting  spar  at  the  bow 
of  a  ship,  for  hauling  ont  the 
weatlier-tack  in  sailing  near  the  wind.     Bumkin. 

A  fore-boom,  or  bentick-boom,  is  sometimes  used 
for  spreading  the  foot  of  the  fore-sail. 

Booms.  (Nanlinal.)  A  space  amidships  on  the 
spar-deck,  lictween  the  fore  and  main  mists,  where 
the  launch  or  other  large  boat  and  spars  are  stowed. 
Boon.  The  internal  woody  portion  or  pith  of  tlax, 
which  is  disorganized  by  rettiiit,  the  binding  muci- 
lage being  softened  by  fermentation.  The  boon  is  par- 
tially removed  in  iinis^infi,  andtogetherwiththesAu-cs 
is  completely  eliminated  from  the  hare  or  fiber  in  the 
subsei[Ueut  operations  of  brakinq  and  scutching. 

Boot.     1.   {Leather.)      A  covering   for   the   foot 
and  loiver  part  of  the  leg,  made  ordinarily  of  leather. 
The  various  parts  are  designated  in  the  illustration. 
In  the  elevation  A  (Fig.  791)),  — 


Boom-Iron. 


a  is  the  front. 

b  the  side-seam. 

c  the  back. 

d  the  strap. 

e  the  instep. 

/the  vamp  or  front. 

g  the  quarter  or  counter. 

h  the  rand. 


i  the  heel  ;  the  front  is 
the  breast,  the  bottom 
the/«cc. 

.;  the  lifts  of  the  heel. 

k  the  shank. 

I  the  loelt. 

in  the  sole. 

n  the  toe. 

0  the  ball  of  the  sole. 


In  JS,  (same  figure),  — 
a  is  the  upper.  c  the  outsole. 

b  the  insole.  d  the  welt. 

c  the  stitching  of  the  sole  to  the  tvclt. 
f  the  stitching  of  the  upper  to  the  tvclt. 


r)  the  channeling,  or  the 
depression  for  the  liights 
of  the  stitches. 

Hesiod  (1000  E.  c.) 
mentions  o.x-hide  boots 
and  woolen  socks  as  part 
of  the  winter  etpiipment 
of  a  plowman,  lint  rec- 
omniends  that  the  plow- 
man go  naked  in  summer. 
The  modern  Syrian  boots 
are  of  leather,  and  have 
an  e.\tra  thickness  sewed 
on  below  to  answer  for  a 
.sole  ;  but  they  do  not  ap- 
pear to  have  a  fiat,  strong 
sole  like  our  own,  and  we 
should  consider  them 
very  .slovenly  and  uncom- 
fortable. 

The  boot  was  worn  as 
armor  at  a  very  early 
period ;    being   made   of 


Boot. 

leather  with  plates  or  greaves  of  metal  to  gnard  the 
front. 

Moses  says  of  .\sher,  "  Thy  shoes  shall  he  iron  and 
brass."     1451  B.  c. 

Homer,  in  his  "Iliad,"  speaks  of  the  brazen-booted 
Greeks. 

In  the  Abbott  Collection,  New  York,  may  be  seen 
ancient  Egyptian  boots  and  shoes,  of  purple  and  red 
leather,  and  of  white  kid.  Sandals  were  the  com- 
mon wear,  and  were  made  of  leather,  raw-hide,  date- 
lenves,  and  jiapyrus.  In  the  same  collection  is  the 
mummied  foot  of  a  lady  with  the  white  kid  gaiter 
boot  yet  remaining  u]ion  it.  The  foot  is  small  and 
finely  arched,  resembling  the  true  Arabian  type. 
The  boot  is  so  fragile  that  it  will  not  bear  handling. 
The  upper  appears  to  be  sewed  to  a  sole,  but  does 
not  show  any  heel.     It  is  from  Sakkarah. 

The  Median  and  Roman  boots  were  laced  up  in 
front.  See  Cothurnus,  in  Smith's  "Dictionary  of 
Greek  and  Roman  Antiquities." 

The  boot  was  called  ocrea.  by  the  Romans.  The 
calceus  was  a  shoe,  and  the  solca  a  sandal.  The  shoes 
of  the  Roman  senators  came  up  to  the  middle  of  the 
leg,  and  were  generally  black.  On  ceremonial  occa- 
sions the  Roman  magistrates  wore  7'cd  shoes.  Red  and 
pui])le  were  regal,  and  red  is  yet  a  cardinal  color. 

The  Etruscan  augurs  wore  jack-boots. 

The  Lamas  of  Tartary  wear  red  boots  and  yellow 
cloaks.  They  leave  their  boots  in  tlie  vestibules  of 
the  temples.  So  do  the  Turks.  The  latter  brought 
the  practice  from  Central  Asia. 


BOOT-CALK. 


33.: 


BOOT-EDGE  TR]J[MER. 


"There  bought  a  pair  of  boots  ;  cost  me  30s." 
—  Pepys,  1662. 

The  boot  and  shoe  making  business,  more  particu- 
larly since  the  introduction  of  pegs,  whicJi  arc  said 
to  have  been  invented  by  Joseph  Walker,  of  Hoji- 
kintou,  Ma-ss.,  about  the  year  1818,  has  become  a 
very  extensive  and  important  branch  of  manufacture, 
machinery  being  employed  in  nearly  all  the  opera- 
tions connected  with  the  business.  The  first  appli- 
cation of  machinery  in  shoemaking  is  due  to  the  cel- 
ebrated Brunei,  who  devised  a  series  of  machines, 
which  were  operated  by  invalid  soldiei-s  belonging  to 
Chelsea  Hospital.  The  shoe  passed  through  a  num- 
berof  hands  before  beingfinished  ;  the  operation  which 
each  man  had  to  perfonn  was  so  simple  that  it  is  said 
that  the  manipulation  could  be  learned  in  half  an 
hour.  The  sole  was  secured  to  the  upiier  by  nails. 
These  machines,  being  employed  solely  for  tlie  manu- 
facture of  army  shoes,  appear  to  have  fallen  into  dis- 
use at  the  close  of  the  war,  and  were  never  intro- 
duced into  private  establishments,  the  style  of  work 
probably  not  being  suited  to  the  demands  of  the 
public. 

A  long-legged  boot  made  in  Worcester,  Mass., 
for  the  Pennsylvania  coal-mines,  is  the  most  dur- 
able piece  of  furniture  ever  constructed  of  leather 
and  iron.  The  soles  are  about  three  ijuartei-s  of 
an  inch  thick,  projecting  like  the  guards  of  a  Mis- 
sissippi steamer.  The  heel  also  projects  nearly  a 
quarter  of  an  inch,  fomiing  quite  a  shell  near  the 
counter,  and  flared  at  the  bottom.  Nails  w'ith  a 
flat  top,  a  size  smaller  than  a  three-cent  piece,  are 
driven  as  closely  as  they  can  be  set  all  over  the  sole, 
shank,  and  heel,  fonning  as  it  were  a  solid  iron  bot- 
tom. The  boots  weigh  6i  pounds,  the  nails  contrib- 
uting, lA  pounds  to  the  weight.  Long  nails  of 
Swedish  iron  are  driven  through  the  heel  and  .shank, 
clinching  on  the  inner  sole  ;  three  to  the  heel  and 
six  to  the  shank.  The  sides  are  closed  by  hand  with 
a  six-stranded  thread  that  will  hold  100  pounds 
weight. 

2.  {Carrwgc.)  The  receptacle  for  baggage,  etc., 
at  either  end  of  a  coach. 

3.  [Mcnaf/c.)  Protection  for  the  feet  of  horses, 
enveloping  the  foot  and  a  part  of  the  leg.  A  con- 
venient substitute  for  swaddling  or  bandaging. 
Patented  in  England  by  Rotch,  ISIO. 

They  are  used  on  the  feet  of  horses  while  standing 
in  a  stable,  to  keep  the  feet  moist  and  prevent  crack- 
ing or  contraction  of  tlie  hoofs.  They  may  be  lined 
with  sponge,  which  is  kept  damp.  The  boot  has  an 
upper  and  sole,  and  is  shaped  to  the  foot  .nearl}'. 
The  upper  part  has  a  draw-string. 

They  are  also  used  for  various  affections  of  the 
legs  and  feet,  such  as  varicose  veins,  splint,  speedy- 
cut,  strain.  In  such  cases  the}'  are  made  to  fit  more 
closely. 

Boot-calk.     A  spur  for  the  boot-sole  to  prevent 
the    wearer     from 
Fig.  797.  slipping  on  ice. 

Boot-chan'nel- 

ing    Ma-chine'. 

Oneformaking  the 

slit  in  a  sole  to  sink 

the  sewing-thread 

below  the  surface. 

It    consists    of   a 

jack  on  which  the 

boot    is   held,    an 

inclined     knife 

gaged  to  depth,  and  a  guide  which  causes  the  knife 

to  make  its  incision  at  an  equal  distance  from  the 

sole-edge  all  round. 

Boot-clamp.    A  device  for  holding  a  boot  while  , 


Boot- Calk. 


being  sewed.  It  consists  of  a  pair  of  jaws,  between 
whose  edge  the  leather  is  gri2)i)ed,  and  which  are 
locked  together  by  a  cam,  or  by  a  cord  which  leads 
to  a  treaiUe. 

Boot-crimp.  (Bont-mnl-inrf.  ]  A  tool  or  a  ma- 
chine for  giving  the  shape  to  the  pieces  of  leather 
designed  for  boot  uppers.  Formerly  the  leather 
made  a  series  of  folds  or  crimps  over  the  insteji,  and 
hence  may  have  originated  the  name.  The  leather 
for  uppers  is  now  crimped  by  softening,  straining 
over  a  former,  and  rnbljing  down  the  parts  wl-.ere 
the  leather  is  thickened  by  the  operation  ;  that  is, 
the  parts  which  would  be  crimped  or  rugged,  were  the 
mate'ial  not  com- 
pacted at  that  Fig 
point. 

In  the  illustra- 
tion, the  edges  of 
the     leather     are 
tacked    over    the 
pieces  C  B,  which 
are  then  extended 
outwardly      from 
the  block  j4  by  means  of  the  set 
screws,  which  are  threaded  into 
sockets  in  the  movable  blocks, 
and  bear  by  tlii-ir  inner   ends 
in  pockets  on  the  edge  of  the 
block  J. 

Boot-criinp'ing  Ma- 
chine'. {Boot-)iwki)ig.)  A  ma- 
chine in  which  the  crimping  is 
performed  in  succession  upon  a 
number  of  leather  pieces  cut  to 
a  jiattern. 

The  boot-trees  C  are  attached  to  a  central  shaft, 
which  carries  them  around  in  contact  with  the  ad- 
Fig  799. 


i#°0 


Boot-  Crimp. 


-3 — J— a 3 — a — 3 — 3- 

Boot'  Crimping  Machine. 

justable  ribs  D  D,  which  are  so  bent  as  to  crimp  t-ne 
leather  upon  the  trees. 

Boot-edge  Trim'mer.  A  machine  which  acts  in 
connection  with  a  guide  to  pare  smoothly  the  edges 
of  boot-soles.  It  is  a  machine-substitute  for  the 
edge-plane. 

In  the  machine  (Fig.  800\  vertical,  endwise, 
and  rotary  movements  are  imparted  to  the  jack  in 
which  the  shoe  s  is  clamped.  The  gage  y  nins  be- 
tween the  sole  and  upper  leather  of  the  shoe,  .and 
prevents  the  paring-knife  from  cutting  into  the  up- 
per leather.     The  cutter-head  N  rests  UDon  the  pe- 


BOOTEE. 


336 


BOOT-MAKING   MACHINE. 


e^ 


Boot-EJge  Trimming  Machine. 

riphery  of  the  jmttoni  x,  which  governs  the  depth  of 
cut. 

Boot'ee.  iFuhn'i:)  A  white,  spotted  Daccannislin. 

Boot-groov'ing  Ma-chine'.     One  for  making 

the  groove  in  a  shoe-sok'  to  sinli  the  sewing-threads 

below  the  surr:ie(\      A  cJuiiDicUng-mnchinc. 

Boot-lieel  Cut'ter,    A  machine  for  cutting  the 

lifts   for    making 
Fig- 801.  boot-heels.    In  the 

example  the  cut- 
ters are  various  in 
size,  and  are  hinged 
to  the  frame,  so 
I  that  they  can  be 

Lf^     f  I — — ■ ^  let  down  over  each 

other.  The  heel- 
lifts  are  cut  to 
graduated  size,  and 
merely  reijuire  bev- 
eling after  attach- 
ment. The  leather 
is  i)laced  on  the  cutters,  and  forced  down  by  blows 
of  a  wooden  mallet. 

Boot-hold'er.     A  jack  for  holding  a  boot  either 
in  the  process  of  manufacture  or  for  cleaning.     The 


'0.. 


W 


b 


Boot- Heel  Cutler. 


Boot- Holder. 

base-piece  is  attached  to  a  bench,  and  has  a  station- 
ary prong.  The  movable  prong,  containing  the  foot- 
piece,  is  attached  to  the  other,  and  is  held  at  its  ad- 
justnu^nt  by  a  curved  rack  and  pawl. 

Boot-hook.  A  device  for  drawing  on  boots  and 
shoes,  consisting  essentially  of  a  stout  wire  bent  into 
a  hooked  form  and  provided  with  a  handle. 


Boot-jack.  A  board  with  a  crotch 
to  \ri,\iu  tli(f  heel  of  a  boot  while  it  is 
being  pulled  off. 

15oot-jai-ks  aie  made  jointed,  so  as  to 
fold  into  compact  form.  Recesses  are 
made  in  tliem  to  liold  a  small  brush  and 
a  minute  box  of  !>lacking.  Cases  are 
made  to  contain  all  three,  being  nattily 
arranged  to  suit  the  fastidious. 

A  boot-rack  is  merely  a  frame  to  hold 
boots,  and  would  not  be  here  cited  b>it 
that  several  patents  have  been  granted 
for  special  contiivances  in  that  line. 

Boot-mak'ing  Ma-chine'.  Screws 
have  been  employed  in  France  since  1844 
for  securing  soles  to  slmes. 

Machines  for  making  boots  are  adapted 
for  specific  parts  of  the  operation  ;  such 
a-s  Iwcl-niachines,  which  include  cutters, 
randiiig,  Itecl-cutliiig,  heel-trimming,  and 
heel-burnishing  machines. 

Upper-maehiiics :  which  include  crimp- 
imj,  turning,  seam-rolling,  and  trimming 
machines. 

Sole-machines  ;  which  include  cutting, 
duinncling,  burnishing,  and  pcggincj  machines. 

Lasting-machinrs :  tor  drawing  the  ujipcr  portion 
of  the  boot  tirndy  on  to  the  last. 

Pegging-machines  ;  pcgging-jaeks  for  holding  boots 
while  being  pegged. 

Crimping-muchines ;  for  stretching  and  pressing 
into  shape  leather  for  uppers. 

Besidesthese  there  are  numerous  hand-tools,  such  as 
burnishers,  edge-plnncs,  and  shaves,  }wgging-awls,  etc. 
See  list  under  LK.vriiKR. 

In  one  arrangement  of  screw-wire  boot-making 
machinery  is  the  following  seiies  :  — 

The  li-ather  is  cut  into  shajie  by  means  of  tools  re- 
sembling punches.  The  thicknesses  which  are  to 
form  the  soles  are  iniited  with  glue,  and  comjiressed 
previously  to  being  cut.  They  receive  then  tlie 
necessary  concavity  by  poweiful  hydraulic  pressure, 
ami  their  surfaces  are  smoothed  and  hardened  in 
still  another  machine.  Sewing-machines  form  all 
the  necessary  seams,  liinding,  and,  if  necessary,  or- 
namental stitching  of  the  upper  leathers;  and  then 
tile  separate  jiarts  are  brought  together  in  the  ma- 
chine which  is  to  comiilete  the  shoe  by  uniting  the 
upper  leather  and  the  sole. 

First  there  is  ]ilaced  upon  the  form  or  last  in  this 
machine  the  inner  sole.  The  upper  leather  is  then 
stretched  over  this  by  means  of  small  nippers  at- 
tached to  the  machine,  wluch  are  capable  of  stretch- 
ing it  with  considerable  force.  It  is  secured  in 
place  by  a  row  of  small  nails.  The  outer  sole  is  then 
carefully  applied  over  the  whole.  As  this  has  been 
entirely  finished  and  polished  on  the  edges  in  the 
|irevious  process  of  ]>repaiatiou,  it  is  important  that 
it  be  truly  adjusted,  since  it  cannot  be  afterwards 
trinuned.  The  machine  then  applies  to  the  two  soles, 
with  theupper  leather  included  between  them,  a  force 
of  jiressure  of  not  less  than  700  pounds,  increased,  if 
desired,  to  one  ton.  Screws  are  then  inserted  all 
round  the  nuxrgin  of  the  sole,  an  operation  completed 
in  less  than  three  minutes  for  a  single  slioe,  or  in 
five  minutes  for  a  pair.  The  salient  extremities  of 
the  screws  are  cut  by  a  chisel,  and  the  burr  left  by 
the  clusel  is  ground  away  on  an  emei-y-wheel.  Tlie 
last  on  which  the  .shoe  is  constructed,  being  made  of 
iron,  prevents  the  interior  extremities  from  passing 
the  surface  of  the  innei'  sole. 

The  niachiin's  not  only  apply,  but  make  the  screw. 
The  material  is  lirass,  which  is  drawn  oil'  from  a  bob- 
bin in  the  machine  as  it  is  rciiuired.     The  extremity 


BOOT-PATTERN. 


337 


BORE. 


passes  horizontally  through  a  guide,  and,  in  order  to 
out  the  thread  of  the  serew,  tile  whole  bobbin  re- 
volves. In  hand-machines  a  erank  serves  to.give  the 
revolution  ;  but  the  driving  power  may  be  taken 
from  a  motor.  When  the  resistance  shows  that  the 
screw  has  struck  the  iron  last,  a  cutter  is  brought  into 
action  by  the  foot  of  the  operator  pressingupon  a  pedal, 
and  the  wire  is  cut  as  near  as  possible  to  the  leather. 
Boot-pat'tern.  A  templet  made  up  of  jilates 
which  have  an  adjust- 


Fig.  803. 


Boot-Pattern. 


ment  on  one  another,  so 
as  to  be  expancledorcon- 
tracted  to  any  given  di- 
mensions within  the 
usual  limits  of  boot 
sizes.  Used  in  mark- 
ing out  shapes  and  sizes 
on  leather  ready  for  the 
cutter. 

Boot-seam  Rub'- 
ber.  -V  biunishing- 
tool  for  flattening  down 
the  seam  where  the 
thicknesses  of  leather 
are  sewed  together.  This 
is  usually  a  hand-tool, 
bnt  sometimes  is  a  ma- 
chine in  which  a  boot- 
leg, for  inst;ince,  is  held 
on  a  jack  while  the  rub- 
ber, either  a  roller  or  a 


burnisher,  is  reciprocated  upon  the  seam. 

Boot-shank  Ma-chine'.  A  tool  for  drawing 
the  leather  of  the  upper  or  boot-leg  over  the  last 
into  the  hollow  of  the  shank.  In  the  example,  the 
leather,  being  placed  over  the  last,  is  inserted  between 
tlie  jaws  which  are  pivoted  to  the  plate.  The  screw 
connecting  with  the  jaws  by  arms  is  then  turned,  and 
causes  the  jaws  to  be  brought  together,  thus  stretch- 
ing the  leather. 


Pig.  804. 


Fig  S05. 


Boot-Shank  Machine. 


Boot-Stretcfier. 


Boot-stretoh'er.  (Lm/her.)  A  device  for 
stretching  the  uppers  of  boots  and  shoes.  The  com- 
mon form  is  a  two-part  la.st,  divideil  horizontally  and 
having  a  wedge  or  a  wedge  and  screw  to  expand'them 
after  insertion  in  the  boot. 

In  the  example  the  last  is  divided  into  an  upper 
and  under  section  which  are  connected  by  a  lever. 
The  fore  end  of  the  upper  section  is  pivoted  to  the 
fore  end  of  the  lever,  and  the  middle  end  of  the  lev- 
er is  fulcrumed  at  the  mid-length  of  the  lower  sec- 
tion. The  screws  operate  to  raise  the  rear  end  of 
the  upper  section  immediately,  and  its  fore  end 
through  the  medium  of  the  lever.  The  upjier  sur- 
face of  the  last  has  changeable  knobs  to  stretch  the 
leather  in  particular  places. 

There  are  many  kinds  for  special  uses. 
22 


Boot-top'ping.  (Nautical.)  The  operation  of 
scraping  otf  grass,  barnacles,  etc.,  from  a  vessel's 
bottom,  and  coating  it  with  a  mixture  of  tallow,  sul- 
phur, and  rosin. 

Boot-tree.  An  instrument  comjiosed  of  two 
wooden  blocks,  constituting  a  front  and  a  rear  por- 
tion, which  together  form  tlie  shajie  of  the  leg  and 
foot,  and  which  are  driven  apart  by  a  wedge  introduced 

Fig.  806. 


Boot-Tree. 

between  them  to  stretch  the  boot.  The  foot-piece 
is  sometimes  detachable.  In  the  illustration  the 
tree  is  showai  moimted  on  a  trestle,  the  center  wedge 
being  driven  liy  the  motion  of  a  treadle. 

Boot-ven'ti-la'tor.  A  device  in  a  boot  or  shoe 
for  allowing  air  to  pass  outwardly  from  the  boot  so 
as  to  air  the  foot.  It  usually  consists  of  a  perforated 
interior  thickness,  a  space  between  this  and  the  out- 
er portion,  and  a  dischai'ge  for  the  air,  through  some 
part  of  the  said  outer  portion  above  the  water-line. 

Bo'quin.     (Fabric.)     A  coarse  Spanish  baize. 

Bord.  (Mining.)  A  lateral  passage  where  a  shaft 
intersects  a  seam  of  coal. 

Bor'der.  1.  (MiUinq.)  The  hoop,  rim,  or  curb 
around  a  bedstone  or  bedplate,  to  keep  the  meal  from 
falling  oH'  except  at  the  jirescribed  gap.  Used  in  gun- 
powder mills  and  some  forms  of  grain-grinding  mills. 

2.  (Printing.)  a.  A  type  with  an  ornamental 
face,  suitable  for  forming  a  part  of  a  fancy  border. 

b.  Ornamental  work  surrounding  the  text  of  a  page. 

3.  (Lncksmititing.)     The  rim  of  a  lock. 

4.  (Fabric.)  That  part  of  cloth  containing  the 
selvage. 

Bor'der-pile.  (Hydraulic  Engineeriiig.)  An  ex- 
terior )iile  of  a  coffer-dam,  etc. 

Bor'der-plane.     A  joiner's  edging-plane. 

Bor'ders.  (Fabric.)  A  class  of  narrow  textile 
fabrics  ilesigned  lor  edgings  and  bindings  ;  such  as 
galloons  and  laces. 

Bor'der-stone.  The  curbstone  of  a  well  or  pave- 
ment. 

Bore.  1.  (Metal-vork-ing.)  A  tool  bored  to  fit 
the  shank  of  a  forged  nail,  ami  adapted  to  hold  it 
while  the  head  is  lirought  to  shape  by  the  hammer. 
Tlie  depression  in  the  face  of  the  bore  is  adapted  to 
the  shape  required  of  the  chamfered  under  part  of 
the  head. 

2.  The  cavity  of  a  steam-engine  cylinder,  pump- 
barrel,  pipe,  cannon,  barrel  of  a  fire-arm,  etc.  In  me- 
chanics it  is  expressed  in  inches  of  diameter  ;  in  can- 
non in  the  weight  in  pounds  of  solid  round  shot 
ada]ited  thereto,  as  8  dr. ,  1 2  dr. ,  or  in  inches  of  di- 
ameter, as,  8-inch  gun,  12-inch  gnu  ;  in  small-anns, 
in  hundredths  of  an  inch  decimally,  thus,  .44,  .55,  in 
this  case  it  is  termed  cnHtxr :  in  sporting  rifles  by 
the  number  of  balls  to  the  pound  ;  in  smooth-bore 
fowling-pieces  by  a  trade  number,  as  No.  9, 10, 11,  etc. 


BOREL. 


338 


BORING-MACHINE. 


the  bore 


aliber  of  a  wind-instrument 

as,  the  bwe  of 


2.  The 
of  a  flute. 

3.  Tlie  capacity  of  a  boring-tool 
an  auger. 

Bor'el.  {Fabric. )  a.  Formerly,  a  coarse  woolen 
cloth. 

b.  Alight  stuff  with  a  silken  wai-p  and  woolen  woof. 

Bor'er.  {Coopering.)  A  semi-conical  tool  used 
to  iMiUuge  buug-holes  and  give  them  a  tlare. 

Bo-ril'la.  {Metallurgy.)  A  rich  copper  ore  in 
dust. 

Bor'ing  and  Ten'on-ing  Ma-chine'.    ( Jl'heel- 

u-rightiiiij.)     One  adapted  to  b.ire  the  lioles  in  the 

fellies  and  to  cut  the  tenons  on  the  ends  of  the  spokes. 

1  In  the  example,  the  wheel  is  mounted  on  sliding-bed 


Fig.  808. 


Fig.  809. 


Boring-  Gage. 


Boring  and  Tenoning  Machine. 


D,  and  pressure  on  the  treadle  h  draws  the  spoke  to 
the  hollow  auger,  whose  stock  is  turned  by  hand  till 
arrested  by  the  stop  n.  For  boring  fellies  a  detach- 
able bed  is  fitted  on  the  sliding  carriage.  A  screw- 
clamp  in  the  bed  holds  the  felly,  which  is  moved  up 
to  the  auger,  turned  by  hand  as  in  the  former  case, 
and  arrested  by  a  gage-stop.  Tlie  brace  c  is  mounted 
between  th«  back-plate  b  and  a  socket  in  the  stand- 
ard B. 

Bor'ing-bar.  (Metal-worlcing.)  A  bar  supported 
axially  in  the  bore  of  a  piece  of  ordnance  or  cylinder, 
and  carrying  the  cutting-tool,  which  has  a  traversing 
motion,  and  turns  off  the  inside  as  the  gun  or  cylin- 
der rotates. 

Also,  a  cutter-stock  used  in  other  boring-machines, 
such  as  those  for  boring  the  brasses  of  pillow- 
blocks. 

Bor'ing-bench.  [Wood-working.)  A  bench  fit- 
ted for  the  use  of  boring  machinery  or  appliances. 
Bexch-dp.ili,. 

Bor'ing-bit.  A  tool  adapted  to  be  used  in  a 
brace.  It  has  various  forms,  enumerated  under  the 
heail  of  Wvv  i which  see). 

Bor'ing-block.  [.Mctal-workiiui.)  A  slotted 
block  on  whicli  work  to  be  bored  is  placed. 

Bor'ing-col'lar.  A  back-plate  provided  with  a 
numl'iM-  of  tapering  holes,  either  of  wliich  may  be 
brought  in  line  with  a  piece  to  be  bored  and  which 
is  chucked  to  the  lathe-mandrel.  The  end  of  the 
piece  is  exposed  at  the  hole  to  a  boring-tool  which 
is  lieli]  against  it. 

Bor'ing-faucet.  One  which  has  a  bit  on  its  end 
by  which  it  may  cut  its  own  way  through  the  head 
of  a  cask.  In  casks  whose  holes  are  already  plugged 
with  cork  the  inner  edge  of  the  stem  of  the  tap  is 
niadi'  hollow  to  receive  the  cylinder  of  cork,  and 
with  an  annular  cutting-edge.     A  stop  is  placed  in 


Boring-Faucft . 

the  stem  to  jirevent  the  cork  cylinder  from  reaching 
and  closing  the  holes  in  the  stem. 

Bor'ing-gage.  A  clamp  to  be  attached  to  an 
auger  or  a   bit-shank  at  a  given 

distance  from  the  point,  to  limit  

the  penetration  of  the  tool  when  C) 
it   has    reached    the  determinate  ^^^^ 
depth. 

Bor'ing-lathe.  A  lathe  used 
for  boring  wheels  or  short  cylin- 
ders.    The  w  heel  or  cylinder  is 
fixed  on  a  large  chuck  screwed  to  the  mandrel  of 
a  lathe. 

Bor'ing-ma-chine'.  The  term  may  be  held 
to  have  a  somewhat  general  application  to  all  ma- 
chines by  which  holes  are  made  by  the  revolution 
of  the  tool  or  of  the  object  around  the  tool,  but  not 
including  the  simple  tool  itself.  Thus  an  auger,  gim- 
let, awl,  or  any  hit  adapted  for  boring,  independently 
of  the  machineiy  for  driving  it,  would  not  be  a  bor- 
ing-machine. A  brace  is  on  the  dividing  line,  if  such 
there  be,  but  is  not  included  under  the  term  boring- 
machines. 

Borers  for  metal,  however,  are  usually  classed  as 
driUs,  and  in  the  present  classification  the  bits  and 
tools  for  metal  will  be  classed  as  drills,  the  means 
for  driving  them  as  drill ing-macliines,  excepting  the 
largest  class,  which  bore  out  large  cylindei-s,  ord- 
nance, etc.  We  get  back  again  to  the  term  bo)'ing 
at  this  point,  despite  our  attempts  to  preserve  the 
unity  of  classification.  These  machines  have  usually 
a  boring-bar  or  ciittcr-bar,  which  occupies  the  axis 
of  the  object  which  is  being  bored,  and  as  three  parts 
are  involved  and  two  motions  requiied,  several  pos- 
sible transjiositions  might  be  anticipated  and  various 
trinary  combinations  actually  exist. 

1.  The  parallel  shaft  of  the  boring-bar  slides  accu- 
rately in  a  gioove  exactly  parallel  with  the  bore  ;  the 
cutting-blade  is  a  small  piece  of  steel  affixed  to  the 
end  of  the  half-roimd  block,  and  the  cut  is  advanced 
by  a  rack  and  pinion  movement,  actuated  either  by 
the  descent  of  a  constant  weight  or  by  an  automatic 
motion  derived  from  the  prime  mover.  This  is  used 
in  boring  ordnance. 

2.  The  cutter-bar  revolves  without  longitudinal 
motion  on  fixed  centers,  like  a  spindle  in  a  lathe ; 
the  work  is  traversed  longitudinally  past  the  rotating 
cutter,  being  supported  on  a  slide-rest.  This  mode 
requires  that  the  cutter  should  measuie  between  the 
sujiports  twice  the  length  of  the  work  to  be  bored, 
ami  the  cutter  to  be  at  the  midlength  of  the  bar. 

3.  The  cutter-bar  revolves  and  also  slides  with  an 
endw'ise  motion,  the  work  being  at  I'est ;  the  bear- 
ings of  the  bar  are  frequently  attached  to  .some  tem- 
porary support  in  the  work  to  be  bored,  as,  for  in- 
stance, a  cast-iron  cross  at  each  eml  of  the  cylinder. 
The  crosses  are  bored  exactly  to  fit  the  boring-bar, 
one  of  them  carries  the  driWng-geai',  and  the  bar  is 
thrust  endwise  by  means  of  a  screw  moved  by  a 
ratchet-wheel. 


BORIXG-MACHIXE. 


339 


BORIXG-MACHINE. 


In  another  arrangenieut  the  boring-bar  is  mounted 
in  head-stocks,  much  the  same  as  a  traversing  man- 
drel ;  the  work  is  fixed  to  the  bearere  carrying  the 
head-stocks,  and  the  cutter  is  advanced  by  a  screw. 
The  screw  is  then  moved  by  a  ratchet-wheel,  or  by 
the  hand  of  the  workman,  one  tooth  in  each  revolu- 
tion ;  or  else  by  a  system  of  diHereutial  wheels,  in 
which  the  external  screw  lias  a  wheel,  say,  of  50 
teeth,  the  internal  screw  a  wheel  of  51  teeth,  and  a 
pair  of  eijual  pinions  drives  these  two  screws  contin- 
ually, so  that  an  advance  of  J^  of  a  turn  of  their 
screw,  or  their  difference,  is  equally  divided  over 
one  revolution  of  tlie  cutter-bar,  as  in  the  feed-mo- 
tion of  the  hand-drilling  machine  with  the  differ- 
ential feed.  This  nietliod  only  requires  the  fixed 
bearings  of  the  cutter-bar  to  be  as  much  longer  tlian 
the  work  as  the  lengtli  of  the  cutter-block,  but  the 
bar  itself  must  be  more  than  twice  the  length  of  the 
work,  and  slides  tlirough  the  supports. 

4.  Tile  boring-bar  revolves  upon  fixed  bearings 
without  traversing,  and  it  is  only  needful  that  tlie 
boring-bar  should  exceed  the  length  of  the  work  by 
the  thickness  of  the  cutter-blork,  of  which  it  has 
commonly  several  of  different  diameters.  The  ciitter- 
bloek,  now  sometimes  10  feet  in  diameter,  traverses 
as  a  slide  on  a  spline  down  a  huge  boring-bar  B, 
whose  diameter  is  about  30  inches.  The  motion  of 
the  cutter-block  is  caused  by  a  side-screw,  upon  the 
end  of  which  is  a  large  wheel  that  engages  in  a  small 
pinion  fixed  to  the  stationary  center  or  pedestal  of 
the  machine.  With  every  revolution  of  the  cutter- 
bar,  the  great  wheel  is  carried  around  the  fixed  pin- 
ion, and,  supposing  these  to  be  as  10  to  1,  the  great 
wheel  is  moved  ■j's  of  a  turn,  and  imparts  an  equiva- 

Fig.  810> 


cutter-head  revolving  with  and  sliding  on  a  man- 
drel a,  which  is  in  the  axis  of  the  cylinder.  The 
cylinder  L  is  secured  to  the  bed  A  of  the  machine 
in  exact  conformity  to  the  axial  position  of  the  man- 
drel a.  The  mandrel  is  a  hollow  iron  tube  with  two 
opposite  longitudinal  slots,  through  whicli  the  ac- 
tion of  the  advancing  apparatus  is  communicated  to 
the  cutter-head  /,  which  is  sleeved  upon  the  man- 
drel a.     The  cutter-head  consists  of  two  parts  :  a 

Fig.  812. 


Mandrel  and  Cuiter, 

sleeve  K,  which  fits  upon  the  mandrel,  and  a  head 
/,  which  is  secured  upon  the  sleeve  by  wedges,  and 
hiis  cutters  inserted  into  notches  in  its  jieiijihery. 
The  sleeve  K  slips  longitudinally  on  the  mandrel  a, 
but  is  restrained  from  revolving  on  it  by  two  trans- 
verse bars,  which  act  as  a  spline,  and  also  connect 
the  sleeve  \vith  a  rack-bar  inside,  by  which  its 
longitudinal  motion  is  effected.  The  rack -bar  rests 
upon  a  roller  K,  and  is  moved  by  a  pinion  .V,  to 
which  is  connected  a  lever-arm  having  a  weight  P 
on  its  end.  The  cutters  having  been  proved  to  re- 
volve truly,  the  cutter-head  is  advanced,  and  is  kept 

Fig.  813 


Cylinder  Borer. 


SeUers's  Boring-Mill. 


lent  motion  to  the  feed-screw  that  moves  the  cutter- 
block. 

This  machine  was  invented  by  George  Wright  when 
in  the  employment  of  Boulton  and  Watt,  Birming- 
ham, England. 

A  machine  substanrially  the  same,  but  ivith  a  dif- 
ferent feed  an-angement,  is  shown  in  the  accompany- 
ing illustration. 

The  boring-machine   (Figs.    811   and  812)   has  a 

Fig.  811. 


Cylinder  Boring-Marhine. 


pressed  against  its  work  by  the  weight  of  the  lever, 
which  exerts  a  constant  strain  upon  the  rack.  As 
soon  as  the  lever  has  descended,  it  is  again  raised  by 
hand,  and  this  is  the  only  attention  necessary. 

5.  The  work  is  dogged  to  a  rotating-table,  and  the 
cutter  is  advanced  as  in  Sellers's  boring-niill  (Fig. 
812).  This  is  a  heavy  boring-machine  for  car-wheels 
and  general  work,  fitted  iivith  universal  chuck  for  all 
sizes  up  to  36  inches  diameter,  and  capable  of  boring 
dri\-ing-whecls  6  feet  in  diameter ;  the  cross-head  for 
liolding  the  boring-bar  is  counterlialanced  and  ar- 
ranged with  power-feed  and  quick  liand-traverse  in 
either  direction  ;  the  sliding  surfaces  are  kept  clear 
of  chips  which  fall  tlirough  the  face-plate  as  in  mills 
where  the  bar  is  supported  above,  as  in  Fig.  814. 

A  vertical  boring-machine,  expressly  adapted  for 
boring  car-wheels,  yet  also  available  for  many  kinds 
of  miscellaneous  boring.  It  is  so  made  as  to  be  read- 
ily adjusted  for  tajier  or  parallel  holes,  has  rack 
and  jiinion  feed  with  counterbalanced  bar.  For 
holding  wheels  or  other  work,  a  chuck  is  fitted  to 
the   bed,    which   retains   the  work   in   place  while 


BORING-MACHINE. 


340 


BORING-MACHINE. 


Pig.  814. 


Fig.  816 


Boring- Machine. 

being  operated  upon  by  means  of  jaws  of  the  proper 
shape,  and  moTiti^^  independently  of  each  otlier. 
These  jaws  are  made  of  wrought-iron  case-hardened. 
The  swing  of  tlie  machine  is  four  feet. 

Fig.  815  sliows  a  boring-macliine  of  medium  size, 

having  a  horizon- 
Fig-  ^15-  tal  face-plate  c  on 
which  the  work 
is  dogged,  a  b 
are  the  nests  of 
pulleys  by  which 
graduated  speed 
is  given  to  the 
boring -sliaft  d. 
The  latter  is  ad- 
vanced to  its  work 
or  retracted  by 
means  of  the 
hand-wlieel  g,  or 
the  automatic 
feed-arrangement 
h  may  be  thrown 
into  gear.  Ic  is 
the  handle  acting 
upon  a  pinion  and 
rack,  to  raise  or 
lower  tlie  table  c. 
■in,  is  the  belt- 
shifter. 

Another    form 
Boring-Machine.  of      boiing  -  ma- 

chine, Ijy  which 
the  turret  of  a  "Monitor"  may  be  bored  within  and 
turned  off  without,  is  described  under  Lathk.  Its 
bed  is  a  face-plate  on  a  vertical  axis.  The  tools  are 
held  in  a  cross-slide,  which  is  fitted  to  ivia  uprights, 
resting  on  cheek-pieces  bolted  to  the  main  casting 
or  found.ation-piece. 

6.  The  borer  is  portable,  and  is  dogged  to  the  work. 
The  piirtahle  bfiring-machinc  (Fig.  816)  is  adapted 
to  set  vertically  upon  the  work  in  cases  where  it  is 
easier  to  bolt  the  machine  to  the  woi-k  than  to  dog 
the  work  in  the  machine.  The  base-plate  A  of  the 
drill  is  bolted  to  the  face  of  the  wheel  in  the  exam- 
ple givi^n,  and  is  rotated  by  bev(d-gearing  fiom  the 
axle  of  the  band-wheel  H.  The  box  D  holds  the 
whei'l  on  the  drill-stock  B,  and  the  pinion   which 


Portable  Boring-Machine. 

drives  it,  and  is  supported  by  legs  C  on  the  bed- 
plate. The  feed  is  by  means  of  an  eccentric  E  and 
rod  connected  by  an  arm  F  to  bevel-gearing  which 
rotates  the  feed-screw,  whose  nut  is  swiveled  in  the 
top  of  the  drill-stock.  A  click  G  engages  the  ratchet- 
wheel  so  as  to  hold  the  latter  during  the  return  mo- 
tion of  the  arm  F.  The  machine  is  slung  by  the 
tackle  above  when  shifting  its  position. 

7.  (JVood-workiny.)  A  general  difference  in  the 
style  of  the  tools  between  those  employed  for  wood 
and  those  for  metal  gives  ojjportunity  for  distin- 
guishing between  the  two  classes  of  machines,  al- 
though it  must  be  admitted  that  the  modes  of  pro- 
pulsion in  some  machines  of  the  respective  classes 
are  very  similar,  and  that  the  boring  bits  for  hard 
wood  are  much  like  the  drills  for  metal. 

The  one  are  described  as   augers  and  hits ;  the 
other  as  drills. 
■  Fig.  817  represents  a  horizontal  boring-machine 


Horizontal  Boring-Machine. 


BORING-MACHINE. 


341 


BORT. 


for  carpenter's  and  machine  shops,  forpattern-makers, 
<?an'iage,  piano-i'orte,  and  all  cabinet  work,  etc.  The 
lioring-shaft  runs  in  stationary  boxes  ;  the  table  a, 
with  stuff,  slides  up  to  the  bit,  and  is  raised  and  low- 
ered by  a  screw  and  hand-wheel  b,  as  desired.  The 
boring  and  counter-shafts  have  cone-pulleys  for  a 
change  of  speed.  These  machines  are  arranged  for 
augers  with  round  or  square  shanks. 

The  machine  Fig.  818  is  very  generally  used  for 
car  work,  and  does  a  variety  of  boring  without  the 


Boring-Machine. 

trouble  of  setting  out  for  the  work.  The  carriage  a 
is  12  feet  long  by  1  foot  wide,  is  raised  and  lowered 
by  a  crank-shaft  b,  and  screws  c  c,  to  bring  the  work 
to  the  right  position  with  the  bit  d,  and  is  held  in 
place  on  the  rear  side  of  the  frame.  The  bit  is 
drawTi  up  to  the  work  by  a  bowed  handle  g  on  the 
front  end  of  a  boring  shaft-slide.  The  timber  laid 
upon  the  carriage  is  moved  horizontally  on  iron  rolls 
€,  to  finish  the  work.  The  counter-shaft  has  tight 
and  loose  pulleys. 

8.  The  carpenter's  boring-maehinc  simplifies  the 
business  of  making  moi-tises  by  boiing  a  hole  perpen- 
dicularly or  at  any  required  angle.  The  auger  is 
rotated  by  the  double-crank  shaft  and  the  interven- 

Fig.  819. 


tion  of  bevel-gearing.  The  auger  feeds  it  into  the 
wood,  but  pressure  can  be  brought  thereon  if  neces- 
sary. The  auger  is  raised  vertically  from  the  hole 
by  throwing  the  rack  at  the  side  in  gear  with  a 
wheel  on  the  crank-shaft,  and  rotating  the  latter. 
The  rack  is  thrown  in  and  out  by  an  eccentric  ;  an 
arrangement  patented  by  Stanley  and  Johnson,  Sep- 
tember 12,  1865. 

Boring-machines  of  various  kinds  are  in  use  in 
bedstead,  furniture,  and  other  manufactories.  In 
some  cases  the  bits  or 
augers  are  arranged  in 
gangs  in  a  gate  or  slide, 
which  is  slipped  forward 
towards  the  work,  mak- 
ing a  whole  row  of  holes 
of  a  given  depth.  This 
is  the  plan  in  making 
the  holes  in  the  round 
bedstead-rails  for  the 
reception  of  the  pegs 
which  hold  the  lopes. 

The  haring-machrne 
for  block-making  con- 
sists of  an  iron  frame  a, 
in  which  the  juggle  b 
is  clamped  by  a  screw, 
which  confines  it  while 
the  borers  c  d  act  up- 
on it.  These  borers  are 
center-bits,  and  act  at 
right  angles  to  each 
other,  —  c  to  fonn  the 
hole  for  the  sheave-pin,  and  d  to  form  a  commence- 
ment for  the  mortise  to  contain  the  sheave.  Each 
bit  is  fixed  in  a  lathe-head  e  c,  and  driven  by  a 
band.  The  head  slides  upon  ways,  so  as  to  feed 
up  to  the  work,  being  advanced  by  a  lever.  The 
ways  have  a  certain  lateral  and  vertical  adjustability 
so  as  to  work  at  the  required  angle  and  hight. 


(^a^ 


Carpenur's  Borins-Machinf. 


Boring- Machine, 

Bor'ing-taTale.  The  platform  of  a  boring-ma- 
chine on  which  the  work  is  laid. 

Bor'ing-tool.  (Metal-worMng.)  A  cutting-tool 
placed  in  a  cutter-head  to  dress  round  holes. 

Bort.  (Diomimd-i'idting.)  Small  fragments  of 
diamond,  split  from  diamonds  in  roughly  reducing 
them  to  shape,  and  of  a  size  too  small  for  jewelry. 
Bort  is  reduced  to  dust  in  a  mortar,  and  used  for 
grinding  and  polishing. 


BOSHAH. 


342 


BOSSING. 


Fig.  821. 

\      -"'       1 

A  1' 

.  A-^ ' 

^-|      1 

'll  "' 

"M  ^    -'  I 

Boslies. 


Bo'shah.  (Fabric.)  A  Turkish-made  silk  hand- 
kercliicl'. 

Bosh'es.  (Metallurgy.)  The  sloping  sides  of  the 
lower  part  of  a  blast-furnace,  which  gradually  contract 
from  the  belly,  or  mdest  part  of  the  furnace,  to  the 
hearth. 

In  a  furnace  55  feet  high  and  38  feet  wide  at 
the  base  of  the  structure,  the 
boshes  will  be  8  feet  in  per- 
pendicular hight,  1 2  feet  wide 
at  top  (J/),  ami  2^  feet  at 
the  bottom  (L),  where  they 
join  the  hearth.  The  boshes 
are  built  of  a  coarse-gritted 
freestone,  aboumling  in  small 
nodules  of  quartz. 

The  cut  represents  the 
luarth  H  and  boshes  i?  in  a 
vertical  side -section,  a  is 
the  ttjmp- stone  and  b  tlie 
tymp-plate  for  confining  the 
molten  metal  in  the  hearth. 
This  plate,  in  connection  with  the  protecting 
.stone  a,  forms  the  front  of  the  hearth,  and  is  firmly 
wedged  into  the  side-walls  thereof,  c  is  the  dclm- 
sloiie  which  occupies  the  whole  breadth  at  the  bottom 
of  the  hearth,  excepting  about  .six  imliHs,  which 
space,  when  the  furnace  is  at  work,  is  filled  before 
every  cast  with  a  strong  binding  sand.  This  stone 
is  faced  outside  by  a  strong  cast-iron  plate  d,  called 
a  dam-plate.  The  space  under  the  tiiinp-platc  is 
rammed  full,  for  every  cast,  with  strong,  loamy 
earth  or  fine  clay,  —  a  process  called  tymp-stopping. 

A  number  of  newly  invented  puddling  and  boiling 
furnaces  have  iron  floors  and  boslies.  A  curt'eut  of 
water  is  caused  to  circulate  in  them  to  prevent  de- 
struction of  the  iron  under  the  extreme  heat. 

Baker's  puddliny-funiace  has  a  hollow  cast-iron 
bed-plate  and  bosh,  through  which  water  is  con- 
ducted. 

Williams's  furnace  has  hollow  biidges  with  air- 
chambers  and  water-boshes. 

H ALL  a  fii nil Kx  has  fire-brick  around  the  iron  bed 
against  which  jets  of  water  are  injected  from  tubes. 

SxYDEu's  funiacc  has  a  wrought-iron  bed-plate 
with  brick  boshes. 

Whipple's  furnace  has  a  double  bottom  of  iron. 
The  lower  plate  is  corrugated.  Water  conducted  into 
the  hollow  bed  and  boshes  is  converted  into  steam 
and  conducted  away. 

In  Fig.  822  the  bosh  is  cast  upon  wrought-iron 
pipes  which  will  afford  circulation  for  water  to  cool 
and  preserve  the  bosh.     The  water-chamber  beneath 

Fig.  822. 


Pudttlins:-'Fiirnace 

has  the  same  effect.  The  front  plate  is  attached  by 
tongues  and  grooves  to  the  bosli,  and  the  fore-plate 
.similarly  attached  in  the  front  [ilates. 

The    material   which    is    banked   up   against   the 


boshes  to  protect  them  from  the  heat  is  called  f.n'nij. 
It  consists  of  scrap  and  ore,  and  receives  a  i)reliniinary 
melting.  One  composition  for  fixing  furnaces  con- 
sists of  finely  pulverized  ore  and  German  clay  made 
into  a  paste  ;  and  another  for  the  same  purjjose  is  a 
paste  made  by  grinding  the  ore  and  rendering  it 
plastic  by  moistening  ami  working.  Ball-duy 
(Fr.  trochi)  is  a  decomposed  protosilicate  of  iron  used 
in  England  and  France  for  this  purpose. 

Giiout's  cupola  and  blast-furnace,  instead  of  lire- 
brick  lining  to  the  hearth,  has  hollow  cast-iron 
boshes  united  by  flanges,  forming  chambers  g,  so 
arranged  that  a  current  of  cold  water  may  flow 

Fig.  823. 


Btast-Ftimace  Iron  Eo!ihes. 

through  them,  dispensing  with  an  internal  lining  of 
fire-brick  or  other  refractory  substance. 

These  cliambers  are  so  arranged  that  they  may 
be  removed  without  disturliing  the  superior  brick- 
work. 

Bo'som.  [Mi/ling.)  A  recess  or  shelving  de- 
pri-ssi<iii  roiuiil  tlif  eye  of  a  mill-stone. 

Bo'som-fold'er.  A  plaiting  machine  or  device 
for  laying  a  fabric  in  flat  folds,  suitable  for  a  shirt- 
bosom. 

Boss.  1.  (Machinery.)  a.  An  elevated  or  thick- 
ened jiortion,  usually  around  an  aperture. 

b.  A  swage  or  sttunp  used  in  shaping  sheet-metal. 

2.  [Architecture.)  In  Gothic  architecture,  the 
protuberance  in  a  vaulted  ceiling  formed  by  the 
junction  of  the  ends  of  several  ribs,  and  serving  to 
bind  them  together  ;  usually  elaborately  carved  and 
ornamented. 

3.  {Ma.wnri/.)  a.  A  mortar-bucket  slung  by  a 
hook  from  the  round  of  a  ladder. 

b.  A  short  trough  for  holding  mortar.  Hung  from 
the  laths  and  used  in  tiling  a  loof. 

4.  (Sidldlery.)  The  enlargement  at  the  junction 
of  the  branch  of  a  bridle-bit  with  the  mouthpiece. 

5.  (Ordnance.)  A  jilate  of  cast-iron  secured  to  the 
back  of  the  hearth  of  a  traveling-forge. 

6.  (Book-binding.)  A  metallic  ornament  on  a  book 
side  to  receive  the  wear. 

Bos'sage.  (.Irchitedure.)  Projecting  stones,  such 
as  ciiioiiis,  corbels,  roughed  out  before  insertion,  to 
be  bnisbed  in  situ. 

Bos'sing.  (Porcelain.)  Ground-laying  the  sur- 
face  of  jiorcelain  in  an  unfinished  state,  to  form  a 
basis  of  adherence  for  the  color,  which  is  deposited 
by  the  pencil,  by  cotlon-toool,  or  by  stencil,  according 
to  the  mode.  The  bossing  is  a  coat  of  boiled  oil,  to 
hold  the  color.  The  oil  is  expelled  by  the  heat  of 
the  enamel- kiln,  and  the  color  vitrified. 


BOTTGER-WARE. 


343 


BOTTLE-BRUSHING   MACHINE. 


The  bdsxing  is  laid  on  with  a  hair-pencil,  and  lev- 
eled \vith  a  boss  of  soft  leather. 

Bott'ger-'ware.  The  wliite  porcelain  of  Dres- 
den. Made  oiiginally  by  Bottger,  of  Saxony,  in 
imitation  of  the  Chinese.  It  is  now  made  in  the  old 
castle,  once  the  residence  of  the  Saxon  princes,  at 
Meissen  on  the  Elbe,  l.T  miles  Ijelow  Dresden. 

Bott-ham'mer.  (F/o.r. )  A  wooden  mallet  with 
a  rtuted  face,  Used  in  breaking. flax  upon  the  floor  to 
rem  ivf  the  boon. 

Bot'ting.  (Metallurgy.)  Restopping  the  taj)- 
ping-hith-  of  a  furnace  after  a  part  of  its  charge  has 
been  allowed  to  How  therefrom.  The  plug  is  a  coni- 
cal miss  of  clay  on  the  end  of  a  wooden  bar. 

Bot'tle.  A  vessel  with  a  relatively  small  neck, 
and  ada|ited  to  hold  liijuids.  In  ancient  times  they 
were  made  of  leather.  The  Psalmist  declares  he 
has  "become  like  a  bottle  in  the  smoke,"  that  is, 
shriveled  and  wrinkled.  It  is  also  adrised  by  the 
Savior, — a  metaphysical  meaning  being  couched  in 
the  words,  —  not  to  put  new  wine  into  old  bottles,  as 
they  could  not  withstand  the  action  of  fermentation. 

The  skin-bottles  of  the  East  are  made  of  goat-skins ; 
when  the  animal  is  butchered,  its  head  and  feet  are 
cut  otf,  and  the  skin  drawn  olf  without  ripping.  In 
Arabia  it  is  tanned  with  acacia  bark,  the  hair  being 
left  on  the  outside.  The  several  openings  are  sewn 
up,  and  the  neck,  which  serves  as  a  spout,  is  tied. 
Such  bottles  were  used  by  the  Greeks,  Egyptians, 
and  Romans,  being  mentioned  by  Homer,  Herodotus, 
and  VirgU.  They  are  also  used  to  the  present  day 
in  Spain  and  Sicily,  and  other  Mediterranean  coun- 
tries ;  they  are  called  borracluis  in  Spain,  and  the 
peculiar  flavor  of  marsala  and  some  other  wines  is 
attributed  to  the  skins  in  which  they  were  originally 
brought  to  market. 

Bottles  of  earthenware  are 
usually  made  with  handles,  and 
are  called  flasks.  Cast-iron  bot- 
tles, idosed  by  a  screw-jjiug, 
are  used  for  holding  quicksil- 
ver. Glais  is,  however,  the  ma- 
terial almost  universally  em- 
ployed in  the  bottle  manufacture. 
It  is  generally  of  the  coarsest 
and  connnonest  kind,  made  from 
inferior  materials  ;  in  fact,  the 
use  of  any  others  for  the  pur- 
]iose  was  proliibited  in  England  until  a  compara- 
tively recent  period.  Six  persons  are  employed 
in    the    necessary    manipulations ;    one   of    whom 

Fig  824. 


tube,  forming  a  pear-shaped  lump,  when  he  intro- 
duces it  into  an  open  brass  or  cast-iron  mold,  which 
he  shuts  together  by  pressing  a  pedal  with  his  foot, 
and,  holding  the  tube  vertically,  blows  through  it, 
expanding  the  glass  so  as  to  fill  the  concavity  of  the 
mold.  Upon  removing  his  foot  from  the  pedal  the 
two  halves  of  the  mold  open,  turning  upon  a  hinge 
at  the  bottom.  The  bottle  is  then  removed  and 
handed  to  the  finisher,  who,  by  touching  the  tubu- 
lar neck  of  glass  liy  which  the  bottle  adheres  to  the 
pipe,  cracks  it  oft" 

smoothly     at     the  Fig.  825. 

mouth  ;  the  fin- 
ished bottles  are 
then  placed  in  the 
annealing  -  furnace 
and  allowed  to  cool 
slowly  for  twent)"- 
four  houi's  or  more. 

This  kind  of  mold 
produces  a  seam 
dowTi  each  side  of 
the  bottle,  causing 
a  rather  unsightly 
appearance.  See 
Glass. 

Glass  bottles  were  known  to  the  "Romans  of  the 
Empire,  and  are  found  in  Pompeii. 

A  glass  bottle  with  a  capacity  of  112  gallons  was 
blown  at  Leith,  in  Scotland,  about  1747. 

Fig.  825  shows  an  earthen  bottle  from  Peru,  with 

Fig.  826. 


Peruvian  Bottle, 


Earthenrcare  Bottles. 


two  faces.     The  sectional  view  shows  the  shape  of 
the  neck  and  handle. 


dips  the  red-hot  end  of  an  iron  tube  into  the  pot  of 
molten  glass,  turns  the  rod  around  so  as  to  suiTound 
it  with  glass,  lifts  it  out  to  cool  a  little,  then  dips 
and  turns  it  around  again,  and  so  on  until  he  has  col- 
lected a  ball  of  sufficient  size  to  form  the  required 
bottle.  He  then  hands  it  to  the  blower,  who  rolls 
the  plastic  lump  of  glass  on  a  smooth  stone  or  cast- 
iron  plate  imtil  he  brings  it  to  the  very  end  of  the 


Fig.  826  shows 
a  number  of  an- 
cient bottles. 

abc  are  from 
Thebes. 

d  is  Etruscan. 

c  is  from  China. 

/from  ancient  Eg\-pt. 

Bot'tle-boot.  A 
leather  case  to  hold  a 
bottle  while  corking. 

Bot'tle-brush'iiig 
Ma-chine'.  A  device 
for  cleansing  the  inte- 
rior of  bottles.  The 
brushes,  fixed  on 
a  rotating  shaft,  are 
inserted  into  the  bot- 
tles, and  rotation  im- 
parted by  means  of  the 
treadle  b.  The  oper- 
ator may  take  a  bot- 
tle in  each  hand, cleans- 
ing two  at  once. 


Fig.  827. 


Bottle- Brushing  Machine. 


BOTTLE-CASE  LOOM. 


344 


BOTTLE,  SIPHON. 


Bot'tle-case  Loom.  A  machine  in  which  the 
w'iL-ker  cowr  is  placnl  ujton  demijohns  and  carboys. 
Tlii.s  is,  liowever,  ulnio.st  entirely  done  by  hand,  and 
is  tlie  work  ol"  a  biisket-maker. 

Bot'tle-charg'er.  An  apparatus  for  charging 
buttles  witli  a  li(|iiid  under  pressure,  as,  for  instance, 
witli  air  containing  carbonic  acid,  and  with  a  gradu- 
ated amount  of  syrup,  a  is  the  vessel  containing 
the  aerated  water  ;  b  the  syruji-cup ;  c  a  pipe  equal- 
izing tlie  pressure  in  tlie  vessels  a  and  b.  The  .size 
of  the  oiiening  leading  from  the  cup  b  to  the  common 
nozzle  d  is  adjustalile,  and  e  is  the  handle  of  the  fau- 
cet by  which  the  linuld  is  discharged. 

Fig.  828.  Vie.  829. 


Bottle-  Cliar^fr. 

Bot'tle-fau'cet.     A  lancet  adapted 
to  the  uses  of  a  bottle,  as  in  the  illus- 
tration, where  it  has  a  threaded  hollow  Bottle-Faucet. 
stem  to  transfix  the  cork. 

Bot'tle-fiU'er.  See  Bottling-appaiiat0.s. 
Bot'tle-glass.  Bottle-glass  is  composed  of  cheap 
sand  and  alkali,  and  the  manufacture  has  nothing 
special  aliout  it.  Bottles  were  formerly  made  by 
blowing  and  rolling,  but  since  the  introduction  of 
presses,  blowing  and  molding  have  been  combiued. 
The  mass  of  molten  glass  at  the  end  of  the  tube  ( jmn- 
til)  is  inserted  in  an  iron  mold,  which  gives  the  ex- 
tei-nal  form,  while  the  hoUowness  is  produced  by 
blowing  through  the  tube. 

The  alkalies  useil  are  wood  ashes  and  common 
salt.  Coinmnn  sand,  gas  lime,  iday,  and  the  refuse 
lime  and  alkali  after  the  manufacture  of  soap,  enter 
into  the  composition  of  frit  for  bottle-glass. 

Beer  and  wine  bottles  are  blown  in  a  mold.  Car- 
boys are  blown  by  the  aid  of  steam,  which  is  produced 
by  spirting  a  mouthful  of  water  through  the  blowing- 
tube,  the  end  of  the  tube  being  covered  by  the 
thumb. 

Bot'tle-hold'er.     An  adjustable  tool  for  grasp- 
ing the  bottle  by  its  base  while 
Fig.  830.  tinishing  the  top. 

r ,  T^he  disk  b  is  attachable  to 

/  )  the    punty-rod,     and     slotted 

I       •'  radially  to  receive  the  clamps 

I       ;  c  e,  which  are  adjusted  to  vari- 

}       '\  ous  sizes  of  bottles  ;  the  inner 

/'  ■"-  faces    of   the    clamps    may    be 

/  \  either  flat   or  curved,    to  suit 

I  them  to  hold  bottles  of  \-iiry- 

ing  shajies  and  sizes, 
.'^ee  <'nt  undiM-  Gl.As.s. 
Bot'tle-jaok.  1.  (Culiiia- 
rif.)  A  roasting-jack  of  a  bot- 
tle shape,  suspended  in  fiont  of 
a  fire,  and  giving  a  reciprocat- 
ing rotation  to  the  meat  which 
depends  therefrom.  It  is  op- 
erated by  clock-work  mechan- 
ism. 

2.   A  form  of  lifting-jack,  so 
called    from    its    resembling   a 
Bottle- Hoiiier.  bottle  in  shape. 


Bot'tle-mold'ing.  (Glass. )  A  process  adopted 
with  most  kinds  of  merchantable  bottles  of  staple 
kinds.  Till-  bulb  of  glass  on  the  end  of  the  blow- 
tube  is  partially  expanded,  and  then  placed  between 
the  parts  of  an  iron  mold  which  is  open  to  receive  it. 
The  parts  are  closed  and  locked,  and  the  bulb  then 
expanded  by  the  breath  to  completely  fill  the  mold. 

In  1822,  Rickets,  of  Bristol, 
England,  obtained  a  patent  for  f'g-  831. 

a  bottle- moldingapparatus,  com- 
prising a  frame  for  holding  and 
operating  a  bottle-mold.  The 
mold  consisted  of  a  die  for  form- 
ing the  body  of  the  bottle,  a 
two-part  die  for  forming  its  top, 
and  a  plunger  for  shaping  its 
bottom  ;  these  are  reci]irocated 
by  means  of  treadles  and  lev- 
ers. The  frame  is  adapted  to  be 
used  with  dies  of  various  sizes 
and  shapes.  The  molten  glass 
is  blown  out,  so  as  to  fill  the 
mold  in  the  ordinary  way. 

Bot'tle-pump.  A  device  for 
withdrawing  the  lluid  contents 
of  a  vessel  without  pouring. 
That  illustrated  comprises  an 
elastic  bulb  ./,  having  air  in- 
duction and  eduction  apertures 
E  B,  provided  with  valves  and 
a  curved  pipe  J9,  whose  longer 
branch  is  inserted  into  the  neck 
of  the  bottle,  the  orifice  of  which 
is  closed  by  the  plug  B.  Com- 
pressing the  elastic  bulb  drives  Bottle-Pump. 
air  into  the  bottle,  and  expels 
the  liipiid  through  the  pipe  and  nozzle. 

Bot'tle-rack.  The  rests  are  so  arranged  that  by 
inserting  the  bottles  alternately  neck  and  butt,  a 
greater  number  may  be  stored  within  a  given  space. 
The  hinged  frame  is  for  the  purpose  of  securing  the 
bottles  in  place  during  transportation. 

Fig.  832. 


TZ 


"^-^^r- 


II 


Bottle-  Hack. 

Bot'tle-scre^?'.     A  corkscrew. 

Bot'tle,  Si'phon.  A  bottle  having  a  tube  which 
discharges  the  contents  liy  a  pipe  which  reaches  nearly 
to  the  bottom,  so  as  to  eject  liquid,  as  long  as  any 
remains,  uundxed  with  the  air.  See  Figs.  46,  48, 
pii.  IS,  19. 


BUTTLK-STOPPER. 


345 


BOTTLE-WASHER. 


Bot'tle-stop'per.  A  device  for  closing  the 
moutlis  of  bottles.  It  usually  consists  of  a  cork  and 
a  means  of  holding  it  in  place  against  the  pressure  of 
the  bottle's  contents. 

In  some  cases  a  composition  is  substituted  for  the 
cork. 

Fig  833 


Botlle-Slopp' 


a  has  a  bail  carrying  the  stopper,  and  the  spring 
arms,  which  are  permanently  fixed  in  an  annular  re- 
cess in  the  swelling  of  the  bottle-neck,  catch  into 
notches  of  the  bail,  and  hold  it  and  the  stopper  se- 
curely. 

A  is  a  permutation-lock  stopper,  set  on  a  given 
combination,  and  holds  a  cap  over  the  stopper. 

c  is  a  hinged  bail,  which  is  attached  to  a  ring  on 
the  neck.  The  latter  has  a  divided  section  which 
allows  it  to  open. 

d  has  a  diagonal  opening  through  the  neck  of  the 
bottle.  ■  The  pressure  of  tlie  gas  is  upon  the  side  of 


the  cork,  and  does  not  tend  materially  to  expel  it. 
Tlie  cork  may  be  ejected  by  a  push,  without  a  cork- 
screw. 

e  is  a  hollow  rubber  ball,  driven  by  the  pressure 
of  gas  against  the  inside  of  the  neck.  Eemoved  by 
pressure  of  a  rod,  and  floats  on  the  liquid. 

/is  a  method  of  tying  champagne  corks. 

y  is  a  bottle  having  a  neck  molded  with  an  interior 
annular  recess,  tilled  by  a  packing-ring  against  which 
a  glass  ball  is  sustained  by  pressure  of  the  gas. 

h  is  a  screw-faucet  which  has  a  packing  against  the 
lower  end,  which  is  depressed  against  a  seat. 

I  is  a  simple  hottle-faucet  or  one-way  cock.  It  is 
opened  by  a  key. 

k  is  a  glass  rod  which  can-ies  a  packing  around 
its  enlarged  head  ;  one  of  its  tapering  ends  guides  it 
into  its  position  in  the  neck  of  the  bottle. 

Z  is  a  hinged  wire  bail  bent  into  U-form,  so  as  to 
be  swung  up  on  to  the  cork  while  the  latter  is  held  by 
the  plunger  of  the  bottling-niachine. 

m  is  a  rubber  stopper,  hinged  on  one  side,  and 
held  on  the  other  by  a  catch. 

n  is  a  glass  ball,  seated  on  the  lip  by  gravity,  and 
restraijied  by  a  cage  when  the  bottle  is  tilted  to  dis- 
charge the  liquid. 

0  is  a  stopper  of  rubber  compressed  betweeu  two 
disks  brought  together  by  a  screw,  and  thus  ex- 
panded against  the  inside  of  the  neck. 

^  is  a  baU  hinged  by  a  collar  around  the  bottle-neck, 
and  having  a  screw  which  compresses  the  rubber- 
faced  cap. 

Fig.  831. 


Bottle-  Washer 


Bot'tle-Tvash'er. 

interior  of  bottles.  The 
example  consists  of  a 
table  having  apertures 
B  for  the  insertion  of 
the  necks  of  the  bot- 
tles, into  which  water 
is  forced  by  means  of 
pipes  provided  with 
nozzles  D. 

In  another  form  of 
the  machine  the  bottles 
are  placed  in  a  horizon- 
tal position  between 
base-plates  coated  with 
india-rubber  and  stop- 
pers of  the  same  mate- 
rial. Being  previously 
about  one  third  filled 
with  shot,  eight  bot- 
tles are  arranged  in  a 
circle  around  a  hori- 
zontal spindle,  and 
eight  more  in  a  second 
grou]i  around  the  same 
spindle.  A  ra]iid  re- 
ciprocating motion  is 
then  given  to  the  .spin- 
dle, which  also  turns 
on  its  a.xis.  so  as  to 
bring  all  parts  of  the 


A  device  for   cleansing  tht 
Fig.  8.35. 


B  •ttlinz-Machitte, 


BOTTLING-MACHINE. 


346 


BOUGIE. 


bottle  successively  into  the  lowest  position.  Thus 
IS  bottles  are  washed  at  once,  anil  at  the  rate  of  45 
gross  per  ilay.  An  enlarged  form  of  the  machine  is 
used  for  kegs  and  liarrels. 

Bot'tling-ma-chine'.  A  machine  for  filling  hot- 
ties  and  corking  tln-ni.  The  example  iFig.  H.ii)  is 
constructed  to  till  with  soda-water  or  with  soda- 
water  and  syru[i  comljined.  It  first  injects  a  gradu- 
ated amount  of  syrup  into  the  bottle,  and  then  tin- 
water. 

In  Fig.  836  is  shown  a  bottling-machine  in  which 
the  bottle  stands  in  a  metallic  cup,  and  the  lip  is 


Fig.  83i;. 


Bottting-Mdchine. 

centered  by  the  pressure  upon  it  of  an  inverted  fun- 
nel, depressed  by  a  spring.  The  liquid  is  introduced 
at  the  faucet,  and  the  cork  is  driven  in  through  the 
vertical  tube. 

Bot'tling-pli'ers.  Pliers  specifically  adapted  for 
fastening  wiles  over  the  corks  and  necks  of  liottles 
and  for  cutting  off  the  surplus. 

Bot'tom.  1.  {Fort.)  A  circular  disk  with  holes 
to  hold  tile  rods  in  the  formation  of  a  gabion. 

2.  (Sliiptrriiihthu/.)  The  planks  forming  the  floor 
of  a  ship's  liold. 

3.  (OrdiKiHce.)  One  of  the  plates  by  w^hich  grape 
or  canister  is  built  up  into  a  cylinder  suitable  for 
loading  into  the  gun.  Cast-iron  tops  and  bottoms 
for  giape  ;  wrought-iron  for  canister. 

4.  iMdchineri/.)  Cogs  are  said  to  bottom  when 
their  tops  impinge  upon  tlie .  periphery  of  the  co- 
acting  wheel. 

A  piston  which  strikes  or  touches  the  end  of  its 
cylinder  is  said  to  bottom. 

Fig.  837. 


Bot'tom-dis'charge  'Water-wrheel.  A  tur- 
biiir  Iniiii  wliicii  tlie  water  is  ilisi  liarged  at  the  bot- 
tom instead  of  at  the  sides.  In  tluit  illustrated,  the 
stream  is  admitted  horizontally  at  the  sides  into  the 
vertical  buckets  C\  through  wliiih  it  passes,  and 
tlien  acts  while  descending  upon  inclined  buckets  F. 
The  lower  How  descends  over  the  inrlincd  buckets  B 
at  the  periphery  of  the  wheel.  The  balanced  gates 
Ji,  for  admittance  of  water,  are  opened  by  segmental 
racks  on  their  shafts,  which  engage  witli  similar  racks 
on  ail  upper  wheel. 

Bot'tom-heat.  Artificial  temperature  beneath 
the  surlarc  of  the  soil  in  a  forcing-house. 

Bot'toni-iiig.  1.  (Ciril  Eiiijiiieering.)  The  foun- 
dation iif  a  road-bed. 

2.  (RiiUroad  Eiujiiieering.)  Ballasting  beneath 
and  around  tics. 

Bot'tom-ing-hole.  (Gluss-Making.)  The  open 
mouth  of  a  furnace  at  which  a  globe  of  crown  ghiss 
is  exposed  during  the  progress  of  its  manufacture,  iu 
order  to  soften  it  and  allow  it  to  assume  an  oblate 
form. 

Bot'tom-lift.  (Milling.)  The  deepest  lift  of  a 
niining-iiump,  or  the  lowest  inimp. 

Bot'tom-plate.  (Printing.)  A  plate  of  iron 
belonging  to  the  mold  of  a  printing-press,  on  which 
the  carriage  is  fixed. 

Bot'toms.  1.  (Mining.)  The  deepest  workings. 
2.  {Metallurgy.)  Heavy  and  impure  metallic  pro- 
ducts of  reliiiing,  found  at  the  bottom  of  tlie  furnace 
in  some  of  the  stages  of  the  copper-smelting  processes. 
Bot'tom-tool.  {Wood -turning.)  A  turning- 
tool  having  a  bent-over  end,  for  cutting  out  the  bot- 
toms of  cylin  drical  hollow  work. 

Bouche.  A  cylinder  of  copper  in  which  the  vent 
of  a  piece  of  ordnance  is  drilled.  It  has  an  exterior 
screw-thread  cut  on  it,  so  that  it  may  be  removed 
when  the  vent  becomes  worn,  or  a  new  bouche  sub- 
stituted. 

Bouch'iug.  The  gun-metal  Ijusliing  of  a  block- 
sheave  around  the  pin-liole. 

Bouge;  Bowge.  (Nautical.)  A  rope  fa.stened 
to  the  niiildle  of  a  sail  to  make  it  stand  closer  to  the 
winil. 

Bou-gie'.  (Surgical.)  A  smooth,  flexible,  elas- 
tic, slender  cylinder,  designed  to  be  introduced  into 
the  urethra,  rectum,  or  esophagus,  in  order  to  open 
or  dilate  it  in  cases  of  stricture  or  other  diseases. 

Fig.  838. 


Duirinva.'l- Di fdiarsie  Waler-Whed. 


G 


Bouses. 

The  slenderer  forms  of  bougies  are  adapted  for  the 
urethra,  the  larger  for  the  rectum,  vagina,  and 
esophagus.  They  are  said  to  have  been  invented  by 
Aldereto,  a  Portuguese  physician,  and  were  first  de- 
scribed by  Aniatus,  oneof  liis]iuiiil,s,  in  1.5.')4.  They 
are  made  either  solid  or  hollow,  and  are  sometimes 
medicated.  Pickel,  a  French  medical  professor,  gives 
the  following  recipe  for  their  manufacture  :  3  parts 
of  boiled  linseed-oil,  1  of  amber,  and  1  of  oil  of  tui'peu- 
tine,  are  to  be  melted  and  well  mixed  together,  and 
spread  at  three  successive  intervals  upon  a  silk  cord  or 
web.  The  jiieces  thus  coated  are  then  to  be  placed  in 
a  stove  heated  to  l.'iO"  F.,  and  allowed  to  remain  for 
12  hours,  15  or  16  fresh  layers  of  the  composition  being 


BOULDER-HEAn. 


347 


BOW. 


added  in  succession  until  the  boiigies  are  brought  to 
the  required  size.  They  are  ne.xt  jiolished  with 
pumice-stone,  and  afterwards  smoothed  with  tripoli 
and  oih  In  Paris,  whicli  is  tlie  cliief  seat  of  the  man- 
ufacture of  these  articles,  one  seventh  of  its  weight  of 
caoutchouc  is  dissolved  in  the  oil,  to  render  the  com- 
pound more  solid.  For  this  purpose  the  caoutchouc  is 
cut  into  slender  filaments  and  added  to  the  hot  oil. 
Each  successive  layer  is  first  dried  in  a  stove,  and 
then  in  the  open  air,  before  another  is  applied.  For 
the  best,  or  clastic  bougies,  the  process  requires  two 
months  foi'  its  completion  ;  these  should  bear  twist- 
ing around  the  finger  without  cracking  or  scaling, 
and  lie  caiinble  of  stretching  without  giving  way, 
but  retract  on  iieing  let  go. 

For  hollow  bougies  an  iron  wire  is  introduced  into 
the  axis  of  the  silk  tissue,  and  withdrawn  when  the 
bougie  is  finished.  Some  are  njade  with  a  hollow 
axis  of  tiu  foil  rolled  into  a  hollow  tube.  They  are 
also  made  entirely  of  caoutchouc,  dissolved  in  sul- 
phuric ether. 

An  armed  bougw  is  one  with  a  piece  of  caustic 
fi.xed  i)i  its  extremity. 

HuNtKu's  bougie  is  a  rolled  piece  of  soft  linen 
dijipeil,  prexdous  to  rolling,  in  a  composition  of 

Yellow  wax  .         .         .         .         .2 

Red  lead 3 

Olive-oil      ......     6 

Finish  off  on  a  poUshed  slab. 

t'aovitchouc  bougies  are  made  by  applying  a  solu- 
tion of  india-rubber  to  the  silk  cord. 

Gutta-percha  bougies  must  be  made  of  the  best  ma- 
terial, as  their  breaking  in  situ  may  prove  fatal.  It 
is  better  to  use  a  silk  cord,  covered  with  the  desired 
composition. 

Otis's  bougie  A  boule  (c)  has  a  rounded  and  elon- 
gated head  fixed  on  the  stem,  which  slides  through  a 
handle  and  is  held  fast  by  a  set  screw. 

a  is  an  ordinary  bougie. 

b  a  bulbous  bougie. 

Boul'der-head.  (Hydraulic  Engineering.)  A 
work  of  won; leu  stakes  to  resist  the  encroachment  of 
the  sea. 

Boul'der-ing- stone.  (Metal  -working.)  A 
smootli  Hint  stone,  used  liy  cutlers  to  smooth  down 
the  faces  of  ghci-rx  and  emery-wheels. 

Boul'der-pav'ing.  Paving  with  round  water- 
woru  bouldcr.s,  set  on  a  graded  bottom  of  gravel. 

Boul'der-wall.  (Masonru.)  One  made  of  boul- 
ilers  or  flints  set  in  mortar. 

Boul'tine.  {Arehitedure.)  A  convex  molding, 
whose  |prvi|ihery  is  a  quarter  of  a  circle,  ne.xt  below 
the  plinth  in  the  Doric  and  Tuscan  orders. 

Bovmd.     The  path  of  a  shot  comprised  between 

Xviu  gni-rx.       Sfi-  RicOCHET-FliaNG. 

Boun'da-ry-line.  (Shipbuilding.)  The  trace  of 
the  outer  surlace  of  the  skin  of  a  ship  on  the  stem, 
keel,  and  stern-post.  It  corresponds  W'ith  the  outer 
edge  of  the  rabb.-t  in  those  parts  of  the  structure. 

Bour'dou  Ba-rom'e-ter.  The  metallic  barom- 
eter invented  liy  liourdon,  of  Paris,  1849,  consists  of 
an  elastic  fiattened  tube  of  nu-tal  bent  to  a  circular 
form  and  exhausted  of  air,  so  that  the  ends  of  the 
tubes  separate  a.s  the  atmospheric  pressure  is  dimin- 
ished, and  approach  as  it  increases. 

In  Fig.  839,  A  is  a  front  view,  showing  the  hand 
or  indii-ator  a  and  the  scale  ;  b  and  c  represent  ordi- 
nary mercurial  thermometers  attached  lo  the  face. 
7)  is  a  back  view,  showing  d,  the  tube,  secured  at 
its  middle  r,  and  having  its  ends  connected  by  links 
/  /  to  two  short  levers  g  g,  on  the  same  axis  as  the 
hand  a,  and  operating,  by  means  of  the  link-connec- 
tions, to  multiply  its  motion  as  the  ends  of  the  tubes 


Fig.  839. 


Bourdon  Earoinefer. 

approach  or  recede,  h  is  an  open  plate  which  may 
be  sprung  apart,  so  as  to  allow  the  adjustment  of 
the  levers  and  hand  to  any  particular  range. 

C  is  a  transverse  vertical  section. 

I)  represents  sections  of  various  tubes  which  may 
be  employed. 

The  more  approved  forms  of  steam  and  vacuum 
gages  are  now  constnicted  on  this  principle. 

The  Bourdon  is  commonly  known  as  the  metallic 
barometer,  although  the  aneroid  is  also  metallic,  and 
both  Iiolu.stcric. 

Bour-geois'.  (Printing.)  A  .size  of  type  between 
Brccicr  ami  Lony  Primer. 

Brevier,  112  ems  to  the  foot. 

Bourgeois,  102  ems  to  the  foot. 

Long  Primer,  90  ems  to  tlie  foot. 

Bou-tant'.  (Architecture.)  An  arc-boutant  is  an 
arch  or  liuttress  serving  to  sustain  a  vault,  and 
which  is  itself  sustained  by  some  strong  wall  or  mas- 
sive pile.     A  flying-buttress. 

Bo'w.  1.  {.Irchcry.)  An  instrument  for  pro- 
jecting an  ai'row.  It  consists  of  a  strip  of  wood  or 
other  material,  the  ends  connected  by  a  string.  The 
bow  is  bent  by  retraction  of  the  string,  and  the  re- 
coil imparted  to  the  latter  projects  the  arrow.  In 
its  simple  state,  and  when  large  enough  to  be  used 
for  military  purposes  or  for  destroying  large  animals, 
it  is  known  as  the  long-bow  ;  when  mounted  trans- 
versely in  a  stock,  it  is  a  cross-bow.  The  former  is 
exclusively  adapted  for  shooting  arrows  ;  while  bolts, 
or  even  round  projectiles,  may  he  thrown  by  the  lat- 
ter. 

The  long-bow,  owing  to  its  greater  portability  and 
capability  of  rapid  discharge,  was  a  nuich  more  ef- 
fective weapon  than  the  cross-bow,  and  continued  in 
use  for  a  long  time  al'ter  the  introduction  of  fire-arms. 
The  English  archers,  like  the  Egyptians  in  the  time 
of  Rameses  the  Great,  were  taught  to  draw  the  arrow 
to  the  ear,  instead  of  to  the  .shoulder,  as  was  the  prac- 
tice elsewhere,  and  hence  constituted  a  most  effec- 
tive species  of  force  almost  unknown  in  the  other 
annies  of  Europe.     220  yards  from  the  butt  or  target 


BOW. 


348 


BOW-DRILL. 


wa.s  tlie  smallest  ilistance  allowed  for  practice  by  a 
full-grown  man,  according  to  the  English  archery- 
statutes.  The  cross-bow,  as  used  by  the  Genoese, 
whose  archers  were  in  high  repute  in  the  Middle  Ages, 
was  a  cumbrous  and  heavy  weapon  bent  by  a  small 
windlass,  and  incapable  of  rapid  loading  and  dis- 
charge. 

For  illustr.ations  see  "  Iconogi'aphic  Encyclopedia," 
"Frost's  I'ictorial  History";  and  for  de.scriptions 
see  "  Gibbon's  History"  and  other  works  treating 
of  ancient  aud  mediaeval  military  tactics  and  weap- 
ons. 

The  use  of  the  bow  is  of  great  antiquity.  Plato 
credits  Apollo  with  the  invention.  Ishmael  became 
im  archer  (Gen.  x.xi.  20).  The  Philistine  archers 
overcame  Sanl  (1  Sam.  x.x.xi.  3).  David  command- 
ed it  to  be  taught  (2  Sara.  i.  18).  Aster  of  Am- 
phipolis  shot  Philip  of  Macedon,  and  was  hanged 
therefor.  An  ancient  Egyptian  bow  is  preserved  in 
the  Abbott  Museum,  New  York,  together  with  the 
leather  case  that  contained  it  and  fastened  it  to  the 
wai-chariot.  Four  arrows,  made  of  reed  and  tipped 
with  Hint-stone,  are  suspended  with  it. 

The  Scythian  bow  was  remarkable  for  its  great 
curvature,  being  nearly  .semicircular. 

The  Lycian  bow  was  made  of  the  cornel-tree  ; 
those  of  the  Ethiopians  of  the  palm-tree.  The  horn 
of  the  antelope  was  used  in  the  East  for  bows,  at 
least  as  far  back  as  the  siege  of  Troy,  and  is  still  em- 
ployed for  the  purpose.  The  English  long-bow  was 
made  of  yew  or  ash. 

The  Indian  contingent  of  the  army  of  Xerxes 
had  bows  of  cane  and  arrows  of  cane  with  iron 
points.  They  wore  cotton  dresses.  (Herodotus  vii. 
65.) 

The  arrow-heads  of  the  Ethiopians  were  of  agate 
and  other  siliceous  stones.  "  Pieces  of  stone  of  the 
kind  usi'il  in  engraving  seals." —  Ibid. 

The  bows  of  the  Ethiopians  were  of  the  stem  of 
the  palm-leaf. 

Pliny  says  :  "  It  is  by  the  aid  of  the  reed  that  the 
nations  of  the  East  decide  their  wars.  Fully  one 
half  of  mankind  live  under  a  dominion  imjiosed  by 
the  agency  of  the  arrow."  The  Eastern  reed,  so 
called,  was  a  l.iamboo. 

Harold,  William  Rufus,  and  Richard  \.  were 
killed  by  arrows.  Crecy,  Poictiers,  and  Agincourt 
were  won  by  archers.  The  long-bow  of  that  time 
measured  six  feet,  the  arrow  three  feet.  The  range 
was  ano  to  500  yards. 

In  the  Southwest  of  England  bows  and  arrows 
did  not  finally  disappear  from  the  7uuster-roll  till 
1599.  The  nm.skets  were  such  miserable  affairs  that 
in  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  century  it  took  fifteen 
minutes  to  charge  and  fire  one. 

2.  (Hitshandr)j. )  The  bent  piece  which  embraces 
the  neck  of  an  ox,  the  ends  coming  up  through  the 
yoke,  aliove  which  they  are  fastened  by  a  key. 

3.  (Mac/iineri/.)  An  elastic  rod  and  string  for 
giving  reciprocating  rotation  to  a  drill.  See  Bow- 
DIULL. 

4.  {Drawing.)  An  elastic  slip  for  describing 
cui'ves.     An  arcograph. 

5.  {Hat-making.)  A  piece  of  elastic  wood,  six 
feet  long,  and  having  a  catgut  string  stretched  be- 
tween its  extrenuties.  The  vibrating  string  operates 
upon  the  felting-hair  on  a  gi'id  called  a  hurdle,  light- 
ens up  the  libers,  assembles  them  into  a  bat,  and 
drives  out  the  dust.      See  Bo\VIN(!. 

6.  {Masunrg.)  A  projecting  portion  of  a  building 
of  circular  or  multangular  plan. 

Tlie  Ixnv-windows  of  English  domestic  architec- 
ture are  known  as  orieh. 

7.  (VrJiicIe.H.)     A  bent  .slat   to  sujiiiort  the  hood, 


canopy,  cover,  or  tilt  of  a  vehicle  ;  otherwise   called 
a  dai. 

8.  (Music.)  A  numberof  long  horse-hairs  stretched 
upon  an  elastic  rod,  and  used  to  vibrate  the  strings 
of  instruments  of  the  viol  class. 

9.  (Lock.)  The  loop  of  a  key  which  receives  the 
fingers. 

10.  {Weapon.)  The  arched  guard  of  a  sword-hilt 
or  of  the  trigger  of  a  tire-arm. 

11.  {Saddterg.)  The  arched  forward  part  of  a 
saddle-tree  which  straddles  the  horse's  back. 

12.  (Nautical.)  An  old  nautical  instrument  for 
taking  angles.  It  had  one  large  graduated  arc  of 
90°,  three  vanes,  and  a  shank  or  staff.  —  Al)MIK.\i. 
Smyth. 

Bow.     The  fore  end  of  a  ship  or  boat. 

Bow-com'pass.  {Mathematical  In-itrviiient.) 
For  drawing  cuuves  of  large  radius.  It  consists  of 
a  ]iliable  stri|i  which  is  bent  by  screws  to  any  cun-e. 
An  arrngnipli. 

Bow-drill.  A  drill  operated  by  means  of  a  bow, 
the  coi-d  of  which  is  given  one  or  more  turns  around 
the  handle  of  the  drill,  and  alternate  revolution  in 
opposite  directions  imparted  to  it  by  alternately  re- 
ciprocating the  bow  backward  and  forward. 

The  most  ancient  drill  of  which  we  have  any  au- 
thentic representation  i.s  the  bow-drill.  The  annexed 
cut  is  from  a  jjainting  in  a  tomb  at  Thebes,  where 
one  diill  is  shown  in  its  detachable  socket,  and  an- 
other one  disconnected.    So  much  pains  did  the  artist 


Fig.  840. 


Bou>- Drill. 

take  to  make  all  plain  to  the  comprehension  of  the 
spectator  of  future  ages.  It  was  for  such  they  were 
painted,  as  the  tombs  themselves  were  occupied  by 
the  mortal  remains  which  they  expected  to  be  again 
tenanted  by  the  same  mind  and  soul. 

The  various  tools  employed  in  chair-making  are 
.shown  in  the  hands  of  the  workmen  or  hanging  on 
the  wall.  The  saw  and  the  adze  were  the  principal 
shaping-tools.  The  parts  of  the  chair  were  secured 
together  by  tenon  and  mortise,  fastened  by  wooden 
pins.    See  the  chairs  in  Dr.  Abbott's  collection.  New 


BOWER. 


349 


BOWL. 


York  Historical  Society's  Museum.  The  same  col- 
lection has  drill-bows  and  cords  from  Sakkarah  and 
elsewhere. 

The  modern  bow-drill  is  shown  in  Figs.  841,  842. 
a  in  each  figure  is  designed  to  have  a  back-center  in 
one  of  the  holes  in  the  end  of  the  vise-cheek,  in  which 
case  the  work  is  held  in  the  left  hand  and  the  bow 

Fig.  842. 


in  the  right  ;  or  the  drill-stock  may  have  a  handle  h 
which  is  grasped  in  the  left  hand,  pressitig  the  drill 
upon  the  work,  which  is  on  the  bench  or  in  the 
vise,  while  the  bow  is  operated  by  the  right  hand. 

Freeman's    drill,    instead 
Fig  84.3.  of  a  bow,  has  a  Hat  strip  of 

wood  with  a  facing  of  india- 
rubber,  wliich  has  sufficient 
frictional  adhesion  to  the 
wooden  pulley  on  the  drill- 
stock  to  rotate  it  by  pressure, 
when  the  flat  strip  is  recipro- 
cated like  a  violin  bow. 

Fig.  843  shows  a  pair  of 
pulleys  driven  by  a  catgut 
cord  as  the  bow  is  recipro- 
cated. The  bow  -  string  is 
wound  around  one  of  the  pul- 
leys, and  the  a.xis  of  the  other 
is  a  stock  which  holds  the 
drill  a,  and  enables  it  to  be 
presented  at  right  angles  to 
the  length  of  the  stock. 

BoWer.   (yau/iail.)    The 

usual  working-anchors  at  the 

bow,  known  as  bist  and  small ; 

Bow- Drill.  not  from  any  difl'erence  in  size, 

but    according    to   position. 

The  starloard  is  the  best  ;  the  port,  the  small. — 

Ad.mir-\.l  S.myth. 

Bow-fast.  (Nautical.)  A  hawser  at  the  bow, 
whereby  a  ship  is  secured  alongside  a  wharf  or  other 
object. 

Bow-file.     A  curved  file.     A  Riffler. 
Bow-grace.    {Nautical.)    Or  Bon-grace.    A  fen- 
der made  of  junk  and  ropes,  lapping  around  the  bow 
as  a  protection  agauist  floating  ice. 

Bo'W'ie-kmfe.  A  weapon  used  in  the  South  and 
Southwest,  and  named  after  the  inventor,  who  had 
a  taste  in  that  direction,  and  strongly  insisted  upon 
its  superiority  to  the  ordfnary  stiletto. 

Bow'ing.  (Rat-nmking.)  A  mode  of  .separating 
the  filaments  of  felting-fur,  and  distributing  them 
lightly  in  an  openwork  frame,  called  a  basket.  The 
oval  sheet  of  fur  thus  obtained  is  worked  by  pressure, 
and  a  rubbing  jerking  motion,  which  causes  the  fi- 
bers to  interlace  (felt),  so  that  the  .sheet  of  napping 
can  be  handled  and  shaped  by  the  succeeding  pro- 
cesses. 

In  hoioing,  the  amount  of  fur  is  weighed  out, 
placed  in  a  wad  on  the  bench,  and,  the  bow  being 
held  over  it,  the  string  is  twanged  by  a  wooden  pin 
in  the  hand  of  the  workman,  so  as  to  pick  up  a  (juan- 
tity  of  the  filaments  at  each  vibration,  and  throw 
theni  on  to  the  basket,  or  wire  screen. 


Fig.  844. 


Bowing. 

Bow-in'stru-ments.  (Ahisic.)  A  temi  includ- 
ing that  class  of  stringed  insti'uments  which  are 
played  by  means  of  a  bow.  The  violin,  violoncello, 
double  bass,  etc. 

Another  class  of  stringed  instruments  is  played  by 
the  fingers  or  plectrum  ;  as  the  guitar,  harp,  harpsi- 
chord, etc. 

Another  class  is  represented  by  the  piano-forte 
and  dulcimer,  the  strings  being  vibrated  by  a  ham- 
mer. 

Another  by  the  air  ;  as  the  seolian. 

Bow-i'ron.     (Vehicle.)    The  staple  on  the  side 

Fig.  845. 


Bow-Iron. 

of  a  wagon-bed  which  receives  the  bows  of  the  tilt 
or  cover,  as  in  Fig.  345. 

Bowk'ing.  The  process  of  boiling  in  an  alkaline 
lye  in  a  kier.     Bucking. 

'  Bowl.  (Knitting-machine.)  A  roller  or  anti- 
friction wheel,  on  which  the  carriage  traverses.  A 
truck,  in  Nottingham  parlance. 

1.  An  open  vessel  of  segiuental  or  frusto-conical 
form,  for  containing  liriuids  ;  larger  and  proportion- 
ately less  deep  than  a  cup. 

"The  Thibetans  have  no  porcelain,  but  their  pot- 
teries are,  nevertheless,  of greatexcellence.  Thewood-' 
en  bowls,  which  every  one  carries,  are  made  of  the 
root  of  certain  trees  which  grow  on  the  mountains 
of  Thibet.  They  are  of  a  simple  but  elegant  form, 
and  have  no  other  decoration  tlum  a  slight  coating  of 


BOWLINE. 


350 


liOW-STRING    BRIDGE. 


varnish,  which  does  not  hide  eitlierthe  natural  color 
or  the  veins  of  the  wooJ.  .Some  of  these  bowls  may 
be  purchased  for  a  few  jienee,  and  others  are  valued 

at  one  hundred  ounces  of  silver To  us  tliey 

seeined  all  alike They  say  that  some  have  the 

power  of  neutralizing  poisons."  (Abbe  Hue's  "Trav- 
els in  Tartary,"  etc.)  Each  Tartar  carries  his  bowl 
in  the  bosom  of  his  robe. 

2.  The  hollow  open  part  of  anything,  as  of  a 
spoon,  a  tobacco-pipe,  etc. 

3.  A  ball  ;  more  particularly,  a  large  wooden  ball 
used  in  the  sport  of  bowling. 

Bow'line.  {Xauticaf.)  A  rope  connected  by 
bridh's  to  tile  middle  of  the  leech  of  a  sijuare  sail, 
and  passing  forward,  so  as  to  keej^  the  weatlier-edge 
of  the  sail  well  forward  when  sailing  dosf -hauled, 
and  enable  the  ship  to  come  nearer  to  the  wind.  On 
a  bowU)}c  :  sailing  close  or  elose-hetided. 

Bow'line-bri'dle.  (Xautiml.)  The  span  which 
connects  the  bowline  to  several  cringles  on  the  leech 
of  a  sipiare  sail. 

Bo'w'line-knot.  (Nautical.)  A  peculiar  knot 
by  wliiili  bowline-bridles  are  fastened  to  the  crin- 
gles.    Sec  Knot. 

Bow-lines.  (Shipbuilding.)  Curves  represent- 
ing vertiial  si'ctions  of  the  bow-end  of  a  ship. 

Bo'wl-ma-chine'.  A  machine  for  making  wooden 
bowls. 

The  solid  cylindrical  blank  is  clutched  by  the  rear 
end  in  the  lathe,  and  its  forward  end  turas  in  the 

Fig.  846. 


Bowl-Machine, 

cylindrical  rest  E,  which  is  ailjustable  longitudinally, 
and  gives  fulcrum-bearing  to  the  lever  F  carrying 
the  curved  cutting-tool  G.  The  blank  is  rotated  and 
the  bowl  cut  by  sweeping  the  lever  around  a  curve  of 

90°.    The  neces- 


Fig.  847 


Bmc-Pen. 


sarily  iucrea.sed 
thickness  of  the 
bottom  gives  op- 
portunity to  re- 
move a  plano- 
convex disk  to 
form  a  flattened 
bottom. 

Bo-w-net. 
(Nautical. )  A 
lobster-trap 
made  of  two 
round  wicker- 
baskets,  one 
thrust  within 
the  other,  and 
having  a  lip  to 
oppose  the  re- 
tnrn  of  the  fish. 

BoTv-pen. 
[Matlu'-matical 
Instrument . ) 
A  form  of  com- 


passes for  the  finer  and  more  minute  parts  of  me- 
chanical and  architectural  drawing.  The  legs  are 
opened  by  the  elasticity  of  the  bow,  as  the  nut  a  is 
receded  on  the  .screw-  b,  and  are  approached  by  the 
contrai-y  motion  of  the  nut.  It  is  a  small  pair  of 
compasses,  and  may  be  of  similar  construction  to  the 
larger  ;  that  is,  the  legs  may  be  united  by  a  rivet, 
dispensing  with  the  bow.  Some  of  them  have  shift- 
ing legs,  so  as  to  substitute  pen,  pencil,  the  ordinary 
point,  or  the  needle-point.  They  then  lack  all  the 
specialties  of  the  bow-pen  except  size. 

C(Fig.  847)  shows  a  revolving  bow  pen  and  pen- 
cil, so  called,  although  the  bow  is  absent.  The  pen 
e  and  pencil  d  are  at  the  respective  ends  of  a  leg 
which  rotates  on  an  axis  e  to  bring  either  into  posi- 
tion. 

^  is  a  sprinq  bow-pen. 

B  a  sprinq  boir-pencil. 

Bow-pen'cil.  A  form  of  compasses  of  the  small- 
er kind  w  hich  are  capable  of  delicate  adjustment  for 
describing  njinute  circles  and  arcs  of  small  radius. 
The  mode  of  adjustment  is  similar  to  the  bow-pen. 
It  is  also  tolerably  evident  from  the  figure.  A  black 
lead-pencil  pared  down  to  a  small  size,  or  the  lead 
from  a  pencil,  is  clamped  in  the  socket,  and  is  ad- 
vanced as  it  wears  or  is  shaved  away  in  sharpening. 
See  Bow-i'EN,  B. 

Bow-pin.  (Husbandry.)  A  cotter  or  key  for 
holding  in  jilace  the  bow  of  an  o.x-yoke. 

Bow-saw.  A  saw  having  a  thin  blade,  kept 
taut  by  a  straining  frame  in  the  manner  of  a  bow  and 
string.  A  sweep-saw  or  turning-saw.  See  Fkame- 
.s.\\v. 

Bow'sprit  [Nautical.)  A  .spar  projecting  for- 
ward from  the  bows  of  a  vessel.  It  supports  the  jib- 
boom  and  flying  jib-boom,  and  to  it  ami  these  spars 
the  fore-stay,  fore  to)imast-stay,  etc.,  are  secured.  It 
is  tied  down  by  the  bobsteiys  and  by  the  gammoning. 
It  is  stayed  laterally  by  the  boic.sprit-shrouds.  It 
rests  upon  the  stem  and  the  aprmi. 

The  part  which  rests  on  the  stem,  is  the  bed  ;  the 
inner  part  from  that  point  is  the  housing ;  the  inner 
end  is  the  heel ;  the  outer  end  the  head  or  bees-seat- 
ing. 

The  gammoning  is  the  lashing  by  which  the  bow- 
spiit  is  secured  to  the  knee  of  the  head. 

The  martingale  is  a  spar  depending  from  the  bow- 
sprit-end, and  is  used  for  reeving  the  stays. 

The  liccl-chain  is  for  holding  out  the  jili-boom,  and 
the  crupper-chain  for  lashing  it  down  to  the  bowsprit. 

The  bowsprit  has  — 

Heel.  Bobstays. 

Head.  Shrouds. 

Fiddle  or  bees.  Martingale. 

Chock.  Dolphin-striker. 
Gammoning. 

Bowsprits  are  standing,  that  is,  permanent,  as  in 
large  vessels  or  sloops  ;  or  running-in  bowsprits,  as 
in  cutters. 

Bow-string  Bridge.  One  in  which  the  hori- 
zontal thrust  of  the  arch  or  trussed  beam  is  resisted 
by  means  of  a  horizontal  tie  attached  as  nearly  as 
possible  to  the  chord-line  of  the  arch. 

Girders  and  beams  have  also  been  constructed  in 
the  same  way.  The  arched-beam  roof  of  the  New 
York  and  Harlem  Railway  Depot,  New  York,  illus- 
trated opposite  to  page  139,  is  of  this  character. 

The  roadway  forms  a  chord,  and  is  supported  by 
tension-rods  from  the  arches  wdiich  span  the  space 
between  abutments. 

The  Howslett  liridge,  erected  by  Mr.  Leather,  has 
a  span  of  152  feet  ;  versed  sine,  33  feet ;  hight 
above  water,  43  feet  ;  width,  33  feet  ;  cost,  i'4,200. 


1!0\V-.STK1NG   GIKDKR. 


351 


BOX-MAKING   MACHINE. 


Fig.  84S. 


Bow-Siring  Bridge  at  Howslelt,  England, 


Bow-string  Gird'er.  A  bow-string  girder  con- 
sists of  an  aivhed  l>i-ain  re.sisting  thrnst  ;  a  horizon- 
tal tie  resisting  tension  and  holding  together  tlie 
ends  of  the  arched  rib  ;  a  series  of  vertical  suspend- 
ing-hars  by  which  the  platform  is  hnng  from  the 
arched  rib  ;  and  a  series  of  diagonal  braces  between 
the  snspending  bars.     See  previous  article. 

Bow'teL  {.Irchi/eclure.)  The  shaft  of  a  clustered 
pillar,  or  a  shaft  attached  to  the  jambs  of  a  door  or 
window. 

Bfl'w'tell.  (Architecture.)  A  plain  circular  mold- 
ing. 

Box.  A  receptacle  in  which  something  else  is 
held  or  contained,  frequently  deriving  its  specific 
name  from  the  article  it  is  intended  to  contain  ; 
sometimes  from  its  mechanical  purpose  or  associa- 
tion, or  its  material. 


Pepper-box. 

Plant-box. 

Post-office  bo.x. 

Eailway-car  axle-box. 

Besistance-box. 

Signal-box. 

Stuffing-box. 

Thread-box. 

Ticket-box. 

Wheel-hub  box. 


Axle-box. 

Ballot-box. 

Cartridge-bo.x. 

Fare-box. 

Fruit-box. 

Hat-box. 

Journal-box. 

Letter-box. 

Match-box. 

Paper-box. 

The  more  important  of  these  will  be  considered 
under  their  alphabetical  heads. 

The  boxes  of  ancient  Egypt  were  made  with  great 
neatness,  the  lids  being  hinged  in  various  ways  and 
well  fitted.  In  the  Abbott  Museum,  New  York 
City,  and  in  other  collections,  are  many- specimens. 
For  example  :  — 

Carved  mummy-cases  built  up  of  parts  doweled 
together,  or  of  single  blocks,  forming  the  case  and 
lid  respectively,  hollowed  out  by  the  adze  and  scor- 
per. 

Boxes  carved  in  the  shape  of  cats,  and  hollowed 
out  to  receive  muniniies  of  those  animals.  The 
cases  are  painted  and  have  glass  eyes. 

Boxes  carved  like  scarabrei,  and  used  to  contain 
unguent's.  Others  bored  like  reeds,  to  hold  the  kohl 
used  to  blacken  the  eyelids,  as  in  the  days  of  Jezebel. 

The  boxes  have  sliding  or  hinged  lids  in  great  va- 
riety, and  some  of  them  in  excellent  taste.  They 
are  made  of  wood,  stone,  bone,  marble,  porcelain, 
hippopotamus  tooth,  etc.,  and  are  inlaid,  carved, 
painted,  and  decorated  with  ornaments. 

2.  (Machinery.)  a.  A  journal-bearing.  It  usu- 
ally consists  of  two  brasses  with  semi-cylindrical 
grooves  ;  one  piece  rests  upon  the  journal,  which  lies 
in  the  other  piece.  See  Pillow-block  ;  Axle-box  ; 
Car-axle. 

b.  A  chamber  in  which  a  valve  works. 

c.  See  STrFFiXG-BOX. 

3.  (Hydraulics. )  a.  A  pump-bucket.  A  hollow 
plunger  with  a  lifting-valve. 

b.  Tlie  upper  part  of  a  pump-stock. 


4.  (Locksmithing.)  The  socket  on  a  door-jamb 
which  receives  the  bolt. 

5.  A  drain  with  a  rectangular  section. 

6.  A  square  notch  cut  into  a  sugar-tree  to  start 
and  catch  the  sugur-iratcr  (in  the  West)  or  the  sap 
(in  the  Eastern  States).  It  is  considered  more  waste- 
ful of  the  timber  than  tapping  with  the  gouge  or  the 
auger. 

7.  (Weamng.)  a.  The  pulley-case  of  a  draw-loom 
on  which  rest  the  small  rollers  for  conducting  the 
tail-cords. 

b.  The  receptacle  for  the  shuttle  at  the  end  of 
the  shed. 

8.  (Printing.)  A  compartment  in  a  case  appro- 
priated to  a  certain  letter. 

9.  (Founding. )   A  flask  or  frame  for  sand-molding. 

10.  (Vehicle.)  a.  The  iron  bushing  of  a  nave  or 
hub.     See  Axle-box. 

b.  The  driving-seat  of  a  coach  or  close  carriage. 

11.  (Vise.)  The  hollow  screw-socket  of  a  bench- 
vi.se. 

Box  and  Tap.  (Machinery.)  A  device  for  cut- 
ting wood  screws  for  carpenters'  benches,  clamps, 
bedstead-rails. 

Box-beam.  (Metal-working.)  A  beam  of  iron 
plates  secured  by  angle-iron,  and  having  a  double 
web  fomiing  a  cell.     See  GiiiDER. 

Box-oar.  (Railroad  Engineering.)  A  closed  car 
intended  lor  freight. 

Box-drain.  (Hydraulic  Engineering.)  An  un- 
derground drain  built  of  brick  and  stone,  and  of  a 
rectangular  section. 

Box-frame.  (Carpentry.)  A  casing  behind  the 
winilow-juiiib  for  counterbalance-weights. 

Box-glrd'er.  (Building.)  An  iron  beam  made 
of  boiler-plate,  the  four  sides  riveted  to  angle-iron. 

Box'ing.  1.  (Joinery.)  The  ca.sing  of  a  window- 
frame  into  which  inside  shutters  fold. 

2.  (Shipwrighting.)  The  scarf -joint  uniting  the 
stem  with  the  keel. 

3.  { JVood-vorking.)  The  fitting  of  the  shoulder 
of  a  tenon  in  the  surface  of  the  timber,  which  is  mor- 
tised for  the  reception  of  the  tenon. 

4.  A  mode  of  cutting  a  deep  and  hollow  notch 
into  sugar  or  pine  trees  to  catch  the  flow.  The  notch 
differs  in  the  respective  cases,  but  in  each  a  piece  is 
boxed  out,  and  the  process  thus  differs  from  the  bor- 
ing or  tapping  of  the  maple  and  from  the  hacking  of 
the  pine. 

Box-i'ron.  A  hollow  smoothing-iron,  heated  by 
a  hot  iron  within. 

Box-key.  An  upright  key,  used  for  turning  the 
nuts  of  large  bolts,  or  where  the  common  spanner 
cannot  be  applied. 

Box-lock.  (Locksmithing. )  A  rim-lock  fastened 
to  tlie  side  of  a  door  without  mortising. 

Box-mak'ing  Machine'.  One  in  which  the 
bottom,  side,  and  end  jiieces  are  set  in  place  and 
tlieir  nails  driven  by  advancing  punches,  which 
sink  them  into  place. 


BOX-METAL. 


35: 


BRACE. 


Box-met'aL  For  bearings  :  copper,  32  ;  tin,  5. 
Struliiiig's :  zino,  75 ;  tin,  18  ;  lead,  4.5  ;  anti- 
niuiiy,  2.,').     See  Alloy. 

Box-o'pen-er.  (Carpentry.)  A  tool  with  a 
forked  claw  and  a  hammer-head,  for  tearing  open 
boxes  by  lifting  their  lids,  drawing  nails,  etc.  Some 
cOniliinatinn  tools  liave  also  a  pincher  and  screw- 
driver. 

Box-plait'ing.   A  device  to  fold  cloth  alternately 


in  opposite  directions,  forming  box-plaits  on  one 
side.  Two  plaiters  Q  U,  one  located  directly  above 
the  other,  reci(iioeate  alternately  in  the  direction  of 
the  feed-movement,  and  a  thiid  plaiter  S,  with  a 
trough-like  mouth,  and  containing  the  cloth  to  be 
laid  in  bux-plaits,  reciprocates  also  in  the  direction 
of  the  fee<l,  and  has  also  a  rising  and  falling  move- 
ment, so  as  to  bend  the  cloth  earned  by  it  first  aver 
one  plaiter  and  then  under  the  other.     Each  time  a 


Box-Plaiting. 


fold  is  so  formed,  it  is  caiight  and  secured  by  the 
needle-thread,  and  the  material  is  moved  along  by 
the  feed  for  a  new  plait. 

Box-scrap'er.    {Carpentry.)     A  tool  for  erasing 
names  from  boxes.     It  is  a  mere  scraper  with  an 

Fig.  8S0. 


Box- Scraper. 

edge  presented  obliquely,   or,   as  in  the   example, 
works  after  the  manner  of  a  spoke-shave. 
Box-set'ter.     (IVheehcrUjhling.)     A  device  for 
setting   a.xle-boxes 
Fig.  851.  in  hubs  so  as  to  be 

perfectly  true.  In 
the  example  the 
wheel  is  poised  on 
its  axis,  and 
clamped  by  jaws 
above  and  below 
the  hub.  Its  rim 
is  held  by  grippers 
on  radial  bars 
yy,  which  hold  the 
^  wheel  against  sta- 
m  tionary  bearings  in 
a  plane  perpendic- 
ular to  the  axis  of 
the  boring-spindle. 
The  latter  is  mount- 
ed in  the  sockets, 
and  carries  cutters, 
which  are  fastened 
in  a  mortise  in  the 
spindle  by  means 
of  a  sleeve,  screw- 
nut,  and  .sciew. 
Box-Sex'tant. 
Box-Setirr.  A  small  Sextant  in- 

closed in  a  circular 
frame.  Used  principally  for  triangulating  in  mili- 
tary reconnoisance,  etc.  It  is  on  the  principle  of  the 
ordinary  sextant,  having  mirrors  for  bringing  there- 


fleeted  and  di-  Fig.  852 

rect  images  of 

an  object  into 

coincidence  as 

a    means    of 

m  e  a  s  u  r  i  n  i,' 

their    angulai 

distance.     See 

Sextant. 

Box -slip.  J, 
(Plane.)      A 
slip  of  box  in- 
laid    in      the  Box- Sextant. 
beechwood    of 

a  tongueing,  grooving,  or  molding  plane,  in  order 
that  the  edge  or  the  quirk  may  possess  greater  dura- 
bility. The  edges  and  quirks  are  rabbets  or  projec- 
tions, which  act  as  fences  or  gages  for  depth  or  dis- 
tance. 

Box-sta'ple.  (Carpentry.)  The  box  or  keeper 
on  a  door-post,  into  which  is  sJwl  the  bolt  of  a  lock. 

Box-strap.  (Machinery.)  A  flat  bar,  bent  at 
the  middle,. to  confine  a  square  bolt  or  similar  ob- 
ject. 

Box-turn'ing  Ma-chine'.  (  Tuninig. )  A  lathe 
specifically  adajpted  for  turning  wooden  boxes  and 
lids,  for  matches,  spii'es,  or  other  matters.  Such 
lathes  have  convenient  chucks,  rests  for  the  side- 
turning  and  for  the  bottoming  tool  which  gives  the 
flat  bottom. 

Boy'au.  (Fort.)  A  trench  of  zigzag  form,  to 
avoid  an  enfilading  fire,  leading  from  one  parallel  of 
attack  to  another,  or  to  a  magazine  or  other  point. 

Brace.  I.  (Carpentry.)  A  diagonal  stay  or  scant- 
ling, connecting  the  horizontal  and  vertical  members 
of  a  truss  or  frame,  to  maintain  them  at  a  prescribed 
angular  relation. 

2.  (Printing.)  a.  A  printer's  sign  ;  a  crooked  line 
connecting  several  words  or  lines  ;  vide,  . 


Carria^f-Bract. 


BRACE. 


353 


BRACKET. 


Carriage- To jt  Bracf. 


b.  The  stays  of  a  printing-press,  wliicli  serve  to 
keep  it  steady  in  its  position. 

3.   (  Vehicle.)     a.  An  iron  strap  passing  from  the 
head-bloek,      behind 
Kg.  854.  and  Mow  tlie  a.\'le, 

and  forward  to  an- 
other portion  of  the 
running-gear. 

h.  A  jointed  bar  by 
which  the  bows  of  a 
carriage-top  are  kept 
asunder,  to  distend  the 
carriage-top  cover. 

c.  A  thick  strap  by 
which  a  carriage-body 
is  suspended  from  C- 
springs. 

4.  {Boring- Tools.) 
a.  ( JFood-work- 
itig.)  A  revolv- 
ing tool-holder, 
one  end  of  which 
is  a  swiveled 
head  or  shield,  which  rests  in  the  hand  or  against 
the  chest  of  the  operator  ;  at  the  other  end  is  a 
socket  to  hold  the  tool.  Called  also  a  slock,  more 
particularly  in  metal-working. 

The  varieties  of  the  instrument  principally  hinge 
upon  the  mode  of  attaching  tlie  bit. 

Varieties  depending  upon  other  differences  are :  — 
Angle-brace  ;  a  corner  drill. 
Crank-brace ;  the  usual  form. 
Hand-brace ;  with  a  swiveled  breast-plate. 
Lever-brace;  worked  with  an  oscillating  lever,  usu- 
ally having  a  ratchet  motion.     See  R.itchet-drill. 
5.   {Machinery.)    The  aHj^c-iroffi  is ^used  in  places, 
such  as  angles,  where  there  is  not 
room  to  revolve  the  handle  of  the 
ordinary  brace.     The  drill-stock  a  is 
rotated  by  means  of  bevel-pinions  c  c, 
driven  by  a  crank  d.     Speed  may  be 
regulated  by  changeable  gearing,  va- 
rjing  the  relative  sizes  of  the  two 
bevel-wheels. 

This  is  sometimes  called  the  French 
brace,  and  wlien  made  of  metal  with 
a  back-center  and  feed-screw,  it  is 
called  a  corncr-drill,  being  driven  by 
crank  and  bevel-gearing  as  before, 
^  and  having  a  capacity  for  reaching 
places  where  the  ordinary  brace-han- 
dle could  not  be  revolved. 

The  hand-brace  (Fig.  856),  other- 
wise the  crank-brace,  has  a 
socket  for  the  bit,  a  crank 
for  revolving  it,  and  a  swiv- 
jlngk-Brace.  eled  head  for   the   pressure 

of  the  hand  or  the  breast 
of  the  woi'kman. 

The  machinist's  brace  depends  upon  a  rigid  bear- 
ing for  the  back-center  a  and  a  feed-screw  b  for  keep- 
ing it  to  its  work,  the  requirements  being  far  beyond 
the  pressure  that  can  be  given  to  a  swiveled  head  by 
the  breast  of  the  workman.  A  sleeve  c  upon  the 
handle  rotates  on  the  stock  as  the  tool  revolves. 

An  extension-shank  is  used  as  a  temporaiy  addi- 
tion to  the  length  of  the  tool,  to  enable  the  latter  to 
reach  deep-seated  parts.  The  tang  d  iits  into  the 
socket  c  of  the  brace,  and  the  tang  of  the  drill  into 
the  socket  g  of  the  extension-piece. 

5.  {yaalical.)  A  rope  passing  from  the  end  of 
the  yard  to  another  mast,  and  serving  to  trim  the 
yards  fore  and  aft. 

6.  {Shipicrighting.)   One  of  the  eve-bolts  on  which 

23 


Kg.  855. 


Fig.  856. 


Fig.  857. 


h 


M 


Hand-Brace. 


Machinist's  Brace. 


The  gudgeons 


Fig.  858. 


the  hooks  of  the  rudder  are  secured, 
or  googings. 

7.  (Miisie.)  One  of  the  cords  of  a  drum  by  which 
the  heads  are  stretched. 

8.  (Mining.)     The  mouth  of  a  shaft. 

9.  A  stay  for  a  trunk -lid  or  similar  duty. 
Brace-drill.    {Metal -working.)    A  boring- tool 

shaped  like  a  brace,  having  a 
tool  rotated  by  the  revolution 
of  the  handle.  In  the  exam- 
ple, the  motion  may  be  con- 
tinuous or  reciprocating  rota- 
ry, the  swinging  portion  being 
connected  to  the  cutter-stock 
by  a  pawl  on  the  former  and 
ratchet  on  the  latter. 

The  ratchet  -  head  of  the 
brace  is  attachable  to  a  lever 
to  form  a  swing-brace  or  a 
rotary  brace-frame. 

Brace-pen'dant.  (A'rtii- 
tical. )  A  short  pendant  from 
the  yard-arms,  to  hold  the 
brace-block. 

Brac'ing-chain.  ( Vehi- 
cle.) The  chain  which  ties 
together  the  sides  of  a  wagon, 
to  prevent  the  load  from 
breaking  them  apart.  Used 
especially  in  wood  and  freight 
wagons. 

Brack'et.  A  lateral  pro- 
jection from  a  wall,  post,  or 
standard,  to  strengthen  or 
support  another  object ;  to 
strengthen  an  angle  ;  to  support  a  heavy  cornice  or 
an  entablature. 

Of  the  parts  of  a  bracket,  — 

a  is  the  sole. 

6  the  wall-plate. 

c  the  rib. 

d  a  snug  or  flange.     See  Fig.  859. 

This  description  of  support  is  also  adapted  for 
shelves,  coves,  soffits,  and  seats. 

1.  (Machincr;/.)  The  shofting-bracket  (Fig.  859) 
is  a  hanger  which  contains  the  journal  for  shafting. 
e  is  the  pedestal,  supported  by  the  extended  anns//, 
which  are  bolted  to  the  joists  of  the  ceiling,  g  g  are 
the  parts  of  the  boxing  which  are  in  immediate  con- 
tact with  the  shaft. 

Brackets  for  shafting  are  known  by  different  names, 
according  to  structure  and  position. 


BRACKET. 


354 


BRAD-SETTER. 


Brackets. 

Pendent  brackets  or  hangers,  when  the  shafting  is 
BUspendeil  from  the  ceiling. 

Wall-braekcls,  wlien  fixed  against  a  perpendicular 
wall. 

Wall-boxes,  when  the  shaft  passes  through  a  wall 
or  ]jartition  furnished  with  a  bearing. 

Pedestal-brackets,  when  the  support  rises  from  a 
foundation  or  bed-plate. 

2.  (Archilccture.)    a.  An  or- 
Fig.  860.             nament  in  the  shape  of  a  con- 

W^/Ml.W?    sole,standing  isolated  upon  the 

b.  Roof-brackets  are  placed 
beneath  the  eave  or  the  pro- 
jection at  the  gable,  and  have 
shapes  conforming  to  the  style 
of  the  architecture  or  the  ne- 
cessities of  their  position.  In 
some  cases  the  bracket  is  so 
prominent  a  feature  in  the  or- 
namentation as  to  confer  the 
'  name  on  the  style  ;  thus  we 
read  of  the  bracketed  style.  See 
works  on  architecture. 

3.  A  projecting  de- 
vice for  supporting  a 
lamp,  etc. 

i.  A  gas-fixture  pro- 

^^^^^^  jecting  from  the  face 
of  a  wall. 

5.  (Ordnance.)   The 

Fig  861. 


8.  {Printing.)  Signs  ("[  ]")  usedtoinelo.seaword 
or  sentence,  to  isolate  it  from  the  other  matter.  The 
bracketed  portion  may  be  a  note,  protest,  explanation, 
authority,  reference,  comment,  rectification,  inter- 
pol.ation,  ipiery,  empliasis,  etc. 

Brack'et-crab.  A  hoisting  apparatus,  designed 
for  attaehment 

to  a  post,  wall,  Fig-  862. 

etc. 

In  the  draw- 
ing the  chain- 
drum  is  shown 
journaled  in  a 
frame  a,  at- 
tached by  bolts 
to  the  post  b, 
and  is  turned 
by  the  liandle 
c.  The  tackle 
is  shown  as  a 
single  whip, 
the  chain  be- 
ing rove 
through  the 
single -sheave 
block  d. 

Brack'et- 
ing.  A  skele- 
ton support  for 
moldings.  This 
plan     is     com-  Bracket-Crah. 

nionly  adopted 

in  making  the  arches,  domes,  sunk  panels,  coves, 
jiendentive  work,  etc.,  at  the  upper  parts  of  apart- 
ments.   The  brackets  are  got 
out,  of  the  reipiired  contour,  Fig.  863. 

nailed  into  position,  and  form 
a  basis  for  the  reception  of 
the  lath  and  plastering. 

In  domed  work,  spherical 
bracketing  is  the  forming  of 
brackets  to  support  lath  and 
plaster  work,  so  that  the 
surface  of  the  plaster  sliall  Erackeiing. 

form  the  surface  of  a  sphere. 

Sjihcroidal  bracketing  is  the  bi-acketing  prepared 
for  a  plaster  ceiling  whose  surface  is  to  form  that  of 
a  spheroid. 

Brack'et-shelf.    A  form  of  console  for  support- 
ing a  pier-glass  or  other  object. 
Fig.  864 


Roof-Brackets. 


Lamp-Bracket, 


cheek  of  a  mortar-bed,  or  the  carriage  of  a  ship's  or 
casemate  gun. 

6.  {Shiphuilding.)      A   timber-knee   in   a   ship's 
frame,  supporting  the  gratings. 

7.  {S/eam-Engine.)    a.  The  pieces  by  which  the 
boiler  of  a  locomotive  is  maintained  in  jiosition. 

b.  The  pieces  which  hold  and  guide  the  slide-bars. 


Bracket  Shetfanrf  Drawer. 

Brad.  A  thin,  square-bodied  nail,  whose  head 
has  n  li)i  on  one  side  only.     See  N.viL, 

Brad'awl.  (Joinerg.)  A  small  boring-tool  with 
a  chisel-edge.  Used  for  opening  holes  for  the  inser- 
tion of  nails. 

Brad-aet'ter.     (Joi-nerg.)    A  tool  which  grasps 


Brad-Setler. 


BRAID. 


355 


BRAID  SIZING  AND   POLISHING. 


a  bi-ail  by  the  head,  and  by  which  it  is  driven  into 
itii  appointed  place. 

Braid.     ( Fabric. )    A.  narrow  woolen  woven  goods, 

used  for  binding. 

Among  the  materials  used  for  bonnet-braid  may 
be  mentioned,  — 


Bass  or  linden  bark. 
Cotton  thread. 
Fla.v  thread. 
Hemp. 

Horse-hair. 
Pahii-leaf. 
Wool  thread. 


Worsted  thread. 

Linen  thread. 

Straw. 

Chip. 

Paper  strips. 

W^ood  splints. 

Majuaja. 


Braid'er.  A  sewing-machine  attachment  provided 
with  an  opening  to  guide  and  lay  a  braid  on  the 
cloth  under  the  action  of  the  needle.  The  braid- 
guiding  opening  may  be  in  the  presser  and  in  ad- 
vance of  the  needle-hole,  or  in  the  cloth-plate,  or  in 
a  separate  attacliment  secured   to  the  cloth-plate. 

tig.  866. 


Braider. 

See  " Sewing-Machine Attachments, "  G.W.Gregory, 
Washington,  D.  C.  In  the  example,  the  guide  is 
attachable  to  the  presser-foot  of  a  sewing-machine  ; 
the  object  is  the  increased  facility  for  guiding  the 
braid,  especially  in  laying  it  in  curveil  directions  on 
tlie  clotli ;  also  the  concave  form  of  tlie  groove,  in 
connection  with  the  pressure  of  the  spring  on  the 
braid,  tending  to  keep  the  braid  within  the  groove, 
anil  prevent  its  passing  to  one  side  thereof. 

Braid'ing-ma-chine'.  A  machine  in  which  a  fab- 
ric is  made  by  the  lajing  up  of  three  or  more  threads 

by  a  plaiting  pro- 
Kg.  867.  cess.        Jlechan- 

I  ism  guides  the 
[thread-holding 
bobbins  in  a  ser- 
pentine course, 
to  interlace  the 
threads.  Threads, 
from  three  to  thir- 
ty,are  twisted  one 
around  anoth- 
er by  revolving 
wheels,  spindles, 
etc.,  making 
braid,  stay,  and 
shoe  laces,  uphol- 
sterer's cord,  and 
coach-lace.  It  is 
also  employed  for 
covering  whips, 
threads  of  caout- 
chouc, the  wires 
of  crinoline,  etc. 
Braiding  -  ma- 
chines are  made 
of  all  sizes,  from 
machines  braiding  seven  strands  to  those  braiding 
eighty-tive,  this  being  the  limit  at  present  of  Hat 
braids  manufactured  in  the  United  States  ;  though 
round  braiders,  or  machines  for  covering  tubes,  are 


Braiding-Machine, 


built  capable  of  braiding  ninety-six  strands.  The 
sizes  of  round  bmiders  most  largely  in  use,  however, 
are  those  bi-aiding  sixteen  and  twenty  strands,  which 
are  the  sizes  used  in  the  manufacture  of  shoe-strings- 
and  covering  hoop-skirt  wires.  The  sizes  of  Hat 
braiders  most  in  use  are  those  braiding  fifty-three 
and  sixty-five  strands  woi-sted  yarn,  wliich  produce 
the  common  dress  braids  now  so  commonly  worn. 
The  production  of  American  machines  is  about  a  mil- 
lion yards  daily  of  dress  braids. 

The  braid  is  passed  through  fire  to  relieve  it  of  its 
floss,  and  prepare  it  for  the  dyer. 

The  views  iFig.  StiS)  are  i-e.spectively  elevaticu 
and  plan  of  a  braiding-machine.  The  elevation 
shows  the  mode  in  which  the  spindles  and  bobbins  are 
arranged  relatively  to  the  skirt-wire,  around  which 
the  strands  are  being  plaited.  The  lower  figure  shows 
a  %-iew  of  the  carriei-s,  and  of  the  race-ciicle-s,  in 
which  the  spin- 
dles are  caused  Fir-  868. 
to  move,  so  that 
they  move  in 
and  out,  cross- 
ing each  other's 
paths,  and  thus 
interlace  the 
strands.  When 
the  braid  is  to  be  I 
laid  up  tubular, 
as  in  covering 
upholsterer's,.  ^^^^ 
cord,whips,  and  1^  O  "Qj^l 
skirt -wire,  the  j  Q"i-{lJJ_,,~r  <^ 
set  of  race-cir- 
cles  form  a  con- 
tinuous series 
around,  and  the 
sfiindles  make 
the  complete 
circuit,  again 
and  again  re- 
peating the  ser- 
]ientine  course 
in  the  same  di- 
rection. The  up- 
per figure  repre- 
sents a  macliine 
of  this  kind- 
Whcn  the  braid 
is  to  be  laid  up 
flat,  as  in  the  Braiding-MacMne  Carriers  and  Race- Circles. 
drag  and  other 

common  braids,  each  rater,  as  the  spindle-holders  are 
called,  makes  a  single  course,  turnsround  the  last  race- 
circle  of  the  series,  and  then  returns,  intersecting  its 
own  former  )iath  as  it  follows  the  circles  shown  in  the 
lower  part  of  the  figure.  The  upper  part  shows  the 
carriei's  which  impel  the  racers,  each  one  delivering 
the  racer  to  the  next  carrier  in  series,  which  it  im- 
pels along  its  allotted  path  in  the  circle.  The  two 
figures  represent  the  carriers  and  race-circles  of  a  ma- 
chine for  laying  up  flat  braid.  By  a  still  farther  re- 
finement of  the  process,  the  machine  is  adapted  for 
making  two  or  more  distinct  braids  connected  at 
their  edges  ;  thus  admitting  of  different-colored 
stripes.  Each  racer  for  this  purpose  goes  only 
through  its  own  course  of  race-circles,  one  of  which 
circles  is  common  to  the  two  carriers. 

Braid  Siz'ing  and  Pol'ish-ing.  The  braid  is 
passed  from  a  reel  £  through  a  siziiig-trough  F,  to 
pressure-rollers  F'  F-,  and  then  over  guide  and  ten- 
sion rollers^  c  d  <i  h  h'  if  (f  c'  f,  which  hold  it  obUqnely 
against  the  brushes  on  drums  C  D.  It  is  then  drawn 
off  by  a  reel  E',  which  receives  intermittent  motion 


BRAILS. 


356 


BRAKE. 


Fig  869. 


Braid  Sizing  and  Polishing  Machine. 


from  a  toothed  wlicel  actuated  by  projections  on  the 
end  of  the  lower  brush-shaft  engaging  with  tlie  teeth. 

Brails.  {Xautical.)  Ropes  used  to  gather  up  the 
foot  and  leeelies  of  a  sail,  preparatoiy  to  furling. 

Tlie  bra  ih  of  a  rjuff-su  il  are  for  hauling  the  after- 
leecli  of  tlie  sail  forward  ami  upward,  previous  to 
furling :  towards  the  head  ( peak-brails) ;  neck  (throat- 
brails);  and  Juff  (foot-brails).  The  lee-brails  are 
hauled  upon  in  furling. 

Brake.  1.  (Railroad  Engineering.)  A  contriv- 
ance lor  stopping  the  motion  of  a  car-wheel  by  fric- 
tion applied  thereto. 

Car-brakes,  until  the  advent  of  thq  atmospheric 
brake,  were  actuated  by  a  winding  drum,  connecting 
chains  and  levers,  the  power  of  the  brakenian  being 
applied  to  a  hand-wheel  on  the  car  platfonn.  The 
principal  modes  of  application  of  the  haml-operated 
brake  are  explained  under  Cau-brake  (which  see). 
In  the  same  article  are  detailed  a  number  of  devices 
for  tlie  use  of  air,  steam,  the  colliding  of  the  cars, 
friction,  feet  on  the  track,  etc.,  for  arresting  the  mo- 
tion of  the  cars. 

The  Westinghouse  Atmo-spheric  Brake,  illustrated 
by  the  folding  plate  opposite,  was  patented  in  1869, 
and  has  been  adopted  on  many  railway  lines  in  the 
United  States  and  in  Europe.  Its  chief  features  are, 
first,  the  use  of  compressed  atmospheric  air  as  a' 
means  of  applying  the  brakes  ;  and,  second,  put- 
ting the  whole  braking-apparatus  under  the  direct 
control  of  the  locomotive  engineer,  so  that  he  can  ap- 
ply the  brakes  at  pleasure,  instantaneously,  or  gradu- 
ally, and  with  any  desired  power,  limited  only  by  the 
power  of  the  air-compressing  apparatus  and  the 
strength  of  the  air-vessels.  The  construction  of  the 
apparatus  is  shown  by  elevation  and  section.  A 
small  but  powerful  direct-acting  steam-engine  A  is  se- 
cured to  the  IVame  of  the  locomotive  above  and  be- 
tween the  driving-wheels.  This  engine  operates  the 
air-pump  B,  and  thereby  the  air  is  compressed  to  any 
di*sired  density  into  a  receiver  or  reservoir  Y,  which 
is  arranged  under  the  cab.  Each  car  is  provided 
with  a  line  of  air-pipes  j)  p,  which  are  united  be- 
tween the  cars  by  flexible  hose  r  r,  and  suitable 
couplings.  Each  half-coupling  contains  a  valve  so 
constructed  that,  when  the  hose  are  coupled  up,  the 
valves  are  automatically  unseated,  so  as  to  make  an 
open  continuous  air-pipe  through  the  train,  and, 
when  uncoupled,  each  valve  will  automatically  re- 
sume its  seat.  Hence,  the  valve  of  the  rear  coupling 
of  the  rear  car  of  a  train  will  always  be  closed,  and 
if,  after  the  brakes  are  applied  in  view  of  actual  or 


anticipated  danger,  a  car  jumps  the  track  and  be- 
comes disconnected,  the  couplings  will  sejiarate,  the 
valves  resume  their  .seats,  and  the  brakes  be  held 
"  on  "  or  "down  "  till  the  car  comes  to  a  full  stop. 
See  HcsE-covPLiXG. 

The  air-pipe  p,  under  each  car,  makes  connection 
by  a  branch  with  one  end  of  a  cast-metal  brake-cylin- 
iler  ir,  whicli  is  fitted  with  an  ordinary  piston. 
Tlic  stem  »•  of  this  piston  is  connected  directly  (or 
indirectly  by  rods  .r  x,  and  "  progressive  lever"  A") 
with  the  ordinary  brake-levers  in  such  a  way  that, 
ywith  a  forward  thrust  or  throw  of  the  piston,  the 
brake-shoes  will  be  ap- 
plied to  the  car-wheels, 
and  by  a  reverse  move- 
ment they  will  be  re- 
leased or  "let  oft'."  A 
three-way  tock  M  in  the 
air-pipe,  just  outside  the 
reservoir  }",  is  within 
reach  of  the  locomotive 
engineer.  In  ordinary 
running  all  communi- 
cation between  the  reservoir  Y  and  the  air-pipes  p  is 
closed.  The  engineer,  at  pleasure,  turns  the  cock  M, 
so  as  to  open  this  communication,  and  permit  the  coiu- 
jiressed  air  to  flow  back  into  the  brake-cylinders  W, 
either  partially  if  he  merely  wishes  to  check  the  speed 
of  his  train  on  a  down  grade,  or  more  completely  for 
an  ordinary  stop,  or  instantaneously  and  fully  in 
anticipation  of  immediate  danger.  By  another  ad- 
justment of  the  cock,  he  closes  the  communication 
again,  and  opens  a  port  for  the  escape  of  the  com- 
pressed air  from  the  brake-cylinders.  The  brakes 
are  then  "  oil,"  and  the  wheels  free. 

The  construction  is  such  as  not  to  interfere  with 
the  ordinary  ojieration  of  the  brakes  by  hand.  For 
ordinary  passenger-trains,  an  air-pressure  is  eomiiion- 
ly  reciuired  of  from  30  to  60  pounds  per  square  im  h. 
The  capability  of  this  brake  is  best  shown  by  the 
following  report  of  tests  made. 

At  a  test  on  the  Kansas  Pacific  Railway,  May  12, 
1871,  a  train  going  at  the  rate  of  45  miles  an  hour 
was  stopped  within  a  distance  of  250  feet. 

On  September  18,  1869,  a  test  was  made  on  the 
Pennsylvania  Railroad,  at  the  famous  "Horseshoe 
Bend."  The  train  of  six  cars,  running  down  a  grade 
of  96  feet  to  the  mile,  at  the  rate  of  30  miles  an  hour, 
was  brought  to  a  stand-still  in  420  feet, —  seven  car- 
lengths. 

The  steam-ejector  has  also  been  employed  by  Mr. 
Westinghouse,  under  a  patent  gianted  to  him  in  1871, 
for  exhausting  the  air  from  the  brake-cylinders  in 
front  of  the  pistons,  and  thus  applying  the  brakes 
by  a  "vacuum"  or  atmospheric  pressure.  See 
GiFFARD    InJECTOU. 

2.  ( Machincnj. )  A  friction  strap  or  band  applied 
on  the  peri])hery  of  the  drum  of  a  hoisting-machine, 
crane,  or  crab. 

Or  it  may  consist  of  a  pivoted  lever,  having  a  shoe 
at  one  end,  and  a  rope  attached  to  the  other,  by  pul- 
ling which  the  shoe  is  pressed  against  the  rim  of  the 
wheel. 

Of  this  class  is  the  rim  of  wood  surrounding  the 
inclined  wheel  attached  to  the  sail-shaft  of  a  wind- 
mill, and  pressed  do\vn  thereon  by  a  lever  to  stop 
the  mill. 

3.  (Vehicle.)  a.  A  vehicle  for  breaking  horses, 
consisting  of  the  running-gears,  and  a  driver's  scat, 
without  any  carriage-body. 

b.  A  rubljer  pressed  against  the  wheel  of  a  vehi- 
cle, to  impede  its  revolution,  and  so  arrest  the  de- 
scent of  the  vehicle  when  going  down  hill. 

The  old  Herodes  .\ttieus,  the  rhetorician,  refers  to 


INSERT  FOLDOUT  HERE 


BRAKE. 


357 


BEAIJ^CH-CHUCK. 


the  feiicr  to  the  icJwcls,  used  when  his  chariot  was 
descending  a  hill.  It  appears  to  have  been  only  a 
stick  put  through  the  wheels. 

The  example  shows  it  as  applied  to  a  rehicle. 

The  fore-axle  is  so  connected  to  the  compound 
brake-levers  that  backward  pressure  in  descending  a 

Fig.  870. 


Wagon-Brake. 


hill  will  put  the  brakes  into  action.  This  movement 
of  the  axle  is  prevented,  when  backing  the  wagon, 
by  the  pendent  part  of  an  oscillating  lever  upon  the 

Fig.  871. 


Fig.  872. 


box,  which  is  brought  in  contact  with  the  axle.   See 

WAOOX-Bn.lKE. 

c.  The  part  of  a  carriage  by  which  it  is  enabled 
to  be  turned.    The  fore-carriage. 

Brakes  for  sleds  and  sleighs  consist  of  spurs  brought 
into  action  by  scrapin.; 
on  the  ground.  In  the 
example,  the  brake-dogs 
are  pivoted  in  a  wedge- 
shaped  mortise  in  one 
arm  of  a  bell-crank,  to 
whose  other  arm  is  con- 
nected a  bar  sliding  be- 
neath the  tongue  and 
operating  by  holding 
back  on  the  tongue. 

4.  (Hasbaiidrij.)  ci.  A 
machine  for  separating 
the  bark  and  pith  from 
the  fiber  of  hemp  or 
fla.x  ;  to  loosen  the  hoon 
and  sh  ires  from  the  lia  re. 
See  Flax-bkake; 
Hemp-ekake. 

h.  An  Engli-sh  term 
for  a  heavy  harrow. 

5.  (Farrier;/.)  a.  A 
frame  for  confining  re- 
fractory animals  while 
being  shod  or  undergo- 
ing operations. 

b.  A  shai-ij  and  heavy 
snaflSe  for  breaking  or 


Pump-Brnke. 


subduing  untrained  or  vicious  horses. 


6.  A  name  for  the  Ballista  (which  see). 

7.  {Hydraulics.)  The  extended  handle  of  a  fire- 
engine  or  similar  pump,  by  which  the  power  is  ap- 
plied. Said  especially  of  an  extended  handle  at 
which  a  row  of  men  can  work  together. 

8.  (Basket-making.)  .4n  iron  crotch  with  a  shaif- 
edged  reentering  angle,  adapted  to  peel  the  bark  from 
osiers  drawn  therethrough. 

9.  The  baker's  kneadiug-machine ;  consisting,  in 
some  cases,  of  a  pivoted  lever  operating  on  a  bench  ; 
the  name  now  including  other  machinery  for  eflect- 
ing  the  same  purpose. 

Brake-beam.  (Vehicle.)  The  transverse  beam 
connecting  the  shoes  of  opposite  wheels.  A  brake- 
bar. 

Brake-block.  (ItailroadEngiiieeriny.)  The  block 
attached  to  the  brake-beam  and  holding  the  shoe  or 
rubber. 

Brake-shoe.    That  part  of  Kg.  873, 

a  brake  which  is  brought  in 
contact  with  the  object  whose 
motion  is  to  be  restrained. 

Brake-sieve.  (Mining.)  A 
rectangular  sieve  operated  by  a 
forked  lever  or  brake,  from  which 
it  is  suspended  iti  a  cistern  of 
water  for  the  agitation  of  com- 
minuted ore.  The  lueshes  are 
of  strong  iron  wire,  f  of  an  inch 
square.  The  brake  is  sujiport- 
ed  by  a  rolling  axis.  See  Jig- 
ger. The  poorest  light  pieces 
are  cuttings.  Pieces  of  poor, 
sparry,  heavy  ore  are  chat.'i. 

Brake -'wheel.     1.    [Rail-  Braki-S/ioe. 

road  Engineering.)    The  wheel 
on  the  \)latform  or  top  of  a  car  by  which  the  braikes 
are  operated. 

2.  (Machincrij.)  A  wheel  having  cams  or  wipers 
to  raise  the  tail  of  a  hammer-helve. 

Brak'ing.  {Fla.v-inanufaiturc.)  An  operation  by 
which  the  straw  of  flax  or  hemp,  previously  steeped 
and  firassed,  is  broken,  so  as  to  detach  the  shives  or 
woody  portion  from  the  lutrc  or  useful  fiber.  See 
Flax-Bi'.ake. 

Brak'mg-ma-chine'.  A  machine  for  braking 
(lax  or  hemp  after  rotting,  to  remove  the  woodj" 
portion    and    pith    from    the    fiber.      See    Flax- 

DHAKE. 

Bra'mah-lock.  X  lock  patented  by  Bramah,  in 
England  (17S4  and  179S),  ha^^ng  a  number  of  .slides 
which  are  adjusted  in  the  manner  of  tumblers,  by 
means  of  a  stepped  key,  so  that  the  slides  of  nni-(|ual 
length  .shall  be  brought  into  a  position  where  tlieir 
notches  lie  in  the  same  plane,  that  of  the  locking- 
]ilate.     See  Lock. 

Bra'mah  -  press.  The  Hydrost.vtic  Pre.ss 
(which  see). 

Branch.  1.  (Fortification.^  a.  The  n-ing,  or 
long  side  of  a  horn  or  crown  work. 

b.  One  of  the  parts  of  a  zigzag  approach. 

2.  (Blacksmithing.)  One  oi  the  quarters  or  sides 
of  a  horseshoe. 

•3.  (Ilanuss.)  One  of  the  levers  attached  to  the 
ends  of  the  stiff  bit  of  a  curb-bit,  and  having  rings 
or  loops  for  the  curb-chain,  the  cheek-straps,  and  the 
reins.     See  Curb-bit. 

4.  (Mininy. )  A  small  vein  which  separates  from 
the  lode,  sometimes  reuniting.  A  leader,  string,  or 
rib  of  ore  running  in  a  lode. 

5.  (Hgdraulic.i.)  The  metallic  piece  on  the  end 
of  a  hosp  to  which  the  nozzle  is  screwed. 

6.  (Gi(x-tixiiirrx.)     .\  gas-burner  bracket. 
Branch-chuck.    (Turning.)    A  chuck  having 


BRAND. 


358 


BRASS. 


four  branches,  each  of  which  has  a  set  screw  whose 
eiiil  may  be  i;iade  to  iiniiinge  upon  tile  object. 

Brand.  Paintings  in  the  Theban  tombs  repre- 
resent  tlie  branding  of  cattle  on  the  shouklcis  with 
a  hot  iron,  probably  engraved  with  the  owner's  name. 

Fig.  874. 


Branding  Cattle  in  Ancient  E^jpt  (  Thebes], 

The  cattle  are  represented  lying  on  the  ground  with 
the  feet  tied.  One  person  heats  the  iron  in  a  jiorta- 
ble  furnace,  and  the  other  applies  it  to  the  shoulder 
of  the  animal. 

Branding-tools  for  marking  stock  or  boxes  are  of 
three  kinds.  One  is  adapted  for  being  heated  to 
bum  away  the  hair  or  the  wood,  as  the  case  may 
be.  Another  is  used  as  a  stencil,  consisting  of  a 
plate  with  openings  representing  letters  or  device. 
The  other  consists  of  tyi)e  in  some  form,  generally 
set  up  in  a  small  galley  with  a  handle,  so  as  to  be  con- 
veniently manipulated.  Novel  devices  are  more  gen- 
erally in  the  latter  line,  and  ingenuity  is  exercised  in 
the  modes  of  adjusting  and  securing  the  type  in  the 
holder.  The  faces  of  the  types  are  made  elastic  in 
JI.\son's  patent.  Skeleton-lcilers,  secured  by  tangs 
to  handles,  are  also  used  for  this  purpose,  and  may 
be  readily  dipped  in  a  pigment,  and  applied  to  sheep 
or  other  stock. 

Braud'rith.  A  fence  or  rail  round  the  opening 
of  »  well. 

Bran-dust'er.     [MtUiivj.)    A  macliine  in  which 
the  bran,  as  turned  out  of  an  ordinary  bolt,  is  rubbed 
Pj    g.jj  and  fanned  to  re- 

move as  much  as 
possible  of  the 
flour  which  yet 
adheres  to  it.  In 
till'  example  the 
bran  passes  be- 
tween the  radi- 
ally ridged  sur- 
face of  the  double 
frustum  F  ami 
an  envelo)iing 
jacket  of  similar 
iurni  and  surface. 
It  then  passes 
between  the  pin- 
anned  ln'ad  H  of 
the  cvlinder  and 
the  head-disk  / 
of  a  ri'vi  living 
frame,  which  car- 
ries inclined  ser- 
rated p'ates 
which  work  tlie 
bran  against  the 
\\ii'e  screen  M. 
Cams  of  tlie  spur- 
wheel  above  op- 
crate  to  agitate 
the  screen  to  keep 
thenie-slies  clear. 
The    bran    is   ti- 

nallv  disidiarged 
Bran-Duster.  .,      '         i 

through      one 

spout,  and  the  other  products  through  another. 


Etruscan  Brazier. 


Bran'ning.  (Dyeing.)  Preparing  cloth  for  dye- 
ing by  stecjiiiig  in  a  vat  of  sour  bran-water. 

Bra'sier.    An  open  pan  for  burning  wood  or  coal. 

The  brazier  {fociilus)  of  the  Romans  was  an  ele- 
gant bronze  tripod,  supported  by  satyrs  and  sphinxes, 
with   a   round 

dish  above  for  Fig  876. 

the  fire  and  a 
small  vase  be- 
low to  hold  j 
perfumes.  It  I 
occupied  the 
atrium,  and 
represented  tlie 
abode  of  liospi- 
tality  and  sanc- 
tuary, even  af- 
ter cooking  had 
been  banished 

to  othei-  apartments.  A  kind  of  close  stove  was  also 
used  ;  but,  in  either  case,  the  smoke  was  so  consid- 
erable that,  as  luxury  advanced,  the  winter  rooms 
were  diH'ereiitlj'  furnished  from  those  appropriated 
to  summer  use.  In  order  to  prevent  the  wood  from 
smoking,  the  bark  was  peeled  off,  and  the  wood  kept 
long  ill  water,  and  then  dried  and  anointed  with 
oil. 

The  Greeks  and  other  nations  commonly  used  it, 
and  sought  to  correct  the  deleterious  nature  of  the 
fumes  by  burning  costly  odorous  gums,  spices,  and 
woods. 

The  Jajianese  warming-apparatus  is  a  chafing-dish 
with  a  handful  of  charcoal  let  into  the  floor,  like  the 
Spanish  bmscro.  This  is  very  inell'ective  in  miti- 
gating tlie  rigor  of  the  season  in  the  more  northerly 
part  of  the  main  island,  and  the  jiedjile  depend  prin- 
cipally on  clothes,  heaping  gown  u]ioii  gown. 

Brass.  1.  (Alloy.)  An  alloy  of  copper  and  zinc. 
It  is  fabled  to  have  been  first  accidentally  formed  at 
the  burning  of  t'oiinth  by  Lucius  JIunimius.  146 
B.  c.  ;  but  articles  of  brass  have  been  discovei'ed  in 
the  Egyptian  tombs,  which  prove  it  to  have  had  a 
much  greater  aiitinuity. 

Brass  was  known  to  the  ancients  as  a  more  valua- 
ble kind  of  copper.  The  yellow  color  was  considered 
a  natural  ijuality,  and  was  not  supposed  to  indicate 
an  alloy. 

Certain  mines  were  much  valued,  as  they  yielded 
this  t/old-cohrcd  copper,  but  after  a  time  it  was  found 
that  by  melting  cop]ier  with  a  certain  earth  (cala- 
mine!, the  copper  was  changed  in  color.  The  nature 
of  the  change  was  still  unsuspected. 

Tubal  Cain's  operations  in  iron  and  brass  may  be 
held  to  be  iron  and  copper  (Oen.  iv.  22).  The  trans- 
lation of  terms  referring  to  metals  is  not  perhaps 
very  accurate.  Job  is  made  to  refer  to  brass  several 
times,  —  copper  most  likely. 

Hiram  is  said  to  have  made  articles  of  "  brass " 
for  the  Temple  of  Solomon,  1004  B.  C.  This  was 
probably  bronze,  which  is  made  by  the  union  of  cop- 
per and  tin,  while  brass  consists  of  cop]ier  and  zinc. 
Hiram  procured  his  tin  in  Cornwall,  England.  He- 
roilotus  called  Britain  the  Cassiterides,  or  Tin  Islands, 
4,")0  B.  c.  Calamine  was  known  in  eaily  times,  an  J 
the  Temple  utensils  may  have  been  really  brass. 

The  "brazen  "  bull  was  cast  by  Perillus of  Athens, 
for  Phalaris  of  Agrigentum,  570  B.  c.  It  was  made 
ho'.low,  to  receive  victims  to  be  roasted  to  death. 
The  throat  was  contrived  to  make  their  gi'oans  sim- 
ulate the  bellowing  of  the  animal.  The  artist  was 
made  to  furnish  the  first  victim,  and  the  king  event- 
ually trieil  the  ex)ierinient  in  person,  ;'49  B.  c. 

The  helmet  of  IVanimitii'hus  the  I'nwcrful  was  of 
brass,  and  from  it  he  poured  the  libation  in  the  Tern- 


BRASS. 


359 


BRASS-RULE. 


pie  of  Vulcan,  wliicli  condemned  him  to  temporary 
isolation  in  the  marshes  of  the  Delta,  but  ended  in 
his  making  the  acijuaintance  of  some  Ionian  and 
Carian  freebooters,  who  assisted  in  placing  him  on 
the  throne  of  Egypt,  650  B.  c. 

Bi'ass  Wiis  known  to  the  Greeks  as  orichaJcum  or 
mountain-bronze.  Afterwards  corrupted  by  the  Ro- 
mans into  auridialcum,  from  a  supposition,  derived 
from  its  color,  that  it  had  gold  in  its  composition. 

Brasses  (Composition  of). 


Qerman  brass  (common) 

GooJ  yellow  brass 

Brass  wire 

Muntz's  sheathiog-metal 

Reil  brass,  to  be  soldered 

Common  brass 

Pinchbeck 

Revere'S    sheathing-metal 

(ISSl) 
Oollins's    red    alloy     for 

sbeathin? 
Collins's  yellow  alloy  for 

sheathing 
Collins's    white  alloy  for 

sheathing 
Tough  bra^s  for  engine  work 
Brass  for  heavy  bearings 
Pinchbeck 
Pinchbeck 
Tombac  ( Malay,  tambaga. 

copper)    . 
Red  tombac    . 
Red  tombac 
RoUei  brass  . 
Tutenag     . 
Brass  gilding-metal  (bronze 

color) 
Emerson's    patent     brass 

(English) 
Keller's  statuary  brass(  Ver- 
sailles)   . 
Chrintrey's  hard  alloy 
Manheim  gold    . 
Mauheim  gold 
Semilor 
Mosaic  gold  (Hamilton  and 

Parker's  patent) 
Mock  platinum 
Bath  metal 
White  brass   . 
Ormolu 
Speculum  metal  (Martin's 

patent,  .\ugust  23,  1859) 
Mushet's   sheathing-metal 

(1823)      .        .        .        . 


32 


95 


10 

1 

20 
32 

4 

5 

16 

!8.8 

n 

r4  3 

50 

16 

16 

9140 

32 

4 

3 

5 

32 


lOO 
100 


16 
3 
1 
1 
2 

1 
112 

1 

223 

31 

1-U 


19 


1.37 


16 


The  proportions  are  varied,  and  tin  and  antimony 
are  added  in  some  of  the  formula;. 


Brtus-  Casting. 


[      See  also  brasses  and  bronzes,  with  the  addition  of 
1  iron,  p.  61,  OHte. 

I  2.  {Machinery.)  In  a  mechanical  sense  a  brass  is  a 
pillow,  benriiuj,  eoUnr,  bo.r,  or  bush,  supporting  a 
gudgeon ;  so  called  from  its  being  composed  of  either 
co]iper  and  tin  or  copper  and  zinc. 

Brass-foil.  Very  thin  beaten  sheet-brass,  thinner 
than  httlfi).     Ihdeh-ijold. 

Brass-fur'nace.  Bi-ass,  or  its  component  metals, 
is  melted  in  crucibles  ;  in  the  latter  case,  the  copjwr 
being  first  melted,  and  the  zinc  then  added  piece- 
meal, as  it  is  vaporized  by  an  excess  of  lieat. 

The  molding-trough  b  is  on  one  side  of  the  pour- 
ing or  spill-trough  c,  and  the  furnace  a  is  on  the 
■  other,     rf  is  a  core-oven,  heated  by  the  furnace,  and 
serving  to  dry  the  cores  for  the  faucets  or  otlier  hol- 
low articles  which  are  cast. 

The  brass-furnace  is  usually  built  within  a  cast- 
iron  cylinder,  20  to  24  inches  in  diameter,  and  30  to 
40  inches  high,  which  is  erected  over  an  ash-pit, 
which  is  suiiplied  with  air  through  a  diving-flue, 
wliich  commences  at  a  grating  even  with  the  floor  of 
the  foundry.  The  mouth  of  the  furnace  stands  about 
8  or  10  inches  above  the  Hoor,  and  the  upper  ajier- 
ture  is  closed  with  a  plate,  wliich  is  yet  called  the 
tile,  though  it  is  now  usually  of  iron.  A  tile  origi- 
nally perf'onned  the  duty.  The  inside  of  the  furnace 
is  contracted  to  about  10  inches  by  fire-bricks  set 
in  I'efractory  clay,  except  a  small  aperture  at  the 
back,  4  or  5  inches  square,  which  leads  to  the  chim- 
ney. 

A  number  of  such  furnaces  usually  stand  in  a  row, 
and  each  communicates  by  its  own  flue  with  the 
tall  stack,  which  carries  oft'  the  volatile  results  of 
combustion,  and  the  fumes  of  the  zinc.  Each  fur- 
nace has  a  damper. 

As  a  furnace  burns  out,  so  as  to  leave  an  excess  of 
space  between  the  cnicible  and  the  wall,  the  inside 
is  renewed  by  iilasteriiig  on  a  coating  of  road-drift 
and  water,  applied  like  mortar.  This  makes  a  sur- 
face, which  is  glazed  by  the  fire-heat. 

The  workman  is  shown  handling  the  crucible- 
tonijs,  the  reins  of  which  are  closed  by  the  coxijiler, 
while  he  pours  the  metal  in  at  the  ijale  of  the  Jiask, 
which  rests  in  an  inclined  position  against  the  spill- 
trough. 

For  large  quantities  of  metal,  for  statues,  bells, 
large  guns,  etc.,  the  brass  or  bronze  is  melted  in  re- 
verbei-atory  furnaces. 

Brass 'ing.  {Metallurgy.)  Gi\ing  a  brass  coat 
to  copper.     It  may  be  done  by  — 

Exposing  the  copper  in  a  heated  state  to  the  fumes 
given  off  by  zinc  at  a  high  temperature  ; 

Filling  a  copper  vessel  with  water  soured  by  hy- 
drochloric acid,  and  addingan 
amalgam  of  zinc  and  cream 
of  tartar,  and  boiling  the 
whole  for  a  short  time. 

Brass  -  pow'der.  {Itcd- 
Colored.)  Grind  copper  fil- 
ings or  precipitated  jwwder 
of  copper  with  red  ochre. 

( Gold-  Colored. )    Gold-col- 
ored bras?  or  Dutch  leaf  re- 
J  duced  to  powder. 

Mixed  with  pale  varnish, 
or  applied  by  dusting  over  a 
surface  previously  covered 
with  varnish. 
Brass-rule.  {Printing.)  Bi-ass  strips,  type-high, 
used  by  printers  for  cutting  into  lengths  to  sejiarate 
advertisements  and  columns  ;  also  for  page-rules  and 
table-work  (technically  known  as  rule  and  Jigwre 
work). 


BKATTICE. 


360 


BREAD. 


Tlicy  may  have  a  single  sharp  edge  or  may  be 
grciiivcil  to  produce  iiarullel  lines. 

Brat'tice.  {Miniitn.)  A  planking  on  the  inside 
of  a  mine  slial't  or  gallery. 

Notaldy,  a  piank-work  partition  in  a  shaft,  divid- 
ing it  into  two  portions. 

Bray.  (Fortification.)  A  tower  or  blockhouse  in 
the  outworks  before  the  port. 

Bray'er.  (Printing.)  A  wooden  muUer  used  on 
the  ink-table  to  temper  the  ink. 

"  Though  thou  bray  a  fool  in  a  mortar." 

Bray'ing.  (U'oolcn-vmnitfadurc.)  The  proces.s 
of  jiouiiding  and  washing  woven  cloth  in  scourinj- 
stocks,  to  remove  the  oil  applied  preparatory  to  card- 
ing ;  and  also  soil  acL^uired  in  the  course  of  manu- 
facture. 

Braz'ing.  Soldering  together  the  surfaces  of  iron, 
copper,  brass,  etc.,  with  an  alloy  eouiposed  of  biass 
and  zinc,  sometimes  with  the  addition  of  a  little  tin 
or  silver.  The  surfaces  to  be  united  uuist  be  rendered 
perfectly  clean  and  bright.  The  alloy,  in  granular 
form,  is  usually  wetted  with  ground  borax  and  water, 
dried,  the  pieces  placed  ill  contact  and  exposed  to 
the  heat  of  a  clear  forge-iirc,  causing  the  solder  to 
How  between  them.  This  may  be  assisted  by  the 
use  of  a  soldering-iron. 

Bread.  A  mixture  of  flour  and  water,  baked  to 
the  extent  of  suppressing  its  clamminess. 

In  the  Old  Testament  we  liiid  that  bread-making 
was  a  duty  performed  by  the  mistress  of  the  family, 
—  Saiah  ;  by  one  of  the  daughters,  —  the  much- 
abused  Tamar  ;  by  servants,  — as  those  captives  re- 
ferred to  by  yanniel,  who  are  prospectively  made  to 
serve  as  "  confectionarics,  cooks,  and  bakers"  ;  by 
an  officer  of  the  household,  —  Pharaoh's  servant,  the 
chief  baker  ;  by  tradesmen,  — as  the  bakers  referred 
to  by  Hosea. 

The  Israelites  ate  leavened  bread  except  on  pecu- 
liar occasions.  The  Bedouin  of  the  present  day,  as 
his  ancestors  did,  cooks  his  unleavened  bread  in  the 
ember.^,  generally  between  layers  of  dung.  We  are 
not  destitute  of  the  same  fuel  on  the  Westeni  plains, 
but  delicately  term  it  bois  cle  vache,  or,  more  squarely, 
Imffuto-chips.  When  the  Arab  bakes  a  jjasty  bread 
on  a  pan  or  griddle,  he  calls  it  a  flilci.  Without  in- 
tending to  talk  Arabic,  we  do  the  same  sometimes. 

Tlie  Egyptian  like  tlie  London  bakers  kneadi-d 
bread  with  tlie  feet.  The  pi-aetiee  is  probably  more 
general  than  we  know,  or  like  to  believe. 

In  a  little  model  of  a  house  found  by  Mr.  Salt  in 
Egypt,  and  now  in  the  British  Museum,  a  doll-woman 


Fig.  878. 


Bread-Making  in  Anciejit  E^ijpt. 

stands  in  the  court-yard  in  tlu^  act  of  rolling  dough. 
The  mixing-trough  is  attacheil  at  the  end  of  the  ta- 
ble, and  the  ijuiet  little  doll,  which  may  have  amused 


tlie  children  of  the  time  of  Moses,  has  maintained 
the  position  of  action  for  near  fortj'  centuries,  and  is 
now  viewed  by  the  juveniles  of  a  country  which  wa.s 
alternate  forest  and  morass  for  two  thousand  years 
after  the  little  figure  was  started  at  her  protracted 
employment. 

Ching-Noung,  the  successor  of  Fohi,  is  reputed  to 
have  tirst  taught  the  art  of  making  bread  from 
wheat  and  wine  from  rice,  199S  B.  c.  This  was  the 
eraof  Tei-ah,  the  father  of  Abraham,  of  the  .shepherd 
kings  of  Egypt,  and  of  the  fabulous  wars  of  the  Ti- 
tans in  Greece.  A  few  years  subsequently,  1913  n.  c, 
Melchisedek  brought  out  wine  and  bread  to  Alirani 
and  blessed  him  (Gen.  xiv.  IS).  Fifteen  years  af- 
terward we  find  Abraham  giving  three  strangers  a 
morsel  of  bread  to  stay  their  stomachs,  while  his  wile 
prepared  liot  cakes  made  out  of  fine  meal,  kneaded, 
and  no  doulit  cooked  in  the  ashes,  as  they  had  not 
then  seen  the  Egyptian  plan  of  cooking  in  ovens. 
This  was  served  up  with  butter,  —  probably  bonny- 
clabber  or  curds,  —  milk,  and  veal. 

The  Hebrew  bread  was  a  Hat  cake,  baked  on  the 
hearth  or  on  a  metallic  plate.  It  was  broken,  not 
cut,  and  may  have  had  indentations  to  form  lines  of 
easy  fracture.  Thus  may  have  arisen  Paul's  remark, 
— "  We,  being  niani/,  are  on/:  hrend  "  (1  Cor.  x.  17). 

In  the  time  of  Pliny  we  find  that,  though  bread 
was  made  from  a  variety  of  grains,  yet  tliat  wheat 
was  held  in  the  highest  estimation  :  the  wheat  of 
Italy  ranking  first  for  weight  and  whiteness,  while 
that  of  Sicily,  one  of  the  granaries  of  Koine,  stood 
third,  Boeotian  wheat  being  preferred  to  it. 

He  states  that  the  weight  of  all  coiuniissary  bread 
exceeded  that  of  the  Hour  from  which  it  was  made 
by  one  third,  and  this  is  still  held  to  be  the  proper 
percentage  of  gain  in  well-made  bread  from  good 
Hour.  The  German  inoportion,  stated  by  KiJhler  in 
his  licclunnieislcr,  is  lati  pounds  of  dough,  and  153 
pounds  llj  ounces  of  bread  from  100^  pounds  of 
Hour. 

The  Romans  appear  to  have  leavened  their  luead 
with  preparations  similar  to  that  known  in  some 
places  as  "salt  rising,"  instead  of  yeast.  Pliny 
says  that  in  Gaul  and  Spain,  where  they  make  a 
drink  (beer)  by  steeping  grain  in  water,  they  employ 
the  foam  whicli  thickens  on  the  surface  (yeast)  as  "a 
leaven,  and  that  consequently  the  bread  in  those 
countries  is  lighter  than  that  made  elsewhere.  He 
must  mean  in  proportion  to  its  bulk,  and  not  that  a 
certain  quantity  of  Hour  would  produce  a  less  weight 
of  bread. 

The  Roman  leaven  is  described  as  being  made  from 
millet  mixed  with  grape-juice,  which  it  is  said  woulii 
keep  a  whole  year.  Fine  wheat  bian  A\'as  also  em- 
ployed ;  this  was  mixed  with  white  must  (m  grape- 
juice)  three  days  old,  then  dried  in  the  sun  and  niade 
into  small  cakes.  I'or  making  bread,  tlii'.se  cakes 
were  first  soaked  in  water  boiled  with  the  finest 
spelt-flour,  and  then  mixed  with  the  dough. 

These  kinds  of  leaven  could  only  be  made  during 
the  vintage,  but  there  was  another  kind,  made  from 
barley  and  water,  which  could  \>e  jirepared  at  any 
time  ;  this  was  made  up  in  cakes  of  two  ]inunds' 
weight,  which  were  baked  until  they  became  of  a 
reddish-brown  color,  when  they  were  put  in  cIo.se 
vessels  and  allowed  to  turn  sour  ;  when  wanted  for 
leaven,  they  were  steejied  in  water. 

Leaven,  for  immediate  use,  was  also  prepared  by 
kneading  some  of  tlie  Hour,  without  salt,  boiling  it 
to  the  consistency  of  porridge,  and  keeping  it  till  it 
began  to  turn  sour  ;  or  the  bread  was  leavened  by 
means  of  some  of  the  dough  left  over  })nrposely  from 
the  day  before,  as  ammig  the  ancient  Hebrews. 

In  the  maritime  districts  the  flour  was  mixed  with 


BREAD-KXIFE. 


361 


BREAD-MAKING  JIACHIXE. 


sea-water,  to  economize  salt ;  and  in  the  preparation 
of  some  kinds  of  flour,  according  to  Pliny,  the  bran 
was  tii-st  taken  ofi'  the  berry  by  trituration  in  mor- 
tars containing  brickbats  and  sand.  His  transla- 
tors have  rather  absurdly  made  him  say  that  bricks 
and  sand  were  ground  up  with  the  grain.  In  one 
species  of  bread,  called  alica,  which  he  mentions  as 
being  peculiarly  wholesome  and  palatable,  a  species 
of  chalk  found  in  the  liill  Leucorgeum,  between  Na- 
ples and  Puteoli,  was  employed  for  imparting  white- 
ness and  crispness. 

Their  bread  was  probably  too  moist  for  our  taste, 
rather  a  piisty  mass,  somewhat  better  than  the  com- 
mon puis,  wliich  resembled  our  paste  or  gruel,  a  sort 
of  ha.sty-pudding,  and  which  formed  the  staple  of 
the  farinaceous  diet  of  the  Romans. 

There  were  no  ]irofessioual  bakers  in  Rome  till 
after  the  war  with  King  Perseus,  more  than  5S0  years 
after  the  building  of  the  city.  The  occu]iation  for- 
merly belonged  to  the  women.  They  ate  their  bread 
moist  ;  it  was  sometimes  kneaded  with  the  must  of 
the  gi"ape,  with  raisin-juice,  or  with  butter  for  short- 
ening, or  with  eggs  and  milk,  and  often  soaked  in 
milk  and  honey  before  eating.  Vinegar,  to  .soak  the 
bread,  was  a  regular  ration  with  the  Roman  soldiery. 
It  is  much  older  than  that,  however  :  Boaz  said  un- 
to Rutli,  "  Eat  of  thy  bread,  and  dip  thy  morsel  in 
the  vinegar." 

After  the  conquest  of  JIacedon,  li8  B.  c,  Greek 
bakers  came  to  Rome  and  monopolized  the  business. 
Loaves  of  bread,  or  their  pseudomorphs,  are  found  in 
the  excavations  of  Pompeii,  partially  buried  A.  D.  79. 

Bread  was  made  with  yeast  by  the  English  bakers 
in  163i.  Was  made  by  machinery  in  England  in 
1858.  Was  artificially  inflated  with  carbonic-acid 
gas,  \vith  which  the  water  of  mi.\ing  was  impreg- 
nated, by  Dr.  Dauglish,  in  1859.  Aerateil  bread  was 
made  in  the  United  States  prior  to  1854. 

Bread-knife.  A  knife  pivoted  at  one  end  to  a 
post  on  a  table,  and  used  by  a  vertical  motion  to  cut 
loaves  into  slices.     In  the  example  the  hinged  cut- 


Fig.  879. 


Bread-Knife. 

ter  plays  in  a  slotted  arched  frame ;  an  adjustable 
guide  is  adapted  to  the  size  of  the  loaf,  and  a  gage 
determines  tin-  thickness  of  the  slice  to  be  cut. 

Bread-mak'ing  Ma-chine'.  A  machine  in 
which  flour  and  water  are  mixed  and  kneaded.  In 
some  machines  of  this  character  the  dough  is  rolled 
flat  and  cut  into  loaves,  which  are  laid  aside  to  rise 
before  baking.     See  Bkead. 

The  process  of  making  bread  without  leaven  or 
yeast,  generally  known  as  aerated  bread,  is  believed 
to  have  been  first  practiced  with  any  considerable 
degree  of  success  in  the  United  States  some  twenty 
yeai-s  ago.  In  England  it  appears  to  have  been  of 
later  introduction,  the  process  of  Dr.  Dauglish  hav- 
ing first  been  made  public  in  1859.  It  consists  in 
generating  carbonic-acid  gas  in  a  separate  vessel  and 
mechanically  forcing  it  into  the  water  with  which 
the  flour  is  mi.ved. 


His  apparatus  for  making  aerated  bread  is  shown 
in  the  illustration. 

The  water-chamber  A  and  mixer  B  are  cast  in  one 
piece,  and  communicate  by  an  equilibrium  pipe  and 


Bread-Making  Machine. 


valved  aperture  ;  the  water-chamber  also  communi- 
cates with  a  water-tank  and  with  the  gas-generating 
chamber  £  through  pipes  whose  discharge  is  eon- 
trolled  by  cocks  operated  by  hand-wheels.  The  flour 
and  salt  are  jdaced  in  the  mixing-chamber  B,  and 
water  is  admitted  to  the  water-chamber  from  the  tank. 
When  the  gas  in  its  chamber  has  attained  a  suHicient 
degree  of  pressure,  say  100  pounds  to  the  square  inch, 
the  cock  leading  to  the  water-chamber  is  turned,  and 
the  gas  passes  through  the  water,  which  thus  be- 
comes thoroughly  charged  under  that  high  ]U'essure, 
and  is  then  admitted  to  the  niixina-chanibcr,  where  it 
is  mingled  with  the  flour  and  salt  by  means  of  revolv- 
ing mixers  on  a  shaft  rotated  by  gearing  driven  by 
hand-crank  or  a  steam-engine.  The  receiver  is  se- 
cured to  the  mixing-chamber  B  by  a  bolted  flange, 
and  communicates  with  it  through  an  a)ieiture  pro- 
vided with  a  slide-valve,  which  is  capable  of  a  ro- 
tary as  well  as  a  reciprocating  motion,  by  means  of 
which  any  dough  can  be  pressed  out  from  between  it 
and  its  seat.  The  two  vessels  are  also  connected  by 
au  eijuilibrium-pipe,  that  the  pressure  of  gas  may 
be  ec|ual  in  each,  allowing  the  dough  to  fall  into  the 
mixing-chamber  by  its  own  gra\-ity.  From  the  re- 
ceiver the  dough  is  passed  to  the  baking-pan,  by 
means  which  allow  of  its  being  surrounded  liy  air  or 
gas  under  pressure,  thus  lessening  the  escape  of  the 
gas  inclosed  in  the  dough. 

The  baking  requires  to  be  conducted  in  a  peculiar 
manner.  Cold  water  being  used  in  mixing,  the  ex- 
pansion of  the  dough  on  rising  cau.ses  a  great  reduc- 
tion of  temperature,  as  much  as  40°  below  that  of  fer- 
mented bread  when  placed  in  the  oven  ;  this,  with 
its  slow  springing  until  it  reaches  the  temperature  of 
the  boiling-point,  renders  it  essential  that  the  top 
cnist  should  not  be  formed  uritil  the  very  close  of 
the  process.  The  furnaces,  accordingly,  are  so  ar- 
ranged that  the  heat  is  applied  through  the  bottom ; 


BREAD-RASP. 


362 


BREAKWATER. 


ami,  at  tlie  last  nioment,  wlien  the  bread  i.s  nearly 
baked  tliroii;>h,  the  iqiper  heat  is  applied  and  the  top 
crust  furnied. 

The  iiriiieiph's  of  bread  making  and  baking  have 
been  eaivfuUy  explained  by  Professor  Horsford,  of 
Canibridi,'!',  .Mass. 

Bread-rasp.  A  rasp  used  by  bakers  in  removing 
the  burned  crust  of  loaves  and  rolls,  especially  of 
French  rolls. 

Bread-slic'er.     See  Bre.\d-knife. 

Breadth.  (Sliipwi-ujhtiiiij.)  The  thwart  meas- 
ure of  a  >liip  at  any  designated  place.  The  beam  is 
the  r.fiinib-  hrradlh :  that  is,  at  the  widest  part. 

Breadth-line.  (Shipiorighting.)  A  line  of  the 
ship  lengthwise,  Ibllowiug  the  curve  indicated  by 
the  ends  of  the  timbers. 

Break.  *1.  A  wooden  bench  on  which  dough  is 
kneaded  by  means  of  a  lever  called  a  break-staff. 
The  weight  of  the  person,  often  in  a  sitting  posture, 
is  tlirown  u|ioii  the  stall',  which  moves  in  a  semicir- 
cular orbit  arouud  the  bench,  keeping  up  a  saltatory 
motion  by  its  He.xibility  and  the  dancing  action  of  the 
operator.  By  this  means  the  dough  is  worked  up 
very  dry,  and  makes  the  best  kind  of  crackers. 

This  duty  is  now  jierformed  by  rollers,  which  re- 
ceive their  name  from  their  duty,  being  called  break- 
ing-rollers. 

2.  (Fvrtificatimi.)  A  change  from  the  general  di- 
rection of  the  citrlaiii  near  its  extremity  in  the  con- 
struction with  orillons  and  retired  flanks.     Brisurc. 

3.  {Prinlini/.)  The  piece  of  metal  contiguous  to 
the  shank  of  a  type,  so  called  because  it  is  broken 
oH'  in  linishing. 

4.  (Architceliirc.)  A  projection  or  recess  from  the 
surface  or  wall  of  a  building. 

5.  A  sudden  change  of  level,  as  of  a  deck.  The 
break  of  a  poop-deck  is  where  it  ends  forward. 

6.  (Tehip-apJiij.)  A  commutator  or  apparatus  to 
interrupt  or  change  the  direction  of  electric  currents. 

See  I^UAKE,  for  devices  for  applying  power,  for  re- 
straining motion,  etc. 

Break'er.  \.  (Xaalical.)  A  small  cask  for  ship's 
use.  Eiiiiiluved  for  bringing  water  aboard  in  boats,  or 
for  containing  the  water  required  for  a  boat's  crew 
absent  from  the  vessel  on  duty. 

The  g  nig-a\.iik  is  kept  on  deck,  and  contains  the 
drinking-water  for  the  sliip's  company,  being  replen- 
ished from  day  to  day  from  the  tanks. 

2.  (Flax-manvfaetare.)  The  first  carding-machine 
which  operates  u\ion  the  parcels  of  tow  from  a  creep- 
ing-sheet. The  finisher  is  the  final  carding-maehine, 
and  operates  upon  a  lap  formed  of  slivers  of  line. 

Break-ground.  (Forlifieatieni.)  To  open  the 
treni'hrs  or  begin  the  works  of  the  siege. 

Break'ing.  (IVoolcn-maiivfaelure.)  A  process 
in  theworsted  or  long-wool  manufacture.  The  combed 
slivers  are  laid  upon  a  traveling-apron  and  joined 
endwise,  to  make  lontinuous  lengths. 

Break'ing-do\vn  RoU'era.  {Metal-working.) 
Rollers  nsi'd  to  lonsolidate  metal  by  roUingit  while  hot. 
Break'ing-en'gine.  The  first  of  a  series  of  card- 
ing-inaL-hinis,  to  receive  and  act  on  the  lap  from  the 
lapper  ;  it  has  usually  coarser  clothing  than  the 
finisliing-caiils.      See  C.\rding-MACHINE. 

Break'ing-frame.  ( Worsted- manufueturc.)  A 
machine  in  wliich  sliccrs  of  long-sta])led  wool  are 
planked  or  spliced  together  and  then  drawn  out  to, 
say,  eight  times  their  original  length.  The  slivers  are 
made  by  hanil-eombs,  and  taper  towards  each  end. 
Each  is  laid  lapjiing  half  its  length  upon  the  preced- 
ing sliver,  and  the  passage  between  rollers  of  gradu- 
ally inercnsing  speed  attenuates  the  sliver. 

Break 'ing-ma-chiue.  (Fla.e-)iuini(/actiire.)  A 
machine  for  shortening  lia.x-staple,  to  adapt  it  to  be 


worked  by  a  certain  kind  of  machinery.  Lung-flax 
or  long-line  becomes  cut-flax  or  etU-line.  The  ma- 
chine is  also  known  as  a  cuUiug-itiachine  or  fl^ix- 
breaker. 

Break-i'ron.  {Carpentry.)  The  iron  screwed  on 
top  of  a  plane-bit  to  bend  upward  and  break  the 
shaving.  Its  edge  is  from  Vb  to  j'j  of  an  inch  from 
the  edge  of  the  cutting-bit. 

Break-joint.  A  break-joint  structui-e  is  one  in 
which  the  joints  of  the  parts  or  courses  are  made  to 

Fig.  881. 


Breaic-Joint  Rait  and  Courses. 

alteniate  with  unbroken  surfaces,  as  in  the  continu- 
ous railroad  rail,  in  bricklaying,  shingling,  and  nu- 
merous other  mechanic  arts. 

a,  break -joint  of  a  compound  rail. 

b,  break-joint  of  bricks  in  courses. 

c,  break -joint  of  slates  in  courses  on  a  roof. 
Break'wa-ter.    A  structure  or  contrivance,  as 

a  mound,  mole,  wall,  or  sunken  hulk,  interposed  to 
break  the  force  of  the  waves  and  to  protect  an  an- 
chorage, harbor,  or  any  object  exposed  to  the  waves. 

Breakwaters  for  the  purpose  of  jnoteeting  harbors 
are  of  very  ancient  oiigin. 

The  harbor  of  Alexandria  was  iirotected  by  a  stone 
mole  called  the  Hejitastadium,  which  joined  the 
island  of  Pharos  and  the  main-land.  It  had  two 
passages  througli  it,  which  were  spanned  by  bridges. 

■Nebuchadnezzar  built  quays  and  breakwaters  along 
the  shores  of  the  Persian  Gulf  —  HEiionoTlis. 

The  harbor  of  Rhodes  and  the  Piranis  of  Athens 
were  protected  by  moles,  as  were  also  those  of  Civita 
Vecchia,  Ostia,  Antium  Misenus,  and  others  among 
the  Romans. 

We  are  informed  by  Josephus,  that  Herod,  desiring 
to  form  a  port  on  the  coast  of  Syria,  between  .loppa 
and  Dora,  caused  great  stones,  most  of  them  50  feet 
long  by  10  wide  and  9  deep,  and  some  even  larger, 
to  be  cast  into  the  sea  in  20  fathoms  of  water,  with 
a  view  of  forming  a  foundation  for  a  mole  or  break- 
water. 

The  Romans  constructed  the  moles  or  breakwaters 
of  many  of  their  harbors  upon  a  doubh-  row  of  arches, 
so  ai-ranged  that  the  openings  of  one  set  were  oppo- 
site the  piers  of  the  other,  by  which  means  the  force 
of  the  waves  was  thoroughly  broken,  while  still 
permitting  the  passage  of  the  current,  thus  great- 
ly reducing  the  accumulation  of  dcqiosits  around  the 
base  of  the  structure,  and  consei|in-nt  tendency  to- 
wards  filling  up  the  harbor.  The  piers  of  the  new 
river-frontage  of  New  York  are  to  be  constructed  on 
pillars  which  allow  free  course  to  the  water,  being  in- 
tended for  wharfage,  not  wave-lireakers. 

The  breakwater  of  Cherbourg  was  commenced  in 
17S4.  Its  total  length  is  4,120  yards,  consisting  of 
two  arms,  respectively  2,441  and  1,679  yards  long, 
forming  an  obtuse  angle  of  1('>9°  towards  the  sea. 
The  average  depth  of  water  inclosed  is  62  feet  at 
high   spring-tides,  and  the  area  sheltered  is  about 


BREAKWATER. 


363 


BREAKWATER. 


1,927  acres,  about  one  third  of  which  has  a  depth 
exceediug  27  feet  at  low-water  spring-tides. 

Cessarl's  plan  for  breakwaters  at  the  latter  part  of 
the  last  century  consisted  of  large  truncated  cones 
of  timber  floated  by  means  of  air-barrels  lashed 
thereto,  and  towed  to  the  spot.  These  were  150 
feet  in  diameter  at  the  bottom,  64  at  the  top,  and 

Fig.  8S2. 


Fig.  88a 


■DJIIIIJIJJJJJ, 


JMIM 


Cessarl-s  Breaktvater. 


70  feet  high.  Kinety  such  cones  were  to  be  placed 
consecutively,  to  form  a  breakwater  when  sunk  and 
filled  in  with  stone.  The  project  was  only  partially 
cairied  out.  The  timbers  were  dislocated  and  the 
stones  scattered.  The  work  was  renewed  by  addi- 
tions of  stone  till  it  reached  the  level  of  low-water 
spring-tides  ;  upon  these  was  laid  a  bed  of  hydraulic 
concrete  five  feet  thick,  and  upon  this  was  erected 
a  solid  wall  of  coursed  ashlar  masonry  faced  with 
granite.  The  top  of  the  sea-slope  is  covered  with 
large  loose  blocks,  and  at  the  extremities  of  tlie  wings 
it  is  farther  protected  by  immense  artificial  blocks, 
weighing  about  40  tons  each,  formed  of  rubble  set  in 
hydraulic  cement.  Fig.  883  (a)  shows  a  section  of 
this  work. 

6  is  a  section  of  the  breakwater  off  Pl)Tnouth,  Eng- 
land, to  protect  tlie  harbor,  which  is  only  open  to 
the  south.  It  is  situated  upon  the  inner  of  three 
natural  reefs  of  rock,  which  lay  outside  the  harbor, 
and  closes  what  was  once  a  central  passage,  leaving 
open  passages  to  the  east  and  west.  The  main  boily 
is  placed  peipendicularly  to  the  S.S.E.,  and  is  1,000 
yards  long.  Wings  at  each  end  form  angles  of  135°, 
and  are  each  350  yards  in  length.  A  surface  of  1,120 
acres  is  protected.  It  is  133  yards  wide  at  bottom, 
15  at  top  ;  a  set-off  22  yanls  wide  forms  a  fore- 
shore on  the  sea  side.  The  upper  portion  is  revetted 
with  niasonr}-  laid  in  Roman  cement  on  both  faces 
and  crown.  The  hight  of  the  latter  is  2  feet  alx>ve 
high-water  spring-tides.  4,105,920  tons  of  stone 
were  used  in  the  construction.  Cost,  f  7,500,- 
000. 

Delaware  Breakwater  is  situated  just  inside  of 
Cape  Henlopen,  the  southwestern  point  of  land  at 
the  entrance  of  Delaware  Bay,  and  was  intended 
to  form  a  harbor  of  refuge  during  .storms  for  vessels 
passing  along  the  coast.  The  work  was  commenced 
in  1829.  It  consists  of  two  parts,  the  breakwater 
proper  and  the  ice-breaker.  The  former  is  1,203 
yards  long,  extending  in  an  E.S.E.  and  W.X.W. 
direction.  The  ice-breaker  is  designed  to  protect 
the  harbor  from  floating  ice  brought  down  by  the 
Delaware  River,  is  500  yards  long,  and  Ues  in  an  E. 
by  X.  and  W.  by  S.  direction,  baring  a  passage  of 
350  yards  between  it  and  the  breakwater,  the  prolon- 
gation of  which  would  pass  near  the  center  of  the 
ice-breaker.  The  work  protects  from  the  more  dan- 
gerous winds  au  area  of  about  420  acres,  having  a 
depth  of  3  to  6  fathoms,  leaving  a  passage  of  about 
1,000  yards  in  length  between  the  shore  and  its 
landward  extremity. 


The  width  of  the  structure  is  175  feet  at  base  and 
30  feet  at  top,  and  it  is  composed  of  rough  blocks  of 
stone.  A  transverse  section  is  shown  at  c.  Fig.  882. 
The  inner  slope  has  an  angle  of  45",  the  outer  slope 
has  an  inclination  of  3  base  to  1  of  hight  to  a  depth 
of  about  19  feet  below  the  highest  spring-tides,  and 
from  thence  to  the  bottom  of  45°. 

Breakwaters  have  also  been  con.stnicted  by  the 
United  States  government  at  .several  lake-ports, 
particularly  at  Buffalo  and  Cleveland  on  Lake  Erie, 
and  Chicago  on  Lake  Michigan. 

The  covering  pier  or  breakwater  of  Buffalo  Harbor 
(rf.  Fig.  883)  is  built  of  stone,  ami  cost  about  §  200,- 
000.  The  illustration  shows  a  cross-section.  It  meas- 
ures 1,452  feet  in  length.  The  top  of  the  pier  on 
which  the  roadway  is  fonned  measures  eighteen  feet  in 
breadth,  and  is  elevated  about  five  feet  above  the 
level  of  the  water  in  the  harbor.  On  the  side  of 
the  roadway  which  is  exposed  to  the  lake,  a  parapet- 
wall,  five  feet  in  hight,  extends  along  the  whole 
length  of  the  pier,  from  the  top  of  which  a  talus 
wall,  battering  at  the  rate  of  one  pei-pendicular  to 
three  horizontal,  slopes  towards  the  lake.  Tliis  slop, 
ing  wall  is  formed  of  coursed  pitching.  Its  founda- 
tions are  secured  by  a  double  row  of  strong  sheeting- 
piles  driven  into  the  bed  of  the  lake,  ami  a  mass  of 
rubble  picrrr'^  pcrrlucs^  resring  on  the  toe  of  the  slope. 
The  quay  or  inner  side  of  tlie  pier  is  perpendicular,, 
and  is  sheathed  with  a  row  of  sheeting-piles,  driven  at 
intervals  of  about  five  feet  ajiart  from  center  to  cen- 
ter, to  prevent  the  wall  from  being  damaged  by  ves- 
sels coming  alongside  of  it. 

The  harlx)r  of  the  city  of  Pemambueo,  in  Brazil, 
is  defended  by  a  natural  breakwater,  —  a  reef  of  hard 
coral  just  level  with  the  sea,  and  extending  for  miles 
along  the  coast,  parallel  with  the  main-land  and  but 
a  very  short  distauce  from  it,  leaving  a  nan"ow  chan- 
nel of  sufficient  depth  to  float  vessels  of  cousiderable 
size  between  them. 


BR  EAKWATER-GLACIS. 


364 


BUEAST-LINE. 


Here  ships  may  ride  in  perfect  safety,  the  water 
being  as  smooth  as  a  mill-pond,  while  the  sea  is 
breaking  furionsly  upon  the  reef,  even  at  times 
casting  its  spray  on  the  decks  of  vessels  moored  in- 
side. 

Break'wa-ter-gla'cis.  (Hydrmtlic  Enyinccr- 
ituj.)  A  sluina  junrincnl.  The  slojjing  stone  paving 
next  the  sea  in  jiiers  or  breakwaters. 

Breatn'ing.  (Xaulical.)  Cleansing  the  ooze, 
shells,  seaweed,  ete.,  from  the  bottom  of  a  ship  by 
a  Hashing  fii'e  and  scraping. 

Breast.  1.  (.■Igricullure.)  The  forward  part  of 
a  [ilow's  mold-board. 

2.  (Ciirpcntri/.)  Tlie  lower  side  of  a  hand-rail,  a 
rafter,  the  rib  of  a  dome  or  of  a  beam. 

3.  (Mininij. )     The  face  of  a  coal- working. 

4.  (Jrchitedure.)  a.  That  portion  of  a  wall  be- 
tween the  window  and  the  floor. 

b.  That  portion  of  a  chinmey  between  the  flues 
and  the  apartment. 

5.  (Mitchiiitrii.)  A  bush  connected  with  a  small 
shaft  or  spindle. 

6.  (Hydraulics.)  The  curved  wall  up  to  which 
the  floats  of  a  water-wheel  work,  and  which  jire- 
vents,  as  far  as  possible,  the  waste  of  water. 

7.  (Sheet- iron  Ware.)  As  applied  to  milk-cans, 
coffee  and  tea  pots,  and  similar  articles,  this  word 
denotes  the  bulging  or  rounded  top  which  intervenes 
between  the  lid  or  cover  and  the  cylindrical  portion 
which  forms  the  body  of  the  vessel. 

8.  ( Vehicle.)  The  middle,  swell,  or  hiilge  of  a 
nave  or  hub. 

9.  Tlie  front  of  a  furnace. 

10.  Till',  part  of  an  object  against  which  the  breast 
pushes  in  some  machines,  such  as  the  Ireast-AvWX, 
Z//vv/.sy-pIow,  etc. 

Breast-band.  (Saddlery.)  A  band  passing 
across  the  bre:ist  of  the  draft  animal,  and  to  which 
the  traces  or  tugs  are  attached.  It  is  a  substitute 
fur  a  collar. 

Breast-beam.  1.  (Shipifrighting.)  A  beam  at 
the  Ijreak  of  a  (piarter-deek  or  forecastle. 

2.  (Jl'eaciitij.)     The  cloth-beam  of  a  loom. 

3.  (Rail road  Eiujincering.)  The  forward  trans- 
verse liciun  of  a  locomotive. 

Breast-board.  (Rope ■making.)  A  loaded  sled 
to  which  are  attached  the  end  yarns  at  the  foot  of 
the  walk.  As  the  yarns  are  twisted  into  a  strand 
they  become  shorter  and  draw  the  sled  towards  the 
head  of  the  walk,  the  load  on  the  sled  maintaining 
the  necessary  tension.  The  yarns  are  usually  short- 
ened one  third  by  the  twisting,  and  lose  about  thir- 
ty per  cent  in  so  doing.  The  twist  is,  however, 
necessary,  to  give  the  requisite  rigidity,  to  ])revent 
the  fibers  sliding  on  eacli  other,  and  to  partially  ex- 
clude wet.  The  addition  of  tar  increases  the  power 
of  excluding  water. 

Rope  not  twisted,  but  bound  tightly  together,  is 
stronger  than  twisted  rope,  but  is  soft  and  not  dur- 
able, the  yarns  readily  admitting  water,  which  rots 
the  rope. 

Breast-chain.  (Saddlery.)  A  chain  reaching 
between  the  hame-rings,  its  loop  passing  through 
the  ring  of  the  neck-yoke,  to  support  the  tongue. 

In  carriage  harness,  the  hame  is  destitute  of  the 
rings,  and  tlie  strap  is  passed  around  the  lower  part 
of  the  collar.     See  Neck-yoke. 

Breast-col'lar.  (Harness.)  A  pulling  strap 
which  passes  around  the  breast  of  the  horse  ;  a  sub- 
stitute for  a  collar,  which  encircles  the  neck  and  rests 
against  the  shoulders.  In  the  example  the  breast- 
straj)  is  paddeii,  and  the  two  pieces  are  connected  by 
a  snap.  A  ]ilate  upon  it  holds  the  breast-rings  and 
tug-buckle  pieces. 


Fig.  884. 


Breast-  Collar. 

Breast-drill.      (Metal -irorking.)     A  drill -stock 
operated  by  a  crank  a,  and  bevel  gearing  b,  and  hav- 

Fig.  885. 


Breast-Brill. 

ing  a  piece  c  against  which  the  workman  bears  his 
breast  when  engaged  in  drilling. 

Breast-fast.  (Nautical.)  A  mooring  hawser  to 
confine  the  ship's  broadside  to  a  quay  or  wharf. 
Bow  or  head  fast  and  stern-fast  indicate  ropes  of  dif- 
ferent positiiins  but  similar  duty. 

Breast-har'ness.  (Saddlery.)  A  liorse-gear 
arranged  to  pull 

byabaiidin  front  Fig.  886. 

of  the  breast,  in- 
steail  of  a  eollar. 
Breast-high  t. 
(Fortificalion.) 
The  interior 
slope  of  a  para- 
pet. 
Breast-hook. 
(Shiphuihiinf/. ) 
One  of  the  curved  ' 
horizontal  tim- 
bers jilaced  in- 
side the  bow  as 
struts  to  support 
and  ties  to  con- 
nect the  sides. 
Also  called 
breasf-l'ner. 

Breasting. 
1.   (Mill.)     The  curved  masonry  against  which  the 
shuttle  side  of  a  breast-wheel  works,  and  which  pre- 
vents the  water  from  slipping  past  the  wheel. 

The  scoop-wheel  has  also  a  breasting  which  eon- 
fines  the  water  raised  thereby.     See  Scoop-wheel. 

2.  (Paper-makintj.)  The  concave  lied  against 
which  the  wheel  of  a  rag-engine  works  ;  between  the 
two  is  the  throat.      See  R.\o-ENGIXE. 

Breast-line.  The  rope  connecting  the  pontons 
of  a  military  bridge  in  a  straight  direction. 


Brea&t-Harness. 


BKEAST-MOLDIJTGS. 


365 


BREAST-WALL. 


Breast-mold'ings.  {Carpentry.)  Window-sill 
moldings.      Panel  moldings  beneath  a  \vindow. 

Breast-plate.  1.  A  plate  which  receives  the 
hinder  end  of  a  drill,  and  by  which  pressure  is  ap- 
plied. Formerly  held  against  the  breast,  it  still 
retains  its  name,  even  when  otherwise  supported.  A 
cotiscicnce  OT  palette.     See  Bkea.st-drill. 

2.  Armor  for  the  breast.  The  forward  portion  of 
a  cuirass. 

Breast-plow.  (Husbandry.)  A  shovel  whose 
handle  has  a  cross-piece  applied  to  the  breast,  and 
used  for  paring  turf  or  sods. 

Breast-pump.  {Surgical.)  Also  known  as  ant- 
ha  laclca  or  antlia  mammaria. 

A  pump  having  a  cup  adapted  to  fit  over  the  nip- 
ple, in  order  to  withdraw  milk  from  the  mamma 
when  this  cannot  be  effected  in  a  natural  way. 

In  one  example  the  receiver  has  an  opening  which 
in  use  is  covered  by  the  thumb  and  serves  as  an  exit 
for  the  milk.     The  air  is  drawn  off  through  an  up- 

Fig.  887- 


Breast-Fittnp. 


turned  tube,  which  prevents  the  access  of  liquid  to 
the  valves.  The  valves  consist  of  two  cylindrical 
flanged  caps,  whose  ends  are  perforated  and  inclose 
between  them  a  valve-disk  of  rubber. 

In  the  other  example  the  suction-nipple  is  of  rigid 
material,  and  has  side  discharge  into  the  flexible  pipe 


Fig.  888. 


Breast-Pump. 

communicating  with  the  elastic  bulb.  The  latter  has 
induction  and  eduction  valves. 

Breast-rail.  (Shipwrighiing.)  The  upper  rail 
of  a  balcony  or  of  a  breastwork  on  the  quarter-deck. 

Breast-strap.  (Saddlery.)  A  strap  passing  from 
the  luime-riiuis  or  from  the  (fullet  of  the  collar,  to 
sujiport  the  tongue  or  pole  of  the  vehicle. 

Breast-strap  Har'ness.  (Saddlery.)  Thatwhich 
has  a  strap  around  the  breast  instead  of  a  collar.  In  the 
example  the  breast-collar  is  supported  as  usual  from 


the  withers,  and  Fig.  889. 

at  its  rear  ends 
receives  the  tug- 
straps.  Other 
forward  attach- 
ments are  made 
to  the  breast- 
straps,  which  are 
connected  to  the 
neck-yoke  or 
tongue. 

Breast-strap 
Slide.  {Har- 
ness. )  An  iron  ( 
loop  which  slips 
on  the  breast- 
strap,  and  takes 
from  the  latter 
the  wear  of  the 
ring  on  the  end 

of  the  neck-yoke.  JSreasl-Slrap  Harness. 

The  ends  of  the 

breast-strap  are  passed  through  the  rings  on  the 
harness. 

A  detachable  tongue  or  pin,  made  with  a  double 
point  and  a  flange  at  the  center,  engages  with  the 

Fig.  890. 


Breast-Strap  Slide. 

breast-strap  when  the  slide  is  to  be  held  fixedly  on 
the  strap,  and  is  removed  when  it  is  desired  that 
the  slide  should  yield  or  play  on  the  breast-strap. 

Breast-sum'mer.  (Carpentry.)  A  beam  in- 
serted flush  with  the  house  fi'ont  which  it  supports, 
and  resting  at  its  ends  upon  the  walls  and  at  inter- 
mediate points  upon  pillars  or  columns.  Common  in 
store  fronts.  Written  also  (incorrectly)  bres-summcr, 
brest-snmmcr. 

Breast-wall.  (Masonry.)  a.  One  built  breast- 
high. 

b.  A  wall  erected  to  maintain  a  bank  of  earth  in 
position,  as  in  a  railroad  cutting,  a  sunk  fence,  etc. 

Fig.  891. 


Breast-Walls. 


The  thickness  and  batter  of  the  breast-wall  depend 
upon  the  character  and  inclination  of  the  strata.  It 
is  held  to  be  a  safe  rule  to  make  the  base  of  the  wall 
not  less  than  one  fourth,  and  the  batter  not  less  than 
one  sixth,  of  the  vertical  bight  of  the  wall. 


BKEAST-WHEEL. 


366 


BREECH-PIN. 


Wliere  the  strata  are  horizontal,  a  mere  casing  may 
be  siiHicient,  but  its  strength  must  be  considerably 
increased  when  the  strata  incline  towards  the  wall. 
The  thickness  re<iuired  will  also  depend  upon  con- 
siderations of  the  cohesion  of  the  earth,  dryness,  or 
tendency  to  nioistnre,  drainage,  and  tlie  peculiar  su- 
perposition and  ilip  of  strata  indicating  land-slips. 

Breast-Twheel.  A  wheel  to  which  the  water  is 
admitted  aliuut  ou  a  level  with  the  axle,  and  main- 
tained iu  contact  with  it  by  a  breasting  (h),  or  cas- 


Fig.  892. 


Breast-Wlteel. 

ing,  wliich  incloses  from  60  to  90°  of  the  periphery 
of  the  wheel.  Tlie  wheel  may  have  radial  or  hollow 
buckets. 

The  peripheral  inclosure  is  sometimes  called  hrecist- 
ituf,  or  solciiu/,  and  tlie  casing  at  the  ends  of  the 
wheel  is  called  shroHdhirj. 

Breast-wheel  Steam-en'gine.  A  form  of  ro- 
larii  stcam-ciicjiiic  m  which  a  jet  of  steam  is  made  to 
impinge  upon  the  Hoats  of  a  wheel  rotating  in  au  air- 
tight case. 

The  first  steam-engine  of  this  class  was  one  of  the 
earliest  on  record.  Brancas,  A.  D.  1520,  had  a  cop- 
per boiler  and  eduction-pipe,  the  steam  issuing  from 
which  rotated  the  vanes  of  a  shaft,  which  (on  dil) 
worked  jiestles  for  grinding  materials,  raising  water 
by  buckets,  sawing  timber,  etc. 

CoRDEii  AND  Locke's  brcasl-whecl  engine  is  one 
form  of  the  rotary  steam-engine,  having  neither  pis- 
ton nor  valves.  It 
Fig.  893.  consists    of    a 

wheel  rotating  in 
an  air-tight  case, 
receiving  a  jet 
of  steam  intro- 
duced in  a  tan- 
>^(  gential  dii'cc- 
tion,  the  case 
having  free  com- 
munication with 
acondenscr.  The 
action  upon  the 
wheel  is  analo- 
gous to  that  of 
water  upon  a 
brcast-whee!, 
the  steam  im- 
pinging with  a 
force  (leterniined 
by  its  pressure 
and  with  an  ef- 
Corderand  Lockers  Rotary  Steam-En^ne.  feet  proportion- 
ate to  the  size  of 
the  float  or  bucket  upon  which  it  acts. 


The  action  of  the  condenser  is  auxiliary  ;  making 
a  partial  vacuum  in  the  ease,  increasing  the  abso- 
lute pressure  of  the  steam,  which  passes  iu  to  (ill  the 
void.  The  shaft  of  the  wheel  passes  through  stuff- 
ing-boxes at  the  center  of  the  circular  case,  and  is 
supported  externally  by  bearings. 

a  is  the  engine-shaft. 

b,  the  revolving  wheel. 

c,  the  air-tight  steam-case. 

d,  the  steam-pipe. 

c,  the  throttle-valve. 

/,  the  eduction-pipe. 

g,  the  condenser. 

h,  the  injection-cock. 

i,  the  cold-water  cistern. 

The  condensing  apparatus  has  the  usual  pumps, 
not  shown  in  the  cut. 

Breast'work.  1.  (Fortification.)  A  hastily  con- 
structed parapet  made  of  material  at  hand,  such  as 
earth,  logs,  rails,  timber,  and  designed  to  protect 
troops  from  the  fire  of  an  enemy. 

2.  {Shipbuilding.)  A  railing  or  balustrade  stand- 
athwartships  across  a  deck,  as  on  the  forward  end  of 
the  nuarter-deck  or  round-house. 

Tlie  beam  supporting  it  is  a  breast-beam. 

3.  The  para]iet  of  a  building. 

Breo'clcL  (Masonrg.)  A  kind  of  marljle  com- 
posed of  a  mass  of  angular  fragments,  closely  ce- 
mented together  in  such  a  manner  that  when  broken 
they  form  brechcs  or  notches. 

Breech.  1.  (Fire-arms  and  Ordnance.)  The  rear 
portion  of  a  gun  ;  the  portion  behind  the  chamber. 

2.  (Sliipbtdldiuy.)  The  outer  angle  of  a  knee- 
timber  ;  the  inner  angle  is  the  tlirnat. 

Breech-block.  A  movalile  piece  at  the  breech 
of  a  breech-luading  gun,  which  is  witlidrawn  for  the 
insertion  of  a  cartridge  and  closed  before  firing,  to 
receive  the  impact  of  the  recoil.  This  is  the  great 
problem  in  the  breech-loading  gun.  Umler  FiUE- 
AUM  the  subject  is  treated,  the  invention  being 
divided  into  2  genera,  91  sjiccies,  and  21  ^•arieties, 
according  to  the  mode  of  moving  the  block  relatively 
to  the  barrel  or  the  barrel  to  the  block.  The  prob- 
lem is  to  open  the  rear  of  the  barrel  and  close  it 
again.      See  FlliE-AKM. 

Breech'iug.  1.  (Ordnance.)  A  rope  secui'ed  by 
a  thimble  to  the  breeching-looji  of  a  shii>'s  gun,  and 
attached  by  its  ends  to  ring-bolts  on  each  side  of  tlie 
port-hole,  serving  to  limit  the  recoil  of  the  gun  when 
(ired. 

The  breecMng-loop  occupies  the  place  of  the  ordi- 
nary cascabcl. 

2.  (Harness.)  The  portion  which  comes  behind 
the  buttocks  of  a  horse,  and  enalilcs  him  to  hold 
back  the  vehicle  in  descending  a  hill. 

3.  A  bifurcated  smoke-pipe  of  a  furnace  or  heater. 
Breech'ing-hook.     (Vehicle.)    A  looji  or  hook 

on  the  shaft  of  a  carriage  for  the  attachment  of  the 
strap  of  the  breeching,  by  which  the  horse  bears 
backwardlv  against  the  load  in  descending  a  hill. 

Breech'iiig-loop.  The  loo])  of  the  cascabcl  in 
ships'  guns,  tlu'ough  which  the  breeching  goes  to 
pre\'ent  the  recoil. 

Breech-load'er.  A  fire-arm  in  which  the  load 
is  introduced  at  the  rear  instead  of  at  the  nmzzle. 
The  use  of  breech-loaders  goes  back  to  the  sixteenth 
century  ;  indeed,  it  is  probable  that  that  form  of  arm 
is  about  as  old  as  the  nnizzle-loader.  See  FiuE-AliM  ; 
Revolveii  ;  Maoazine-gun  ;  Cannon.  See  also 
list  under  Weapons. 

Breech-pin.  (Fire-arms.)  A  plug  screwed  into 
the  rear  end  of  a  barrel,  forming  the  bottom  of  the 
charge-clunnber.  Otherwise  called  a  brecch-plug  or 
brccch-screw. 


BREECH-SCREW. 


?^6: 


BRICK. 


Breech-screw. 


Fig.  89i. 


Bfeech- Screw. 


(Fire-arms.)  Tlie  plug  which 
closes  the  rear  end 
of  the  boi-e  of  a  fiie- 
arm  ban-el.  The  parts 
are  known  as 

a,  plug. 
e,  face. 

b,  tenon. 

c,  tang. 

d,  tang-screw  hole. 
Breech-sight.     {Fire-arms.)    The  hinder  sight 

of  a  gun.  In  conjunction  with  the  front  sight  it 
serres  to  aim  the  gun  at  an  object.  It  is  graduated 
to  degrees  and  fractions,  their  length  on  the  scale  be- 
ing equal  to  the  tangents  of  an  arc  having  a  radius 
efjual  to  the  distance  between  the  front  and  rear 
sights.  The  front  sight  is  merely  a  short  piece  of 
metal  screwed  into  the  gun,  usnally  at  the  muzzle, 
but  sometimes  between  the  trunnions,  or  on  one  of 
the  rirabases,  \vith  its  upper  edge  parallel  to  the  bore 
of  the  gun.  The  rear  sight  may  be  detached,  having 
a  circular  base  fitting  the  base  of  the  gun,  or  may 
slide  through  a  slotted  lug,  and  be  retained  at  any 
given  hight  by  a  set  screw. 

The  brcech-siglit,  the  tangent  scafe,  and  the  pendu- 
lum are  merely  ditterent  forms  of  this  device,  the 
latter  having  a  bulb  at  its  bottom  which  keeps  it  in 
a  vertical  position  when  the  two  wheels  of  the  car- 
riage are  not  at  the  same  level.  It  is  suspended  in 
a  seat  which  is  screwed  into  the  breech  of  the  g>in . 
The  tangent  scale  has  steps,  corresponding  in  hight 
to  the  graduations  on  the  breech  sight  for  guns  of 
the  same  caliber  and  pattern  ;  and  is  only  applied 
to  the  gun  at  the  moment  of  sighting.  See  Back- 
sight. 

Breech-'wrench.  A  wrench  used  in  turning  out 
the  breecli-pin  of  a  lire-arm. 

Breeze.  (Brick-making.)  Refuse  cinders  used 
for  burning  bricks  in  the  clamp. 

Breeze-ov'en.  A  furnace  adapted  for  burning 
coal-dust  or  brrezc. 

Bre-luche'.  {Fabric.)  A  French  floor-cloth  of 
linen  aud  worsted. 

Bre-quet'-chain.  A  chain  for  securing  the  watch 
in  the  vest  pocket  to  a  button  or  button-hole  of  the 
vest. 

Bres'-sitm-mer.  (Carpentry.)  A  girder  in  an 
e.xterual  wall,  supported  by  piers  or  pillai-s,  and  car- 
rying a  superincumbent  weight.  Sometimes  written 
brcsl-summcr ;  properly,  brcoM-summer. 

Brett.  (Vehicle.)  A  four-wheeled  carriage  hav- 
ing a  calash  top  and  seats  for  four  besides  the  driver's 
seat.     .\  short  term  for  britzska. 

Bret'tice.  (Mining.)  «.  A  vertical  wall  of  sep- 
aration in  a  mining-shaft  which  permits  ascending 
and  descending  currents  to  traverse  the  respective 
compartments,  or  permits  one  to  be  an  upcast  or 
downcast  shaft,  and  the  other  a  hoisting  shaft ;  other- 
wise written  braJiitx. 

b.  A  boarding  in  a  mine,  supporting  a  wall  or 
roof. 

Breve.  (Printing.)  Acurvedmark("— ^')indicat- 
ing  the  short  quantity  of  a  vowel  ;  as,  —  Ep'i-gram. 

(Music.)  A  note  in  music  ( "  ^  ")  of  the  value  of 
four  minims. 

Bre-yier'.  (Printing.)  A  size  of  type  between 
bourgeois  and  minion. 

Bourgeois,  102  ems  to  the  foot. 
Brevier,  112  eras  to  the  foot. 
Minion,  12S  eras  to  the  foot. 

Brew'ing.  The  art  of  preparing  fermented 
liquors  from  grain.  Herwlotus,  who  wrote  about 
450  B.  c,  saystliat  the  Egyptians  made  their  "  wine" 


from  barley,  and  ascribes  the  invention  to  Isis,  wife 
of  Osiris.  The  Greeks  used  a  malt  liquor  under  the 
name  of  barley  wine,  having  learned  the  art  of 
making  it  from  the  Eg}7)tians.  It  is  mentioned  by 
Xenophon,  401  B.  c.  According  to  Tacitus,  beer 
was  a  common  drink  among  the  Germans,  and  Pliny 
says  that  in  his  time  all  the  nations  of  the  West  of 
Europe  made  an  intoxicating  liquor  from  grain  and 
water.  The  description  given  by  Isidorus  and  Oro- 
sius  of  the  manner  of  its  prepararion  in  Britain  and 
other  ancient  Celtic  countries,  applies  precisely  at 
the  present  day,  so  far  as  the  infusion  of  malt  is  con- 
cerned, but  no  mention  is  made  of  the  use  of  hops. 
These  do  not  appear  to  have  been  used  by  the  Greeks, 
Romans,  or  early  Germans,  though  the  plant  grows 
wild  in  Europe.  It  is  first  mentioned  in  a  letter  of 
Pepin  (.A..  D.  7521,  who  speaks  of  humulonariee  (hop- 
gardens). It  is  again  referred  to  bv  Adelaixl,  Arch- 
bishop of  Larby,  822. 

Hops,  pressed  into  masses  like  bricks,  have  been 
placed  by  the  Chinese  in  their  beer  from  time  imme- 
morial. The  same  custom  is,  or  Wiis,  practiced  in 
Bohemia.  They  were  introduced  into  England  by 
a  native  of  Artois  about  the  beginning  of  the  fifteenth 
century,  but  their  use  was  opposed  by  physicians  from 
the  supposition  that  they  made  the  beer  unwhole- 
some. The  cultivation  was  forbidden  by  acts  of 
Henry  VI.  and  Henry  VIII.,  but  eventually  survived 
this  injurious  legislatio  i. 

The  manufacture  of  beer  must  have  been  carried 
on  to  a  considerable  extent  among  the  Anglo-Saxons, 
as  ale  is  mentioned  in  the  laws  of  Ina,  king  of  Wes- 
sex,  and  at  after  periods. 

JIalting  is  the  first  step  in  the  process  of  making 
fermented  liquors  from  grain,  and  for  this  any  of  the 
cereals,  such  as  wheat,  oats,  buckwheat,  rice,  or  In- 
dian corn,  may  be  employed,  but  the  preference  has 
been  univereally  given  to  barley. 

The  barley  is  steejied,  to  saturate  and  swell  the 
grain,  laid  in  piles  to  genninate,  being  spread  and 
turned  to  allow  access  of  air  ;  when  the  stem  or 
acrospirc  has  nearly  reached  the  end  of  the  kernel, 
the  germination  is  stopped  by  heating  the  malt  in  a 
kiln.    The  roots  fall  off  in  the  drying  and  screening. 

The  malt  is  coarsely  ground  and  mashed  ;  water, 
at  a  heat  of  160^  or  170°,  dissolving  the  sugar  devel- 
oped by  the  malting,  and  allowing  the  diastase  to  act 
upon  any  remaining  starch  which  has  continued  im- 
changed.  Water  at  19i"  is  added  to  coni|ilete  the 
infusion,  and  the  trorl  is  drawn  oH'.  Successive 
amounts  of  water  remove  remainiug  soluble  matter. 
A  saccharometer  is  used  to  test  the  strength  of  the 
infusion,  which  is  then  boiled  with  hops  in  a  copper 
boiler.  It  is  then  strained,  cooled,  yeast  added,  al- 
lowed to  ferment,  transferred  to  storage-vats,  of 
drawn  off  at  once  into  bai-rels. 

Bre\w-ket'tle.  (Brewing. )  The  vessel  in  which 
the  woit  and  hops  are  boiled. 

Bri'ar-tooth.  Properly  Brier-tooth  (which 
see). 

Brick.  A  molded  and  burned  block  of  tempered 
clay.  The  word  is  also  applied  to  the  lilock  in  its 
previous  conditions,  as  a  molded  plastic  mass,  and 
as  a  dried  block  in  which  the  water,  liygrometrically 
combined  with  the  clay,  is  driven  off.  When  this 
condition  is  accepted  as  a  finality,  the  block  so  dried 
is  an  adobe.  The  burning  of  the  previously  dried 
brick  drives  off  the  chemically  combined  water,  and 
forever  changes  the  character  of  the  ma.ss.  An  adobe 
may  become  re-saturated  with  water,  and  resume  its 
plasticity  ;  a  brick  may  become  rotten  and  disinte- 
grateil,  but  not  plastic. 

Travelers  on  the  Euphrates  give  exti'aordinary 
accounts  of  the  mounds  of  bricks  at  Birs  Ximrod, 


BRICK. 


368 


BRICK. 


the  supposed  site  of  Babylon,  and  the  remains  of 
other  cities  of  tlie  stoneless  plains  of  the  Euplirates 
and  Tigris.  The  men  on  tlie  plains  of  Shinar  «ho 
said,  "Go  to,  let  us  make  brick,  and  burn  them 
thoroughly  "  (Gen.  xi.  3  ;  2247  B.  c),  and  who  laid 
them  up  with  slime  (bitumen),  made  a  very  thorough 
job  of  it,  if  the  true  site  has  been  found.  Kawlin- 
son,  Layard,  Mignau,  Reunel,  and  many  others,  have 
found  at  various  places  sun-dried  and  kiln-burned 
brick  of  large  size  and  in  incalculable  quantity.  The 
buried  palace  of  Nebuchadnezzar  has  for  a  long  se- 
ries of  years,  indeed,  provided  bricks  for  all  the  build- 
ings in  the  neighborhood  ;  there  is  scarcely  a  house 

Fig.  895. 


1  'i-  tl .'' 

>       1 

■til  J3j. 

'"■  ;>t"^*-.t;:t| 

\'0^^- 

■^ 

."..J  i-. 

e?*- 

tfO 

)' 


^MiM 


/:■• 


Babylonish  Brick. 

in  Hillah  which  is  not  almost  entirely  built  with 
them. 

"It  was  the  custom  of  Nebuchadnezzar  to  have 
his  name  stamped  on  every  brick  that  was  used  dur- 
ing his  reign  in  erecting 
his  colossal  palaces.  Those 
palaces  fell  to  ruins,  but 
from  the  ruins  the  ancient 
matenals  were  carried  away 
for  building  new  cities  ; 
and  in  exaniiningthe bricks 
in  the  walls  of  the  modern 
city  of  Baghdad,  on  the 
borders  of  the  Tigris,  Sir 
Henry  Rawlinson  discov- 
ered on  each  tlie  clear  traces 
of  that  royal  signature." 
—  MuLLEl!,  "  Science  of 
Language."  See  also  "Re- 
searches of  Delia  Valli," 
1616  ;  and  Rich,   1815. 

These  bricks  are  red  or 
pale  yellow,  and  are  some- 
times disposeil  in  mosaic. 
Their  sizes  vary  12  x  12  x 
3  inches  to  ISi  inches 
square  and  34  thick.  Some 
are  rounded  at  the  corners 
for  quoins  or  special  work. 
The  bricks  are  almost  uni- 
versally stamped  out  of  a 
mold,  and  imiiressed  with 
cuneiform  inscriptions  in  a  sunken  rectangular  panel 

The  inscrijition  on  the  brick  (Fig.  895)  is,  — 


which  form  so  important  a  part  of  the  Turcoman  and 
Calmuck  caisim:  are  known  as  brii-lc  tea. 

Herodotus  (450  B.  c),  who  had  heard  of  tliis  spe- 
cies of  food,  supposed  it  to  be  a  kind  of  fruit,  dried 
and  pressed.  He  says :  "  The  juice  which  runs  oil'  is 
black  and  tliick,  and  is  called  by  the  natives  [Scythi- 
ans] cuKliy.  They  lap  this  up  with  their  tongues, 
and  also  mix  it  with  milk  for  a  drink  ;  while  they 
make  the  lees,  which  are  solid,  into  cakes,  and  eat 
them  instead  of  meat."  —  Hkuudotu.s,  IV.  23. 

Their  descendants  do  the  same  to  this  day. 

The  bricks  of  Thothmes  III.  are  impressed  with 
his  cartouche.  The  Roman  brickniakers  had  their 
special  marks.  The  Twenty-second  Legion  has  been 
traced  through  Germany  by  the  bricks  which  bear 
its  name.  Roman  bricks  are  found  at  Caer-leon,  in 
England,  inscrilied  LEG.  II.  AUG.  Bricks  at  York, 
England,  attest  the  presence  there  of  the  Sixtli  and 
and  Ninth  Legions. 

Of  the  Egyjitian  bricks,  the  following  proportions 
are  given  by  Wilkinson  :  — 

One  of  One  from  the 

Amounopt  III,  (in        P.vriiuiid  of 
British  Museum).  Howara. 

11.3  in.  17  in. 

5.8  S.8 

3.9  3.8 
13  lbs.                   48-|^„.lbs. 

Enameled  bricks,  brightly  colored,  are  abundant  in 
the  mound  of  the  Mujellibeh,  in  Mesopotamia.  The 
principal  colors  are  a  brilliant  blue,  red,  a  deep  yel- 
low, white,  and  black. 

The  bricks  in  the  Pyramids  of  Dashour  are  adobe, 
16  inches  long,  8  wide,  and  4i  thick  ;  some  made 
with  straw  and  some  without. 

The  mud  of  the  Nile  is  the  only  material  in  Egypt 
for  brickmaking,  and  the  modern  process  is  the 
same  as  the  ancient,  as  may  be  seen  by  the  drawings 

Fig.  896. 


A  brick  of 

Thothmes  HI. 

Length 

12  in. 

Width 

9 

Thickness        6? 

Weight 

37+^  lbs 

"  Neliuchadnezznr 
the  King  of  Babylon, 
founder  of  Beth-Digla,  or  Saggala, 
and  of  Beth-Tzidfi, 
son  of  Nepolalazar." 

From  their  peculiar  form,  tlie  pressed  cakes  of  tea 


Anci€Ht  Egyptian  Brirhrnakers  (  Tli(bfs). 


on  the  tombs.     The  annexed  cut  is  from  a  painting 
on  a  tomb  in  Thebes. 

Some  of  the  men  (a  I  c  d)  are  represented  digging 
and  mixing  clay  and  mud  ;  others  are  cariying  clay 
(('),  and  dipping  water  from  the  rivei-  (j),  and  carry- 
ing it  in  jars;  while  others  are  molding  bricks  (A  i\ 
and  laying  tliem  out  on  the  ground  to  dry.  j  k  are 
carrying  bricks  ;  I  returning  with  his  yoke   empty  ; 


BRICK. 


369 


BRICK. 


VI  'It  are  taskmasters.  The  mo<l<^ni  plan  is  the  same  ; 
a  bed  is  raade  into  whicli  mud  and  water  are  thrown, 
together  with  large  (juantitit's  of  cut  straw.  Tliis  is 
tramped  into  a  mortar,  taken  out  in  lumps,  and 
shajied  in  molds,  or  by  the  hands.  It  is  sun-dried, 
not  burned.  The  bricks  of  Egj-pt,  ancient  and  mod- 
ern, are  adobes. 

The  business  of  brick-making  is  believed  to  have 
bei'U  a  royal  monopoly  in  Egjqit,  and  Wilkinson 
states  that  more  bricks  are  found  in  Egypt  with  the 
.stamp  of  Thothmes  HI.  than  of  any  other  mon- 
arch. He  is  believed  to  he  the  jirince  who  reigned 
at  the  time  of  the  E.xodus  of  the  Hebrews. 

A  pyramid  of  brick  was  erected  by  Asychis,  who, 
according  to  Herodotus,  preceded  the  king  who  was 
dispossessed  by  Sahaco  the  Ethiopian,  and  who  was 
restored  and  eventually  succeeded  by  Sethos,  a  con- 
temjiorary  of  Sennacherib  and  Tirhakah,  about  700 
B.  c.  Four  pyramids  of  this  material,  according  to 
Wilkinson,  still  remain  in  Lower  Egypt,  independent 
of  several  smaller  ones  at  Thebes.  Two  are  close  to 
Memphis  and  the  modern  town  of  Dashoor  ;  the  oth- 
ers stand  at  the  entrance  to  the  Fyoom.  They  are 
built  of  adobes,  and  their  chambers  have  arched  brick 
ceilings  ;  but  the  arch  was  long  jireviously  used  in 
Thebes,  and  was  invented  and  used  in  Upper  Egypt 
many  centuries  before  Asychis. 

No  trace  of  a  burned  brick  has  been  found  of  the 
ancient  age  represented  by  the  tumuli-builders  of 
North  America. 

Strabo  speaks  of  bricks  made  of  an  earth  at  Pitane, 
in  the  Troad,  so  light  that  they  swam  in  water.  Po- 
seidonius  speaks  of  bricks  made  in  Spain  "of  an  argil- 
laceous earth  wherewith  silver  vessels  are  cleansed 
[rottenstone],  and  so  light  as  to  float  in  water." 

The  Roman  bricks,  in  the  time  of  Pliny,  were  of 
three  sizes,  the  largest  a  foot  and  a  half  in  length 
by  a  foot  in  breadth,  and  called  tire  Lydian.  The 
names  of  the  others  were  derived  from  their  being 
respectively  four  and  five  palms  in  length.  He  cites 
the  great  use  of  them  by  the  Greeks,  and  declares 
them  unfit  for  use  in  Roman  dwellings,  where  no 
p:irty  walls  were  allowed  to  exceed  a  foot  and  a  half 
in  thickness,  and  that  thickness,  he  declares,  "would 
not  support  more  than  a  .single  story."  The  build- 
ings in  Rome  were  limited  by  Augustus  to  a  hight 
of  seventy  feet.  If  Pliny  ('onld  see  some  of  our  mod- 
em walls  of  six-story  hight,  he  would  tremble  for 
the  occupants.  The  inference  is  that  wood  was  the 
jirincipal  material  for  building  in  Rome,  and  this 
view  is  confirmed  by  tlie  extent  and  destructiveness 
of  their  fires.  He  farther  cites  that  the  walls  of 
Babylon  were  of  brick  cemented  with  bitumen,  and 
that  the  latter  was  imported  from  thence  into  Rome 
as  a  medicinal  agent,  and  a  material  for  varnishing 
heads  of  nails  and  various  other  articles  of  iron. 

The  Romans  used  large,  thin  bricks  or  wall-tiles 
as  a  bond  in  their  rubble  constructions,  and  such 
continued  to  be  used  in  England  until  regular  ma- 
sonry was  introduced  shortly  before  the  Norman 
Comiuest,  1066.  After  the  great  fire  of  London, 
1666,  brick  was  substituted  for  wood  in  the  erection 
of  buildings  in  London. 

The  ancient  nations  excelled  in  the  finality  of  their 
bricks,  which  was  probably  owing  to  the  abundance 
of  labor,  good  sunshine,  and  patience.  The  thorough 
working  and  tempering  of  the  clay,  to  develop  its 
plastic  quality,  followed  by  good  drying,  lengthened 
seasoning,  and  careful  burning,  will  account  for  the 
quality,  in  China,  the  potters  work  up  the  clay 
provided  by  their  fathers,  and  lay  up  a  store  to  ripen 
for  their  children.  Brickmaking  in  Greece  was 
(ilaced  under  legal  supervisors. 

The  walls  of  the  city  of  Athens,  we  learn  from 
24 


Pliny,  were  made  of  brick  on  the  side  towards  Mt. 
Hymettns.  Many  of  their  other  public  buildings 
were  ©f  brick,  as  were  also  those  of  the  Romans. 
An  attempted  enumeiation  would  become  tedious. 
The  palaces  of  Crresns,  king  of  Lydia  (548  B.  c. ),  of 
Mausolus,  of  Halicarnassus  (3.12  n.  c),  the  Bath  of 
Titus  (A.  D.  70),  the  Pillar  of  Trajan  [A.  D.  98),  and 
the  Bath  of  Caracalla  (a.  d.  212),  were  of  brick. 
The  latter  yet  bears  witness  to  the  ciuality. 

Among  many  of  the  Asiatic  nations  the  bricks  are 
of  excellent  quality.  Those  of  Cliina  are  faced  with 
porcelain,  and  in  Nepaul  they  ai-e  ornamented  by 
the  encaustic  process  and  in  relief. 

The  conquerors  of  Peru  found  the  art  of  brick- 
making  in  a  flourishing  condition  in  the  Empire  of 
the  Incas,  and  both  there  and  among  the  nmre 
northerly  countries  of  Yucatan  and  Jlexico,  we  learn 
from  the  Spaniards,  and  from  Humboldt,  and  also 
from  our  own  historians  and  travelers,  Prescott, 
Stephens,  and  Squier,  that  the  architectural  remains 
of  former  races  are  still  extant  in  brick  as  well  as  in 
porphyry  and  granite. 

Bricks  were  made  in  England  by  the  Romans 
A.  D.  44.  Made  under  the  direction  of  Alfred  the 
Great,  A.  D.  886.  The  manufacture  flourislied  re- 
markably under  Henry  VIII.  and  Elizabeth.  The 
size  was  regulated  by  C'harles  I.,  1625. 

The  operations  of  brickmaking  may  be  said  to 
consist  in  — 

Preparing  the  brick-earth.     Drying. 
Tempering.  Burning. 

Molding. 

The  qualities  of  bricks  may  be  thus  enumerated :  — 

Soundness ;  that  is,  freedom  from  cracks  and  flaws. 

Hardness  ;  to  enable  them  to  withstand  pressure 
and  strain. 

Regularity  of  shape  and  size  ;  to  enable  them  to 
occupy  their  proper  place  in  the  course. 

Infusibility  ;  in  those  intended  for  funiace-work. 

Fire-bricks  are  made  from  a  compound  of  silica 
and  alumina,  and  the  clay  owes  its  refractory  qual- 
ity to  the  absence  of  lime,  magnesia,  potash,  and 
metallic  oxides,  which  act  as  fluxes. 

Hollow  bricks  are  made  for  purposes  of  warm- 
ing, ventilating,  and  removing  moisture  from  tlie 
wall.  In  some  cases  the  hollows  form  Hues,  or  shafts 
for    ventilation,    or 


lischarge  of  dust 
from  the  upper  sto- 
ries. In  othei'  cases 
the  hollows  have  no 
mechanical  function 
other  than  to  form 
air-chambers  for 
warmth,  as  it  is  well 
known  that  an  im- 
prisoned body  of  air 
is  a  very  poor  con- 
ductor of  heat. 
Prince  Albert's  ten- 
ements at  Knights- 
bridge  were  built  of 
hollow  bricks,  and 
were  held  to  be  a  suc- 
cess in  this  respect. 

a  (Fig.  897)  rep- 
resents a  9  -  inch 
wall  finished  with  a 
common  brick  at  the 
angle. 

b  shows  a  1 4-inch 
wall,  a  half -ven- 
tilating brii'k  being 
used  alternately  in  the  courses. 


Fig.  897. 


Ventilaling  Bricks, 


BKIL'K. 


370 


BRICK-CLAMP. 


c  shows  the  relation  to  each  other  of  the  ventilat- 
iug  spaces,  so  as  to  make  the  ojtenin^s  continuous. 

Hollow  bricks  were  usial  by  the  Konians  in  large 
vaultings,  and  are  said  to  be  common  in  Tunis,  Af- 
rica. Tliey  are  made  by  niacliines  similar  to  tlie  tile- 
niachiues  or  by  hand.  They  are  made  of  various 
shapes,  to  suit  ordinary  wall-work,  angles,  reveals, 
jambs,  chimneys,  floors,  arches,  copings,  etc. 


Fig.  898. 


Hollow  Bricks. 


(8  is  a  liollow  brick  for  ceilings,  having  lips  which 
rest  on  the  lower  flanges  of  the  girders.  The  bricks 
indicated  by  letters  b  to  k  are  of  various  forms,  and 
their  uses  are  indicated  by  the  section  of  parapet 
wall  shown  at  I  and  by  Fig.  899.  They  are  external 
and  internal,  quoin,  jamb,  and  splay  bricks. 

Fig.  899  is  a  section 
Fig.  899. 


B|«i! 

B  B  e 

^ 

b[i!b  m 

B  BE    B 

1 

m 

1  E)   IE)    1 

? 

5 

g 

ED 

JBi 

E> 

r)  B  f 

1 

IE 

5  HE 

Bf 

5 

"^ 


illustrative  of  tlie  con- 
struction adopted  in 
Prince  Albert's  model 
houses.  The  s])an  of 
the  arches  is  increased 
over  the  living-rooms 
to  10  feet  4  inclies  with 
a  proportionate  addition 
to  their  rise.  Tlie  ex- 
ternal springers  are  of 
ca.st-iron,  connected 
by  wrought-iron  tie- 
rods. 

It  is  stated  that  there 
is  an  advantage  of  29 
per  cent  in  favor  of  the 
hollow  bricks  over  the 
ordinary  bricks,  in  ad- 
dition to  a  considerable 
diminution  in  the  cost 
of  carriage  or  transport,  and  25  per  cent  on  the  mor- 
tar and  tlie  labor. 

Bricks  aie  glazed  or  rendered  waterproof  by  a  com- 
position which  gives  them  a  vitreous  sui-face.  This 
is  performed  by  treating  the  surface  with  a  thix 
which  melts  the  sil»x  of  the  brick,  or  it  may  be  ap- 
plied to  the  surface  in  solution,  the  liijuid  being  af- 
terwards expelled  by  beat.  Re.sinous  compounds 
have  also  been  used  to  render  the  surface  non-absorb- 
ent. They  have  also  been  treated  with  soluble  sili- 
cate of  soda,  which  has  been  decomposed,  leaving 
the  insoluble  silex  in  the  pores  of  the  brick.  Pig- 
ments added  to  the  glazing  compounds  give  an  orna- 
mental appearance.      Sei'  I'lnrK-MACHINE. 

Varieties  of  bricks  are  known  by  names  indicative 
of  material,  ipiality,  shape,  and  purjiose. 


Hollow  Brickx. 


Fig.  900. 


Hollow-Brick  Arch. 


Air-hncV.  is  a  grating  the  size  of  a  brick,  let  into 
a  wall  to  allow  the  passage  of  air. 

Arch-\mc\i.  usually  means  the  hard-burned,  par- 
tially vitrified  brick  from  the  arches  of  the  brick- 
clamp  in  which  the  fire  is  made  and  maintained. 

A  brick  made  voussoir-shaped  is  known  as  a  com- 
pas.s'-brick. 

A  capjring -hviiiW  is  one  for  the  upper  course  of  a 
wall. 

Clinker  :  a  brick  from  an  arch  of  the  el  amp,  so 
named  from  the  sharp  glassy  sound  when  struck. 

A  co)H;)(r.vs-brick  ;  one  vonssoir-sliaped  for  arches. 

A  coj>itUj  brick  ;  one  for  a  coping  cour.se  on  a 
wall. 

Fcatlwr -edged  brick,  of  prismatic  form,  for  arches, 
vaults,  niches,  etc. 

Firc-\mcV  made  of  intractable  material,  so  as  to 
resist  fusion  in  furnaces  and  kilns. 

//^oHoio-brick,  with  openings  for  ventilation. 

Stocks ;  a.  name  given  locally  to  peculiar  varieties, 
as  gray-.stocks,  red-stocks,  etc. 

Pecking,  place,  sandal,  scmcl  brick,  are  local  terms 
applied  to  imperfectly  burned  or  refuse  brick. 

Bricks  vitrified  by  excessive  heat  are  termed  burr- 
brick. 

The  specific  gravity  (average)  is  1.841  ;  the  weight 
of  a  cubic  foot,  115  pounds,  which  absorbs  -jV  of  its 
weight  of  water  ;  the  cohesive  force  of  a  square  incli 
is  275  pounds  (Tredgold)  ;  it  is  crushed  by  a  force 
of  562  pounds  on  a  square  inch  (Kennie). 

Weiglit  of  a  cubic  foot  of  newly  built  brick-work  is 
117  pounds  ;  the  weight  of  a  rod  of  new  brick-work 
is  16  tons. 

Brick-axe.  {Bricklaying.)  An  axe  with  two 
end.s,  wliicli  are  presented  like  chisels.  It  is  used 
in  chopping  ofl'  the  soffits  of  bricks  to  the  saw-kerfs, 
which  have  been  previously  made  in  the  brick  to  the 
required  depth,  in  order  to  prevent  the  brick  from 
spaUing. 

It  is  used  generally  in  dressing  bricks  to  a  shape 
for  arches,  nii'bes,  domes,  etc. 

Brick-clamp.  A  stack  of  bricks  in  order  for 
burning. 

Bricks  are  burned  in  clamps  and  kilns.  The 
former  is  commonly  ado|ited  in  the  neighborhood  of 
London,  where  the  breeze  is  mixed  with  the  clay  and 
forms  the  fuel  by  wliich  the  brick  is  burned.  A 
clamp  is  also  the  name  given  to  a  pile  of  bricks  which 
are  liuilt  into  the  projier  form  for  tiring.  Many  va- 
riations in  the  modes  of  building  clamjis  will  be 
found  in  difl'erent  places,  but  one  successful  method 
may  be  described  in  general  terms  as  consisting  of  a 
number  of  walls  or  "necks,"  3  bricks  thick,  about 
60  bricks  long,  and  24  to  30  bricks  wide,  in  an  in- 
clined jiObition  on  each  side  of  an  upright  or  double 
battering-wall  in  the  center  of  the  claiuii,  tlie  up- 


BRICK-DRYER. 


371 


BRICK-KILN. 


Fii.  901. 


Brirk-Dryin^  House. 


right  being  of  tlie  same  liijjlit  as  the  necks,  but  di- 
minishing; from  6  bricks  tliick  at  bottom  to  3  bricks 
thick  at  to)).  Tlie  sides  and  top  of  the  claniji  are 
cased  with  burned  brick,  and  are  sometimes  daubed 
with  clay.  "  Live  "  holes  or  Hues  are  made  through- 
out the  length  of  the  clamp  for  the  reception  of  the 
kindling  when  the  bricks  are  burned  with  layers  of 
breeze.  In  cases  where  they  are  burned  by  regu- 
lar firing,  the  bricks  are  so  clamped  that  opeuings 
are  left  for  the  fire  in  every  direction.  The  outer 
layers  are  "close  bolted,"  as  it  is  called,  which 
irtfeans  that  they  are  laid  as  close  as  possible  ; 
when  they  are  stacked  so  as  to  allow  intervals  or 
spaces,  they  are  said  to  be  "  scintled." 

For   details   and  particulars   see   "  Dobson   on 
Brickmaking." 

Brick-dry'er.   An  oven  in  which  green  bricks 
are  dried,  so  as  to  lit  them  for  building  up  in  clamps 
or  kilns  for  burning. 

A   seiies  of  drying-chambers  are  separated   from 
»ach  other  by  iron  folding-doors,   through    which 
chambers  a  railroad  track  is  laid.     Under  one  end 
of  the  structure  is  a  furnace,  and  hot  air,  of  increas- 
ing degi'ees  of   temperature,   is   introduced   succes- 
sively into  the  separate  chambers. 
Brick-el'e-vator.     An  apparatus  for  raising 
materials  used  in   con- 
Fig.  902.  structiou.     In   that 
shown,  the  endless  chains 
A   B  are    carried    over 
wheels  C  D  aliove  and 

B^¥^__fgtf1  below,  and  the  material 
X          J[[              is  carried  up  on  boxes 
ll          If  1  i  supported  by  frames  at- 
^^ u'E-'P           tarhed  to  the  chains. 

Brick-fur'nace.  Hoff- 
man's annular  brick-fur- 
nace has  a  central  chinmey 
d  and  removable  di\'isions 
for  separating  the  annulus 
into  dilierent  chambers 
a  a.  These  are  filleil  and 
emptied  through  doors  b, 
and  c  c  are  valved  passages 
leading  to  the  drum  e 
around  the  chinmey  d. 
h  h  are  openings  to  intro- 
duce powdered  coal  into 
the  chambers  a  on  top  of 
the  bricks.  The  chambers 
being  charged  with 
brick,  heat  is  applied  to 
one  chamber,  and  the  vola- 
tile results  are  led  through  the  ne.vt  one,  so  as  to 
heat  and  dry  the  bricks  in  the  ne.xt  in  series.  The 
bricks  in  chamber  one  being  burned,  the  fireisa])pUed 
to  n^lmber  two,  and  the.  heated  air  led  therefrom 
through  chamber  three  to  the  outlet  c  and  chimney 


(/.     The  air  to  feed  the  fire  in  chamber  two  is  led 
tlirough  chamber  one  to  cool  the  bricks. 

Fig.  903. 


Brick  and  Mortar  Elevator. 


Brick-Furnace. 

Brick'ing.  The  imitation  of  brick -work  on  a  plas- 
tered or  stuccoed  surface. 

Brick-kiln.  A  chamber  in  which  green  bricks 
are  loosely  stacked,  with  spaces  between  them  for 
the  passage  of  the  heat,  and  in  which  they  are  burned 
by  fires  placed  either  in  arched  furnaces  under  the 
floor  of  the  kUn,  or  in  fire-holes  placed  in  the  side 
walls. 

One  form  consists  of  four  upright  walls  inclo.singa 
rectangular  chamber.  The  floor  is  sunk  about  four 
feet  below  the  general  surface  of  the  ground,  and  is 
not  ]javed.  The  doorways  for  setting  and  drawing 
the  kiln  are  merely  narrow  openings  at  tlie  side  of 
the  kiln  raised  a  step  above  the  ground,  and  about 


r.RICK-KILN. 


572 


BKR'K-KILX. 


five  feet  from  the  floor.  The  fire-hok's  are  ai-ched 
openings  oposite  to  each  otlier  on  the  siiU-s  of  the 
kiln,  lined  with  liru-bricks,  which  recjuire  to  be  re- 
newed IVoni  time  to  time,  generally  every  season. 
The  width  of  the.sc  holes  is  reduced  to  the  required 
space  by  temporary  piers  of  brick-work,  so  as  to  leave 
narrow  openings  about  eight  inches  wide  and  three 
feet  high. 

On  each  side  of  the  kiln  a  pit  is  sunk  to  the  level 
of  tlie  floor,  and  ('overed  with  a  leau-to  roof,  which 

Fig.  904. 


'^^; 


Brick-Kiln. 

protects  the  fuel  and  the  fireman  from  the  weather 
and  prevents  the  wind  from  setting  against  the  tires 
The  walls  of  tlie  kilns  are  about  three  feet  thick, 
and  are  built  of  ohl  bricks,  rubble-stone,  and  the 
refuse  of  the  yard.  No  mortar  is  used,  as  the  use 
of  lime  would  destroy  the  brick-work,  and  the 
bricks  are  .set  in  loam  or  Kre-clay. 

The  views  (Fig.  904)  represent  respectively,  — 

A  section  tlirongh  the  sides. 

A  section  through  the  ends. 

An  end  elevation. 

A  side  elevation. 

The  circular  kiln  or  cnpola  (Fig.  905)  is  domed 
over  at  the  top,  whence  its  name  is  derived.  The 
fire-holes  are  merely  openings  left  in  the  thickness 
of  the  wall,  and  are  protected  from  the  wind  by 
a  wall  built  round  the  kiln  at  a  sulficient  dis- 
tance to  allow  the  fireman  room  to  attend  the  fires. 
These  cupolas  are  employed  in  Staflordshire,  Eng- 
land, ami  vicinity,  ami  the  heat  attained  in  them 
is  very  great.  ^ 

In  the  illustration  the  figures  are  re-      F 
spectively,  —  '- 

A  section  on  line  C  T>. 

An  elevation. 

A  plan  at  top  of  fire-holes  at  level  A  B. 


Fig.  905. 


Circular  Kiln. 


Fig.  905  shows  a  progressive  burning  and  cooling 
kiln,  in  which  furnaces  are  arran'ged  on  each  side  of 
a  chamber,  in  which  latter  are  rails  for  carriages 
loaded  with  brick.  Doors  are  provided  at  each  end 
of  the  kiln,  so  that,  when  the  brick  on  one  carriage 
is  burned,  the  doors  are  raised  and  a  carriage  of  un- 
burned  brick  is  pushed  against  the  others  in  the  kiln, 
thus  forcing  out  the  carriage  at  the  other  end. 

Air  or  steam  have  been  introduced  under  pressure 


Fig.  906. 


BRICKLAYERS   HAMMER. 


373 


BRICK-MACHINE. 


into  burning  brick-kilns  for  the  piiii>ose  of  distribut- 
ing the  heat  from  the  hotter  portions  to  parts  where 
the  heat  is  lesser.  Other  devices  are  for  drawing  air 
through  a  sectional  kiln  when  the  baking  is  com- 
pleted, in  order  that  a  part  of  the  accumulated  heat 
may  be  employed  in  other  seotions  of  the  compound 
kilii. 

Bricklay-er's  Ham'mer.  [Bricklaijing.)  A 
tool  haWng  a  hammer-head  and  a  .^ihariiened  peen, 
forming  an  a.xe  for  dressing  bricks  to  shape. 

Brick'lay-er's 
Fig.  907.  Hoist.     .\  winch 

and  tackle  for  lift- 
ing bricks  and 
mortar  in  build- 
ing. 

Brick'lay-ing. 
The  implements 
of  the  bricklayer 
are  a  Irourl,  for 
spreading  mortar 
and  breaking 
bricks  when  a 
piece  smaller  than 
a  whole  brick  is 
refiuired  ;  a  hatit,- 
yncr,  for  making 
openings  in  the 
1  irick-work  and  for 
driving  or  divid- 
ing bricks,  for 
which  purposes 
one  end  is  formed 
like  a  common 
hammer,  and  tlie 
other  is  broad  and 
flattened,  some- 
what after  the 
manner  of  an  axe; 
the  pluinb  -  rah\ 
made  generally  of 
wood,  liiiving  a 
longitudinalopeu- 
ing  down  its  mid- 
dle and  a  plmnmet 
suspended  from  its  upper  end,  for  carrying  walls 
up  per[iendicularly  ;  the  level,  consisting  of  a  long 
horizontal  arm,  having  a  perpendicular  branch  car- 
rying a  vertical  arm  from  which  a  plummet  is  sus- 
pended ;  a  large  square,  for  lajHng  out  the  sides  of  a 
building  at  right  angles  ; 
a  rof/,  usually  five  or  ten 
feet  long,  for  measuring 
lengths ;  coinptt.'ises,foTtra.v- 
ersing  arches  and  vaults ; 
a  line  and  line-pins,  for 
keeping  the  courses  .straight 
and  level  as  the  work  pro- 
gresses ;  and  a  hod,  for  car- 
Tving  bricks  and  mortar  to 
tile  workman. 

Bricks  are  laid  in  courses 
so  as  to  break  joints,  and 
tlieir  arrangement  with  re- 
gard to  each  other  con.sti- 
tutes  what  is  called  the 
luiiiil.  There  are  two  kinds 
of  bond  made  use  of  in  Eng- 
land and  America, — Eng- 
lish or  old  English,  and 
Flemish, — tlieformer,  how- 
ever, being  much  more 
commonly  eniployed  than 
the  latter.      See  Bonh. 


Bricklayer's  Hoist. 


I      See  M.^son's  and  BrickIxAYEr's  T001.S,  etc. 

Brick-ma-chine'.     Bricks  have  been  made  by 

machinery  for  many  years.   Some  of  the  early  United 

States  patents,  of  which  the  record  was  unfortunately 

burned  in  183t>,  are  dated  1792,  1793,  ISOO,  180-2, 

I  1806,    1807,   and  a  tolerably   constant  stream   has 

1  followed  them.     About  122  patents  were  granted  in 

j  the  United  States  previous  to  June,  1836,  for  brick 

and  tile  machines,  and  more  than  500  patents  have 

I  since  that  time  been  granted  for   brick-machines. 

The   number   is   rapidly   increasing.     In    England, 

probably  over  half  that  number  are  on  record  for 

making  brick. 

It  will  be  impossible  in  the  space  which  can  be 
devoted  to  that  subject  to  do  more  than  present  a 
few  e.vamples  of  the  diiferent  forms  which  have  been 
brought  forward.  This  will  sliow  the  direction  of 
invention  in  this  line,  and  will  suggest  to  the  reader 
the  various  modes  of  fonning  a  rectangular  block  of 
plastic  clay.  These  are  the  terms  of  the  problem. 
As  usual,  where  important  interests  are  at  stake, 
the  resohirion  has  called  a  diversity  of  machines 
into  e.xi.stence. 

Brick-machines  are  of  several  classes. 
Class  I.  Those  in  which  a  slab  of  clay  exudes 
from  the  pug-mill,  and  is  cut  up  into  lengths  which 
form  bricks.  The  cutter  is  a  wire  or  knife,  and 
either  travels  with  the  slab  while  cutting,  or  moves 
in  an  oblique  path,  so  as  to  make  asipiare  transverse 
cut  across  the  moving  slab. 

Cha.\ibkiil.\i.n's  English  machine  is  in  principle 
as  follows  ;  — ■ 

The  clay  is  fed  into  a  pug-mill  jilaced  horizontally, 
which  works  and  mixes  it,  and  then  forces  it  througli 
a  mouth-pieci'  or  die  of  al>out  65  sipiare  inches,  or 
about  half  an  inch  deeper  and  half  an  inch  longer 
than  is  reciuired  for  the  brick,  uf  a  form  similar  to 
a  brick  on  edge,  but  with  cornei-s  well  rounded  oH', 
each  corner  forming  a  ipiarter  of  a  3-in<-h  circle  ;  for 
clay  will  pass  smoothly  through  an  ajierture  thus 
formed,  but  not  past  a  sharp  angle.  After  the  clay 
has  escaped  from  the  mill,  it  is  seized  by  four  rollei-s 
covered  with  a  porous  fabric  (Tuoleskin),  driven  at  a 
like  surface-speed  from  connection  with  the  pug-mill. 
These  roUei-s  are  two  horizontal  and  two  vertical 
ones,  having  a  space  of  45  inches  between  them. 
They  take  this  larger  stream  of  rough  clay,  and  press 
or  roll  it  into  a  squared  block  of  the  exact  size  and 
shape  of  a  brick  edgeways,  with  sharp  edges,  —  for 
the  clay  has  no  friction,  —  being  drawn  through  by 

Fig.  908. 


Chtttnb*-rlahi'x  Brirk-Marhint. 


BRICK-MACHINE. 


374 


BRICK-MACHINE. 


the  loUers,  instead  of  forcing  itself  tliromgh,  and  i.s 
delivered  in  one  unbroken  stream.  The  rollers  in 
this  machine  perform  the  functions  of  the  die  in  one 
class  of  machinery,  and  of  the  mold  in  the  other. 
They  are,  in  fact,  a  die  with  rotating  surfaces.  By 
hanging  a  series  of  mandiels  or  cores  between  these 
rollers,  or  by  nn^rely  changing  the  mouth-piece,  hol- 
low and  perforated  bricks  may  be  made  witliout  any 
alteration  in  the  machinery.  The  slab  is  cut  up  into 
bricks  by  transversely-moving  knives  or  wires. 

In  the  brick-machine  Fig.  909  the  tenipering- 
chamber,  impelling-screw,  and  forming-die  are  in  tlie 
same  horizontal  line,  and  of  a  conical  shape,  tlie  form- 


ing-die being  at  the  ape.\  ;  the  clay  is  received  at  the 
liopper  on  tlie  cylindrical  portion,  worked  by  the 
heaters,  and  delivered  to  the  screw  which  works  at 
the  end  of  the  same  shaft,  and  with  a  gradually  in- 
creasing depth  of  thread  terminates  before  it  reaches 
the  die,  so  as  to  make  the  ,clay  leave  in  a  solid  mass ; 
the  walls  of  the  screw-cluunber  are  roughened  to 
prevent  the  revolution  of  the  clay. 

Tlie  clay  is  delivered  upon  an  endless  apron,  by 
which  it  is  carried  to  a  knife  working  by  attachment 
to  a  Hy-wheel,  whicli,  being  controlled  by  the  same 
power,  makes  its  cuts  at  regular  distances  in  the 
traversing  mass  of  clay  ;  the  latter  is  supported  at 


Fig.  909. 


j    l^-jK^' 


Brick- Machine. 


the  point  of  impact  of  the  knife  by  a  movable  frame 
underneath,  which  moves  with  the  knife,  and  the 

Fig.  910. 


~j.j\rj'\fV\r\r\nj'j'ijill^\r\r.rij-\j's\j'\lis\r.rs'iS\rv'S-.f\r\r\r\A2iriftf\r\r\t-tJ^- 


Brick-Machine. 

brick  as  it  is  cut  off  rests  upon  another  apron,  which, 
traversing  faster  than  the  former,  soon  makes  an  in- 
terval between  the  bricks. 

In  Fig.  910  the  clay  is  forced  from  the  reservoir 
B  by  the  piston,  which  is 
driven  by  a  screw  and 
bevel-gearing.  It  issues 
through  a  throat  or  die, 
whose  opening  admits  a 
wide  slab  of  clay  b,  to  be 
subsequently  cut  up  by 
two  series  of  knives,  which 
divide  it  longitudinally 
and  transversely.  /  is 
one  of  the  knives,  of  which 
there  are  several  on  the 
same  shaft ;  they  are  dis- 
tant apart  the  length  of 
a  brick,  and  divide  the 
slab  into  ribbons  longitu- 
dinally. J  J  are  a  series 
of  knives  which  are  placed 
on  a  mandrel  whose  bear- 
ings are  in  a  carriage,  and 
the  latter  moves  in  ways 
across  the  path  of  the  slab 
of  clay  and  cuts  the  rib- 
bonsinto  bricks,  the  knives 
J  being  distant  a]iait  the 
widthof  a  brick.  The  bed 
is  made  in  sections  E  E, 
which  are  passed  in  suc- 
cession through  the  ma- 
chine by  means  of  the 
racks  and  pinion. 

Class  II ,  Those  in  which 


the  clay  passes  from  the  pug-mill   into  molds,   in 
which  it   is  pressed,    and   from   which  the  molded 
brick  is  discharged. 

This  class  has  six  varieties  :  — 
Var.  1  :  Those  in  Hhiih  the  molds 
are  on  the  upper  surface  of  a  mold-wheel 
revolving  in  a  horizontal  plane,  the  molds 
being  brought  successively  below  the  pug- 
mill,  l.iy  which  they  are  charged.  The 
pressing  and  discharging  devices  vary  in 
ditl'erent  iiiacliines. 

Fig.  911  shows  an  English  machine  of 
this  vaiiety.  It  consists  of  a  vertical 
pug-mill  a,  into  tln'  upper  part  of  which 
the  clay  is  fed.  lu  this  part  of  the  apparatus  the 
clay  is  tempered  and  mi.\ed,  and  is  thence  forcibly 
pressed  into  the  molds  6,  which  are  arranged  in  a 
circular   revolving  table.       As  this  table  revolves, 

Fig.  911. 


i^r 


English  Uriik-Machine  (from   lire). 


BRICK-MACHINE. 


375 


BRICK-MACHINE. 


the  pistons  of  the  mokts  ascend  an 
inclined  plane,  and  gradually  lift 
the  bricks  c  out  of  the  molds  6, 
whence  they  are  taken  from  the 
machine  hy  a  boy  and  placed  on  an 
endless  band  d,  which  carries  the 
bricks  direct  to  the  hacker. 

The  speed  of  the  several  parts  of 
the  maciiine  is  so  arranged  that  the 
operations  of  pugging,  molding,  and 
delivering  proceed  simultaneously 
in  due  order,  the  whole  being  driven 
by  asteaui-engine  of  about  (5-horse 
power,  which,  at  the  ordinary  rate 
of  working,  will  make  12,000  bricks 
per  day,  or,  with  8-horse  power, 
fioni  15,000  to  18,000. 

Fig.  912  is  an  American  form  of 
brick-machine,  of  the  same  class  and 
variety  as  the  last. 

The  ]iug-mill  shaft  has  a  series  of  oblique  arms, 
and  at  the  foot  has  a  pressing  spiral  which  forces  the 
tempered  clay  into  the  molds  of  the  horizontally  ro- 

Fig.  912. 


Fig.  91.^ 


Erick-Machine. 

is  pressed  by  the  application  of  exterior  or  interior 
force,  or  both,  and  the  molded  bricks  are  discharged 
by  piston -followers  ;  in  most  cases  operated  by  cams 
or  toggles. 

In  the  example  (Fig.  91.3)  the  pulverized  clay 
passes  from  the  hopper  E  into  the  molds  in  the 
periphery  of  the  wheel  below.  The  clay  is  pressed  in 
the  molds  by  the  perforated  pressing  surfaces  of  the 
opposite  wheel  D.  As  each  of  these  pressing  sur- 
faces comes  in  contact  with  the  clay,  it  is  also 
brought  in  contact  with  the  trunk  n  and  pipe  o, 
which  lead  to  an  air-pump.  The  air  is  thus  exhaust- 
ed from  the  clay  while  the  latter  is  under  pressure- 
Fig.  914. 


.     _■   ■ 


'^^TWiJ'''^ 


Brtck-Machinf. 


fating  table  beneath.  As  the  wheel  rotates,  the  roll- 
ers  beneath  the  followers  which  foim  the  mold-bot- 
toms rise  upon  inclines,  which  lift  the  followers  and 
discharge  the  brick  from  the  mold. 

Var.  2  :  Those  in  which  the  molds  are  on  the 
periphery  of  a  wheel,  and  receive  their  charge  from 
a  png-mill  or  hopper  above.      The  clay  in  the  mold 


Brick  Mnchinp. 

The  depressions  m  between  the  perforated  pressure- 
surfaces  of  the  wheel  D  receive  suiiertluons  clay,  and 
also  receive  the  teeth  h  of  the  mold-wheel,  and  thus 
insure  the  accurate  meeting  of  the  molds  and  press- 
ers. 

The  machine  (Fig.  914)  has  an  upright  hollow 
cylinder,  through  which  passes  a  vertical  shaft.  To 
this  shaft  there  are  secured  spiral  flanges  c  aiul  knives 
I,  the  latter  being  attached  to  the  shaft  horizontally 
in  pairs.  To  the  inner  side  of  the  cylinder  there  are 
secured  horizontal  knives  n,  having  a  radial  position. 
Below  the  upright  cylinder  is  a  box  /,  in  which  is 
placed  a  horizontal  screw  7,  which  conveys  the  clay  to 
the  molds,  the  shaft  of  the  said  screw  being  connect- 
ed to  the  vertical  shaft  by  bevel-gears ))?.  In  the  rear 
end  of  the  box  which  contains  the  screw  is  mouuted 


BRICK-MACHINE. 


376 


BlilCK-MACHINE. 


a  wheel  I,  liaviiij;  it.s  iierijiliery 
lierfuiated  with  reetnnguiar  o2)en- 
u\\p^  wltieh  t'oi-ni  the  hriek -molds, 
eaeh  nuilil  lieiii|<  [iioviileil  with  a 
j)istoii  or  jthmger.  In  the  lewer 
part  of  the  hox,  and  just  in  the 
rear  of  the  wheel,  is  fitted  ti-aiis- 
versely  a  box  which  serves  as  a 
scrajier  to  take  the  superfluous 
clay  from  the  jieriphei'y  of  the 
wheel,  and  to  smooth  and  com- 
pact the  ehiy  at  the  surfaces  of 
the  molds.  As  the  latter  come 
to  their  lowest  position,  the  fol- 
lowers are  moved  and  eject  the 
hrieks. 

Var.  3  :  Those  in  which  two  wheels  are  provided 
■with  periiiheral  molds  wliich  are  charged  with  clay 
from  a  hojiper  ahove,  and  in  which  the  pressure  is 
derived  in  wliole  or  in  part  from  the  contact  of  the 
peripheries  of  the  wheels  with  each  other.  Of  this  va- 
riety and  class  is  Fig.  915.    The  corrugated  feed-roll- 

Fig  915. 


Endless  Succession  Brick-Machine. 

est  po.sition  in  its  revolution,  the  follower  is  farther 
advanced  and  discharges  the  molded  brick  on  to  tlii> 
ofi'-bearing  apron  A"'.  This  description  of  the  action 
in  one  mold  is  true  of  each  mold  in  each  of  the  cyl- 
inders. By  way  of  giving  farther  compression,  spring- 
plungers  are  advanced,  after  passing  the  divider  L, 
and  make  a  perforation  in  the  brick  which  is  retained, 
as  the  plunger  is  not  retracted  until  after  the  brick 
has  passed  the  last  point  of  jiressure. 

Var.  4  :  Machines  in  w  hicli  a  .series  of  molds 
are  linked  together  to  form  an  endless  series,  or 
are  placed  on  an  endless  belt  or  track,  and  are 
passed  beneath  the  charger,  from  whence  they  pass 
to  the  presser. 

Fig.  916  is  an  illustration  of  this  variety.  Tin- 
clay  passes  from  the  hopper  a  into  the  molds  b  h, 
and  is  pressed  thereinto  as  they  run  beneath  the 
pressure-roller  c.  The  follower  at  the  bottom  of 
each  mold  is  raised  by  the  contact  of  its  carriage  with 
the  roller  d  beneath  the  track.  The  effect  is  to  par- 
tially reuiove  the  brick  from  its  mold  and  expose  it 
to  the  pressure  of  a  second  roller  e.  It  then  passes 
under  a  smoothing-block  g,  after  which  the  follower- 
carriage  climbs  an  inclined  plane  h,  which  elevates 
the  brick  from  the  mold.  The  molds  are  contained 
in  a  sliding  frame  which  runs  beneath  the  pug-mill, 
and,  after  discharging  the  bricks,  returns  empty  to 
commence  a  new  stroke. 
Dmible-Cylin^er  Brick-Machine.  In  Fig.  917  the  molds,  in  an  endless  chain,  hinged 

together  and  running  over  two  sprocket-wheels,  are 
ers  J  J'  in  the  hopper  drive  down  the  clay,  which  provided  with  movable  bottoms,  which  are  acted 
enters  the  molds  in  the  peripheries  of  the  contacting  upon  to  pi'ess  the  contents  of  the  mold,  and  also  to 
cylinders.     On  the  faces  of  the 

saidcylindersarealternatemolds  •■'=  '■"' 

and  spaces,  the  latter  forming 
pressure-surfaces  for  the  clay  in 
the  molds  of  the  opposite  cylin- 
der. The  cyliudei's  are  coun- 
terparts of  each  other  and  are 
(^operative,  being  geared  to- 
gether so  as  to  run  in  exact 
corres]iondem'e.  Eaeh  mold  has 
its  jiiston  or  follower,  which  is 
moved  radially  liy  contact  with 
a  cam  on  the  main-.shaft  of  its 
cylinder.  As  soon  as  the  mold 
pa.sses  the  edge  of  the  dividing 
block,  the  cam  commences  to 
thrust  out  the  follower  ami  re- 
duce the  brick  to  a  smaller  com- 
pass, ]iressing  it  against  the  face 
of  a  roller.  This  gives  the  outer 
face  of  the  brick  a  concave 
form,  but  it  is  presently  brought 
against  one  of  tlie  facets  of  the 
hexagonal  roller :)/,  wliieh  is  so  geared  as  to  present  its  |  force  the  brick  out  of  the  mold  at  the  jnoper  time, 
surface  to  the  openings  of  the  mold  in  a  given  cylin-  a  is  the  pug-mill,  ami  b  the  chamber  from  which  the 
der  in  succession.     When  the  mold  reaches  the  low-    clay  is  ejected  by  the  obliriue  arms  c,  being  received 


Endttss  Belt  Brick-Machine. 


BKICK-MACHINE. 


BRICK-MACHINE. 


into  iriolds  in  the  boxes  D  as  thej'  pass  in  turn  be- 
neath the  tliroat  in  the  bottom  of  ehaniber  b.  As 
die  mold  passes  this  point,  it  receives  pressure  from 
the  intennittiugly  operating  phinger  attacliedto  the 
toggle  /,  and  shortly  after  the  mold-bottom  cl  is 
lilted  by  a  spoke  of  the  tlischarging-wheel  i,  which 
ejeets  the  brick. 

Var.  5  •■  Jlachines  in  whicU  the  clay  is  molded 
by  the  force  of  a  reciprocating  piston  or  pistons. 

The  operation  of  the  machine  (Fig.  918)  is  as  fol- 
lows :    The  clay  passes  from  the  hopper  U  into  box 


lates  the  rate  of  pa.ssage  of  the  clay.  The  beaters  c  c 
drive  the  clay  into  the  molds  V)eneath,  which  are 
intermittingly  advanced  by  a  sliding-block,  which  is 
reciprocated  by  a  pitman  and  crank  deriving  their 
motion  from  the  shaft  below. 

In  Fig.  920  the  casing-cylinder  of  the  pug-mill 
is  removed,  to  expose  the  blades  m  in  to  view. 

Motion  being  given  to  the  shaft  c,  the  cranks  and 
pitnians  h  and  /;'  operate  the  shoving-boards  c  and  /, 
on  which  the  molds  are  placed  ;  the  molds  are  thus 
moved  on  the  two  tables  A  and  B  in  an  opposite  di- 


Fig.  918. 


Piston  Brick-Press. 


S ;  the  latter  is  then  moved  by  the  cam  K  and  the 
intermediate  arm  I',  shifting  the  charge  of  clay  over 
the  mold  M,  into  which  it  drops.  The  box  S  then 
retires,  and  the  plunger  0  descends,  being  driven  by 
toggle  B,  and  compresses  the  clay  in  mold  M.  The 
cam  F,  which  regulates  the  motion  of  the  said 
plunger,  then  causes  the  plunger  0  to  rise,  and  cam 
Z  raises  the  plunger  iV,  which  removes  the  brick 
from  the  mold,  to  be  swept  from  the  table  by  the 
next  forward  movement  of  the  box  S. 

Var.  6  :  Machines  in  which  the  molds  are  recip- 
rocated beneath  the  pug-mill. 

In  Fig.  919  the  clay  is  mixed  and  forced  out  of 
the  hopper  by  the  revolving  spiked  wheels  a,  and 
passes  between  the  plates  //,  whose  distance  regu- 

Fig.  919. 


Brich-Mnchirtf. 


Brick-Marhinr. 

rection.and  at  each  revolution  of  the  shaft  c  one  row 
of  njolds  on  one  table  is  filled  with  clay  from  thr 
hopper,  while  on  the  other  table  an  empty  mold  can 
be  replaceil behind  the  shoving-boards  eand  /;  thus 
an  operator,  standing  at  the  end  of  the  tables  A 
and  B,  can  replace  tlie  em]ity  molds  on  one  table 
and  withdraw  the  filled  molds  from  the  other  table 
at  the  same  time. 

The  blades  on  the  shaft  in  the  pug-mill  mix  and 
depress  the  clay,  which  passes  through  holes  in  the 
floor  con'esponding  to  the  ])osition  of  the  molds, 
which  are  passed  below  by  the  intermittent  motion 
described.  The  wheel  E  has  Ijlades  which  scrape  the 
clay  from  the  p\ig-mill  floor.  The  sup]ilementary 
scrapers  -S"  A',  and  cuiTed  guard  o.  remove  the  sn- 
perfluous  clay  from  the  molds.  The  latter  are  re- 
moved by  the  off-bearers,  and  the  contents  dumped 
upon  the  floor  of  the  drying-gi'oiind. 

Class  III."  Those  in  which  clay  in  a  nearly  dry 
state  is  compressed  by  a  ]ihniger  into  a  mold,  from 
which  it  is  discharged  after  receiving  a  pressure, 
which  causes  the  remaining  moistnre  to  fo)Tn  a  bond 
of  cohesion  between  the  ]>articles. 

The  functions  of  these  machines  refer  to  means  for 
extreme  pressure  and  the  extraction  of  the  air  which 
accompanies  the  crumbly  material  into  the  mold. 
In  other  respects  the  machines  of  this  class  are  some- 


BRICK-MOI.D. 


378 


BRICK-WORK. 


■what  like  the  piston-machines  of  Class  II.,  Var.  5. 
For  this  jjurpose  an  adaptation  of  the  hydraulic  press 
is  especially  a]iplieable  anil  is  in  use.  Hricks  are  also 
maile  of  dried  and  pulviMized  clay,  mixed  with  a  due 
pioijortioii  of  sand  and  perhaps  lirne,  and  molded 
under  hydraulic  pressure. 

Brick-moid.  A  box  in  which  clay  for  bricks  is 
molded  into  sliape.  The  adobes  of  the  Orient,  an- 
cient and  modern,  and  of  the  \\'estern  plains,  are  made 
by  lilling  with  clay  a  four-sided  bo.x,  pressing  it 
down  compactly,  and  cutting  otf  the  superHuous 
clay  evenly  with  the  edge  of  the  box.  The  box  is 
usually  destitute  of  top  and  bottom,  lies  upon  a  board 
while  Ijeing  filled,  and,  when  lifted,  leaves  the  brick 
in  position  to  dry. 

Brick-molds  may  be  lined  with  iron  or  brass  from 
which  the  moliled  brick  slips  more  readily  than  it  does 
from  wood.  The  sand  in  the  clay  wears  away  the 
surface  veiy  fast,  especially  when  lined  with  brass. 
It  is  sometimes  made  of  sheet-iron  in  four  pieces, 
riveted  together  at  the  angles,  and  strengthened 
with  wood  at  the  sides  only.  The  bottom  of  the 
mold  is  detached,  and  forms  what  is  called  the  stock- 
board  b.     The  latter  is  a  piece  of  wood  plated  with 


Fig.  921. 


31 |- 


upon  the  ground  to  dry.  F  is  a  mold  of  wood  lined 
with  glass/. 

G  represents  part  of  a  chain  of  molds  as  found  in 
some  kinds  of  brick- machines. 

7/  is  a  mold  whicli  has  an  advancing  piston  with 
three  punches  designed  to  make  openings  into  the 
brick  for  the  more  ready  exit  of  the  air.  Used  in 
re-prcssing  brick-machines,  which  gave  a  great  press- 
ure at  a  second  operation,  or  act  with  a  great  press- 
ure upon  prepared  clay,  which  is  apjiarently  dry. 

Brick-nog'ging.  (BuUdiiig.)  Called  also  brick 
and  stud  work. 

A  brick-iMgging  wall  or  jjartition  is  one  in  which 


1 

1 

Fig 

922. 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

/ 

1 

1 

1        n 

■S^^-'--'-~3£r_  -V^S^?''-5^i:^T>"^^=>^ 

Brick-Noggin^. 

the  spaces  between  the  timbers  or  scantling  are  filled 
up  with  brick  laid  in  mortar.  In  a  brick-nogging 
part  it  ion  the  wooden  portionsare  called  ijoi/giwi.g'-pictas. 

Brick-press.    See  Brick-machine. 

Brick-trim'mer.  {Building.)  A  brick  arch 
abutting  upon  the  wooden  trinjiner  under  the  slab 
of  a  fireplace,  to  guard  against  the  comnnmication 
of  fire. 

Brick-truck.    One  with  wide  tires  to  travel  over 

Fig.  923. 


Brick-Molds. 

iron  round  the  outer  edge,  and  made  to  fit  the  mold 
accurately  but  easily.  At  each  corner  an  iron  pin  a 
is  driven  into  the  molding-table,  and  on  these  pins 
the  bottom  of  the  mold  rests,  the  thickness  of  the 
brick  being  regulated  by  the  distance  to  which  the 
pins  are  driven  below  the  top  of  the  stock-board. 

In  England,  the  surface  of  the  brick  which  is  to 
form  the  bed,  that  is,  the  bottom,  has  a  depression 
to  hold  a  mass  of  mortar.  To  make  this  is  the  pur- 
pose of  the  piece  c,  which  projects  above  the  general 
surface  of  the  stock-board  b. 

A  B  are  the  corresponding  parts  of  an  ordinary 
mold,  the  up]ier  four-side<l  portion  A  resting  upon 
the  lower  portion  i?  while  being  filled.  ^  is  a  frame 
containing  a  number  of  division  hoards  intended  to 
be  slipped  into  box  D,  to  mold  five  bricks  at  once. 
The   frame  and  box,  being  lifted,  leave  the  bricks 


Brick-  Truck. 

the  flat  surface  of  the  brick -yard  in  moving  brick 
from  the  hack  to  the  kiln. 

Brick--work.  {Bricklaiiing.)  The  English  reg- 
ulation brick  is  8J  X  4  X  2J  inches.     Of  sucli,  — 

One  foot  of  brick-work  (IJ  bricks  thick)  contains 
17  bricks. 

One  foot  superficial  of  Flemish  bond  requires  8 
bricks. 

One  cubic  foot  comprises  125  bricks,  or  95  pounds 
of  sand,  or  135  pounds  of  clay,  or  126  pounds  of 
connnon  earth. 

One  great  ton  weight  (2,240   pounds)  comprises 


BRIDGE. 


379 


BRIDGE. 


330  bricks,  or  23J  cubic  feet  of  sand,  or  17  J  of  clay, 
or  18  of  earth. 

One  cubic  foot  of  brick-work  weighs  120  pounds  ; 
1  rod  of  fresh  brick-work  (ll^J  cubic  yards)  weighs 
35,840  pounds. 

Bridge.  1.  {Engineering.)  A  structure  erected 
over  a  water-way,  ra^•ine,  or  road,  for  the  transit  of 
persons,  animals,  or  vehicles.     A  viaduct 

The  only  reference  to  a  bridfje  in  the  canonical 
Scripturi'S  is  an  in>lirect  one,  in  a  name  referring  to 
the  "  bridge  of  the  sous  of  Jacob."  It  is  at  a  place 
northeast  of  the  Sea  of  Galilee,'  and  a  bridge  still 
exists  at  the  place. 

The  bridge  erected  by  Nitocris,  across  the  Euphra- 
tes at  Babylon,  consisted  of  stone  piers  supporting 
a  series  of  wooden  platforms,  which  were  capable  of 
being  withdrawn,  to  prevent  pa.ssage  at  night  be- 
tween the  portion  of  the  city  on  the  i-espective  sides 
of  the  river.     (Herodoti-.s  1.186.) 

The  "huge  stones  cramped  together  bj-  iron  bars 
and  melted  lead  "  were  probably  in  the  piers.  We 
may  surmise  that  the  foundations  of  these  were  laid 
while  the  river  was  temporarily  diverted,  or  made  in 
an  artificial  channel  to  which  the  river  was  subse- 
quently transferred.  Either  plan  was  possible  in 
that  country,  and  the  former  was  tried,  to  the  cost  of 
the  Babylonians,  by  CjTUs,  many  centuries  after 
Nitocris. 

Ancient  bridges  of  great  magnitude  exist  in  China. 
This  ingenious  people  constructed  them  of  wood, 
stone,  chains,  and  ropes,  before  hLstory  commenced 
to  be  written  iu  Europe.  The  gieat  wall  of  China 
( TFan-li-chatuj,  the  myriad-mile-wall)  was  finished 
about  220  B.  c,  and  has  many  stone  bridges  over  the 
various  streams  which  it  crosses  in  its  course  of  1,250 
miles.  It  puts  into  the  shaile  the  Biitish  wall  of 
Agricola,  wliieli  united  the  Tyne  ami  the  Solway, 
80  miles  ;  and  the  other  Roman  wall  which  united 
the  Forth  and  Clyde,  36  mUes. 

The  Egyptians  built  no  permanent  bridges  across 
the  Nile,  but  were  familiar  with  framing  trestle- 
work,  and  with  ponton  and  draw  bridges  ;  the  latter 
are  .seen  frequently  in  their  paintings  representing 
fortified  towns,  sieges,  etc. 

The  Greeks  had  but  small  rivers,  and  had  no  stone 
bridges  until  after  the  Roman  conquest. 

We  learn  from  the  Greek  historians  that  bridges 
were  constructed  by  Cjtus  (536  E.  c),  Darius  ^490 
B.  c),  Xerxes  (480  B.  c.),  and  Pyrrhus  (280  B.  c). 
Each  of  these  was  a  military  bridge  for  a  special  pur- 
pise,  and  had  no  permanent  character.  The  bndge 
of  Cyrus,  over  the  Meander,  was  supported  on  boats, 
like  those  which  crossed  the  Bosphorus  and  the 
Hellespont  under  the  orders  of  his  successoi-s ; 
Xenophoii  states  that  the  bridge  of  Cynis  had  seven 
boats.  I 

The  bridge  of  Xerxes  was  500  paces  in  length.  : 
Ships  were  used  as  pontons  ;  cords  of  flax  and  bilalos 
united   them  ;    transverse  Ijeams  were  laid  on   the 
ropes  ;  planks  on  the  beams  ;  soil  on  the  planks  ;  ' 
and  the  armies  crossed  thereon,     ('ords  and  posts  at 
the  sides  afforded  some  degi-ee  of  protection. 

How  many  bridges  were  built  by  Pyrrhus  in  his  | 
expeditions,   history  does  not  inform  us  ;  but  the 
bridges  in  his  Italian  campaigns,  about  280  B.  c, 
over  the   streams  emptying  into  the  Adriatic,  are 
mentioned  by  the  Greek  historians. 

The  first  bridge  in  Rome  was  built  across  the  Ti- 
ber, 621  B.  c,  by  Anous  Slartius,  uniting  the  Ja- 
niculum  and  Jlons  Aventinus,  and  was  memorable 
for  its  defence  by  Horatius  Codes  against  Lars  Por- 
senna  the  Etruscan,  about  508  b.  c.  ;  also  as  the  spot 
whence  the  body  ( f  Heliogabalns  was  cast  into  the 
Tiber,  a  stone   about   his   neck,  about  A.   D.   218. 


It  was  called  the  Pons  .Sublicius,  from  its  having 
lieen  built  upon  stakes,  or  piles.  The  original  bridge 
was  built  about  the  time  of  Josiah,  king  of  Judah, 
and  a  few  years  pre^Hous  to  Nebuchadnezzar. 

The  Pontus  Salarius  was  erected  by  Tarquinius 
Priscus,  about  600  B.  c.  It  spanned  the  Teverone, 
and  is  believed  to  have  had  three  arches  of  stone. 
Doubts  have  been  suggested  as  to  the  authenticity 
of  this  account ;  but  it  is  not  suiprisiug  when  we  con- 
sider the  Cloaca  Maxima,  constructed  in  the  same 
reign. 

The  Romans  appear  to  have  been  the  first  to  con- 
struct arched  bridges  ;  several  of  which  still  exist  in 
Syria  and  Palestine,  and  are  the  oldest  stone-arch 
bridges  in  existence,  unless  some  of  the  Eti-uscan 
and  Chinese  bridges  antedate  them. 

The  Pons  Senatorius  was  erected  across  the  Tiber 
by  Cains  Flavins  Seipio,  127  B.  c. 

A  trestle-bridge  on  pUes  (a.  Fig.  924)  was  built 
by  Julius  Caesar  across  the  Rhine  about  55  B.  c. 
He  left  an  account  of  it.s  construction,  but  the 
authorities  construct  it  ditferently  from  the  specifi- 
cation extant.  It  Wiis  founded  upon  piles  driven 
into  the  bed  of  the  river.     The  piles  were  united  by 

Fig.  934. 


^^^^^±>d:^fl^St^[>^b<^ 


Julius  Or^ar'^  nnd  Trajan's  Brir/gts. 

a  beam,  on  which  were  laid  joists  in  the  direction  of 
the  length  of  the  bridge.  Upon  the  joi.sts  were  laid 
hurdles  snpporring  the  road-bed.  An  inclinid  fen- 
der protected  the  piei's  up  stream,  and  each  pier  was 
stayed  below  by  a  cluster  of  piles.  It  was  built  in 
ten  days. 

A  m;ignificeut  bridge  with  four  stone  arehes  was 
built  by  Augustus  near  Nami,  on  the  road  from 
Rome  to  Loretto.  The  arches  were  respectively  75, 
135,  114,  and  142  feet  .span.     One  arch  remains. 

The  bridge  of  Trajan  ('<,  Fig.  924),  which  crossed 
the  Danube,  was  one  of  the  greatest  engineering 
works  of  antiquity.  It  was  constructed  of  timber 
re.sting  upon  stone  piers.  Each  span  consisted  of 
three  rows  of  concentric  arches,  united  by  binding- 
pieces  formed  upon  each  di^^sion  ;  the.se  abutteil  ujion 
timbers  radiating  with  the  curve,  which  were  framed 
into  heads  and  sills,  again  strengthened  by  braces 
and  struts  ;  the  joists  which  carried  the  floor  trav- 
ersed the  bridge,  and  rested  upon  strong  plates  laid 
upon  the  timber  arches. 

Apollodorus  was  the  anhitect,  A.  P.  105.  The 
bridge  was  4,770  feet  long.  The  foundation  was 
made  by  sinking  large  barges  filled  with  stones, 
lime,  and   sand,  and  filling  in  the  interstices  with 


BRIDGE. 


380 


BRIDGE. 


baf,'s  of  similar  tnateiial.  On  the.se  the  piers  were 
built.  The  bridge  had  20  semicircular  arches  of 
180  feet  5  inches  span.  Their  springings  were  46 
feet  above  the  general  level  of  the  river.  Tlie  piers 
were  150  feet  high  above  their  foundations,  64  feet 
thick,  85  feet  <j  indies  wide.  The  bridge  was  60 
feet  wide. 

It  was  destroyed  by  Hadrian,  the  successor  of  Tra- 
jan, to  prevent  tlie  incursions  of  the  barbarians. 
Rome  was  then  beginning  to  assume  tlu'  defensive. 

Among  the  other  Roman  britlges  which  yet  remain, 
wliole  or  in  part,  to  testify  to  the  skill  of  the  engi- 
neers and  extort  our  admiration,  are  those  of  Mei'ida 
aiul  Alcantara.,  in  Spain.  The  former  is  over  the 
Guadiana,  3,900  feet  long,  and  has  64  arches.  The 
latter  is  over  the  Tagns,  670  Spanish  feet  long,  6 
arches  ;  road-bed  205  feet  above  the  river. 

The  bridges  of  London  are  celebrated  in  history, 
especially  that  portion  of  history  in  which  we  who 
speak  English  are  most  interested.  A  wooden  bridge 
e.xisted  over  the  Thann-s  in  A.  D.  978.  One  was  built 
of  wood  in  1014;  one  by  Peter  of  Colechurch,  1176- 
1200,  with  houses  on  each  side  connected  by  arches 
of  timber  which  crossed  the  street.  This  was  burned 
in  .Inly,  1212,  and  3,000  persons  peri.shcd.  The 
buildings  being  on  fire  at  the  Surry  eml,  a  great 
crowd  rushed  to  see  the  tire,  and  the  wind  Itlcw  the 
burning  shingles  to  the  north  end,  lighting  the 
buildings  at  the  Middlesex  side  of  the  river.  Between 
fire  and  water  the  loss  of  life  was  dreadful.  The 
bridge  was  restored  in  1300  ;  again  partially  burned 
in  1471,  1632,  and  1725.  The  houses  were  pulled 
down  in  1756.  At  \\hat  time  stone  arches  were  sub- 
stituted for  wooden  spans  does  not  appear.  When 
the  present  London  bridge  was  built  in  1831,  the  elm 
piles  of  the  old  bridgi;  were  yet  sound,  after  600 
years'  use. 

In  the  twelfth  and  thirteentli  centuries  \.  n.  a 
very  useful  society  flourished  in  Europe,  called  tin' 
"  Brothers  of  the  Bridge."  The  building  of  bridges 
was  at  that  time  ileemed  an  act  of  piety,  and  we 
must  highly  respect  that  devotion  which,  in  the 
fear  of  God,  finds  its  expression  in  deeds  of  exalted 
usefulness. 

Benezet  built  a  bridge  at  Avignon  over  the  Rhone, 
which  was  finished  in  1188.  It  had  18  stone  arches, 
aiul  was  3,000  feet  long.  The  arch  which  sujiported 
the  chapel  dedii'ated  to  St.  Nicholas,  the  ]iatron  of 
sailors  and  those  wluise  business  is  upon  tlie  waters, 
remained  long  after  the  other  arclies  had  been  swept 
away  by  the  storms  of  centuries.  Benezet's  tomb 
was  in  the  crypt. 

About  1300,  Issim,  the  Moorisli  king  of  Gi'anada, 
erected  a  fine  bridge  at  Cordova,  across  the  Guadal- 
(piiver. 

Perronet  mentions  a  stone  bridge  of  three  arches, 
one  of  which  had  a  span  of  159  feet  9  inches,  at  Ve- 
rona, erected  in  1354.  Also  a  bridge  with  a  stone 
aridi  183.8  feet  span,  70.6  feet  rise,  erected  1454, 
at  Vielle  Bronde,  over  the  Altier,  by  Grennier. 

The  Rialto,  of  Venice,  was  erected  by  Antonio  del 
Poute,  1588.      It  has  a  s]ian  of  il8i  feet. 

The  art  of  bridge-building,  which  was  understood 
by  the  Romans,  fell  into  disuse  when  that  political 
system  became  disintegrated.  When  the  arts  re- 
vived, the  Italians  took  the  lead. 

Much  has  been  done  of  late  years,  and  the  designs 
become  more  and  more  bold.  London  Bridge,  Menai 
Tubular  Bridge,  the  St.  Lawrence  Bridge  at  ilontreal, 
the  Cincinnati  Bridge,  Southw'ark  Bridge,  London, 
the  Cabin  .lolm  Creek  Bridge,  Maryland,  and  the 
Schnylkill  BridgeatPhiladelphia,  are  trophies  of  their 
kind.  The  snsjiension  bridge  across  the  East  Riv- 
er, New  York  (see  Frontispiece),  is  by  far  the  bold- 


I  est  undertaking  in  the  suspension  line,  nearly  600 
feet  greater  than  the  now  widest  span,  —  the  bridge 
at  Cincinnati.  The  steel  tubnlar-arch  biidge  at  St. 
Louis  is  to  cross  the  Mississippi  in  three  spans,  which 
have  only  one  rival  among  arches,  —  a  single-span 
biidge  in  Holland. 

Tlie  highest  bridge  in  the  world  is  the  Verrugas 
Viaduct  on  the  Lima  and  Oroya  Railroad,  in  the 
Andes  of  Peru.  It  crosses  a  mountain-torrent  called 
the  Agua  de  Verrugas,  in  a  wild  aiul  picturesipie  lo- 
cality 12,000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  Tlie 
structure  coiLsists  of  four  deck-spans,  or  trusses, 
three  of  which  are  110  feet  long,  and  one,  the  central 
span,  125  feet  long.  The  .spans  rest  on  )iiers  built  of 
wrought-iroii  columns.  The  piers  are  50  feet  long  by 
15  feet  wide  oil  top.  There  being  three  piers,  the 
total  length  of  the  viaduct  is  575  feet.  The  piers 
are  respectively  145  feet,  252  feet,  and  187  feet 
high.  Each  pier  con.si.sts  of  12  legs,  which  in  jdan 
form  a  nctangle.  The  legs  are  composed  of  a  .se- 
ries of  wrought-iron  six-segment  columns,  in  lengths 
of  25  feet,  connections  being  made  by  cast-iron 
joint-boxes  having  tenons  on  each  end  running  into 
the  column.  The  columns  have  an  exterior  diame- 
ter, including  Hanges,  of  16  inches. 

The  mounlain-chain  will  be  cios.sed  at  an  altitude 
of  15,000  feet  by  a  tunnel  3,000  feet  in  length.  The 
grades  are  the  steepest  known  on  any  ordinary  rail- 
way. The  workmen  emiiloyed  are  Cholos  Indians, 
the  only  o|ieiatives  who  can  endure  for  a  pridonged 
l)crioil  the  ranfied  atinos]t|icre  at  tliis  great  elevation. 

The  subject,  after  this  .slight  historical  general 
.sketch,  will  be  considered  under  the  headings  which 
naturally  suggest  themselves,  fonnded  upon  the  dif- 
ferences in  material,  construction,  and  purpose. 

See  under  their  respective  heads  :  — 

Arched-beam  bridge.  Lattice-bridge. 

Balance-bridge.  Leaf-bridge. 

Bascule-bridge.  Lifting- bridge. 

Boat-bridge.  Military -bridge. 

Bowstring-bridgi-.  Millstone-bridge. 

Bridge-eijuipagc.  Pile-bridge. 

Bridge-stone.  Pivot-liridge. 

Bridge-train.  Platform-bridge. 
Calile-suspeiision  bridge.    Ponton-bridge. 

Canal-bridge.  Eaft-bridge. 

Carriage-bridge.  KoUing-bridge. 

Chain -bridge.  Rope-bridge. 

Check-bridge.  Skew-bridge. 

Chinka-bridge.  Steel-bridge. 

Counterpoise-bridge.  Stiflening-girder. 

Drawbridge.  Stone-bridge. 

Electric  bridge.  Suspen.sion-bridge. 

Ferry-bridge.  Swing-bridge. 

Fire-liridge.  Swivel-bridge. 

Flame-bridge.  Tension-bridge. 

Floating-liridge.  Trainway  for  ferry-boats. 

Flying-bridge.  Trestle-bridge. 

Foot-bridge.  Truss-bridge. 

Furnace-bridge.  Tubular- bridge. 

Girder-bridge.  Tiibular-arch  bridge. 

Half-lattice  girder.  Turn-bridge. 

Hoist-bridge.  Viaduct. 

Hose-bridge.  Weigli-bridge. 

Iron  bridge.  Wooden  bridge. 
Iron-arch  bridge. 

2  {SImm.)  a.  A  lower  vertical  partition  at  the 
back  of  the  grate-space  of  a  furnace.  The  Hanic  in 
jiassing  the  bridge  is  defiected  upward  against  the 
bottom  of  the  boiler. 

Bridges  are  of  metal  or  fire-brick.  They  may  be 
hollow  and  form  a  part  of  the  water-s])ace  of  the 
boiler.      Such  are  called  icatct'-hridijes. 


URlDGh^BOARD. 


381 


BKIDGK-THUSS. 


When  a  hollow  water-bridge  depends  from  the 
bottom  of  the  boiler  of  •nliich  it  forms  a  part,  it  is 
called  a  hanginy  hridijc. 

A  bridge  in  tlie  mid-space,  with  flue-space  above 
and  below  it,  is  a  mld-faithir . 

h.  "The  middle  part  of  the  fire-bai-s  in  a  marine 
boiler,  on  either  side  of  whieh  the  fires  are  hanked." 
—  Admiiial  Smyth. 

3.  {ShipbmldiHtj.)  A  partial  deck  extending  from 
side  to  side  of  a  vessel  amidships.  It  is  common  in 
steam- vessels,  affording  a  convenient  station  for  the 
officer  in  command,  and  extends  over  tlie  space  lie- 
tween  the  paddle-bo.xes.  It  is  also  known  iji  England 
as  the  hurricam-ieck  or  IrriJgc-QWk. 

4.  a.  {Mclalhiryy.)  The  low  wall  of  division  be- 
tween the  fuel-chamber  and  heartli  of  a  KevEK- 
BEU.^TcjUY  Fur.NWCE  (wh'ich  see). 

b.  (PuddliiKj.)  Tlie  wall  at  the  end  of  the  hearth 
towards  the  stack,  compelling  the  caloric  current  to 
ascend  and  then  descend  towards  the  foot  of  the 
stack. 

5.  (Music.)  A  bar  placed  beneath  the  strings  of 
a  musical  instrument  to  elevate  them  above  the 
sounding-board. 

6.  (,Ordniinc£. )  The  pieces  of  timber  between  the 
transoms  of  a  gun-carriage.     ( English. ) 

7.  {Horology.)  A  piece  raised  in  the  middle  and 
fastened  at  lioth  ends  to  the  watch-plate,  anil  form- 
ing a  bearing  for  one  or  more  pivots. 

When  supported  at  one  end,  it  is  a  cock. 

8.  (Enx/mving.)  A  hoard  resting  on  end-cleats, 
used  by  an  engraver  to  span  the  plate  on  which  he 
is  working,  to  support  the  hand  clear  of  the  plate. 

9.  {.Mining.)  The  platform  or  staging  by  which 
ore,  limestone,  fuel,  etc.,  are  conveyed  to  the  mouth 
of  a  smelting-fnrnace. 

10.  {ElcclricUy.)  A  device  used  for  measuring  the 
resistance  of  an  element  of  an  electric  circuit.  See 
Electric  Bp.idge. 

Bridge-board.  (Citrpnilry.)  A  notched  board 
to  wliicli  the  I  reads  and  risers  oi  3.  stair  are  fastened. 
A  nofrh-bo'trd. 

Bridge-eq'ui-page.  The  United  States  bridge- 
ccpiipage  is  composed  of  two  distinct  trains,  —  the 
reserve  and  the  advance-guard  trains.  The  former 
is  intended  to  accompany  large  bodies  of  troops  in 
the  field,  and  is  provided  with  the  material  for  the 
construction  of  bridges  of  sufficient  capacity  to  pass 
large  armies  with  their  heaviest  trains  over  rivers  of 
any  size  and  capacity.  For  these  the  French  pon- 
ton is  adapted. 

The  advance-guard  train  is  intendeil  for  the  use 
of  light  troops,  such  as  advance-guards,  cavalry  ex- 
peditions, etc.  It  is  organized,  both  as  regards 
material  and  carriages,  with  a  view  to  rapidity  of 
movement.  At  the  same  time,  it  is  capable  of  fur- 
nishinga  bridge  which  will  fulfill  all  the  requirements 
of  troops  engiiged  on  such  service.  For  this  train 
the  canvas  ponton  is  adapted.    See  PoNTOX-iiRiDOE. 


Bridge-head.  (Fort.ificntion.)  A  work  coni- 
niaiidiug  till-  extremity  of  bridge  nearest  to  the  en- 
eMjy  ;  a  Iclc  dy  poat. 

Bridge-o'ver.  (Carpentry.)  A  term  showing 
tliat  certain  parts  lie  across  and  rest  on  others;  as, 
conmon  joists,  bridge-over  binding-joists,  etc. 

Bridge-pile.  (Civil  Engineering.)  A  pile  driven 
to  -.uiipHrt  a  timber  of  a  bridge. 

Bridge-rail.  {Railroading.)  A  railroad-rail  hav- 
ing an  arched  tread  and  lateral  foot  tianges.  It  was 
adopted  by  Brunei  for  the  Great  Western  Kailway 

Fig.  925. 


.^= 


Brifi^t-Rfiit. 


of  England,  which  is  excelled  liy  none  in  the  solid- 
ity of  its  track  and  bed.  It  is  laid  on  a  longitudinal 
sleeper  in  cross-ties.  Felt  saturated  in  pitch,  or  its 
equivalent,  is  placed  beneath  the  rail  over  the  .sleeper, 
and  gives  a  certain  resiliency  to  the  track. 

The  other  rails  are  known  as  Edgf.-u.iils  and 
F(ioT-r..\n.s  (which  see). 

Bridge-stone.  (Masonry.)  A  stone  laid  from 
the  pavement  to  the  entrance-door  of  a  house,  span- 
ning a  sunken  area. 

{I!nad-mnl-ing.)  A  flat  stone  serving  as  a  bridge 
across  a  gutter  or  narrow  area. 

'  Bridge-train.  A  hridgc-equipirwnl  or  ponton- 
train,  consisting  of  a  military  bridge  composed  of 
portable  boats.      See  BuiDiiE-EQlMl'-^GE  ;  Pontox-- 

j  BRIDGE. 

Bridge-tree.     (Milling. )    The  beam  which  .sup- 

;  ports  the  spindk  of  the  runner  in  a  grindiug-mill. 

On  the  upper  surface  of  the  bridge-tree  is  the  socket 

;  of  the  spindle.    The  bridge-tree  is  capable  of  vertical 

adjustment,  to   vary    the   relative    distance   of  the 

grinding-surfaces,  by  moving  the  runner  towards  or 

from  the  bed-stone."  The  adjusting  device  is  called 

j  a  ligkfer-screir.     See  Grindixg-.mii.l. 

1      Bridge-truss.   A  structure  of  tlirust  and  tension 

'  pieces,  forming  a  skeleton  beam,  in  a  viaduct.      It 

has  several  varieties  :  the  lattice,  the  an-ln-il  truss, 

or  combination  of  arch  and  truss,  tlie   deck-truss, 

in  which  the  road-bed  is  on  the  straight  stringers. 

See  WooDEX  Bridge  ;  Iron  Bridge. 

Fig.  926  shows  a  deck -truss  in  wliich  the  railway- 
track  is  laid  upon  the  straining-beams,  which  are  sup- 
ported by  posts  and  braces  which  act  as  tension-bars. 


Fig.  926. 


BKIDUE-WARD. 


382 


BRIDLK. 


Fig.  927. 


Bri,/^.- Trills. 


Fig.  927  shows  a  trussed  arch  B,  whose  ends  rest  on 
skewhacks  or  shoes  G.  A  represents  one  of  the 
chords.  /  /  are  tension-straps,  which  aet  as  sus- 
pension-chains to  the  chords,  liaving  tlieir  bearings 
on  levers  stepped  in  the  shoes  anil  braced  against  the 
truss  by  struts  X. 

Bridge-ward.  (Locksmithing .)  The  main  ward 
of  a  key  ;  usually  in  the  plane  of  rotation.  See 
Key. 

Bridg'iug.  {Carpentry.)  Short  cross-pieces  con- 
necting ailjaeent  floor-joists  to  prevent  lateral  deflec- 
tion.    See  Chimney. 

Single  bridtjing  has  one  pair  of  diagonal  braces  at 
the  midlength  of  the  joists.  Double  bridi/ini/  consists 
of  two  p:iirs  of  cross-braces,  dividing  the  joist  into 
three  lengths. 

Bridg'ing-floor.  (Cai-pentnj.)  A  floor  in  which 
bridgiiig-jnists  alt'  used  without  girders. 

Bridg'ing-joist.  (Building.)  A ^oiV  in  a  double 
floor,  resting  ujion  the  hinder  or  bindinij-jni^t,  and 
supporting  the  Hoor.     A  floor-joist. 

Bridg'lng- piece.  (Citrpcntnj.)  A  strut-piece 
nailed  between  joists  or  beams,  to  prevent  lateral 
deflection.      A  strntl'iuj  or  strnininrj piece. 

Bri'dle.  1.  (Saddler y.)  A  head-stall,  bit,  and 
bearing  or  riding  rein,  completing  the  head-gear  of 
a  horse's  harness. 

Bridles  have  differed  in  form,  material,  and  capar- 
isons in  dill'erent  nations  and  times,  from  the  simple 
thong  of  the  Indian  to  the  rather  preposterous  bridle 
of  the  Japanese,  as  seen  in  llie  United  States  Patent 
Office  collection.  The  sculptures  disentombed  by 
Layard,  and  the  Egyptian  [laintings  and  carvings, 

Fig.  928. 


Assyrian  Bridle  (Jrom  Scitlptiirp  at  Nineveh) 

show  patterns  for  the  chase,  for  war,  and  for  display. 
E.\cept  for  a  limited  time  the  ,Iews  had  but  few 
horses.  This  animal  in  those  days  was  for  show  or 
for  warfare,  and  the  ox  and  ass  divided  the  drudgery. 
The  use  and  ai)plication  of  the  bridle  are,  however, 
frequently  inentioned  in  Scripture. 

The  primitive  biidle  was  a  noose  arou!ulthe  lower 
jaw  of  the  liorse.     In  the  most  ancient  paintings  of 


Egypt,  we  find  the  head-equipments  of  the  horses 
in  full  ordei',  the  bridles  and  bits  complete. 

David  refers  to  the  bit  and  bridle  as  the  means  of 
governing  the  horse  and  the  ass,  and  Job  refers  to 
the  bridle.  Solomon  bought  his  horses  in  Egy])t, 
contrary  to  the  express  command  of  the  law.  He 
paid  about . 1 75  apiece  (150  shekels).  But  the  pre- 
cious metals  were  relatively  higher  than  now,  in  pro- 
portion to  food  and  other  necessaries. 

The  old  Grecian  bridle  had  somewhat  similar  leath- 
ers to  our  own.  The  bit  was  in  several  jointed  por- 
tions. A  breaking-bit  for  intractable  horses  was 
armed  with  prongs  (lupnliim,  wolves'  teeth). 

Homer  refers  to  the  bridle  and  bit.  Xenophon 
speaks  of  their  uses  and  management.  The  last-men- 
tioned writer  refers  also  to  the  double-bridle,  —  a 
smooth  snattle-bit  and  a  ciuel  s[)iked  bit. 

The  Japanese  bridle  has  a  network  of  strings  to 
defend  the  ej'es  from  flies.  The  reins  are  of  silk. 
The  horse  is  usually  led  by  a  man  holding  the  bri- 
dle near  the  bit,  as  the  bridle-reins  are  held  by 
grooms  on  each  side,  leaving  the  lider's  hands  free 
to  hold  on  by  the  ]>ummel. 

The  modem  bridle  of  Europe  and  America  consists 
of  the  following  pieces  :  — 

The  crovm-piecc.  Throat-latch  or  lash. 

Brow- band.  lie  in. 

Cheek-strap.  Bit. 

Sometimes  :  — 

Nose-band.  Hitching-strap. 

Fig.  929  illustrates  a  number  of  bridles  having 
checking  or  safety  devices. 

In  a  tlie  driving-icins  are  attached  at  E  by  a  gum- 
elastic  strap  and  snap-hook  C  to  the  rings  of  the 
snaffle-bit.  Face-pieces  G  G'  are  also  attached  to 
these  rings,  passing  upward  through  the  loops  U  I, 
and  uniting  to  form  the  throat-latch  A'',  to  which  the 
hitching-strap  L  is  secured.  The  combined  throat- 
latch  and  face-piece  prevents  the  bridle  slip]iing,  as 
the  draft  upon  the  hitch-strap  draws  the  ring  into 
the  angles  of  the  mouth.  In  driving,  a  pull  on  the 
lines  stretches  the  gum,  which  attaches  the  driving- 
reins  to  the  rings  of  the  bit,  and  draws  upon  the 
face-straps  and  throat-latch  to  pull  the  bit  into  the 
angles  of  the  mouth. 

b.  Two  pairs  of  branch-reins  are  attached  to  the 
ends  of  the  driving-lines,  one  /  /  leading  directly 
to  the  bit-lings,  and  the  other  c  c'  passing  over  the 
horse  ;  its  lower  branches  A  coniu'ct  with  the  same 
rings  by  a  spiral  spring  within  cases  F. 

c.  The  overdraw-strap  .-/  and  check-rein  B  are  se- 
cured to  the  bit-ring  C,  and  the  driWng-rein  Z*  to  a 
swivel  on  the  bit.  The  driving-rein  passes  through 
a  ring  on  the  end  of  the  overdraw-strap,  and  is  also 
connected  to  the  check-rein.  .\  strong  pull  on  the 
driving-rein  throws  up  the  horse's  head  and  prevents 
him  from  kicking. 

d.  The  bit-ring  F  is  suspended  on  each  side  from 
a  ring  D  on  the  cheek-straji  by  a  running  strap, 
which,  connected  primarily  to  the  bit-ring,  pa.sses 
up   and   down    through   the  check-ring ;    the  run- 


BRIDLE. 


383 


BRIDLE-BIT. 


Pig.  929. 


Fig.  939. 


Bridlts. 

ning-strap  is  then  carried  down  through  the  bit-ring 
and  connected  by  a  ring  to  a  safety-rein  /.  The 
latter  is  also  connected  to  the  gag-rein  A'  so  that 
pulling  upon  the  .safety-rein  shortens  the  gag-rein, 
and  at  the  same  time  draws  up  the  bit  toward  the 
ring  on  the  cheek-strap. 

c.  The  driving-reins  run  over  pulleys  attached  to 
the  bit-rings  and  throat-latch,  and  thence  pass  to  the 
check-hook.  Stops  on  the  cheek  portion  of  the  rein 
limit  the  length  of  the  gag  part. 

/.  This  bridle  has  a  safety  attachment  formed  by 
supplemental  reins  A  within  the  ordinary  i-eins,  and 
which,  connecting  directly  to  the  cheek-straps,  pass 
through  the  rings  of  the  bit,  and  serve  to  forcibly 
pull  the  bit  into  the  comers  of  the  mouth. 

g.  The  dririug-rein  connects  with  the  cheek-strap, 
which  is  pulled  through  the  bit-ring,  and  draws  the 
bit  up  uito  the  angle  of  the  mouth. 

k.  A  lever -jaw  A  on  each  side  is  suspended  from 
the  throat-latch  of  the  bridle.  The  jaws  are  kept 
apart  by  a  spring,  but  by  pulling  on  the  rein  C  may 
be  brought  together,  so  as  to  comjiress  the  horse's 
windpipe  and  choke  him  into  submission. 


^ 


BridU. 


2.  {Machinery.)     a.  A  link 
attachment,  limiting  the  sepa-  o~^ 
ration  of  two  pieces. 

A.  Ofa  slide-valve;  the  flanges 
which  keep  it  in  place,  and  serve  to  guide  and  limit 
its  morion. 

3.  (Xautical.)  a.  One  of  the  ropes  by  which  the 
bowline  is  fastened  to  the  leech  of  a  sail. 

b.  A  mooring-hawser. 

4.  (Husbattdnj.)  The  piece  on  the  forward  end 
of  a  plow-beam,  to  which  the  draft-shackle  is  at- 
tached. The  clevis.  Also  called  the  mitscfe  or  ^foic- 
head.     See  Plow. 

5.  (Fire-arms.)  That  piece  in  a  gun-lock  which 
serves  to  bind  down  the  sear  and  tumbler,  and  pre- 
vent their  lateral  motion. 

Bii'dle-bit.  Bridle-bits  are  of  gi^at  antiquity, 
as  is  proved  by  the  Eg_\-ptian  and  A.ssyrian  paintings 
and  sculptures.  Xenophon  (400  B.  c.)  describes  sev- 
eral kinds,  smooth,  sharp,  and  toothed.  The  curb 
is  a  modern  invention,  and  was  introduced  into  Eng- 
land from  the  Continent  in  the  reign  of  Charles  1. 

The  command  exercised  by  the  bit  has  led  to  the 
use  of  it  in  metaphor,  as  in  a  remarkable  passage 
■I  .Tames  in  his  Epistle  general :  — 

"  Behold,  we  put  bits  in  the  horses'  mouths  that 
they  may  obey  us." 

Etruscan  and  Grecian  sculpture  represent  the  bri- 
dle substantially  as  we  yet  have  it. 

The  Greeks  had  a  severe  bridle,  armed  with  teeth, 
which  came  over  the  nose  like  the  caiczon,  a  Euro- 
pean bit  but  little  known  among  us.  Another 
rough  bit  was  also  known  as  a  lupaton,  owing  to  its 
sharp  prongs  like  wolves'  teeth. 

Bridle-bits  may  be  classed  under  three  heads  : 
snaffles,  carb-hUs,  and  stiff  hits. 

The  snaffle  (c.  Fig.  931 1  has  two  bars,  jointed  to- 
gether in  the  middle  of  the  mouth,  and  has  rings  at 
the  ends  for  the  rein.  It  sometimes  has  cheek-pieces, 
to  keep  the  ling  from  pulling  into  the  mouth  of  the 
animal. 

The  curb-bit  consists  of  the  following  parts  :  — 

Clieek-pitces  or  branches  with  eyes  for  the  clieek- 
slraps  and  for  the  reins,  and  holes  for  the  curb-chain  ; . 
a  mouth-piece,  unit- 
ing the  cheek-pieces  Kg-  931. 
and  forming  the  bit 
proper ;  sometimes  a 
bar  unitingthe  lower 
ends  of  the  branches  ; 
a  curb-chain. 

In  the  Me.\ican  bit 
the  curb-chain  and 
its  strap  are  replaced 
by  a  curb-ring. 

By  means  of  the 
branches,  a  leverage 
is  obtained  upon  the 
horse's  jaw,  the  curb- 
chain  behind  the  jaw  Bridle-Bits. 
forming  the  fulcrum. 

The  illustration  shows  bits  employed  in  the  United 
States  military  service. 

a,  ordinary  curb-bit. 

b,  Mexican  bit. 

c  c,  watering  bridle-bits  or  snaffles. 

The  stiff  bit  (a.  Fig.  932)  has  rein-rings  at  the 
ends,  and  is  usually  without  branches.  It  lacks 
the  middle-joint  of  the  snaffk. 

d  is  a  new  foiTU  of  upijer-jaw  bit.  It  is  fastened 
by  a  nose-strap  to  the  upper  jaw,  and  buckled  to  the 
gag  bearing-rein.  A  safety-rein  passes  to  the  usual 
bit-rings,  and  is  also  connected  to  the  bearing-rein, 
so  as  to  pull  the  usual  bit  back  against  the  jaws. 


BlilDLE-CABLE. 


384 


BRILLIANT. 


and  the  iippi-r-jaw  bit  up  iiito  the  angle  of  the 
mouth. 

Tlie  clastic  bit  {()  consists  of  a  chain  covered  by 
closely  coiled  wile  between  the  bit -rings. 

Another  form  of  elastic  bit  is  made  of  twisted  wire 
with  a  soft  rulihcr  covering. 

k  large  number  of  contrivances  have  been  patented 
for  giving  a  greater  command  over  the  horse,  by 
means  of  pulling  the  bit  upwardly  into  the  angle  of 
the  moutli  instead  of  i)ulling  against  the  jaw.  See 
Bridle. 

d  has  tubular  bit-rings  through  whicli  pass  the 
straps  connecting  the  driving-reius  to  the  head-stall. 
When  the  lines  are  pulled  upon,  besides  drawing  tlie 
bit  against  the  jaw,  the  line  slips  through  the  tnbu- 


Bridle-Bits 


lar  bit-rings,  and  draws  tlie  stiti'  bit  up  into  the  an- 
gle of  the  mouth.  The  illustration  shows  one  bit- 
ring  empty  and  the  other  with  the  strap  pas.sing 
through  it. 

c  has  a  pulley-frame  swiveled  to  the  ends  of  the  bit 
A  ;  the  driving-reins  are  buckled  to  the  rings  /T,  and 
when  tliey  arc  puUi-d,  the  straps  E  run  through  the 
.  pulleys  aiid  draw  the  bit  up  into  the  angle  of  the 
mouth.  The  rings  B  are  for  the  bearing-rein.  As 
the  iiulley-frames  are  swiveled,  the  bit  is  carried 
upward  into  the  mouth  without  turning  the  bit  in 
the  moutli.  Tlie  pulley-frames  are  removable  when 
reipiired,  so  as  to  leave  the  bit  in  the  ordinary  con- 
ilitioii. 

Tlie  bit  /  is  designed  to  effect  the  same  purpose. 
One  rein  is  connected  to  the  bit-ring  and  the  other 
to  the  slotted  cheek -pieces  ;  when  the  latter  rein  is 
pulled,  the  rigid  bit  slides  up  the  slots  and  is  drawn 
into  the  corners  of  the  mouth. 

Bri'dle-ca'ble.  (Nmilical.)  A  cable  proceeding 
from  a  vcssid  to  the  middle  of  another  cable  which 
is  moored  at  each  end. 

Bri'dle-port.  (Shiphuilding.)  A  port  in  the  bow 
for  ;i  main-deck  chase-gun  ;  through  it  mooring-bri- 
dles  or  bow-fasts  are  passed. 

Bri'dle-rein.  A  rein  passing  from  the  hand  to 
the  I  lit,  or  from  the  check-hook  to  the  bit,  or,  in 
wagon-liarncss,  from  the  top  of  the  hames  to  tlie  bit. 

Tlie  bridle-rein  may  be  a  c/tccfc-rein,  pag-rein,  or  a 
riding-bridle  rein  ;  the  latter  a  snaffle  or  curb-Kin, 
according  to  the  kind  of  bit. 

Bri-doon'.  {Sadd/erij.)  1.  The  snaffle-bit  and 
rein  u.scd  in  European  military  equipments  in  con- 
nection with  a  curb-bit  which  has  its  own  rein. 

2.  In  the  United  States  the  term  is  sometimes 
applied  to  a  simple  snaffle  without  cross-bars,  and 
having  a  icin  attached  to  its  rings. 

Bri'er-scythe.     {Jltisbandry.)    A  stout,   sliort- 


bladed  scythe  in  a  nearly  .straight  handle,  and  useil 
for  cutting  down  brambles  and  tlu'  like. 

Bri'er-tooth  Saw.  A  saw  whose  interdental 
spaces  are  deeply  ilepii'ssed  by  obli([ue  filing  on  al- 
ternate sides.      See  (.!ui,LEI-SA\V. 

Brig,  {yautiail.)  A  two-masted  vessel,  square- 
rigged  oil  both  masts.  It  has  a  gafl-sail  on  each 
lower  mast  ;  that  on  the  mainmast  is  called  the 
driver.  When  the  driver  is  bent  to  rings  on  a  try- 
.sail  mast,  just  abaft  the  niainmasst,  the  vessel  was 
formerly  called  a  snotv. 

A  hermaphrodite  brig  is  a  vessel  rigged  as  a  brig 
on  the  foremast  and  like  a  schooner  on  the  main- 
mast, carrying  sqaare  sails  forward  and  fore-and- 
aft  sails  abal't. 

Brig'an-tiiie.  {A'u.iUicnl.)  A  two-masted  vessel 
brig-rigged  on  the  foremast,  but  having  no  lower 
square  sail  on  the  after  or  mainmast. 

Brilliant.  1.  {Dinmnnd-nitting.)  A  modi'  of 
cutting  gems,  consisting  of  lozenge-shaped  facets 
alternating  with  triangles.  The  variations  are  known 
as  the  half  brillinnt,  full  brilliant,  split  oi'  trap  bril- 
liant, double  brilliri)it  or  Lisbiin  cut.  See  Ci'TTixi; 
Gems. 

A  diamond  cut  as  a  brilliant  has  two  truncated 
portions,  respectively  above  and  below  the  girdle, 
which  is  at  the  largest  circumference.  The  iijiper 
portion,  which  projects  from  the  setting,  is  called 
the  bhet,  and  is  one  third  of  the  whole  depth  of  the 
gem.  The  remaining  two-thirds  is  imbedded,  and 
is  called  the  culasse.  The  facets  of  the  bizet  and  the 
cnlasse  have  consequently  difl'erent  inclinations  and 
exhibit  ditlereiit  figures,  as  will  be  apjiarcnt  from 
the  illustrations. 

A    well-cut    bril-  Fig.  933 

liant,  held  in  a  beam 
oflight,  rellectsnear- 
ly  the  whole  of  the 
light  which  falls 
upon  it,  throwing  it 
out  and  refrai.'ting  it  ^  ( 
in  colored  rays 
through  the  facets 
in  front.  With  the 
exception     of     one 

small  point  of  light  - — ---Zi.-'" 

through  the  collet, 
the  brilliant  throws 
an  opique  .shadow 
on  a  screen. 

a.  Bizet ;  the 
chamfered  portion 
of  the  stone  be- 
tween the  table  and 
the  girdle. 

b.  Collet ;  the  hor- 
izontal face  at  the 
bottom  of  the  stone. 

Ffuvt ;  small,  tri-  i pr- 

angular  faces.  U 

c  Skew  or  skill 
faceti;  divided  into 
upper  and  under, 
and  respectively 
WTOught  upon  the 
biiet  and  pavilimi, 
in  each  case   ternii-  Brilliant. 

uating  in  the  girdle. 

d.  Star-faceLi :  wrought  on  the  bizet,  and  termi- 
nating in  the  table. 

e.  Girdle :  the  line  encompassing  the  stone  ;  its 
outer  edge  by  which  it  is  gi-asped  in  mounting. 

/.  Lozenges  :  rhoinbal  facets  formed  on  the  bizet 
by  the  star  and  skill  facets. 


BRIN. 


385 


BROACH. 


g.  Pa  vilwn  ;  the  chamfered  portion  of  the  stone 
between  the  girdle  and  collet. 

h.  Table  ;  the  horizontal '  face  at  the  top  of  the 
brilliant. 

2.  {Printing.)  A  very  small  type,  smaller  than 
Diamond. 

Pearl. 

Diamond. 

BnUikDt. 

3.  (Fabric.)  A  cotton  goods  woven  with  a  small 
raised  pattern,  and  printed  or  plain. 

4.  (Pyrotedmy.)  A  form  of  pyrotechnics  for  mak- 
ing a  bright  light.  The  tilling  is  gunpowder  16  and 
.steel-lilings  4  ;  or,  gunpowder  16,  borings  6. 

Brin.  One  of  the  radiating  sticks  of  a  fan,  from 
12  to  24  in  number  and  about  14  inches  long.  The 
outermost  are  larger  and  longer,  and  are  called  pa- 
naches. 

Brine-e-vap'o-ra-tor.  An  apparatus  for  evapo- 
rating brine,  in  order  to  produce  salt.  The  common 
furnaces  for  this  purpose  have  a  row  of  pans  set 

Fig.  934. 


£{o oooooo  o^ 
^  ooooooo  o 
ooooooo  o 

(AO  OOO    OO    O    Oj^ 


Piatt's  Brine-Evaporator. 

above  a  long  arch  ;  shelving  sides  hold  the  salt  as  it 
is  dipped  out,  and  allow  it  to  drain  into  the  kettles. 
In  the  illustration  the  pan  bottom  is  double,  form- 
ing a  steam-jacket  ;  the  nraltiflue  boiler  fonns  a 
jacket  around  the  fuel-chamber.  The  flame  and 
heat,  after  direct  passage  through  the  flues,  pass 
backwardly  alongside  the  furnace-jacket  and  beneath 
the  steam-jacket  of  the  pan. 

The  following  United  States  patents  may  be  con- 
sulted :  — 

Ouiteau      .  .   1842.  Garrison  .         .   1862. 

Hull        .  .       1855.  Hull        .  .       1863. 

Humphreys  .   1856.  Farrar  .         .   1863. 

Heims     .  .       1859.  Piatt       .  .       1869. 

Pratt           .  .  1862.  Gilson  .         .   1870. 

Chapin    .  .       1862.  Howarth  .       1871. 

Brine-piunp.  (Steam-Engine. )  A  pump  worked 
by  the  engines  to  withdraw  the  super-salted  water 
from  the  boilers  mechanically,  instead  of  by  period- 
ical blowing  otf. 

MAUDSL.A.Y  and  Field's  English  Patent,  1824, 
describes  a  brine-pump  with  a  loaded  discharge- 
valve  worked  by  the  engine,  and  so  proportioned 
as  to  draw  from  the  lower  part  of  the  boiler  the 
quantity  determined  on,  which  may  be  regulated  by 
a  meter,  showing  the  quantity  driven  ofl'  in  the  form 
of  steam.  After  the  boiler  has  been  in  action  some 
time,  and  the  water  has  received  a  predetermined 
degi'ee  of  concentration,  the  brine-pump  is  started 
to  work,  and  every  stroke  takes  from  the  boiler  as 
much  salt  as  is  deposited  in  the  boiler  by  the  sepa- 
ration of  the  steam  used  in  that  stroke.  The  hot 
brine  so  withdrawn  is  used  to  heat  the  boiler-supply. 

Brine-valve.  (Steam.)  A  valve  which  is  opened 
to  allow  water  saturated  with  salt  to  escape  from 
the  boiler.      .A  &?o;/'-o/f  valve. 

Bring'ing-to  Bolt.  One  used  in  keying  up  a 
structure.     It  may  be  a  screw  or  a  forelock  bolt. 

Bring'ing-up.  (Priiiting.)  The  operation  of 
overlaying,  underlaying,  cutring  out,  etc.,  for  equal- 


izing the  impression  or  giving  the  proper  prominence 
to  the  dark  and  light  parts  of  woodcuts. 

Bris'tle.  Bristles  for  brush-making  are  assorted 
according  to  color. 

Washed  with  potash-lye  and  soap,  to  free  them 
from  animal  fat. 

Whitened  b\-  bleaching  them  with  fumes  of  brim- 
stone. 

Combed  with  a  steel  comb,  to  lay  them  parallel  and 
remove  the  short  hair  with  which  they  may  be  mixed. 

Sorted  by  continually  pulling  out  the  longer  hairs 
from  the  bunch,  butting  the  end  of  the  bunch  on  the 
bench. 

Bound  in  bunches  called  knots,  which  are  inserted 
in  tlie  bored  holes  in  the  bnish-backs,  and  tied  and 
glued  in  position. 

The  face-ends  of  the  bunches  are  then  sheared. 

Machines  are  in  use,  and  some  patented  for  — 

Assorring  bristles.  Cleaning  bristles. 

Bunching  bristles.  AVashing  bristles. 

Bris'tol-board.  (Pajtcr.)  A  superior  arti- 
cle of  cardboard,  in  which  all  the  sheets  of  paper 
composing  it  are  white,  and  erasures  may  there- 
fore be  made  ivithout  exposing  an  inferior  under- 
lying quality.     See  C.\RPBO.\i!D. 

Bris'tol-biick.  A  brick  composed  principally 
of  granular  siUcious  matter.  Used  for  polishing 
steel,  etc.  The  name  is  derived  from  Bristol,  Eng- 
land, near  which  city  they  are  made. 

Bris'ure.  (Fortifieatiou.)  A  break  in  the  general 
(lirt-etion  of  the  parapet  of  the  curtain,  when  con- 
stnicled  with  ori/lons  and  retired  flanks. 

Brit-an'nia-met'al.  A  white-metal  alloy,  re- 
sembling silver  in  some  degi-ee,  and  used  for  making 
table-ware,  etc. 

There  are  several  formulas  for  compounding  this 
white  alloy  for  table-ware  :  — 

Copper.  Tin.  .\nlimony.  Bismuth.  Brass.  Zinc. 
Lardner's  8      392         28  8 

Overman's  3        88  7  1 

Another  112 

Another  4  4  4  4 

Another  2      100  2  8 

See  ante,  White-Metal  AUoys,  p.  63. 

Brit'ish-gum.  An  adhesive  material,  used  by 
calico-printers,  and  made  by  scorching  potato-starch. 

Britz'ska.  [I'cliicle.)  A  Russian  caniage,  hav- 
ing a  calash  top  and  interior  arrangements  adapted 
for  use  as  a  coiich  on  long  journeys. 

Broach.  1.  A  tapering  steel  tool,  of  prismatic 
form,  and  whose  edges  are  used  for  reaming  out 
holes.  It  is  particularly  used  by  watchmakers  in 
enlarging  holes  in  watch-plates.    When  smooth,  it  is 

Fig.  935. 

a  CD  000)00 

Broaches. 

no  longer  a  broach,  but  a  burnisher,  and  is  used  for 
burnishing  pivot -holes.  The  number  of  sides  vary  ; 
the  smaller  the  number,  the  more  salient  is  the  edge. 

Broaches  are  also  used  by  dentists  for  enlarging  the 
nei-ve  canals  of  the  teeth  for  the  inserrion  of  the  dow- 
el-pins which  secure  pirot-tecth. 

■The  end  of  a  broach  has  as  many  facets  as  the 
shaft  has  sides,  and  the  tang  is  4-sided. 

a  is  the  carpenter's  broach  for  reaming  out  holes 
in  wood.  The  angle  of  its  edges  would  be  inadmis- 
sible in  metal  as  hard  as  copper. 

b  isahalf-roundbroach.     The  edges  are  rectangular. 


BKOACH-POST. 


386 


BROAD-GLASS. 


c  has  five  sides  with  angles  of  108°. 

d  hivs  but  two  facets  and  an  inserted  steel  eutter 
at  their  angle. 

e  has  angles  of  90",  and  but  three  facets  ;  the 
rounded  back  follows  the  circle  of  the  hole. 

/  has  one  angle  of  90°. 

ff  represents  the  gun-barrel  broach  of  four  sides  ; 
slips  or  spills  of  segmental  form  occupying  the 
spaces  between  the  rectangular  broach  and  the  cir- 
cumscribing cylinder. . 

Broaches  of  3,  4,  5,  6,  8  sides  have  respectively 
angles  of  60°,  90°,  108°,  120°,  and  135°.  The  poly- 
gonal broaches  are  the  most  commonly  used. 

Broaches  twisted  while  hot  have  an  increased  en- 
ergy of  bite,  when  rotated  in  the  direction  of  the 
spiral,  and  less  when  rotateil  in  the  other  direi'tion. 

Roberts's  broach  (English)  has  longitudinal  cut- 
ters inserted  in  grooves  at  each  angle. 

Some  broachcf!  have  file  teeth  to  enable  them  to 
cut  with  a  thrust,  without  rotation.  These  are  more 
properly  dn'/ls  (which  see). 

A  round  broach  is  used  for  burnishing  pivot-holes. 

2.  A  gimlet  used  in  opening  casks  for  samples. 
The  hole  is  closed  by  a  spile. 

3.  [Candle- making.)  The  stick  from  which  can- 
dle-wicks are  suspended  for  dipping. 

4.  {Husbandn/.)  A  sharpened  stake  used  by 
thatchers  to  secure  the  gavels  or  layers  of  straw. 

5.  (Locksmithing.)  That  pin  in  a  lock  which  en- 
ters the  barrel  of  the  key. 

Broach-post.     {Carpentnj.)     Kkitiq-post. 
Broad.    [Wood-tumiiui.)  A  bent  turning-tool,  or 
one  formed  of  a  disk,  with  sha  rp- 
Fig.  936.  ened  edges  secured  to  a  stem. 

Used  for  turning  down  the  in- 
sides  and  bottoms  of  i-ylinders 
in  the  lathe.  Fig.  936showssev- 
eral  dift'erent  forms  of  the  tool, 
—  the  bottom-tool,  hook-tool, 
.([uari'-tool,  heart-sha])ed  tool. 
Broad -axe.  An  a.\e  with 
I  broad  edge,  for  hewing  tim- 
ber. The  chamfer  of  the  edge 
is  all  on  one  side,  the  flat 
Bromd.  side  of  the  bit  going  against 

the  wood.  The  handle  has 
a  crook,  so  that  the  knuckles  are  not  grazed  against 
the  timber  when  hewing. 

The  Israeliteswest 
Fig-  937.  of  the  Jordan  had 

but  small  advan- 
tages of  timber,  and 
were  not  skillful 
hewers.  They  im- 
jiorted  axemen  and 
timber.  Lebanon 
had  cedar  and  fir  ; 
Bashau  had  oak. 
The  kings  of  .Syria 
and  Egyjit  fought 
Broad-axe.  for  their  possession 

for  centuries.  Even 
firewood  was  scarce  in  Judea  and  Samaria.  The  poor 
widows  gathered  a  bundle  of  sticks  then  as  now. 

Dung  and  hay  used  for  heating  ovens,  Ezekiel  iv. 
12-15,  Matt.  vi.  30. 

Brushwood  also,  —  "as  the  crackling  of  thorns 
under  a  pot,"  etc. 

Broad'cast  Sow'er.  (ffttsbandri/. )  A  machine 
which  spreads  the  seed  regularly  upon  the  .surface  of 
the  ground,  in  contradistinction  to  a  drill  which  sows 
the  seed  in  rows. 

Number  of  several  seeds  in  a  bushel,  and  ntunber 
per  square  foot  upon  an  area  of  an  acre  :  — 


rnr 


Timothy 
Clover    . 
Rye   . 
Wheat    . 


Number.      Square  Foot. 
41,823,360  960 

16,400,960  376 

888,390  20.4 

556,290  12.8 


The  F;gy])tians  and  Romans  sowed  from  a  basket. 
In  the  West  we  prefer  a  bag  or  sack  which  is  nuide 
into  a  pouch  by  tying  the  Ijag-string  to  one  corner 
of  the  bottom.  I'liny  mentions  that  it  is  imjiortant 
for  the  action  of  the  hand  and  feet  to  keep  time,  to 
secure  an  even  spread  of  the  seed.  It  is  just  so  with 
us.  A  right-handed  man  will  dip  his  hand  into  the 
bag  for  seed  just  as  his  left  foot  touches  the  ground. 
Some  sow  with  both  hands. 

Under  the  Romans,  the  amount  of  seed  to  they«- 
gei-iivi  (four  fifths  of  an  acre)  was,  of  wheat,  spelt, 
and  barley,  respectively,  5,  10,  and  6  modii.  A 
vioth'ns  was  two  gallons. 

Broad'cloth.  {Fabric.)  A  wide  and  superior 
article  of  wuulen  cloth,  plain  or  twilled,  and  dyed  in 
the  wool  or  the  piece.  .\  cloth  Udl  over  29  inches 
broad  is  a  narrow  cloth.  It  is  folded  lengthwise  in 
the  piece. 

The  opeiutionsinbroadcloth-making  may  be  shortly 
cited  as  follows  :  — 

The  w^ool,  being  shorn,  goes^to  the  sorter,  who  se- 
lects the  grades  and  parts  of  fleeces  adapted  for  this 
superior  kind  of  goods. 

Oiled,  caidcd,  and  spun  into  yarn. 

Woven  into  a  web  of  such  a  width  as  to  permit 
subsequent  shrinkage. 

Felted  by  wetting,  soaping  to  remove  grease,  and 
pounding.  The  effect  is  to  condense  it  and  shrink 
it  in  width  and  length,  .\fter  removal  of  the  soap 
by  fuller's  earth,  water,  and  pounding,  the  web  is 
dried  by  sti'etching  on  tenter-bars. 

Napped  on  a  gigging-machine,  wluch  raises  the 
nap  by  the  little  recurved  spires  of  the  teasel  (dipsa- 
ciis  fullun  urn). 

Shorn  to  bring  the  naps  to  a  length. 

Hot-pressed  to  give  smoothness  and  polish. 

Broad-gage.  {Bni/tcai/  Engineering.)  A  dis- 
tance between  rails  over  56J  inches.  The  width  of 
4  feet  8;V  inches  was  adopted  by  Stephenson,  being 
the  usual  grade  of  the  coal-wagons  on  the  railways  in 
the  North  of  England.  He  found  it,  did  not  make 
it.  Brunei,  who  was  not  used  to  following  anybody, 
either  under  or  above  ground,  struck  out  a  path  for 
himself,  and  gave  tlie  broad-gage  to  the  Great  Wes- 
tern Railway  of  England,  making  it  7  feet.  It  was 
a  very  expensive  experiment,  and  has  been  reduced 
to  the  standard  of  56J  inches.    See  Railw.\y-g.\ge. 

Broad-glass.  Glass  in  large  sheets  for  cutting  in- 
to lightx  or  paius.  For  very  many  years,  the  mode  of 
making  sheet-glass  was  by  forming  a  disk,  which  was 
united  to  the  blowing-tube  by  a  boss,  around  which 
point  the  glass  was  also  much  thicker  than  at  other 
portions,  especially  near  the  periphery  of  the  disk. 
See  CuowN-GLAss.  Owing  to  the  vexatious  excise 
laws  of  England,  it  was  almost  impossible  to  intro- 
duce improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  glass,  as 
was  illustrated  in  the  abortive  attempts  of  the  Eng- 
lish opticians  to  manufacture  lenses  of  large  sizes, 
even  under  semi-official  .sanction.  The  general  relax- 
ation of  the  excise  system  under  Sir  Robert  Peel's  Act 
of  1846,  rendered  possible  the  introduction  into  Eng- 
land of  an  improved  method,  for  some  time  then 
past  in  use  in  France  and  Belgium.  The  glass  used 
upon  the  Exhibition  Building  of  1S51  was  made  up- 
on this  plan,  which  is  briefly  as  follows  :  — 

The  workman  dips  his  iron  tube  into   the  semi- 
viscid  glass,  and  takes  up  a  ([uantity  amounting  to  • 
12  or  14  lbs.  ;  he  rolls  tlie  mass  on  a  wooden  block. 


BROAD-HORN. 


387 


BRONZE. 


till  it  assumes  ii  cylindrical   shape  ;  he  applies  his 

mouth  to  the  other  end  of  the  tube,  aud  blows  until 

the    mass  assumes    a    hoUovr  ovoid  ^ 

form  ;   he    whirls    this    round    liis 

head,  or,  rather,  in  a  verriciU  cireb- 

10    or    12    feet    in    diameter,    and 

elongates  the  oroid  into  a  cylinder 

with   round  emhi  ;  he  re-heats  the 

glass    two    or   three    times    during 

these    processes,    to    maintain    the 

proper    consistency,    and    at     length 


Fig.  939. 


the 


iimote 
end  of  the  UoUow  meiss  gives  way,  and  we  have 
before  us  a  cylinder  of  glass,  attached  only  at  one 
end  to  the  tube.  The  cylinders  are  dissevered  from 
the  tube,  and  are  cut  lengthwise  with  a  diamond  ; 
they  are  placed  in  a  kUn,  where  the  heat  gradually 
opens  the  fissure,  and  there  is  finally  presented  a  flat 
])iece  of  glass,  which  can  be  cut  to  any  smaller  size. 

This  glass  is  called  broad-glass,  cyli/uler-glass, 
s/ieet-glass,  and  by  several  other  names  of  minor  use- 
fulness, value,  or  appropriateness.     See  Cylinder- 

GL.ISS. 

Broad-horn.  The  old-fashioned  tenn  for  the 
Hat-boat  of  the  Western  and  Southwestern  rivers. 
.■Vlsu  called  an  rrrl\ 

Broad-peu'nant.  ,  (yuutieal.)  A  square  piece 
of  bunting  carrieil  at  the  mast-head  of  a  vessel 
having  in  command  an  officer  of  a  certain  rank.  In 
the  British  and  American  navies  it  signifies  a  com- 
modore's vessel. 

Broad'side.  1.  {Printing.)  A  sheet  of  paper 
printed  on  one  side,  the  matter  forming  a  single 
page. 

2.  (yautical.)  a.  The  .side  of  a  ship,  above  the 
water,  {torn  the  bow  to  the  quarter. 

b.  All  the  guns,  collectively,  carried  on  one  side 
of  a  war  vessel. 

Broad's^ford.  A  sword  with  a  broad  blade, 
designcil  principally  for  cutting. 

Broad 'stone.     {Masonry. ]     An  ashlar. 

Broad-tooL  1.  {Masonry.)  A  stone-mason's 
chisel  which  has  an  edge  3i  inches  wide.  It  is  used 
for  finish-dressing.  The  previous  tools  are  the 
point  or  puncJi,  inch-tool,  and  boaster  (two  inches 
wide). 

2.   {Turninq.)     A  Bro-\.d  (which  see). 

Broad  'Win'do-w-glass.  GIa.ss  blown  of  a 
cylindrical  form,  split  longitudinally,  and  spread  flat. 
See  Broad-glass  ;  Cylindek-gl.ass. 

Brob.  {Carpentry.)  A  peculiar  form  of  spike 
driven  alongside  a  tim- 
Fig.  988.  berwhichmakesa  butt- 

joint  against  another, 
to  prevent  the  slipping 
of  the  former.  For  in- 
stance, several irois  are 
driven  round  a  post 
which  suppoits  a  roof- 
timber  in  a  tunnel  or 
gallery. 

Bro-cade'.  {Fabric.)  A  rich,  stout  silk.  A  com- 
mon name  for  any  kind  of  stuff  %vrought  and  en- 
riched with  raised  flowers.  In  the  East,  a  cloth  of 
gold  and  silk.  The  manufacture  of  brocade  was 
established  at  Lyons,  in  1757. 

Bro-ca-telle'.  (Masonry.)  A  kind  of  marble 
whose  color  is  a  mixture  of  gray,  yellow,  red,  and 
dove  shades. 

Bro-ca-tel'lo.  {Fabric.)  X  coarse  brocade  of 
cotton,  or  silk  :ind  cotton. 

Bro-Che-goods.  {Fabric.)  Goods  embroidered 
or  embossed. 

Brog.     -\  joiner's  awl. 

Broil'er.     {Damestic.) 


r^ 


Brii>>. 


A   gridiron.     The   later 


devices  have  provision  for  turning  the  grids  so  a.<>  to 
expose  each  side  of  the  meat  alternately  to  the 
action  of  the  fire. 

In  the  upper  example  the  gridii'on  is  made  in  two 
parts,  hinged  together. 


and  so  that  it  may  re- 
volve and  expose  both 
sides  of  the  meat,  wliich 
can  be  examined  during 
the  cooking  process  by 
means  of  a  transparent- 
ly-covered opening  in 
the  top  of  the  case. 
The  grids  are  pivoted 
within  a  covered  case. 

In  the  other  example 
it  is  simply  a  double 
frame  with  means  for 
locking  together. 

Brok'en-space  Sa'wr. 


Fig  940. 


.\  fine  hand-saw. 


Brok'en  TwUl.  ^ Fabric.)  A  variety  of  tmill 
in  tiwtilc  fabrics. 

Bron'cho-tome.  {Surgical.)  .\.  knife  used  in 
the  opcT.itiou  cif  cutting  into  the  brnnchus,  or  wind- 
pipe. Asclepiades,  who  lived  at  the  beginning  of 
the  first  century  B.  c,  proposed  the  operation  of 
bronchotomy,  though  it  is  not  certain  that  he  per- 
formed it. 

It  was  practiced  three  hundred  years  afterward  by 
Antyllus,  and  w.a.s  particidarly  described  by  Paulus 
.lEguieta  about  .A.  D.  780. 

Bron'tem.  A  brazen  vessel  in  the  basement 
below  ii  stage,  to  imitate  thunder. 

Bronze.  1.  An  alloy  composed  of  copper  and 
tin,  soiiietinics  with  a  little  zinc  and  lead.  The 
"  Big- Ben  "  bell  of  Westminster,  the  largest  bell  in 
England,  is  composed  of  22  parts  copper,  2  parts  tin. 
Gun-metal  is  a  bronze,  9  parts  copper,  1  of  tin.  It 
is  probable  that  some  of  the  ancient  alloys  which  we 
read  of  as  "brass"  were  really  bronze.  The  Phce- 
nicians  brought  tin  from  Cornwall  1100  B.  c,  before 
the  building  of  Solomon's  Temple.     See  Brass. 

"Tarshish  was  thy  merchant  [Tyre] ;  with  silver, 
iron,  tin,  and  lead  they  traded  in  thy  fairs." 

The  tin  of  Cornwall,  and  also  probably  that  from 
the  peninsula  of  Malacca,  was  mixed  with  the  copper 
of  the  Wady  Maghara  to  form  the  Egvptian,  Phce- 
nician,  and  Assyrian  bronzes.  Dr.  Wilson  {Prehis- 
toric Man)  supposes  that  tin  was  first  brought  to 
the  Mediterranean  from  Malacca,  and  gave  a  new 
impetus  to  early  Eastern  civilization.  Britain  was 
the  next  source.  Chili  and  Mexico  are  more  lately 
known  as  productive  sources  of  the  same  useful 
metal. 

The  ordinary  AssjTian  Tironze  is  composed  of  cop- 
per 10,  tin  1.     Their  bell-metal  was,  copper  S6,  tin  14. 

The  ancient  bronze  cutting-tools  contained  from 
4  to  15  per  cent  of  tin,  from  which  it  is  gathered 
that  the  secret  of  their  manufactiire  is  rather  in  their 
mode  of  working  and  temi)ering  than  in  their  com- 


BRONZE. 


388 


BRONZE. 


|)Osition.  This  apppars  to  be  also  the  case  with  Chi- 
nese cymbals  ami  tam-tams,  whose  tones  are  not  ri- 
valed by  the  instrnnn'nts  niaile  l)y  European  artists, 
though  analysis  of  the.  alloy  fails  to  diselose  any  vea- 
.son  for  this.  Bionze,  containing  20  per  cent  of  tin, 
is  brittle  at  the  ordinary  temperature,  becomes  mal- 
leable at  a  dull  red  heat.      See  An.nhaI.i.ng. 

Bronze  is  the  oldest  alloy  with  which  we  are  ac- 
ciuainted,  and  is  assumed  to  have  pieceded  the  use 
of  iron  in  the  majority  of  countries  which  have 
passed  through  the  various  stages.  _  It  is  not  a  vio- 
lent assumption  that  the  stone  and  bone  implement 
age  preceded  the  age  of  copper  tools  ;  that  the  latter 
was  the  first  metal  which  was  used  in  the  mechanic 
arts  ;  that  the  alloying  of  copper  witli  tin  to  harden 
it  preceded  the  use  of  iron  (see  Alloy)  ;  that  brass 
(copper  and  zinc)  was  a  discovery  later  than  either 
(see  Brass)  ;  that  the  first  iron  utilized  was  of  the  na- 
ture of  steel,  as  yet  produced  in  many  counti'ies  of 
Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa  by  the  native  metallurgists. 
In  speaking  of  ages,  no  general  world-wide  area  of 
contemporary  progress  is  intended.  There  are  tribes 
yet  in  the  bone  age  (see  Axe),  others  in  tlie  bronze. 
Some  of  the  bone  men  have  jumjiiMl  into  the  iron 
(which  they  purchase)  because  they  hail  no  cojiper, 
and  iron  was  the  first  metal  with  which  tliey  became 
acquainted  ;  such  are  some  of  tlie South  Sea  ]. slanders. 

Hesiod,  900  B.  0.,  states  that  iron  was  discovered 
after  copj>er  and  tin,  and  that  those  who  were  an- 
cient, in  his  day,  used  bronze.  Lucretius  mentions 
also  the  gradation  :  — 

"  The  primeval  arms  were  the  hands,  tlie  nail.i.anii  the  teeth, 
Together  with  Rtone.8  anil  branehes,  the  fraj^meuf  s  of  the  forests ; 
Afterwards  wa.s  found  the  power  of  iron  and  of  bronze, 
But  the  use  of  bronze  was  known  before  that  of  iron." 

Bronze  implements  are  obtained  by  casting,  and, 
it  is  believed,  by  subsequent  hammering  while  hot. 
(See  siqira.)  Bronze  and  copper  wore  cast  in  ancient 
Egypt ;  the  Chinese  state  that  Yu,  who  was  semi- 
king  with  a  partner  (Chun)  on  the  throne  of  China, 
2200  B.  v.,  caused  nine  vases  to  be  cast,  on  which 
were  engraved  maps  of  the  nine  provinces  of  the  Em- 
pire. The  Greeks,  Etruscans,  and  the  pupils  of  the 
latter,  the  Romans,  excelled  in  the  art  ;  and  the 
museums  of  Europe  have  almost  munberless  speci- 
mens of  their  art  in  statuary,  household  utensils, 
and  ornaments.  When  the  Spaniards  first  entered 
the  province  of  Tuspan,  they  mistook  the  bright 
copper  or  bronze  axes  of  the  natives  fur  gold,  and 
were  greatly  mortified,  after  they  had  accumulated 
them  in  considerable  numbers,  to  discover  the  mis- 
take they  had  made.  Bernal  Diaz  narrates  that 
"  each  Indian  had,  besides  his  oi'uaments  of  gold,  a 
coppi>r  axe,  whicli  was  very  highly  polished,  with 
the  handle  curiously  carved,  as  if  to  serve  equally 
for  an  ornament  as  for  the  field  of  battle.  We  first 
thought  these  axes  were  made  of  an  inferior  kind  of 
gold  ;  we  therefore  commenced  taking  them  in  ex- 
change, and  in  the  space  of  two  days  had  collected 
more  than  six  hundred  ;  ^'ith  which  we  were  no 
less  rejoiced,  as  long  as  we  were  ignorant  of  their 
real  value,  than  the  Indians  with  our  glass  beads." 


The  bronzes  of  Europe  took  a  much  wider  range  of 
variation. 


Ancient  American  Bronzes. 


Copper.    Tin.  j  Iron. 


Chisel  from  silTer-mines,  Cuzco 

Chisel  from  Cuzoo 

Knife  from  grave,  Atacama  . 

Knife 

Crowbar  from  Chili 

Knife  from  Aniaro 

Perforated  axe 

Personal  ornament,  Truigilla    . 

Bodkin  from  grave 


94 

92.385 

97  87 

96 

92.385 

95.664 

98 

95.440 

96.70 


6 

7.615 

2.13 

4 

7.615 

3.9li,'-) 

4 

4.5B0 

3.30 


0.371 


'Spear-head,  Lincolnshire 

Bronze  ves.sel,  Cambridgeshire 

Flexible  nails 

Sword,  France    . 

Medal 


Axe-head.  Mid-Lothian 
Caldron,  Duddingstone 
Mirrors       .... 
Sword,  Ireland 
Sword,  Thames  . 
Axe-head,  Ireland 
Drinking-horn,  Kings  Co., Ireland 
Wedge,  Ireland 


Copper. 

Tin. 

Lead. 

Iron. 

86 

14 

88 

12 

20 

1 

87.47 

12.53 

100 

8-12 

88.5 

11.12 

0.78 

84.8 

7.19 

8.,53 

100 

30-50 

83.50 

6.15 

8;« 

3 

89.69 

968 

().;« 

89  33 

9.19 

(1.33 

79.34 

10.87 

9.11 

94 

5.9 

0.1 

See  also  Brasses  and  Bronzes,  with  the  atklition 
of  Iron,  p.  61. 


Statuary  bronze 

Church  bells  . 

Church  bells 

Clock  bells 

Gun-metal 

Gongs     .... 

Cymbals     .... 

lAtlie-bushes  . 

Machinery  bearings  . 

Machinery  bearings,  hard 

Speculum  nietul 

Speculum  metul 

Speculum  metal 

Speculum  metal 

Speculum      metal      (Lord  ' 

Rosse)     .        .        , 
Aluuiinium  bronze 


u 

o 

q  . 

£. 

f> 

■3 

P 

f  ^ 

a 

s 

f* 

o 

3  2 

8 

H 

N 

.J 

< 

IH 

■< 

91.4 

1.4 

5.5 

1.7 

80 

10.1 

5.6 

4.3 

16 

3-5 

72 

26.5 

15 

9 

1 

81.6 

18.4 

4 

1 

80 

20 

7 

1 

77.4 

1,5.6 

7 

66 

22 

12 

7 

4 

3 

50 

29 

21 

6 

2 

1 

« 

126.4 

58.9 

90 

10 

Cooley's  recipes  for  bronze  :  - 


For  edge-tools  . 

For  gilding    . 

For  medals 

For  medals  (M.  Chaudet) 

For  mortars 

For  statuary . 

Or  (Statue,  Louis  .W.)     . 

Or 


Copper.     Tin.     Zinc.    Lead, 


100 


95 


82} 
91 


14 
3 

8 
4 
2 
9 
6 
9 


18 


2 
10} 


AUoysinto  which  aluminium  enters,  either  in  com- 
bination witli  copper  alone,  or  with  that  and  other 
metals,  are  usually  termed  aluminium  bronzes  ;  the 
composition  of  some  of  these  is  given  below  ;  — 


Aluminium 

Iron 

Copper 

Platinum 

Tin       . 

Nickel 

Silver  . 

Zinc 

Gold    . 

Tungsten 


1    » 

a  (M*   c  CI 

a 

si.iiS 

a) 

as 

a.,^  ft<.- 

as 

&c 

CI 

ish 
68o 
ish 
59  0 

^  o 

t 

tfil-l  bO^_ 

hoc-j 

n 

§"{§'" 

W 

1^-' 

s 

7.5 


90 


7.5  13.70 
27.18 
31.71 
98.84 
58  92 
29.62 
108,30 
32.31 

2.5 


100 


100 


70      70 


100 


10.5 
89.3 


See  also  Alunjinium  Bn: 


pp.  70,  71. 


BRONZE  POWDER. 


389 


BRONZING. 


2.  {Cotton  -  manufacture.)  One  style  of  calico- 
printing,  peculiar  rather  from  the  character  of  its 
colors,  than  from  any  specific  novelty  in  treat- 
ment. 

Bronze  Po'w'der.  Finely  pulverized  metal, 
or  powder  having  a  metallic  base,  applied  to  the 
surface  of  paper,  leather,  and  other  materials,  for 
imparting  a  metallic  color  and  luster. 

1.  Gold  powckr  (ov  hxonzing  is  made  by  gi-inding 
leaf-gold  with  honey  ;  dissolving  the  mixture  to' 
obtain  the  gold  by  deposition,  the  honey  water 
being  decanted. 

2.  German,  gold  is  a  yellow-alloy  leaf  similarly 
treated. 

3.  Mosaic  gold  is  prepared  by  incorpoi'ating  and 
gi-inding  tin,  16  ;  flower  of  sulpluir,  7  ;  mercury,  8  ; 
and  sal-ammoniac,  8  ;  and  tlien  subliming  the 
amalgam.  A  flaky  gold  colored  powder  remains  iu 
the  matrass. 

•t.  Co])per poieder  is  obtained  by  saturating  nitrous 
acid  with  copper,  and  then  precipitating  the  copper 
by  exposing  iron  bars  in  the  solution. 

5.  Bisulphide  of  tin.  It  has  a  golden  luster, 
flaky  texture,  and  is  used  for  ornamental  work, 
such  as  paper-hangings,  and  as  a  substitute  for  gold- 
leaf. 

6.  Dutch  foil  reduced  to  a  powder  by  grinding. 

7.  Verdigris,  8  ;  tutty  powder,  4 ;  borax,  2 ; 
niter,  2  ;  bichloride  of  mercury,  J  ;  grind  into  a 
paste  with  oil,  and  fuse  them  together. 

8.  (Iron-colored.)  plumbago  iu  powder. 

9.  (Red)  sulp.  copper,  100  ;  carb.  soda,  60  ;  mix 
and  iucoi-porate  by  heat ;  cool,  powder,  and  add 
copper  ftlings,  15  ;  mix  ;  keep  at  a  white  heat  for 
twenty  minutes  ;  cool,  powder,  wash,  and  dry. 

Bronz'ing.  The  process  of  giving  a  bronze-like 
or  antique-metallic  appearance  to  the  surface  of 
metals. 

The  processes  vary  ;  they  may  be  classed  as  — 

Coating  with  a  melted  alloy. 

Coating  with  a  metal  in  paste,  solution,  or  vapor. 

Con'osion. 

Coating  with  a  gum. 

Application  of  bronze  powder. 

Painting. 

The  modes  vary  with  the  material  :  — 

I.  As  to  copper  (some  of  them  applicable  to 
brass). 

1.  The  surface  is  cleaned,  polished,  and  a  paste 
of  crocus  powder  aud  water  applied  to  it.  Apply 
heat  to  develop  the  color  required. 

2.  Plumbago  applied  in  the  same  manner.  By 
employing  mixtures  of  plumbago  and  crocus,  dif- 
ferent shades  are  obtained. 

3.  The  copper  is  exposed  at  a  high  heat  to  the 
fumes  of  zinc. 

4.  The  copper  vessel  is  filled  with  a  water  acidu- 
lated with  hydrochloric  aitid,  an  amalgam  of  zinc 
and  cream  of  tartar  being  added.     Boil  for  a  while. 

The  latter  two  processes  are  more  properly  bra,ssi}ig. 

5.  Corrosion  processes  :  — 

a.  Wash  the  cleaned  copper  with  a  dilute  solu- 
tion of  sulphuret  of  potassium,  or  hydrosulphuret  of 
ammonia  is  applied  with  a  brush. 

b.  Apply  solution  of  verdigris,  2  ;  sal-ammoniac, 
1  ;  and  vinegar,  16. 

c.  Or,  verdigris,  2  ;  vemiilion,  2  ;  alum,  5  ;  sal- 
ammoniac,  5  ;  vinegar  sufficient  to  form  a  thin 
paste.  Blue  vitriol  inclines  to  dark  brown,  borax 
to  yellow  browm. 

d.  Or,  sal-ammoniac,  1  ;  cream  tartar,  3  ;  com- 
mon salt,  3  ;  hot  water,  16  ;  dissolve,  and  add 
nitrate  of  copper,  3,  dissolved  in  water,  8  ;  apply 
repeatedly  with  a  brush. ' 


c.  Or,  salt  of  sorel,  1  ;  sal-annnoniae,  3  ;  distilled 
vinegar,  32  ;  apply  as  above. 
/.   Or,  a  weak  solution  of  chloride  of  platinium. 

II.  -As  to  iron  :  — 

('.  Clean  the  metal,  and  wash  it  with  or  immerse 
it  in  a  solution  of  sulpliate  of  copper  or  verdigris, 
when  it  will  acquire  a  coating  of  copper. 

b.  The  metal  may  be  dipped  in  molten  metal,  cop- 
per, or  its  alloys. 

c.  The  polished  metal  —  a  gun-barrel,  for  insttince 
—  may  be  dropped  in  a  solution  of  chloride  of  anti- 
mony and  sulphate  of  copper.     This  is  broianing. 

d.  The  ordinary  solution  consists  of :  aquafortis, 
1  ;  sweet  spirits  of  niter,  1  ;  blue  vitriol,  i  ;  tinc- 
ture of  the  muriate  of  iron,  2  ;  water,  32. 

c.  Or,  blue  vitriol,  1  ;  sweet  spirits  of  niter,  1  ; 
water,  16. 

/.  The  iron  is  cle.Tued,  polished,  coated  with 
linseed-oil,  and  heated  to  develop  the  tint  required. 
Tucker's  patent,  Dec.  15,  1863. 

f/.  The  iron  is  cleaned,  polished,  and  lacquered. 
The  lacquer  consists  of  shell-lac  in  alcohol,  with  or 
without  the  addition  of  saffron,  annotto,  aloes,  or 
other  coloring  substances. 

h.  The  iron  is  painted  with  a  gold-paint,  so 
called  ;  Dutch  metal  and  varnish. 

i.  The  iron  is  painted  green,  aud  rubbed  with 
bronze  powder. 

III.  As  to  tin:  — 

(-'lean  the  castings,  and  wash  them  with  a  mix- 
ture of  1  part  each  of  sulphate  of  copper  and  sul- 
phate of  iron  in  20  parts  of  w'ater  ;  dry  and  wash 
again  with  a  solution  of  verdigiis,  5  parts  ;  in  dis- 
tilled vinegar,  11  part.s.  When  dry,  polish  with  col- 
cothar. 

IV.  As  to  plaster  :  — 

Plaster-of-paris  statuettes,  medals,  etc.,  may  be 
brouzed  in  the  following  manner  :  — 

Prepare  a  soap  from  linseed-oil  boiled  with  caustic 
soda  lye,  to  which  add  a  solution  of  common  salt ; 
and  concentrate  it  by  boiling,  till  it  becomes  some- 
what granular  upon  the  surface  ;  it  is  then  strained 
througli  a  linen  cloth,  and  what  passes  through  is 
diluted  with  Ixiiling  water,  and  again  filtered.  Dis- 
solve 4  parts  of  blue  vitriol  and  1  part  of  copperas 
separately  in  hot  water,  and  add  this  solution  to  the 
solution  of  soap  as  long  as  it  occasions  any  precipi- 
tate. This  flocculent  precipitate  is  a  combination 
of  the  oxides  of  copper  and  iron  with  the  margaric 
acid  of  the  soap,  the  former  giving  a  gieen  and  the 
latter  a  reddish-brown  color,  the  combination  of  the 
two  resembling  that  greenish  rust  wliich  is  charac- 
teristic of  ancient  bronzes.  When  the  precipitate 
is  completely  separated,  a  fresh  portion  of  the  vitriol 
solution  is  to  he  poured  upon  it  in  a  copper  pan, 
and  boiled  in  order  to  wash  it.  After  some  time 
the  liquid  part  is  poured  oil',  and  the  soap  washed 
with  warm  and  afterward  with  cold  water,  pressed 
in  a  linen  bag,  and  drained  and  dried,  when  it  is 
ready  for  use,  in  the  foffowing  manner  :  — 

Three  pounds  of  pure  linseed-oil  are  boiled  with 
12  ounces  of  finely  powdered  litharge,  and  the  mix- 
ture is  strained  through  a  canva-s  cloth  and  per- 
mitted to  staud  in  a  warm  place  until  it  becomes 
clear.  15  ounces  of  this,  12  ounces  of  the  above- 
de.scribed  soap,  aud  5  ounces  of  fine  white  wax, 
are  melted  together  at  a  gentle  heat  in  a  porcelain 
basin,  by  means  of  a  water-bath.  The  mixture 
must  be  kept  some  time  in  a  molten  state,  to  expel 
any  moisture  which  it  may  contain.  It  is  then  ap- 
plied by  means  of  a  paint-brush  to  the  surface  of  the 
gypsum,  which  is  heated  to  the  temperature  of 
about  200°  F.  After  exjiosure  to  the  air  for  a  few 
days  the  surface  is   rubbed  with  cotton-wool  or  a 


BRONZING-MACHINE. 


390 


BROOM-HANDLE   MACHINE. 


fine  rag,  and  variegated  witli  a  few  streaks  of  metal 
powder  or  shell  gold.  Small  objects  may  be  dipped 
in  tlie  melted  mi.xture  and  then  exposed  to  the  heat 
of  the  fire  until  thoroughly  penetrated  and  evenly 
coated  with  it. 

The  bronze  letters  and  figures  upon  the  bonds 
and  paper  currency  of  the  United  States  —  as,  for 
instance,  "  tlie  faint  attempt  at  a  metallic  riiuj,"  as 
Mr.  Secretary  Chase  called  it,  on  the  old  twenty-five- 
cent  fractional  currency  —  are  made  by  printing  in 
drying-oil,  and  applying  the  metal  in  fine  dust  to  the 
damp  surface. 

Bronzlng-ma-chine'.     A  machine  for  bronzing 

wall-papers  or 
Fig.  941  printed       sheets. 

Those  parts  of  the 
sheet  which  are  to 
receive  the  bronze 
powder  are  first 
printed  with  let- 
ters or  figures  in 
ink  or  size.  The 
machines  vary  in 
the  special  devices 
for  distributing 
and  removing 
superfluous  pow- 
der. 

In  Fig.  941  the 
freshly  printed  pa- 
per is  carried  Cie- 
tween  endless 
tapes  under  a  fur-covered  roller,  through  a  fur-lined 
bo.x,  and  around  a  roller  beneath  a  wiper-apron.  It 
operates  by  first  coating  the  freshly  inked  parts  with 
bronze-dust,  and  then  removing  the  same  from  be- 
tween the  letters. 

In  the  example  (Fig.  942)  the  freshly  printed  pa- 
per is  laid  upon  the  feed-braid,  and  its  edge  seized 
by  the  gripper  a,  so  that  the  revolution  of  the  wheel 
A  carries  the  sheet  past  the  fur-wheel  0,  which  re- 


Bronzin^  Mar/line. 


Branzing-Machine. 

volves  at  the  bottom  of  the  bronze-bopper  E ;  thence 
past  the  burnisher  ff,  which  removes  superfluous 
bronze,  and  is  itself  cleaned  by  the  brush  /,  which 
delivers  the  bronze  into  the  collecting-box  G.  The 
sheet  then  passes  between  the  wheel  A  and  apron  g, 
and  receives  a  final  brushing  at  the  point  of  delivery. 

Brooch.  1.  An  ornamental  clasp  with  a  pin  for 
fastening  the  dress. 

The  term  corresponds  to  ouch  (which  see),  under 
which   name  the  ornamental  clasp  appears   in   the 


King  .Tames  version  of  the  Bible,  Exodus  xxviii.  11, 
xxxix.  18,  andinother]ilaces.  See  Miushieu's  "Due- 
torin  Linguas,"  lt)17  ;  Phillips's  "World  of  Words," 
165S.  See  also  the  same  passages  in  the  "  Bishop's" 
and  "  Coverdale's  "  versions.  In  the  "  Wickliffe  " 
vereion  it  is  rendered  "  hookes." 

The  ouch  or  brooch  was  a  clasp  or  button,  and,  in 
course  of  time,  came  to  be  fastened  with  a  pin  called 
a  branch  (Fr.  brochc),  and  hence  the  name  brooch,  of 
this  form  of  ornamental  clasp,  has  been  attiibuted  to 
the  name  of  the  pin  (broach)  by  which  it  is  fastened. 

Tliis  brooch  or  pin,  probably  as  large  as  the  cork- 
ing-pin of  Swift's  time,  uf  old  formed  a  stiletto  upon 
occasion,  as  among  the  Athenian  dames,  who  made 
such  pointed  inquiries  of  the  man  who  alone  escaped 
from  the  slaughter  of  the  party  of  Athenians  who 
made  a  raid  upon  Egina,  to  capture  the  olive-wood 
statues  of  Damia  and  Auxcsia,  plundered  hy  the 
Eginetans  from  the  Epidaurians.  Herodotus,  V.  87, 
says  :  — 

"When  he  came  back  to  Athens,  bringing  word 
of  the  calamity,  the  wives  of  those  who  had  been 
sent  out  on  the  expedition  took  it  sorely  to  heart 
that  he  alone  should  have  survived  the  slaughter ;  they 
therefore  crowded  around  the  man,  and  struck  him 
with  the  brooches  by  which  their  dresses  were  fast- 
ened, each,  as  she  struck,  asking  him,  '  Where  did 
you  leave  my  husband  ''. '  and  the  man  died  in  this 
way." 

The  upshot  of  it  was,  that  the  men  of  Athens  wei-e 
so  disgusted  at  the  conduct  of  the  women,  that  they 
changed  their  dress,  which  was  a  *hort  Dorian  tunic 
having  no  sleeves,  and  fastened  over  both  shouldei-s 
by  brooches,  and  compelled  them  to  wear  the  Ionic 
linen  gown,  with  short,  loose  sleeves,  and  with  a 
skirt  reaching  to  the  ankles.  "This,"  Herodotus 
says,  "does  not  require  brooches." 

This  brooch  was  not  a  buckle,  but  a  pin  with  a 
hooked  head  ;  so  it  was  a  broai>h,  alter  all. 

i.  A  painting  all  of  one  color,  as  in  sepia  or  india- 
ink. 

Brood.  (Mining.)  Any  heterogeneous  mixture 
among  tin  or  copper  ore ;  as,  mundick,  black-jack,  etc. 

Broom.  A  domestic  utensil  for  sweeping,  made 
of  various  materials,  most  commonly,  with  us,  of  the 
broom-corn,  which  is  a  species  of  doura  or  sorghum, 
and  came  from  Africa.  Of  late  years  much  attention 
has  been  directed  to  the  subject  of  broom-heads,  so 
that,  instead  of  the  handle  and  head  being  thrown 
away  as  useless  when  the  corn  is  worn  out,  they  are 
made  permanent,  with  arrangements  for  clamping  the 
corn  and  unclamping  it,  so  that  it  ujay  be  removed 
when  worn  out,  and  fresh  com  substituted. 

Benjamin  Franklin  introduced  broom-corn  into 
this  country,  previous  to  which  brooms  were  made 
of  evergreen  boughs.  It  is  said  that,  while  examin- 
ing an  imported  corn-whisk,  he  discovered  a  single 
seed,  whicli  he  planted  in  his  garden,  and  from  which 
the  com  was  propagated. 

Brooms  are,  however,  made  of  various  materials, 
animal  and  vegetable. 

Among  the  kinds  may  be  cited  (and  some  of  them 
are  really  brushes  on  long  handles)  :  — 

Carpet.  Hearth. 

Coir.  Hickory. 

Hair.  Whisks. 

Broom-corn  Seed-strip'per.  A  machine  like 
a  flax-fZ/'/i/c,  for  removing  the  .seeds  from  broom- 
corn.  It  is  like  a  comb,  over  which  the  corn-brush 
is  thrown,  and  the  seeds  stripped  off  by  pulling  the 
brush  lietween  the  teeth. 

Broom-han'dle  Ma-chine'.  A  lathe  with  a 
hollow  mandrel  and  internal  cutters.     The  stick  is 


liKOOM-HEAD. 


391 


BKOOM-SEWIXO   MACHINE. 


passed    longitudinally  through   the    mandrel    and 
rounded  tliroughout  its  length. 

In  the  example  the  hollow  mandrel  ha-s  a  pair  of 
circular  cuttei-s  for  cutting  off  the  rough  corners  of 
the  handle  ;  also  a  tapering  bit  oscillating  on  a  pivot 
and  acted  on  by  a  spring,  a  lever  being  connected 
with  the  cutter  by  a  link,  and  the  bit  being  con- 
Fig.  943. 


Pig.  944. 


Broom-Handif  Lathe 

trolled  by  plates  connected  \vith  catches,  projections 
resting  on  the  flanges  of  the  cam-wheels  attached  to 
a  shaft,  there  being,  farther  on  the  mandrel,  a  third 
beveled  cutter,  with  its  cutting-edge  flatwise  thereto, 
so  that  by  their  movements  the  various  work  is 
effected. 

•  Broom-head.  A  clasp  or  cap  for  holding  the 
bunch  of  brooiu-coru,  so  that  a  worn  stump  may  be 
removed  and  fresh  brush  .substituted.  There  are 
very  many  forms,  among  which  may  be  cited  the 
examples  annexed,  which  require  but  little  explana- 
tion. 

In  the  upper  left-hand  example  the  broom-corn 
is  hung  over  the  stirrup  and  drawn  into  the  cap  by 
the  screwing  of  the  stirrup  into  the  handle. 

The  next  figure  shows  another  stirrup,  screw- 
shank,  and  cap  airangement. 

The  figure  beneath  the  one  last  described  has  a 
head  whose  bars  have  prongs  to  enter  the  bunches 
of  brush.  The  bars  of  one  .side  open  to  admit  the 
broom-corn,  and  are  then  locked  in  closed  position. 

The  next  examples  have  variously  shaped  head.s 
and  modes  of  secuiing  tlie  contents. 

The  lower  figure  has  a  clasp  with  a  pair  of  hinged 
jaws  with  pronged  bars. 

Broom-seM(r'ing  Ma-chine'.  A  machine  for 
pressing  a  bunch  of  broom-corn  into  shape  for  a 
broom,  and  sewing  it  in  its  flattened  form.  The 
broom  is  placed  between  jaws  a  a,  closed  by  an  ec- 
centric c,  operated  by  lever  b. 

The  machine  being  set  in  motion  by  the  rotation 
of  the  shaft  of  the  cam-wheel  A,  the  cam-gi'oove  of  | 
the  latter,  actuating  the  lever  /',  forces  forward  the 
needle-bar  e,  thus  diiving  the  needle  with  its  thread 
through  the  broom  above  the  twine  wound  around 
the  latter.  The  shuttle  C,  operated  by  lever  B,  act- 
ing on  the  opposite  side  of  the  broom  in  conjunction 
with  the  needle,  forms  the  stitch.  This  being  done, 
the  reverse  movement  of  the  needle-bar  withdraws 
the  needle,  the  eccentric  ?!  lifts  the  jaws  n,  so  that  the 
next  stroke  of  the  needle  carries  the  stitch  below 
the  binding-twine,  the  jaws  being  meanwhile  moved 
along  tlie  guides  'j:  by  means  of  a  pawl,  operated  by 


Broom-  Heofls 


UltOUGHAM. 


392 


BRUSH. 


Fig.  945 


Tiiict.  of  gum  benzoin 
Water  . 


IJ  ounces. 
3  pints. 


Broom-Seiving  Machine. 

a  cam  n  on  a  supplemental  shaft  moved  by  gears  hj, 
the  pawl  gearing  with  a  ratchet  formed  at  the  under 
side  of  the  outermost  of  the  jaws  a.  The  next  out- 
ward movemeut  of  the  needle,  the  jaws  being,  of 
course,  again  lowered,  carries  the  stitch  above  the 
binding  -  twine.  In  this  manner  the  stitches  are 
formed  alternately  above  and  below  the  binding- 
twine,  the  distance  apart  of  the  stitches  correspond- 
ing, of  course,  to  tlie  intermittent  feed  given,  as  just 
■described,  to  the  jaws  a  upon  their  supporting-guides 
X.  The  needle  is  supplied  from  spool  E,  which  has 
a  ten.siou-s|iriug  rj. 

Brough'am.  (Vehicle.)  From  broucUe,  a  form 
of  fiacre  invented  by  Dupin  about  1671.  A  closed 
carriage  witli  a  single  inside  seat  for  two  persons, 
and  an  elevated  driver's  seat.  The  front  is  glazed, 
and  the  fore-wheels  turn  on  a  short  lock. 

Brovr-baiid.  {Snddlen/.)  A  band  of  a  bridle, 
head-stall,  ur  lialter,  which  passes  in  front  of  the 
horse's  forehead,  and  has  loops  at  its  ends,  through 
which  pass  the  cheek-straps. 

Brown'iug.  A  process  by  which  the  surfaces  of 
articles  of  iron  acquire  a  shining  brown  luster  ;  this 
may  be  produced  by  chloride  of  antimony. 

Broimuiitj,  or  Bronzing  Liquid,     Sulphate  of  cop- 
per, 1  ox.  ;   sweet  spirit  of  niter,    1   oz.  ;   water,    1 
jiint.     Mi.x.     In  a  few  days  it  will  be  fit  for  use. 
Browning  for  Gan-Barreh.     Tinct.    of  mur.   of 
iron,  1  oz.  ;  nitric  ether,  1  oz.  ;  sulph.  of  copper,  4 
scruples  ;  rain-water,  1  pint.     If  the  process  is  to  be 
hurried,  add  2  or  3  gi-ains  of  oxymuriate  of  mercury. 
When  the  barrel  is  finished,  let  it  remain  a  sliort 
time  in   lime-water,    to  neutralize  any  acid   which 
may  have  penetrated  ;  then  rub  it  well  with  an  iron 
wire  scratch-brush. 
Another  recipe  is  :  — 

Nitric  ether   ....  6    ounces. 

Alcohol      ....  1    ounce. 

Sulphate  of  copper  .         ■  li  ounces. 

Muriated  tinct.  of  iron         .  1 J  ounces. 


The  blue  vitriol  is  first  dissolved  in 
the  water  (boiling). 

Brown  Pa'per.  A  coarse  kind  of 
wrajp[iing-paper,  which  is  made  from  un- 
bleached material,  such  as  junk,  hemp, 
refuse  Hax,  etc.  It  is  made  of  various 
qualities,  IVoni  munUla  io  straw. 

BroTwn  Ware.  A  common  variety 
of  pottery,  nairifil  lioni  its  color. 

Brow-post,  (t'lirpcnlrij.)  A  beanr 
that  goes  across  a  building. 

Bruis'er.  A  concave  tool  used  in 
grinding  lenses  or  the  speculums  of 
telescoj)rs. 

Bruis'ing.  (Leather  ■  manitfaclure.) 
After  curried  leather  luis  been  daubed 
and  dried,  it  is  grained  by  folding 
grain-side  in,  and  rubbing  with  a  crip- 
pler.  It  is  then  extended  and  rubbed 
on  the  grain-side,  which  is  called  bruis- 
ing. 

Bruis'ing-nia-clime'.  A  machine 
for  bruising  rough  feed  to  make  it  more 
palatable  and  digestiljle  for  stock.  It 
is  principally  used  in  Britain  in  bruis- 
ing prickly  plants  such  as  the  furze, 
which  is  also  known  as  whin  or  gorse 
(Ulcx  Europcus), — a  prickly  plant  very 
common  in  the  British  Islands,  and 
very  nutritious  when  brought  into  a 
condition  which  does  not  repel  the  animals. 

The  mode  of  preparing  it,  where  machinery  is  not 
accessible,  is  by  means  of  the  chopping-block  and 
mallet. 

Fig.  B4U. 


Furze-  Bruising . 

Tlie  illustration  shows  a  bruising-machine  with 
studded  <ylindi'rs. 

Bruis'ing-mill.  (Milling.)  A  hand-mill  in 
which  grain  lor  feed,  malt  for  brewing,  and  flax-seed 
for  pressing,  are  coarsely  ground.  It  consists  of  two 
cast-iron  rollers  mounted  on  a  strong  frame,  and  so 
arranged  that  grain  is  carried  between  them  and 
crushed  more  or  less  according  to  the  degree  to 
which  the  rollers  are  tightened  up  by  tlie  hand- 
screw  at  tlie  end  of  the  frame.  With  tlie  hand-mill 
one  man  will  crush  about  iA  bushels  of  oats  or  flax- 
seed per  hour,  and  two  men  4  bushels.  By  horse 
or  steam  power  it  will  crush  fiom  15  to  24  bushels 
per  hour.  Of  malt,  liom  two  to  three  times  the 
above  quantities  may  be  ground.     (Fig.  947.) 

Brush.  1.  An  assemblage  of  hairs,  hog's  bristles, 
strips  of  whalebone,  sliort  wires,  fastened  to  a  han- 
dle, either  collectively  or  in  separate  tufts. 


BRUSH. 


393 


BRUSH. 


Briiishtg-Mill. 


Fig.  947.  The  smallest  kind    of 

brushes  are  used  in  wa-  j 
tei-eolor,  and  some  kinds 
of  house,  sign,  and  coacli 
'  —  -  -^J.  2>ainting,  and 
are  called  pen- 
cils; camel, badger,  sijuir- 
rel,  goat,  fitch,  and  sable 
hair,  etc. ,  are  i-mployed. 
These  are  made  by  insert- 
ing a  tuft  of  tile  hairs 
with  their  roots  bound 
togetlier  into  a  ciuill  pre- 
viously .softened,  which, 
on  drying,  serves  to  hold 
them  fast;  for  the  larger 
sizes,  a  tin  tube,  either 
round  or  flat,  is  em- 
ployed. 

Hogs'  bristles  are,  how- 
ever, the  material  princi- 
pally used,  tile  whiter  and  better  kinds  being  em- 
ployed for  hair,  tooth,  clothes,  and  hat  brushes,  and 
also  for  the  better  classes  of  paint-brushes. 

The  bristles  are  tii'St  sorted  according  to  color,  and 
then,  by  means  of  a  .series  of  combs  («,  Fig.  948), 
having  teeth  fonned  of  needles  of  various  sizes,  and 
placed  at  different  distances  apart,  they  are  assorted 
according  to  size,  by  employing  at  first  the  largest 
comb  and  then  in  succession  the  smaller  ones,  fi.'ced 
to  a  work-table. 

The  paint-brush  —  the  simplest  form  of  brush — . 
is  made  by  inserting  fuU-lengtli  bristles  between  two 
projecting  prongs  on  the  handle,  and  securing  them 
by  a  WTapping  of  twine,  which  is  afterward  protected 
by  a  coating  of  glue  mixed  with  red-lead.  In  other 
paint-brushes  tlie  bristles  are  surrounded  by  a  me- 
tallic cap,  which  binds  them  to  the  handle.  In  large 
])aiiit-brushes  and  painter's  dusters,  the  liandle  is 
secured  by  driving  its  smaller  end  foremost  into  the 
bristles,  placed  within  an  iron  cup,  which  binds 
them  fast. 

Hair-brooms,  dusters,  etc.,  are  made  by  inserting 
tufts  of  bristles  into  a  stock  or  head  previously  bored 
with  holes  for  their  reception.  These  are  frecpiently 
bored  angularly  to  the  face,  or  the  face  itself  is  round- 
ed so  a.s  to  give  the  tufts  an  outward  splay  when 
inserted  ;  the  root-ends  are  fii'st  dipped  into  melted 
pitch,  then  liound  with  thread,  again  dipped,  and 
then  inserted  with  a  sort  of  twisting  motion.  Brush- 
es of  this  description  are  usually  made  with  bristles 
of  the  full  length  ;  but  where  stiti'uess  is  rcpiired,  as 
in  scrubbing,  hair,  and  other  similar  brushes,  each 
tuft  of  bristles  is  doubled  so  as  to  present  both  ends 
outward  ;  these  are  then  cut  oft"  si|uare  and  even, 
presenting  a  hard  surface,  especially  when  the  doub- 
ling is  made  near  the  root-ends. 

iPhe  stocks  or  brush-boards  are  cut  from  pieces  of 
requisite  thickness,  so  as  to  get  two  out  of  each  width 
of  board  [b.  Fig.  iU8).  The  holes  are  drilled  through 
a  pattern-board,  to  insure  uniformity  ;  this  is  flat  for 
g.  plane-surface  lirush,  but  if  the  edge  is  to  have 
oblique  rows  of  bristles,  a  pattern  lient  to  a  correspond- 
ing obliquity  is  employed.  Dnnrinfi,  the  next  step, 
is  performed  by  clamping  the  drilled  stock  to  a  table 
and  passing  a  loop  of  bra-ss  wire  through  the  flrst 
hole  in  the  first  row,  inserting  a  tuft  of  bristles 
through  the  loop  and  drawing  on  the  wire,  so  as  to 
pull  the  tuft  into  place,  when,  bending  the  wire 
again,  another  loop  is  fomied,  and  so  on  successively 
until  a  row  is  completed,  when  the  tufts  are  cut  off 
with  shears  to  a  length  regulated  by  a  gage  ;  or,  iu 
case  the  bristles  are  short,  the  stock  is  tilled  previous 
to  cutting.     Iu  Fig.  948,  c  shows  a  perforated  brush- 


back,  d  a  tuft  ready  for  insertion,  /  the  face  of  an 
oval  brush  after  drawing,  and  g  a  brush  of  black 
bristles  with  an  edging  of  white  bristles,  cut  and  fin- 


Fig.  948. 


iTManiM'ii 


ii^ '~"") 

I                " *\ 

-.••■■—-• 

ill 

Bgr— ^-s 

wmm=-:, 

g        - — -  ■' 

m, 

ished.  The  drawing-wires  are  neatly  covered  with 
veneer  to  strengthen  and  improve  the  brush,  and 
prevent  the  wires  I'rom  scratching  the  hand  ;  after 
which  the  brush  is  finished  up  with  a  spoke-shave 
and  scraper,  .sand-papered,  and  varnished.  In  the 
smaller  kinds  of  drawn  bru.shes,  such  asnail  and  tooth 
brushes,  the  holes  are  sunk  in  naiTOw  grooves  in  the 
stock,  which  are  afterwards  filled  with  a  hard  red 
cement. 

The  best  sorts  of  bni.shes  are  Irepanned;  in  this 
process  a  number  of  holes  are  drilled  in  the  bone 
back  either  transversely  or  longitudinally,  and  a 
ntunber  of  holes  are  sunk  through  to  these  from  the 
face-side  of  the  brush  ;  the  tufts  are  then  drawn  with 
strong  thread  or  silk,  and  the  longitudinal  or  trans- 
verse holes  filled  with  plugs  of  bone  or  ivory. 

Whalebone,  cut  into  strips,  and  split,  is  used  in 
the  same  manner  as  bristles,  to  form  brushes,  either 
by  itself  or  in  conjunction  with  bristles.  In  the 
lattei'  case,  the  adulteration  is  soon  detected  by 
the  more  rapid  wear  and  splitting  of  the  ends  of  the 
whalebone. 

In  Woodbury's  brush-making  machine  a  quantity 
of  the  bristles  is  laid  upon  a  comb-shaped  feeder,  and 
a  steel  point  parts  from  their  edge,  as  spread  upon 
the  apron,  just  enough  for  one  bunch.  A  jilunger 
conies  down  upon  this  bnuch  and  bends  it  double, 
the  two  halves  fitting  into  slots  in  a  follower  in  size 
suited  to  the  work  in  hand.  A  carrier  then  pushes 
about  two  inches  of  wire  through  the  bunch  at  the 
bend,  and  cuts  oft'  the  part  thus  advanced.  The 
Jilunger  now  pushes  the  doubled  bunch  with  wire 
down  into  a  nut  with  spiral  threads  or  rifles  on  the 
inside,  at  tlie  same  time  giving  it  a  twist.  The  ef- 
fect of  this  motion  is  to  wrap  the  wire  as  a  spiral  or 
screw  thread  around  the  bunch,  and  the  twisting  or 
gimlet  motion  continues  so  as  to  screw  the  bunch, 
wire  and  all,  into  the  hole  of  the  brush-stock  below, 
giving  it  the  firmness  and  solidity  of  a  screw.  Then 
releasing  its  hold  and  giving  one  revolution  back- 
ivard,  to  take  the  twist  out  of  the  bunch,  the  plun- 
ger flies  up  and  is  ready  for  another  bunch,  wliich  it 
prepares  and  inserts  by  the  same  motions.  This  set 
of  operations  is  completed  at  the  rate  of  about  70 
series  per  minute,  thus  finishing  an  ordinary  scrub- 
bing-brush within  that  time.  As  the  holes  do  not 
pass  through  the  wood,  no  back  is  required. 

Among  the  vaiieties  and  parts  of  brushes,  and 
the  apjilianccs  concerned  in  their  making,  may  be 
named  :  — 


Blacking-brush. 
Black-lead  bntsh. 
Bottle-brush. 
Bra-ss-tinisher's  brush. 


Bristle-bunching  machine. 
Bristle-cleaning  machine. 
Bristle-washing  machine. 
Broom. 


Bristle-assortingmachine.  Brush-back. 


BKUSH-HAT. 


394 


BRUSSELS  CARPET. 


Brush  for  cannon. 

Briish-hanille. 

Brush-head. 

15nishing-machine. 

Brush-making  machine. 

Carpet-brush. 

Carriage-brush. 

Cloth-brush. 

Clothes-brush. 

Drawn-brush. 

Dusting-brush. 

Ear-brush. 

Engine -brush. 

Feather-brush. 

Flesh-brush. 

Flue-brush. 

Furniture-brush. 

Graining-brush. 

Hair-brush. 

Hair-pencil. 

Harness-brush. 

Hat-brush. 

Hearth-brush. 


Horse-brush. 

Hydraulic-brush. 

Irrigating-brush. 

Lure. 

JIarking-brush. 

Mechanical  broom. 

Nail-brusli. 

raint-brush. 

Paste-brush. 

Revolving-brush. 

Rotary -brush. 

Scrubbing-brush. 

Shoe-brush. 

Spoke-brush. 

Stock-brush. 

Street-sweeping  machine. 

Tar-brush. 

Tool-brush. 

Tooth-brush. 

Tube-brush. 

Velvet-brush. 

Wliisk -brush. 

Wire-brush. 


2.  A  mop  for  cannon.     See  Spongk. 

Brush-hat.  One  in  which  the  surface  is  contin- 
ually brushetl  by  a  hand-brush,  during  the  process 
of  sizing,  so  as  to  bring  a  nap  to  the  surface. 

Brush'ing-ma-chine'.  1.  {Hat-mntiiig.)  A  ma- 
chine for  brushing  liats,  to  remove  the  dust  after 
pouncing,  or  to  lay  the  ]iap  smoothly. 

2.  {Woolen-manufacture.)  A  machine  used  to  lay 
the  nap  on  cloth  before  shcarUvj.  It  has  a  cylinder 
covered  with  brushes.  For  some  purposes,  the  cloth 
is  damped  by  exposure  to  steam,  which  escapes  in 
minute  jets  from  a  copper  box  extending  the  whole 
width  of  the  machine.  Sometimes  called  a  brushimj- 
inill. 

3.  (Flax-Tnanufaoture.)  A  machine  for  scutching 
flax,  in  which  tlie  beaters  are  superseded  by  stiff 
brushes  of  whalebone.     See  Scutching-m.^chine. 

Brush-pull'er.  {AgrictiUuir.)  A  machine  for 
pulling  up  brush  by  the  roots.  It  sometimes  con- 
sists of  a  mere  hand-tool,  with  a  gripper  to  give  a 
firmer  hold  than  tlie  hand  will  readily  afford.  As 
a  maeliine,  it  is  a  traveling  implement  with  closing 
jaws,  which  seize  the  bushes  and  pull  them  out  as 
the  team  moves  on. 

Brush-Tvheel.  n.  A  whi>el  with  bristles  on  its 
periiiherv,  used  to  turn  another  wheel.  One  of  the 
wheels  being  driven,  commu- 
nicates motion  to  the  other  by 
frictional  contact.  The  con- 
tacting surface  may  be  a  brush, 
leather,  india-rubber,  cloth,  or 
anything  else  which  is  slightly 
elastic  and  not  too  slippery. 
The  relative  rate  of  nrotion 
may  be  adjusted  by  moving 
the  wheel  whose  peripheiy  is 
engaged  towards  or  from  the 
center  of  the  face-wheel.  The 
motion  may  be  communicated 
peripheries    of    the    respective 


£nah-Whetl. 


by   contact   of  the 
wheels. 

b.  A  circular  brush  running  in  a  lathe,  and  used 
to  polish  artich'S,  is  also  eallecl  a  brush-W'heel. 

These  brushes  are  hard  or  soft,  and  the  wheels 
are  from  two  to  eight  inches  in  diameter. 

They  are  used  with  emery,  putty-powder,  rotten- 
stone,  crocus,  rouge,  etc.,  and  other  kinds  of  poli.sh- 
ing-powder,  with  oil  or  dry.  They  are  especially 
useful  in  chased,  indented,  carved,  and  open 
work . 


The  brushes  are  generally  of  bristles,  but  some- 
times of  wire. 

Brus'sels  Car'pet.  A  carpet  having  a  heavy 
linen  web,  inclosed  in  worsted  yarns  of  different 
colors,  raised  into  loops  to  form  the  pattern.  The 
ordinary  Brussels  carpet  has  an  uncut  pile.  In  the 
imperial  Brussels  the  figure  is  raised  above  the 
ground  and  its  yih  is  cut,  but  the  ground  is  uncut. 

In  the  illustration  the  small  dots  represent  the 
ends  of  the  linen  weft-threads  ;  the  double  waving 
lines  the  linen  waip-threads  ;  the  five  lines  inclosed 

Fig.  950 


Brussels  Carpet 

between  the  linen  warp  and  weft  represent  the 
worsted  yarn  which  is  pidled  upon  to  form  loops 
over  the  wires,  which  are  represented  in  the  figure 
by  the  larger  dots,  and  are  subsequently  withdrawn. 
The  pattern  is  formed  by  bringing  to  the  surface,  at 
any  particular  sjiot,  such  one  of  the  colored  yarns 
as  is  required,  and  they  are  formed  into  loo)is  by 
being  turned  over  wires.  As  the  yams  are  taken 
up  very  unequally,  they  are  not  wound  upon  a  yarn- 
beam,  but  are  separately  wouml  upon  bolibins 
arranged  on  frames  at  the  back  of  the  loom,  a  small 
leaden  weight  being  attached  to  each  bobbin  to  give 
it  the  re(juired  tension. 

In  the  Brasseh-carpet  loom,  there  are  as  many 
frames  as  there  are  colors,  and  the-  number  of  bob- 
bins is  regulated  by  the  width  of  the  carpet.  With 
ij-yard-widc  i  ;ii|iet  there  are  260  bobbins  to  a  frame, 


BriixsHs-Carpet  Loom. 

but  when  the  carjiet  is  one  yard  wide,  each  frame  will' 
have  344  bobbins.  The  warp-yarn  from  each  bobbin 
is  termed  an  aul :  this  may  consist  of  one,  two,  or 
three  threads,  according  to  the  quality  of  the  carpet. 
The  ends  are  carried  through  small  brass  eyes,  called 
mails,  attached  to  fine  cords,  one  eye  and  one  end 
for  each  cord.  Each  cord  is  passed  over  a  pulley 
fixed  above  the  loom,  and  is  fastened  to  a  stick. 
For  a  J  carpet  there  are  1,300  mails,  cords,  and  pul- 
leys to  each  loom.  Those  cords  which  will  raise  to 
the  surface  a  certain  set  of  yarns  required  for  one 
row  in  the  pattern  are  bounil  together  into  a  lash. 


BRUSSELS  LACE. 


395 


BUCKET. 


One  lash  is  necessary  for  every  set  or  row  of  colors 
that  has  to  be  drawn  to  the  surface,  and  the  lashes 
are  taken  in  regular  succession  till  tlte  pattern  is 
complete. 

The  number  of  lashes  required  will  depend  upon 
the  number  of  weft-threads  which  occur  in  the 
regular  recurrence  of  a  complete  pattern.  If  the 
pattern  be  a  yard  long,  it  may  reiiuire  as  many  as 
320  lashes.  The  lashes  are  pulled  by  a  boy  wlio  is 
called  the  drauxr,  iu  the  manner  of  the  Dhaw- 
I.OOM  (which  see).  Like  the  Latter,  the  arrange- 
ment described  has  beeu  superseded  to  some  extent 
by  ihe  jacquard  attachinent. 

In  operation,  the  first  lash  being  pulled  raises 
cue  fifth  of  the  yarns,  their  coloi's  being  such  a.s  go 
to  form  the  commencement  of  the  pattern.  A  light 
wooden  board  termed  a  sword  is  set  up  on  edge  be- 
neath the  raised  ends.  The  lash  is  let  go  ;  a  round 
wire  is  inserted  in  the  bosom,  or  opening  formed  by 
the  sword,  which  is  then  -vvithdrawn.  The  weaver 
then  depresses  a  treadle  which  works  the  heddles 
and  crosses  the  linen  wai-ps,  and  depresses  all  the 
worsted  ends  except  those  looped  over  the  wire. 
The  shuttle  with  a  linen  weft  is  then  thrown  ;  the 
other  treadle  is  depressed,  which  cros.se.s  the  warp.s, 
again  locking  the  linen  weft  and  raising  the  worsted 
ends.  Having  thrown  another  linen  weft-thread, 
and  driven  all  home  against  the  iccb  by  the  batten, 
he  repeats  the  process,  the  drairrr  pulling  on  the 
second  lash  and  so  on.  When  a  number  of  wii'es 
are  thus  employed,  the  ones  farthest  from  the  batten 
may  be  withdrawn  and  used  over  again.  Sixty 
wires  form  a  set. 

In  making  Wilton  or  pile  carpd  the  wires  arc 
flattened  and  have  a  groove  on  top,  acting  as  a 
director  for  the  knife  which  cuts  the  row  of  loops 
and  releases  the  wire. 

The  quality  of  Brussels  and  Wilton  carpets  is 
estimated  by  the  number  of  wires  to  the  inch.  The 
usual  number  for  Brnssclsis  nine,  and  for  Wilton  ten. 
In  either  fabric  great  care  is  requisite  in  beating  up 
evenl}',  or  the  pattern  would  not  match  when  the 
breadths  were  joined  together  at  the  sides.  A  bell 
rings  when  64,  SO,  or  90  lashes  have  been  woven, 
and  then  the  weaver  tests  by  a  measure  whether  the 
required  number  of  lashes  measures  J  of  a  yard.  If 
too  short,  he  repeats  the  last  lash  ;  if  too  long,  he 
omits  it. 

As  the  five  ends  run  throughout  the  yam  while 
only  one  of  the  five  is  taken  up  on  an  average  at  each 
lash,  it  has  been  attempted  to  dye  the  yarn  in 
places,  so  as  to  make  one  set  of  ends  till  the  vaiious 
colors  of  the  pattern.     Sec  Pristkd  ('.viu'F.t. 

Bnis'sels  Lace.  Brussels  point  lia.s  the  network 
made  by  the  pillow  and  bobbins. 

Brussels  ground  has  a  hexagonal  mesh,  formed  by 
plaiting  and  twisting  four  rtaxen  threads  to  a 
perpemlicular  line  of  mesh. 

Brussels  wire-ground  is  of  silk.  The  meshes  are 
partly  straight  and  partly  arched. 

The  pattern  in  each  case  is  worked  on  with  a  needle 
after  the  mesh  is  completed. 

Bub.  A  substitute  for  yeast,  employed  by  the 
ilistiller.  Prepared  by  mixing  meal  or  flour  with  a 
little  yeast  in  a  quantity  of  warm  wort  and  water. 

BubTjle.    The  glass  spirit-tube  of  a  level. 

One  of  the  small  hollow  beads,  or  floating  globes, 
for  testing  the  strength  of  spirits  by  the  rate  at 
which  they  rise  in  the  liquor.  Xow  supereeded  by 
the  alcohedmetcr.  , 

Bub'ble-tri'er.  An  instniment  for  testing  the 
delicacy  and  accuracy  of  the  tubes  for  holding  the 
spirit  in  leveling-instruments. 

The  tube  is  charged  with  spirit  all  but  a  bubble 


of  air,  and  is  tried  on  its  different  sides  to  ascertain 
on  which  side  the  bubble  moves  most  regularly. 
The  stage  of  the  bubble-trier  has  a  micrometer  screw 
for  its  adjustment. 

Bu-cen'taur.  (Vessel.)  The  state  barge  of 
Venice. 

Buck.  {Masonry.)  1.  To  break  ore  into  fi-ag- 
ments  with  a  hammer,  crasher,  or  grinder.  This  is 
subsequent  to  the  operations  of  spalling,  eobbing,  and 
sorting. 

2.  A  frame  of  two  crotches  to  hold  a  stick  while 
being  cross-cut.     See  Buck-saw. 

Buck-board.  {Vehicle.)  A  plank  bolted  to 
the  hind  axle  and  to  a  bolster  on  the  fore  axle, 
being  a  cheap  substitute  for  a  bed,  coupling,  and 
springs. 

Buck'et.  1.  A  vessel  of  wood,  leather,  metal, 
or  other  suitable  material,  provided  with  a  handle, 
and  adapted  for  containing  liquid^  or  solid  materials, 
as  in  canying  or  lioisting. 

The  ordinary  wooden  bucket  is  of  pine  or  cedar, 
and  holds  2i  gallons. 

The  bucket  for  hoisting  is  metal-bound,  and  some- 
times is  equal  in  capacity  to  a  cask  of  100  gallons. 
A  corf. 

In  mining,  square  boxes  with  falling  bottoms  are 
known  as  dumping-hucVets.     WTien   haWng   sides 
wliich  open  when  a  latch  is  withdrawn,   they  are  . 
?i7(/«3-buckets. 

On  shipboard,  buckets  kept  for  emergencies  in  case 
of  fire,  etc.,  are  frequently  of  tarred  or  waxed  can- 
vas or  of  leather.  Watering-buckets  for  horses  are, 
in  the  United  States  military  service,  made  of  stout, 
untarred  canvas,  and  also  of  sole-leather,  strength- 
ened by  a  copper  rim  at  top  and  bottom  connected 
by  side  strips. 

Previous  to  the  general  introduction  of  water-mains 
and  fire-plugs,  leathern  fire-buckets  were  in  common 
use.  The  spectators,  always  numerous  on  occa- 
sions of  fire,  were  formed  in  two  lines,  one  of  which 
passed  the  fuU  buckets  from  hand  to  hand,  for  sup- 
plying the  engine,  and  the  other  passed  the  empty 
ones  back  to  be  replenished.  Some  of  these  relics  of 
the  past  may  yet  be  seen  in  old  warehouses,  etc. 

2.  { IVater-uhecl .)  The  ranc  or  Jloat  o(  a  water- 
wheel. 

The  shrouding  of  a  water-wheel  consists  of  annular 
plates  at  the  perijihery,  which  form  the  sides  of  the 
bucket  ;  the  bucket-f/((is,  in  fact,  but  constituting  a 
part  of  the  sides  of  the  wheel. 

A  radial  bucket  is  one  which  has  the  bottom  in  a 
right  line,  continuous  with  the  radius  of  the  wheel. 

The  lower  piece  of  a  bucket  is  the  bottom  or  floorr. 

Fig.  952. 


Waler-VHieel  Btlcket. 


BUCKET-ENGINE. 


396 


BUCKING. 


The  outer  jiiece  is  tlie  arm  or  wrist.     Tlie  junction 
of  tlie  bottom  and  arm  is  the  elbow. 

Tlie  bucket-pitch  is  a  circular  line  passing  through 
the  elbows  of  the  series  of  buckets. 

In  the  illustration  (Fig.  952),  the  buckets  B  are 
each  shaped  of  a  single  piece  of  metal,  and  they  are 
fastened  consecutively  on  the  rim  A,  which  is  con- 
tinuous and  forms  the  inner  side  of  each  bucket. 

The  buckets  B  on  the  left-hand  side  of  the  wheel 
are  in  section,  and  show  the  shape  of  the  interior. 
3.  {Hi/draulic  Eiiijiiicering. )    The  scoop  of  a  dredg- 
ing-niachine,    usually   having   a 
Fig.  953.  hinged  bottom,   which  is  closed 

while  raising  mud,  etc.,  from  the 
bottom,  and  opened  to  deposit 
the  load.  That  illustrated  is  of 
semi-cylindricalshape,and  formed 
in  two  sections,  a  a'.  These  are 
separated  when  the  bucket  is  low- 
ered down  into  the  mud,  and 
drawn  together  by  the  toggle- 
levers  c  c  at  the  moment  of  rais- 


ing. 
4. 


A  cup   of  sheet-metal,  or 
Fig.  954 


a   f,   a , 
Drtd^e-Burlift. 


Elel-ator- Bucket. 


Fig.  955- 


one  having  a  metallic  mouth,  forming  one  of  a  series 
fixed  to  the  endless  band  of  a  grain-elevator.  The 
grain  is  scooped  up  at  the  lowest  position  of  the 
bucket  and  discliarged  on  passing  the  highest,  as  in 
a  chain  elevator-bucket  pump. 

5.  (A'autical.)  A  globe  of  hoops  covered  with 
canvas,  used  as  a  recall-signal  for  whale-boats. 

Buck'et-en'gine.  {Hi/drau/ic  JSngincerinr/.)  A 
machine  to  utilize  a  stream  of  water  which  has  consid- 
erable fall  and  but  moderate  quantity.  It  consists 
of  a  series  of  buckets  attached  to  an  endless  chain 
which  runs  over  sprocket-wheels,  from  one  or  both 
of  which  power  is  obtained.  The  water  flows  into 
each  bucket  after  passing  the  summit,  and  is  dis- 
charged as  each  bucket  reaches  the  lowest  part  of  its 
course. 
Buck'et-hook.  (Hushaiidrtf.)  A  device  for  hold- 
ing a  bucket  against  a  tree  while 
catching  sugar-maple  sap.  It  may 
be  driven  into  the  tree,  or  may 
have  a  pair  of  expansible  arms 
which  embrace  the  tree. 

Buck'et-making  Ma-chine'. 
Several  machines  may  be  included 
under  .this  general  titlf. 

A  lathe  whose  hollow  chuck 
holils  the  staves,  which  are  em- 
braced by  a  truss-hoop,  while  the 
inside  is  turned  out  and  the  rim 
turned  oil'  smoothly.  Being  then 
turned  end  about,  and  put  upon 
a  conico-fnistal  chuck,  the  outside  is  turned  smooth, 
the  lower  edge  turned  oft',  and  the  croze  made. 

The  piece  to  form  the  bottom  is  fastened  to  a  face- 
plate, and  turned  off  smooth  and  circular,  the  edge 
being  feathered  to  fit  the  croze. 

Another  form  of  bucket-machine  is  one  which  cuts 
up  a  conical  frustum  of  wood,  so  that  a  series  of  an- 
nular conical  pieces  are  cut  out  of  the  solid,  the  pieces 
forming  a  nest  of   bucket-sides  fitting  within  each 


Bucket- Hnnk. 


other,  and  only  minus  the  wood  which  was  removed 
in  making  the  saw-kerf. 

The  block  is  placed  upon  a  table  whose  angle  with 
the  horizontal  is  such  as  to  make  vertical  that  side 
of  the  bucket-block  on  which  the  band-saw  is  work- 
ing. 

Buck'et-valve.  [SiKnm-engine.)  The  valve  on 
the  top  of  the  air-pump  bucket.  It  rises  as  the 
bucket  plunges  into  the  water  in  the  cistern  beneath, 
and  closes  as  the  said  bucket  rises  to  discharge  its 
load  through  the  dciivenj-calve. 

Ill  marine  engines  a  Hat  metallic  plate  governs  the 
passage  between  the  air-pump  ami  condenser. 

Buck'et--wheel.  (Hydraulic  Eufjiaccriny.)  A 
very  ancient  form  of  water-raising  device,  ha.ving  a 


Bllrkel-  Wlicrl. 

wheel  over  which  passes  a  rope  having  pots  or 
buckets  which  dip  into  the  water  of  the  well  and 
discharge  at  the  surface. 

Ill  another  form  tlie  pots  are  attached  to  the 
wheel  and  diji  the  water  of  a  river,  which  they  dis- 
charge into  an  elevated  trough.     See  NoKi.4. 

The  illustration 
shows  a  wheel  as  used  ^''K■  957. 

in  Syria,  India,  Egypt, 
etc.,  but  made  in  mod- 
ern style  by  the 
Giours.  The  buckets 
are  made  of  galvanized 
iron,  and  an  ass  walk- 
ing li  miles  an  houi 
—  Syrian  gait  —  will 
raise  3,120  gallons  pei 
hour  from  a  depth  <>i 
20  feet. 

In  one  form  of  watei- 
elevator  the  buckfts 
are  small,  and  const! 
tute  links  in  a  chain  , 
the  more  common  foim 
is  disks  or  buttons  on 
a  chain  rising  through 
a  tube  and  thus  carry- 
ing up  the  water. 

Tlie  bueket-w-heel  is 
used  in  grain-elevators. 
See  Bi'CKKT.  Also- in 
Carburetors.  ruakri-Wlii  ■ ' 

Buck'ing.    1.   (CW- 
ton-iiiainifacture.)     Soaking  cloth  in  lye,  as  a  p.art 
of  the  process  of  bleaching,  altei-nating  with  croflinf/. 


BUCKING-IRON. 


397 


BUCKRAM. 


See 


or   exposing   on   the  grass  to  air  and   light 

BviKIXG-KIER. 

2.  {Mining.)  Breaking  up  the  ore  by  hammers. 
The  tool  is  called  the  bucking-iron,  and  the  bench  is 
the  bucking-plnfc. 

Buck'ing-i'ron.  [Mining.)  Tlie  miner's  ham- 
mer, used  in  breaking  up  masses  of  ore. 

Buck'ing-keir.  (Cotton-manufoctun.)  Linen 
or  cotton  cloth  is  cleansed  of  the  dire  and  grease 
contracted  in  spinning  and  weaving,  by  boiling  it 
with   lime  in  a  pan  which  is  heated  below.     The 

Fig.  958 


Buckin^-Kt-iF. 

goods  rest  on  a  false  T)ottom,  and  the  pressure  of  the 
steam  evolved  raises  the  water  in  the  central  column 
and  ejects  it  from  the  edge  of  the  circular  cap  in  a 
stream  upon  the  upper  surface  of  the  goods,  through 
which  it  filters,  to  be  again -discharged  as  before. 

Bucking-plate.  {Mining.)  The  miner's  table 
on  which  ore  is  broken. 

Buckle.  1.  {Saddlery,  etc.)  A  device  with  a 
frame  and  tongue  for  securing  straps,  etc. 

Buckles  of  brass,  having  circitlar  rims  and  atongue, 
are  found  in  the  British  barrows  or  tumidi. 

The  annexed  figure  represents  Roman  bronze  buck- 
les now  in  the  British  Museum.     They  were  worn  by 

Fig.  959. 


Roman  Eucktes  {Bronze). 

women  and  men,  to  fasten  their  scarfs,  shawls, 
cloaks,  belts,  etc.  We  read  of  them  in  Homer, 
Euripides,  Herodotus,  and  elsewhere.     See  Brooch. 

Shoe-buckles  were  introduced  into  England  dur- 
ing the  reign  of  Charles  11.  (1670).  These,  as  well 
as  knee-buckles,  were  generally  made  of  silver,  — 
sometimes  of  gold,  —  adorned  with  precious  stones, 
but  are  now  disused,  except  as  ceremonial  or  uniform 
dresses  in  some  parts  of  Europe. 

The  piiucipal  use  of  buckles  is  for  fastening  the 
different  straps  of  harness  and  horse  equipments,  for 
which  purpose  immense  numbei-s  are  made,  forming 
a  considerable  branch  of  trade,  of  which  Birmingham 
is  the  metropolis. 


Much  the  gi-cater  part  of  harne.ss- buckles  are  either 
japanned  or  plated,  thi-  fomicr  being  used  for  wagon, 
cart,  and  the  commoner  kinds  of  harne.ss  generally  ; 
and  the  latter  for  carriage-harness. 

The  plating  material  is  usually  brass,  though 
many  silver-plated  buckles  are  manufactured. 

Buckles  are  also  made  of  liright  malleable  iron, 
and  of  blued  iron  ;  the  latter  are  the  kind  employed 
in  horse  equipments  for  the  cavalry  in  the  United 
States  Service. 

Buckles  are  di'vided  into  bar-buckles  and  roller- 
buckles,  the  only  dift'erence  being  that  the  latter 
have  a  thin  metallic  tube  around  the  bar  opposite 
the  tongue,  which,  by  its  revolution,  facilitates  the 
passage  of  the  strap. 

«  (Fig.  960)  has  a  wire  passed  through  the  ends 
of  the  loop  and  bent  ends  to  fonn  tongues.  A  has  a 
bent  wire  embracing  the  waist  of  the  loop,  c,  the 
recurved  ends  of  the  loop  form  the  tongue,  d  has  a 
tongue  and  pressure-bar  on  one  crossbar,     c  is  a  tug- 

Kig.  960. 


Buckles. 

buckle,  /is  a  buckle  in  which  the  strap  is  pinched 
between  a  pivoted  bar  and  the  lip  of  the  frame.  In 
g  the  strap  is  pinched  between  the  two  parts  of  the 
frame,  which  are  pivoted  together.  >>  has  a  number 
of  projections,  which  fit  corresponding  holes  in  the 
strap.  ?'  is  a  skate-strap  buckle,  in  which  the  tongue 
can  be  loosened  from  the  stiap  by  lifting  the  rear 
end  of  the  buckle.  /■  is  a  tug-buckle,  in  which  the 
tongue  is  vibrated  by  means  of  a  cam.  /  has  a  pair  of 
metallic  jaws  and  a  tongue  extending  acro,ss  them. 
m  has  a  pair  of  serrated-faced  blocks  which  are 
pinched  together  by  the  strain  on  the  strap. 

2.  A  jiernianent  distortion  or  I'iril- in  a  saw-blade, 
or  a  bulge  which  mai-s  the  flatness  of  a  sheet-metal 
plate. 

3.  (.?(?!/■.)  The  iron  loop  by  which  a  mill-saw  is 
attached  to  the  straining-frame  or  sasJi. 

Buck'le-chape.  (Saddlery.)  The  part  by  which 
the  buckle  is  secured  to  the  baud. 

Buck'led  Plates.  {Building.)  A  form  of  iron 
plates  for  Hoorim,',  having  a  slight  convexity  in  the 
middle  and  a  flat  rim  round  the  edge,  called  the 
fillet.  They  are  usually  square  or  oblong,  and  are 
"laid  upon  "iron  beams  or  girdei-s,  convexity  up- 
ward. 

Buckler.  {Xavtical.)  a.  A  block  of  wood  made 
to  fit  in  the  hawse-hole,  or  hole  in  the  half-ports, 
when  at  sea. 

h.  The  lower  half  of  a  divided  port  lid  or  shutter. 

Buck'ram.  (Fabric.)  A  coarse  fabric  of  linen 
or  hemp,  stiffened  with  glue,  and  placed  in  coats 
and  other  gannents  to  hold  them  in  shape. 

This  was  not  the  material  worn  by  FalstafTs  "two 
rogues  in  buckram  suits."     See  BAKltACAN. 


BUCK-SAW. 


398 


BUFF. 


Buck  and  Buck-Saw. 


Buck-saTw.  A  frame- 
saw with  one  e.xtended 
bar  to  form  a  handle,  and 
adapted  to  a  nearly  ver- 
tical motion,  in  cross- 
cutting  wood  held  by  a 
saw-buck. 

Buck'shot.  A  kind 
of  leaden  shot,  larger 
than  swan-shot,  used  in 
hunting  large  game,  and 
formerly  for  the  military 
seiTice.  Those  formerly 
employed  for  making 
musket-cartridges  weigh 
about  160  or  170  to  the 
pound.  15  (sometimes 
12),  or  a  caliber  .69  ball 
and  3  buckshot,  were  put 
up  in  a  cartridge. 

They  are  usually  made 
by  molding  or  compres- 
sion. 

Buck'skin.  A  spe- 
cies of  soft  leather,  usu 


ally  of  yellow  or  grayish  hue,  originally  (as  its  name 
imports)  prepared  by  treating  deer -skins  in  a  pe- 
culiar way  ;  it  is  now,  however,  mostly  prepared 
from  sheepskins.  There  are  two  processes  for  dress- 
ing skins  to  give  the  .soft  character  which  is  admired 
in  buckskin  ;  one  is  by  oil,  and  the  other  by  brains. 
The  latter  more  nearly  resembles  the  Indian  mode, 
and  both  of  them  require  a  great  deal  of  manipula- 
tion. As  to  the  former,  the  skins  are  limed,  then 
worked  out  on  the  beam  ;  then  they  are  milled,  straits- 
oil  being  mostly  used,  in  the  proportion  of  seven  to 
fifteen  gallons  to  100  skins,  according  to  size.  The 
surplus  oij  runs  through  the  mill  into  tubs  of  water 
below,  whence  the  oil  and  water  are  pumped  into  a 
tank  in  which  a  certain  amount  of  oil  of  vitriol  is 
placed  ;  this  causes  the  oil  to  rise  to  the  top,  whence 
it  runs  off  into  barrels,  and  is  known  as  sod-oil,  be- 
ing used  for  stuffing  and  dressing  calfskins.  The 
skins  are  then  worked  over  the  beam  again,  this 
operation  being  known  as  "scudding."  The  skins 
are  next  dried  ;  then  they  are  put  into  a  lye  consist- 
ing of  from  fifteen  to  forty  pounds  of  soda-ash  for 
100  skins  ;  this  takes  out  the  animal  oil,  which 
rises  to  the  top  and  is  skimmed  off  for  sod-oil. 
They  are  scoured  and  dried  repeatedly,  and  then 
undergo  the  operation  of  staking  ;  the  last  operation 
is  the  finishing,  which  is  done  first  on  a  puraiee-wheel 
and  then  on  an  emery-wheel.  The  skins  are  then 
ready  to  go  to  the  cutting-shop. 

By  the  other  plan,  the  skins  are  grained,  brained, 
and  smoked.  The  skin  is  soaked  till  soft,  the  hair 
and  cuticle  curried  oH',  beamed,  stretched,  and 
broken  in  drying.  It  is  then  soaked  in  brains  dis- 
solved in  warm  water,  which  makes  the  skin  thick 
and  spongy.  It  is  carefully  stretched  and  worked, 
and  is  tested  by  gathering  into  a  sack-form  and  in- 
flating, when  pressure  will  drive  off  the  contained 
water  in  a  spray.  It  is  now  wning,  stretched, 
rubbed,  and  hung  in  a  smoke.  A  slight  tanning  in 
willow-bark  ooze  sometimes  follows. 

Buck-wag'on.  ( Vch  tele. )  A  rude  wagon  fonned 
of  a  single  board  resting  on  the  a.xletrees,  and  form- 
ing by  its  elasticity  a  spring  seat  for  the  driver. 

Biick'Turheat  Hull'er.  A  form  of  mill,  or  an 
ordinary  grinding-mill  with  a  particular  dress  and 
set  of  the  stones,  adapted  to  remove  the  hull  from 
the  grains  of  buckwheat,  preparatory  to  grinding 
the  farinaceous  poition  into  flour. 

Bud'ding-knife.     {A(jricuUure.)    A  knife  with 


a  conve.\  blade  and  flattened  handle,  used  for  cut- 
ting the  scion,  making  the  incision,  and  inserting 
buds  beneath  the  bark  of  fruit-trees.  A  spear- 
shaped  slip  of  ivory  at  the  hilt  is  used  for  loosening 
the  bark  from  the  wood. 

Bud'dle.  {Mining.)  An  oblong  inclined  vat 
in  which  stamped  ore  is  exposed  to  the  action  of 
running  water,  in  order  that  the  lighter  portions  may 
be  washed  away  while  the  heavier  are  retained. 
Several  different  descriptions  of  apparatus  are  called 
by  this  name  as  generic. 

The  trunk-huddle,  or  German  chest.     See  Trunk. 

The  stirring-buddle,  consisting  of  a  trough  and 
settling-tank. 

The  nicking-buddle  or  sleeping-table,  buddle-hole 
or  slaire-pit. 

Buddies  of  different  construction  are  known  as 
flat,  round,  hand,  rotating,  concave.  Many  of  the 
contiavances  for  gold-washing,    used  in  California 


Fig,  962. 


and  known  by  technical  names,  may  be  called 
buddies.  The  rockers,  long-toms,  and  sluices  act  in 
this  manner.  The  huddle  represented  is  used  in 
Cornwall,  England. 

The  ore  is  spread  over  an  inclined  board,  and  a 
divided  stream  of  water  directed  upon  it,  so  as  to 
gi'adually  carry  it  down  to  a  lower  level,  where  the 
inclination  is  not  so  great.  The  quantity  of  water 
is  regulated  by  the  roughness  of  the  ore,  and  may 
be  at  the  maximum  as  much  as  would  run  through 
a  circular  aperture  li  inches  in  diameter,  down  to 
an  amount  equal  to  one  tenth  of  that  quantity. 
The  richer  and  heavier  ores  subside  first,  and  the 
lighter  portions  are  carried  i'arther  on.  The  con- 
tents of  the  huddle  are  then  separated  into  three  or 
four  qualities,  according  to  their  proximity  to  the 
head  of  the  huddle. 

The  various  lots  are  again  huddled,  or  tozed,  or 
subjected  to  the  action  of  the  keeve  or  jigging  ma- 
cliine. 

Bud'dling.  (Mining. )  Separating  the  ore  from 
the  refuse  in  an  inclined  trough  or  cistern  through 
which  w.iter  flows.      See  BUDDLE. 

Bude-light.  Invented  by  Mr.  Gurney  of  Bude, 
Cornwall,  England. 

It  consists  of  an  oil  or  "as  burner,  supplied  with 
a  jet  of  oxygen  gas,  by  which  the  brilliancy  of  the 
flame  is  increased. 

In  the  Argand  foi-m  of  burner  the  oxygen  gas  is 
supplied  up  the  central  tube. 

Budge-bar'rel.  (Ordnaiice.)  A  small  copper- 
bound  liarrel  having  only  one  head,  its  mouth 
being  closed  by  a  leathern  bag  with  a  cap  and  draw- 
string. It  is  used  for  supplying  the  guns  of  forts 
and  siege-batteries  with  cartridges  from  the  maga- 
zine. 

Bud'ge-ro.  (Boat.)  A  large  pleasure-boat  used 
on  tlie  (ianges. 

Bud'get.  {Tiling.)  A  pocket  used  by  tilers  for 
holding  the  nails  in  lathing  for  tiling. 

Buff.     A  polishing  leather. 

A  slip,   lap,  or  wheel   covered   with   leather  and 


BUFFALO. 


399 


BUGGY-BOAT. 


used  for  polishing.  So  called,  as  the  kind  of  le;ither 
used  was  buffalo,  was  dressed  with  oil  or  brains, 
and  had  a  soft  and  fuzzy  surface.  See  Buff- 
Le.^-THEK. 

Buf'fa-lo.  (Cotlon-maHu/aclnre.)  A  hamper  of 
butialo-leather  used  in  a  factory  to  convey  bobbins 
from  the  throstle. 

Buffer.  An  elastic  device  or  fender  for  deaden- 
ing the  shock  caused  by  the  impingement  of  one 
object  against  another. 

A  fender  or  resilient  pad  or  block,  placed  on  the 
end  of  a  sill-piece  of  a  car-bed  to  moderate  the  con- 
cussion of  colliding  cars.  According  to  the  con- 
struction and  application,  it  assumes  a  specific 
name  ;  and  the  parts  involved  are  also  distinguished 
with  this  word  as  an  affix,  e.  g.,  — 

The  buffer  bar  or  beam  is  attached  to  the  frame- 
work of  the  car,  and  carries  the  buffer-box,  in  which 
is  the  buffer-rod,  on  whose  end  is  the  buffcr-dislc ; 
the  latter  receives  the  impact,  which  is  resisted  by 
the  buffer-spring,  inclosed  in  the  bo.\. 

The  buffers  in  use  on 
Fig.  963.  English   railways   consist 

of  disks  of  metal  or  wood 
which  project  from  the 
ends  of  the  carriages,  and 
are  commonly  covered 
with  cushions  of  leather. 
The  disks  are  attached  to 
iron  rods  placed  under- 
neath the  frame  of  the 
carriage,  and  as  they  are 
pressed  inward  by  the 
contact  of  the  adjoining 
carriage,  act  against  the 
ends-  of  elliptic  springs, 
which  lessen  the  jar  re- 
sulting from  the  contact. 
The  aim  of  the  English 
I  mode  of  coupling  is  to 
bring  the  whole  train  to 
I  the  condition  of  an  object 
whose  unyielding  sections 
have  a  cartilaginous  ar- 
'  ticulation,  which  pemiits 
a  certain  degree  of  flex- 
ure, extension,  and  com- 
pression at  the  joints. 

Another  form  is  a  short 
spiral  spring  covered  with 
leather  and  having  a  disk  at  the  end,  placed  at  the 
end  of  each  of  the  main  side-timbers  of  the  car- 
frame. 

A  third  form  has  a  central  buffer  with  a  shaft 
acting  upon  a  spiral  spring  beneath  the  carriage- 
body. 

In  the  example,  the  buffer-disks  E  E  are  on  rods 

Fig.  964 


English  Car-Buffers. 


I 


having  shoulders  which  impinge  upon  coiled  plate- 
springs  C.  Beneath  the  car-beds  are  seen  the 
springs  of  the  car-coupling. 


In  a  fourth,  the  shaft  acts  upon  a  piston  in  an  aii-- 
cylinder,  the  spring  being  pneumatic. 
There  are  various  modifications. 
The  buffers  sometimes  take  the   form   of  ehistic 
cushions  of  leather,  stuffed  with  horse-hair ;  or  of 
disks  or  blocks  of  vulcanized  rubber. 

Bvif' fer-spiing.  That  which  gives  resiliency  to 
the  butter,  and  enables  it  to  moderate  the  jar  inci- 
dent to  the  contact  of  two  cai"s. 

The  buffer  and  draw  spring  is  effective  both  as  to 
colliding  contact  and  also  as  to  the  drawing  apart 
in  starting  or  increasing  speed. 

Buffing  and  Porish-ing  Ma-chine'.  One 
having  a  wheel  covered  with  what  is  technically 
known  as  bulf-leather,  though  not  usually  made  of 
buffalo-hide.  The  leather  holds  the  polishing  mate- 
rial, crocus,  rouge,  or  what  not.  BuJtfing  has  come 
to  mean  polishing,  from  the  derived  name  of  the  ma- 
terial which  is  used  in  applying  the  polishing  mate- 
rial. 

Buff-leather.  A  strong  oil-leather  prepared  from 
the  hide  of  the  butt'alo,  elk,  or  ox.  It  is  so  named 
from  the  buff'-,  or  wild  bull,  of  Poland  and  Hungary. 
Formerly  it  was  largely  used  for  armor.  It  was  said 
to  be  pistol-shot  proof,  and  capable  of  turning  the 
edge  of  a  sword.  It  was  tanned  soft  and  white.  Its 
place  is  now  filled  by  the  leather  of  cow-skins  for  a 
common,  and  of  the  American  buflalo  (bison)  for  a 
superior,  arricle. 

It  is  yet  much  used  in  the  saber,  knapsack,  and 
cartridge-box  belts  of  European  armies. 

The  buffers  and  buff-wheels  of  the  cutler,  lapidary, 
and  polisher  were  originally  covered  with  the  said 
iif/f-leather,  and  some  are  yet. 

A  thick,  tough,  felted  material  of  which  belts  were 
made  was  formerly  conmionly  known  in  the  military 
service  as  buff,  probably  from  its  yellow  color  when 
not  pipe-clayed  ;  and  armorers'  buff-sticks,  etc.,  are 
generally  covered  with  pieces  from  old  belts.  It  was 
an  excellent  material  for  this  purpose. 

Buff-stick.  (Polishing.)  A  strip  of  wood  cov- 
ered with  buff-leather  charged  with  polishing-pow- 
der. 

Buff-w^heel.  (Polishing.)  A  wheel  of  wood  or 
of  other  mtterial,  covered  with  leather,  and  used  in 
polisliing  metals,  glass,  etc.  The  surface  is  plied 
with  material  of  coarse  or  fine  quality,  according  to 
the  character  and  condition  of  the  work,  one  buff- 
wheel  always  having  its  own  gi'ade  of  polishing-pow- 
der,  be  it  emery,  rotten-stone,  tripoli,  crocus,  rouge, 
putty-pou-dcr,  etc. 

Bug'ga-lo-5^.  (Vessel.)  An  East  India  coasting- 
vessel  with  one  mast  and  a  lateen  sail. 

The  buggarah  is  an  Arab  vessel  of  the  Persian 

Gulf.     The  bugis,  a  prahu  or  boat  trading  between 

Singapore  and  the  islands  of  the  Indian  Archipelago. 

The  bujrah  is  a  flat-bottomed  Ganges  boat  with 

cabins. 

Bug'gy.    (Ve- 
hicle.)    A   light 
four-wheeled  ve- 
hicle,   having  a 
single  seat.    The 
I  top,  when  it  has 
(one,  is  of  the  ca- 
\lash    kind.      In 
this  ease  it  is  com- 
monly known  as 
a  /oy^-buggy. 

Bug'gy-boat 
One     having     a 
provision  for  the  attachment  of  wheels,  so  as  to  be 
converted  into  a  land  vehicle. 

It  was  invented  and  used    by  Sir   Samuel   Ben- 


BUGGY-CULTIVATOR. 


400 


15UKE-MUSLIN. 


thaiii,  in  Russia,  1781,  and  was  patented  by  him. 
He  afteiHiiids  extended  the  idea  to  baggage-wag- 
ons. A  flexible  boat  of  conneeted  seetions  was 
also  used  by  him  to  convey  the  Eni))ress  Catliarine 
down  the  Dneiper,  and  was  ealleil  by  him  the 
"  Vermieular. "  The  idea  lias  been  lately  revived  on 
the  Thames,  the  boat  lieing  called  the  "Connector." 
Bentham's  boat  had  six  seetions,  drew  six  inches  of 
water  when  loaded,  and  was  rowed  by  124  oarsmen. 
No  space  of  more  than  an  inch  was  to  be  found 
between  the  sections  during  flexion  of  the  worm- 
like vessel.  The  vessel  was  fitted  up  with  cabins 
and  many  conveniences. 

Bug'gy-cvil'ti-va'tor.  {AgriciiUurc.)  One  hav- 
ing wheels  and  a  seat  so  that  the  person  may  ride. 
See  CuL'nv.\TOU. 

Bug'gy-plo^^.  One  having  usually  several 
plows  attached  to  a  single  frame,  and  having  a  seat 
for  the  plowman,  who  rides  and  drives.  See  Gang- 
plow. 

Bug'gy-top.  {I'chick.)  The  calash  top  of  the 
single-.seated  vehicle  known  as  a  buggy.  In  many 
of  these  carriages  it  is  now  made  shifting,  so  that  it 
may  be  entirely  detached  from  the  frame  of  the  seat 
and  constitute  the  vehicle  an  open  buggy.  In  other 
forms  the  to]>  rail  only  of  the  seat  is  shifting. 

Bu'gle.  1.  {Mwsic.)  A  brass  wind-instrument 
of  the  trumpet  kind. 

2.  A  long,  slender  glass  bead ;  sometimes  ar- 
ranged in  ornamental  forms  and  attached  to  various 
articles  of  ladies'  wearing-apparel.  IFamjmm, 
which  formerly  served  as  a  circulating  medium 
among  the  North  American  Indians,  was  composed 
of  beads  of  this  kind  made  fiom  the  interior  parts  of 
clam-shells,  by  rubbing  pieces  of  the  shell  into 
the  required  shape  upon  a  hard  stone,  drilling  a 
longitudinal  hole,  and  polishing  by  friction.  Those 
formed  from  the  bluish-biack  portions  of  the  shell 
were  twice  the  value  of  the  white  ones. 

The  ancient  Egyptians  made  many  kinds  of  beads. 
Ladies  are  represented  stringing  them  ;  a  purse  has 
been  found  knitted  with  small  glass  bugles. 

Buhl.  The  name  is  derived  from  Andre  Buhl,  an 
Italian  who  was  celebrated  in  France,  in  the  reign 
of  Louis  XIV.,  for  making  artistic  work  in  dark- 
colored  tortoise-shell  or  wood,  inlaid  with  orass  and 
ornamented  with  the  gi'aver. 

The  term  is  now  more  general,  and  includes  work 
in  contrasted  materials,  inlaid  with  the  saw. 

Reisner  preferred  wood,  and  his  productions  were 
known  as  Rciriier-work. 

Veneers  or  thin  plates  of  the  substances  are  glued 
to  the  opposite  sides  of  a  sheet  of  paper  ;  another 
sheet  is  pasted  on  one  outside  surface,  and  on  this 
the  design  is  traced.  A  fine  frame-saw  called  a 
buhl-saw  is  made  to  follow  the  tracing,  cutting 
through  both  thicknesses.     The  two  layers  are  then 


that  the  latter  may  avoid  the  angle  of  large 
works. 

Buhr.  A  coarse,  flinty,  cavernous  stone,  whose 
cellular  texture  makes  it  highly  suitable  for  mill- 
stones. 

France,  Sardinia,  and  l.ierniany  yield  the  hOir- 
stone. 

The  separate  Mocks  which  are  hooped  together  to 
form  a  buhr-stone  are  known  as  panes. 

The  French  buhrs  an'  from  a  quarry  near  Paris, 
where  tlie  stratum  is  about  tliree  millstones  thick. 
It  is  a  porous  silicious  stone  of  great  hardness. 

Buhr,  Me-tal'lic.  A  grinding-plate  of  metal, 
made  as  a  sulistitntc  for  the  real  i»/ir-stone,  and 
used  for  some  coarse  work,  such  as  grinding  corn  for 
stock . 

Build'er's  Jack.  A  kind  of  sraHbhl  which  is 
supported  on  a  window-sill  and  against  the  wall, 
and  extends  outwardly,  to  enable  a  workman  to 
stand  outside  while  repairing  or  painting. 


Fig.  966 


Fig  96T. 


Fig.  965. 


separated,  and  two  pieces 
of  buhl-work  are  pro- 
duced, as  one  of  each 
will  form  an  inlay  to 
one  of  the  other. 

Buhl-sa^w.  This  saw 
resembles  a  frame  or  how 
saw  in  that  the  thin 
blade  is  strained  in  a 
frame.  In  the  buhl- 
saw  a  considerable  space 
is  left  between  the  blade 
and  the  back,  in  order 


Building-Block. 


Build'ing-block. 

Builrler's  Jaek.  (Skiphuililmtj.)     One  of 

the  temporary  structures 
resting  upon  the  slip,  and  .supporting  the  keel  of  a 
ship  while  liuilding. 

They  consist  of  blocks  of  timber  so  arranged  as  to 
be  removable  by  knocking  out  the  key-pieces  or 
templets. 

C  C,  caps. 

A  B,  angle-block,  shod  with  iron. 

T  T,  wedges  called  toiiplets. 

G  IV,  groundway. 

At  kec'l. 

Build'ing-mov'er.    A  heavy  truck  on  rollers  or 
wide  track-wheel,  used  in  mo-ving  houses.      In  the 
example,  the  building  rests  on  a  cross  bolster,  which 
Fig.  968. 


Building-Movtr 

is  supported  by  two  trucks  with  three  rollers  each- 
In  turning,  rollers  journaled  beneath  the  bolster 
traverse  wavs  upon  the  trucks. 

Buiia'in'g-slip.  (ShipwricjUivg.)  A  yard  pre- 
pared for  shipbuilding.  SeeL.\UNCH  ;  HvDRAruc 
Slit  ;  Si,ii'-]ii>c'K. 

Built-beam.  (Carpentrtj.)  A  compound  beam 
made  up  of  a  number  of  planks,  or  thin,  deep  beams, 
laid  parallel  and  secured  together. 

Built-rib.  {Carpentry.)  An  arched  beam  made 
of  parallel  plank  laid  edgewise  and  bolted  together. 
See  Arched  Beam  ;  Rib. 

Built-up.  Said  of  masts  made  of  pieces  and 
hoopi'd  ;  ami  of  cannon  having  an  inner  core  and 
outer  rcVnforei'nients. 

Buke-mus'lin.  (Fnbric.)  A  plain,  clear  kind 
of  muslin,  woven  for  working  in  the  tambour  and 


BULGE,  BII.GE,  OR  BOUGE. 


401 


BULLET. 


for  ladies' dresses.  (Simmoxd.s.)  Generally  written 
iooi-- muslin. 

Bulge,  Bilge,  or  Bouge.  1.  (Coopering.)  The 
swell  of  a  cask,  principally  in  the  niidiUe. 

2.  (Shipbuilding.)  The  flat  portion  of  a  ship's 
bottom.      See  BiLGE. 

Bulkliead.  (Shipurrigkting.)  A  partition  in  a 
ship  which  divides  the  interior  space  into  compart- 
ments. In  wooden  vessels  they  are  made  of  timber, 
and  in  ships  of  war  are  so  arranged  as  to  he  easily 
removed  in  preparing  for  action,  etc.  in  iron  ves- 
sels they  are  formed  by  plates  riveted  to  the  ribs  or 
frames,  both  on  the  sides  and  bottom,  each  bulkhead 
making  a  complete  transverse  section  of  the  ves-sel, 
and  the  whole  being  so  secured  as  to  prevent  water 
passing  from  one  side  to  the  other.  Several  of  these, 
being  introduced,  divide  the  vessel  into  water-tiglit 
compartments. 

The  bulkheads  affording  the  greatest  protection 
are  those  placed  a  few  feet  respectively  from  the 
stem  and  stern ;  the  forward  one  checking  the 
water  that  would  enter  through  a  damaged  stem, 
and  the  after  one  averting  the  danger  of  any  acci- 
dent that  might  arise  to  the  stern-post  or  rudder- 
braces,  or  to  the  tube  of  the  shafts  of  screw-vessels. 
The  water  received  into  these  small  compartments 
would  veiy  slightly  impede  the  way  of  the  ship  by 
throwing  her  out  of  trim,  as  the  ciuantity  they 
would  contain  would  be  comparatively  trifling.  The 
bulkheads  more  amidships  assist  in  strengthening 
the  vessel,  and  prevent  tire  spreading  beyond  the 
compartment  in  which  it  commenced.  In  case  of  a 
leak,  they  confine  the  water  to  that  compartment 
where  it  entered. 

Water-tight  bulkheads  have  for  ages  been  in  use 
in  China,  but  have  only  been  generally  introduced 
into  this  country  since  iron  ships  have  been  used  ; 
they  are  now  generally  employed  'in  iron  vessels, 
and  their  adoption  has  become  a  law  and  is  en- 
forced in  England,  under  the  regulations  of  their 
Board  of  Trade  ;  in  small  vessels  they  can  only  be 
used  transversely,  but  in  larger  ones  they  may  be 
applied  longitudinally,  and  are  so  em|iloyed  in  the 
"  Great  Eastern,"  or  were  before  she  was  refittfd  to 
adapt  her  for  the  great  work  of  laying  the  submarine 
cables  of  the  world. 

The  ship  "  Terror,"  Commander  Back,  fitted  with 
bulkheads  for  Arctic  sen-ice  in  lS-35,  came  home  with 
the  after  section  full  of  water. 

Bull-dog.  (Fr.  toTchis.)  (Mctal-icorking.)  A  re- 
fractory material  used  as  a  lining  foi'  the  boshes  of 
puddling  or  smelting  furnaces.  It  is  a  decomposed 
protosilicate  of  iron. 

Bullen.     The  awn  or  chafi'  from  flax  or  hemp. 

Bul'leu-nail.  An  upholsterer's  nail,  with  a  round 
head,  a  short  shank,  turned  and  lacquered. 

Bullet.  (From  the  French  6o!t?c<,  diminutive  of 
boulc,  a  ball. )     A  small  projectile  for  fire-aims. 

The  use  of  round  bullets  dates  back  to  the  time 
when  gunpowder  was  first  used  in  ordnance.  Bullets 
are  now  usually  cylindrical,  with  conical  or  conoidal 
points. 

In  1-tlS,  four  thousand  bullets  were  ordered  to 
be  made  of  stone  fronr  the  quarries  of  Maidstone, 
England.  These  were  probably  for  cannon,  as 
were  the  iron  ones  mentioned  in  Ryder's  "  Foedera," 
1550. 

The  trajectory  of  a  bullet  is  the  line  described  by 
its  center  on  its  passage  through  the  air.  It  would 
be  a  parabolic  curve  in  a  vacuum,  but  the  re.sistance 
of  the  atmosphere  greatly  modifies  this  and  reduces 
the  range,  so  that  a  ■24-pdr.  cannon-ball,  fired  at  an 
angle  of  45°,  with  an  initial  velocity  of  1,400  feet 
per  second,  ranges  only  some  2,100  yards  instead  of 


more  than  20,000,  as  it  would  do  if  the  atmosphere 
offered  no  resistance. 

Theactual  velocity ofthesmooth-bore musket  round 
ball,  weighing  412  grains,  with  a  charge  of  110 
gi'ains  powder,  at  the  time  of  leaving  the  gun,  has 
been  found  to  be  1,500  feet  per  second,  and  that  of 
the  elongated  ball,  cal.  .58  of  an  inch,  with  60 
grains  of  powder,  963  feet  ;  but  though  the  latter 
has  so  much  less  velocity  at  the  time  of  leaving  the 
gun,  its  range  is  at  least  equal  and  its  accuracy  far 
superior. 

The  greater  accuracy  of  the  rifle  is  due  to  the  fact 
that  the  rotary  motion  given  the  bullet  by  the 
spiral  giooves  of  the  gun  keeps  it  always  jioint  fore- 
most, and  that  the  bullet  is  caused  to  completely 
fill  the  bore  so  that  it  leaves  it  in  a  line  with  the 
axis  of  the  piece,  which  rarely  happens  in  a  smooth- 
bore gun,  owing  to  the  difference  in  diameter  between 
the  bullet  and  the  bore. 

The  rifle  was  introduced  bv  KoUer,  a  gunsmith 


of  Nuremberg,  about  the  beginning  of  the  16th 
century,  and  the  increased  accuracy  given  by  this 
species  of  arm  was  soon  appreciated  ;  and  from  the 
fact  of  a  troop  of  horse  known  as  Carabins  having 
been  armed  with  them,  the  weapon  itself  was  sub- 
sequently called  carbine. 

The  round  ball,  however,  still  held  its  place  until 
very  recently,  both  for  rifled  and  smooth-bore  guns  ; 
and  it  was  not  until  the  wars  of  the  French  in 
Algeria,  subsequent  to  1830,  that  experiments  on  an 
extended  scale  were  made  as  to  the  practicability  of 
usinc  that  form  of  projectile,  the  pointed  and  elon- 
gate3,  which  both  mathematics  and  common-sense 
showed  to  be  best  adapted  to  both  accuracy  and 
long  range. 


nULLET. 


402 


liULLET-MAKING  MACHINE. 


Among  tlie  first  of  the  inipvoveil  balls  was  the 
Bninswick  («,  Fig.  969),  which  liad  a  civcuiiiferen- 
tial  belt,  and  was  adajited  for  a  two-grooveil  riHe. 
i  6  is  the  Delvigne,  adapted  for  a  snb-caliber  powder- 
ehandier,  and  lesting  by  an  annular  shoulder  upon 
a  wooden  sabot.  It  had  a  patch  of  greased  serge. 
Minie  and  Thouvenin  introduced  an  elongated  bullet 
with  n,  cylindrical  gi'ooved  body  and  a  conical  point. 
This  had  a  greased  paper  patch,  and  was  expanded 
to  fill  the  grooves  by  being  driven  down  upon  a 
tiije  in  the  breech  of  the  gun.  This  was  adopted  in 
the  French  service  in  1840.  Delvigne  subsequently 
patented  an  elongated  bullet  with  a  recessed  base 
which  he  called  the  cyl indro-ogival. 

Minie,  in  1847,  proiluced  tlie  well-known  bul- 
let c,  in  which  the  tiqc  was  dispensed  with,  and  the 
bullet  expanded  by  tlie  explosive  force  of  the  powder 
in  the  cup,  which  was  in.serted  into  a  frusto-conical 
cavity  in  the  base  of  the  bullet.  The  English  sub- 
stituted a  conoidal  wooden  plug  in  their  Enlield-riHe 
bullet  d. 

In  1856,  after  a  series  of  experiments  by  the  Ord- 
nance Department,  an  elongated  bullet  e,  with  a 
cavity,  was  adopteil  for  the  United  States  army.  The 
diameter  is  .577  of  an  incli,  that  of  the  arm  for  which 
it  is  intended  being  .58  of  an  inch.  Two  vaiieties 
were  made,  both  being  precisely  similar  on  the  exte- 
rior, but  differing  in  tlie  size  of  the  cavity  ;  that  for 
the  riHe-rausket  weighing  500  gi'ains,  and  the  other 
for  the  pistol-carbine  but  450  grains. 

//is  the  bullet  of  Thironse,  a  French  artillery 
ofticer.  It  is  com])osed  of  lead  backed  by  a  sabot  of 
wood  with  three  circular  grooves  near  its  base.  The 
Neslcr  ball  q  was  intended  for  a  smooth-bore. 

Of  the  other  bullets  in  Fig.  969,  some  are  cele- 
brated on  account  of  the  ingenuity  or  success  of 
their  inventors,  otliin-s  as  having  been  adopted  by 
tUH'erent  governments. 

h  is  the  American  conoidal  pointed  bullet. 

i,  the  Colt,  with  a  rabbet  for  the  cartridge  cap- 
sule. 

j,  the  American  "picket,"  with  a  hemispherical 
base. 

k  k.  Haycock's  Canadian  bullet,  with  a  conoidal 
[loint  and  a  conical  base. 

I,  Mangeot's  bullet  with  a  conoidal  point,  hemi- 
spherical base,  and  two  circular  grooves. 

m,  the  Prussian  needle-gun  bullet. 

II,  Norton  elongated  percussion  rifle-shell,  fitted 
with  wooden  plug  (1830). 

0,  Gardiner's  explosive  slicll-bullet,  cast  around  a 
thin  shell  of  copper  attached  to  a  mandrel,  which  is 
afterwards  withdrawn,  leaving  a  fuse-hole  in  the 
rear  through  which  the  charge  is  exploded  in  about 
1^  seconds. 

00  is  a  Sjianish  bullet  containing  a  charge  of 
powder  and  a  fulminate. 

J]  is  the  Swiss  federal  Ijullet. 

•ji  p,  the  Swiss  Wurstcinberger  bullet. 

q  and  q  are  views  of  the  .Jacob's  bullet  and  .shell. 

r  and  r  are  views  of  the  Peter's  ball,  having  an 
interior  tige ;  one  view  shows  it  distended  and 
battered. 

s  is  the  "Belgian  bullet. 

/.,  Pritchell's  bullet. 

w,  Mangeot's  bullet. 

V  V,  Austrian  bullets. 

w  w,  Deane  and  Adams's  bullets,  with  tails. 

x,  English  bullet,  with  wad. 

y,  Sardinian  bullet. 

s,  Beckwith's  bullet. 

a  a,  steel-pointed  bullet. 

b  b,  the  Charrin  bullet,  with  zinc  or  steel  point. 

c  c,  c  c,  Tamissier's  steel-pointed  bullet ;  one  view 


showing  it  intact,  and  the  other  after  compression 
in  the  grooves  of  the  ride. 

d  d,  the  Saxon  bullet. 

c  c,  the  Baden  modification  of  the  Minie,  with 
tinned  iron  cup. 

//,  Wilkinson's  bullet. 

g  I/,  Whitworth's  hexagonal  bullet. 

h  h,  Lancaster's  bullet. 

i  i,  MeHbrd's  sub-caliber  bullet,  with  spiral  grooves 
on  the  shoulder  to  impart  rotation. 

j  j,  McMurtry's  bullet,  wdtli  spiral  grooves. 

k  k,  Williams's  bullet,  with  a  headed  tige  to  ex- 
pand a  rounding  disk  at  the  base. 

/  /,  Diblde's  bullet,  with  a  recess  for  the  powder. 

in  m,  Shaler's  triple  bullet,  the  pieces  of  which 
are  intended  to  diverge  after  leaving  the  muzzle. 

n  n,  Maduell's  bullet,  which  is  built  U])  of  inter- 
locking portions,  which  part  as  they  leave  the 
capsule  and  muzzle. 

q  q,  Shocks's  perforated  Inillet,  with  a  sabot  in  the 
rear. 

r  r,  Hope's  bullet,  with  a  bent  tail  to  direct  it  in 
a  curved  path. 

s  s,  ilattcson's  bullet,  with  spiral  openings 
through  it. 

The  following  table  shows  the  number  of  spherical 
leaden  balls  in  a  pound,  from  l-,\'  to  .237  of  an  inch 
diameter  :  — 


Biam. 

No. 

Diam. 

No. 

Diam. 

No. 

Diam. 

No.'  Diam. 

1 

No. 

Inch. 

Inch. 

Inch. 

Inch. 

!  Inch. 

1,67 

1 

!  .71 

13 

.488 

40 

.329 

130  1  .265 

250 

1.326 

2 

.693 

14 

469 

45 

.321 

140  1  .262 

260 

1.157 

3 

.677 

16 

.453 

50 

.314 

150'  .259 

270 

1051 

4 

.662 

16 

.426 

60 

.307 

160  1  .256 

280 

.977 

5 

.65 

17 

.405 

70 

.301 

170;  .252 

290 

.919 

6 

.637 

18 

.895 

75 

.295 

180  .249 

30O 

.873 

7 

1  .626 

19 

.388 

80 

,29 

190  .247 

310 

.835 

8 

.615 

20 

.375 

88 

.285 

200  .244 

320 

.802 

9 

.57 

25 

.372 

90 

.281 

210  .242 

330 

.775 

10 

i  .637 

30 

■  .369 

100 

.276 

220  .239 

340 

.75 

11 

.61 

35 

.348 

110 

.272 

230:  .237 

350 

.73 

12 

.506 

36 

.338 

120 

.268 

240l 

Fig.  970. 


Bul'let-com'pass-es.  A  pair  of  scribing  com- 
passes with  a  bullet  on  the  end  of  one  leg  to  set  in  a 
hole.     Con<:-eomjm.iscs,  CT!i6-coHi;)a.ssfS. 

Bul'let-ex-tract'or.  A  pair  of  pinchers  with 
jirojcctiiigclaws,  adapted  to  imbed  them- 
selves in  a  bullet  so  as  to  draw  it  from 
its  bed  and  extract  it.  When  closed, 
these  form  a  smooth,  blunt  surface, 
like  a  probe,  and  are  opened  against  the 
bullet  so  as  to  spread  apart  the  vessels 
which  might  oppose  the  retraction. 

Bul'let-hook.  A  hook-ended  tool 
for  extracting  bullets. 

An  iron  bullet-hook  was  disinterred 
at  Pompeii  in  1819  by  Dr.  Savenko,  of 
St.  Petersburg.  It  was  in  company 
with  a  number  of  other  surgical  instru- 
ments.    See  PnoiiE. 

Bul'let-la'dle.  One  for  melting 
lead  to  run  bullets.  It  is  usually  a 
heniisiihcrical  ladle  with  a  spout,  but  in 
one  case  the  ladle  has  a  hole  in  the 
bottom  guarded  by  a  spring  ping  and 
operated  by  a  trigger  on  the  handle  ;  in 
another  case  a  part  of  the  ladle  is 
covered,  and  the  lead  thus  Hows  out  at  a  guarded 
opening  which  keeps  back  the  dross  of  oxide. 

Bul'let-mak'ing  Ma-chine.  Leaden  bullets,  as 
well  for  tlie  military  service  as  for  other  purposes, 
were  formerly  all  made  by  casting. 

The   most   conimou    form   of   bullet-mold,   where 


BULLET-MAKING  MACHINE. 


40S 


BULLION. 


large  numlicrs  of  bullets  were  rccjuired,  was  pre- 
cisely like  the  common  huUet-moKl,  but  casting 
four,  six,  or  more  bullets.  The  gates  were  after- 
ward cut  off  anil  the  bullet  trimnieil  by  hand.  The 
whole  process  was  slow,  and  rei^uired  a  compara- 
tively large  number  of  hands. 

To  inci-ease  the  rajiidity  of  fabrication,  revolving 
bullet-molds  were  tried,  consisting  of  a  cylindrical 
ring,  to  which  revolution  was  imparted  by  a  hand- 
crank  and  gearing,  the  molten  lead  being  fed  to  the 
mold  during  its  revolutiou  ;  the  gates  were  cut  by  a 
kuife  attached  to  the  mold  at  the  same  operation  ; 
when  full,  the  mold  was  opened  and  the  bullets  dis- 
charged, after  which  the  mold  was  clamped  shut 
again  and  the  operation  recommenced.  These  con- 
trivances were  ingenious,  but  were  verj'  liable  to 
get  out  of  order. 

In  1857,  De  Zeng  invented  a  moW  for  elongated 
bullets,  constiucted  very  similarly  to  the  ordinary 
bullet-mold  on  a  large  scale,  but  which  wa.s  mounted 
on  a  stand  and  worked  by  means  of  a  treadle, 
through  which,  aided  by  the  hands  of  the  operator 
on  the  handles,  the  mold  was  opened  and  closed, 
and  the  gates  cut  off.  This  was  an  ingenious  and 
efficient  apparatus,  and,  with  the  aid  of  a  boy  to 
pour  the  lead,  could  be  worked  with  great  rapiditj', 
seemingly  limited  only  by  the  time  required  for  the 
cooling  of  the  metal  at  each  cast. 

Pressed  leaden  bullets  are  undoubtedly  superior 
to  cast  ones,  and  those  for  the  ordinary  arms  in  the 
military  service  are  made  in  the  former  way.  The 
lead  is  generally  procured  in  the  form  of  "bullet 
wire,"  coiled  on  reels.  This  is  cut  in  lengths  of  25 
inches,  and  fed  to  the  machine  by  a  boy.  Elongated 
bullets  are  formed  by  a  three-part  die,  which 
opens  and  closes  with  great  rapidity,  delivering  the 
bullets  at  the  rate  of  about  3,000  per  hour;  these 
have  a  slight  burr  or  feather  at  the  points  where 
the  dies  come  together,  which  is  afterwards  trimmed 
off  by  hand. 

Molds  and  rolls  are  provided  \vith  each  machine, 
so  that  the  bars  may  be  cast  from  the  pig,  and 
rolled  to  give  them  density';  but,  as  obseri'ed  above, 
the  lead  is  generally  procured  in  the  form  of  wire. 
It  is  estimated  that  a  man  can  cast  1,500  bars,  or 
trim  and  roll  2, 000  bars,  in  a  day  of  ten  hours. 

Bruff's  machine,  1813,  has  a  furnace  and  a 
press,  in  which  respectively  the  lead  is  cast  into 


Bnijf^s  BiiUet-Compressing  Madiine. 

ingots  and  made  into  round  bullets.  The  figures 
are  side  and  end  views  of  the  press.  The  lead  is 
cast  into  flat  plates  of  the  required  thickness,  and 
of  a  width  equal  to  the  length  of  the  rolls.  It 
passes  from  above,   downward,   between  the  upper 


pair  of  rolls  A,  which  are  grooved  longitudinally  ; 
by  them  it  is  pressed  into  round  rods,  —  or,  more 
coiTectly,  long  cylindrical  pieces,  —  one  half  of  each 
of  which  is  formed  by  the  groove  in  the  face  of  one 
roll,  while  the  other  half  is  foraied  by  the  cor- 
responding groove  in  the  opposite  roll,  the  two 
working  in  apposition  and  moving  at  an  equal  rate. 
Each  bar,  as  it  falls  from  the  upper  rolls,  alights  upon 
the  lower  roll  B,  whicli  is  grooved  circumferentially, 
and  carries  the  round  bar  against  the  cuiTcd  steel 
plate  C,  whose  face  is  grooved  in  correspondence  to 
the  grooves  of  the  wheel  B.  The  bar  is  nijjped  be- 
tween the  surfaces,  and  is  cut  into  sections  by  the 
adjacent  edges  of  the  roll  and  plate,  and  as  the 
pieces  roll  Aovm.  in  the  grooves  of  the  plate  and  are 
pressed  on  the  opposite  sides  in  the  grooves  of  the 
roll,  they  gradually  assume  a  perfectly  spherical 
form  and  are  discharged. 

The  elongated  .shot  or  bullets  now  used  for  rifles 
are  made  at  "Woolwich  in  the  following  way  :  The 
machine  for  this  purpose  consists  of  four  sets  of 
duplicate  punches  and  dies,  independently  worked 
in  pairs  by  two  eccentrics,  driven  by  gearing  from 
two  separate  driving-shafts.  The  lead,  coiled 
round  tour  reels,  is  fed  from  them  through  a 
shearing-lever  into  the  giippers,  where  it  is  clutched  ; 
a  piece  is  cut  to  a  suitable  length  by  an  upward 
movement  of  the  shearing-lever  ;  the  grippers  then 
ojien,  the  piece  cut  oft'  falls  down,  and  is  clutched 
by  another  piece  of  apparatus.  At  this  moment  a 
puncli  advances,  and  presses  the  lead  into  the  die, 
thus  forming  a  bullet.  A  small  plate  comes  up 
immediately  in  front  of  the  die,  and  the  bullet  is 
pushed  through  it  by  a  small  pin,  worked  by  a  lever 
and  cam  ;  by  this  operation  the  ragged  edge  is  re- 
moved which  had  been  left  on  the  bullet  by  the 
die.  The  niachineiT,  when  driven  at  the  rate  of 
thirty  revolutions  per  minute,  will  make  120  bullets 
in  that  time,  or  72,000  in  a  day  of  ten  hours. 

Bul'let-mold.  An  implement  opening  like  a 
pair  of  pinchers,  having  jaws  which  shut  closely 
together,  and  a  spherical  or  other  shaped  cavity 
made  by  a  cherry -reamer,  with  an  ingate  by  which 
the  melted  lead  is  poured  in. 

Bul'let-probe.  A  sound  for  exploring  tissue  to 
find  the  sUv^  of  a  bullet.  It  is  usually  a  soft  steel 
wire  with  a  bulbous  extremity.  Nelaton  used  a 
sound  with  a  flle-like  extremity,  ■which  might  re- 
ceive traces  of  the  bullet  in  cases  where  there  is 
doubt  of  the  character  of  the  body  with  which  it  is 
brought  in  collision.  He  afterwards  used  a  sonde, 
with  a  termination  of  an  olive-shaped  body  of  white 
unvarnished  porcelain,  which  would  receive  a  black 
mark  by  contact  with  the  bullet. 

Bul'let-scre'w.     One  at  the  end  of  a  ramrod  to 

Senetrate  a  bullet  and  enable  the  latter  to  be  with- 
rawn  from  the  piece.     See  Ball-screw. 

Bullet-shell.  An  explosive  bullet  for  small- 
arms.  Jacobs's  bullet-shells,  used  with  the  rifle  of 
General  Jacobs  of  the  East  India  service,  have  an 
inclosed  copper  tube  containing  the  bui-sting-charge, 
which  may  be  fulminate  or  common  powder,  and  is 
exploded  by  a  percussion-cap  or  globule  on  striking. 

In  experiments  jnade  with  them  at  Enfield  in 
1857,  caissons  were  blown  up  at  distances  of  2,000 
and  2,400  yards  ;  and  brick -walls  much  damaged  at 
those  distances  by  their  explosion.     See  Bullet. 

Bvil'ling.  {Blasting.)  Parting  a  piece  of  loosened 
rock  from  its  bed  by  means  of  exploding  gunpowder 
poured  into  the  fissures. 

Bui 'lion.  1.  A  word  whose  original  meaning  indi- 
cated a  rounded  stud  or  ornament,  and  came  to  mean 
a  metallic  clasp,  boss,  hook,  button,  or  buckle. 

The  meaning  has  diverged  in  two  directions. 


BULL-NOSE  RING. 


404 


BUNDLING-MACHINE. 


It  now  means  (a)  a  mass  of  gold  or  silver  in  bars 
or  ill  mass,  uncoined  ;  and,  by  association,  a  showy 
metallic  ornament  or  metal-covered  fringe  ;  if  genn- 
ine,  of  gold  or  silver,  but  sometimes  a  mere  colorable 
imitation  in  baser  metal. 

b.  A  form  of  heavy  twisted  fringe,  whose  cords 
(L.  bulla,  an  object  swelling  up  and  becoming  round) 
are  prominent  ;  as,  in  degree,  the  strands  ot  a  cable. 

Bullion-fringe  for  epaulets  is  made  of  silk  covered 
with  line  gold  or  .silver  wire. 

2.   ((Mass-making.)    The  extreme  end  of  the  glass 
bulb  at  the  end  of  the  blowing-tube.    The  bulb  hav- 
ing assumed  a  conical  form  is  rested  on  a  horizontal 
bar  called  the  bullion-bar,  to  assist  in  bringing         ^ 
it  to  the  spherical  form.  r 

Bull-nose  Ring.    A  hook  whose  knobs  enter    13 
the  nostrils  and  clamp  the  dividing  cartilage  or  sep- V 
tuni  of  the  nose.     It  is  used  to  lead  vicious  or  obsti- 
nate bulls,  and  occasionally  to  fasten  or  hitch  them. 

A  passage  in  Ezekiel  shows  that  lions  and  camels 
were  similarly  led  about,  and  that  prisoners  and  cap- 
tives were  treated  in  the  same  way.  Manasseh,  the 
vicious  and  unfortunate  king  of  Judah,  was  thus  led 
by  the  nose,  and  carried  away  captive,  677  B.  c,  by 
the  captain  of  the  host  of  the  king  of  Assyria.  Re- 
penting in  exile,  he  was  restored,  and  died  in  peace 
in  Jerusalem. 

A  bas-relief,  discovered  by  Layard  at  Khorsabad, 
shows  that  the  practice  was  considered  worthy  of  il- 
lustration by  permanent  record  ;  and  it  certainly 
was  far  more  humane  than  the  Egyptian  modes  of 
tying  prisoners  in  the  times  of  the  Rameses,  ar.d  the 
practices  in  vogue  among  the  savages  of  Turkestan 
at  this  day,  and  which  we  hope  are  now  in  course  of 
abatement  by  Russia. 

Bull's-eye.  1.  [Nautical.)  a.  A  small  pulley 
of  hard  wood,  having  a  groove  round  the  outside  and 
a  hole  in  the  middle,  answering  the  purpose  of  a 
thimble. 

b.  A  bulb  or  thick  disk  of  glass  let  into  a  ship's 
side  or  deck. 

c.  One  of  the  perforated  balls  on  t\\e  jaw-rope  of  a 

2.  The  center  of  a  target. 

3.  The  lens  of  a  dark-lantern. 

4.  (fftes.)  The  central  boss  which  is  attached 
to  the  bunting-iron  or  pontil,  in  the  operation  of 
making  crown-glass. 

5.  (Microscope.)    A  plano-convex  lens,  used  as  an 

illuminator  to  concentrate  rays   upon 
Fig.  97'.!.      an  opaque  microscopic  object. 

6.   A  small  lantern  with  a  lens  in  one  ■ 
side  of  it,  to  concentrate  the  light  in 
any   given    direction.     A  jwliccman  s, 
watchman's,  or  dark  lantern.     It  has  a 
slide  by  which  the  emission  of  light  is 
I  prevented,  and  is  unfortunately  almost 
'  as  handy  for  burglars  as  policemen.    A 
dark-lantern. 
Bull's-eye    Crin'gle.     (Nautical.) 
Datk-Lamem    A  wooden  ring  or  thimble  used  as  a 
cringle  in  the  leech  of  a  sail. 
BuU's-nose.     (Carpentry.)     A   teiTii  sometimes 
applied  to  the  angle  formed  by  the  junction  of  two 
plane  surfaces. 

Bul'Twark.  1.  A  rampart,  wall,  or  parapet  around 
an  inclosure,  such  as  a  fortification  or  battery. 

The  boulevards  of  Paris  and  other  cities  are  on  the 
site  of  the  ramparts  of  the  former  fortifications. 

2.  (Nautical.)  The  sides  of  a  ship  above  the  upper 
deck. 

Bum'boat.  (Nautical.)  A  boat  used  to  carry 
provisions  to  vessels.  So  named  from  its  clumsy 
form. 


Bum'kin;  Boom'kin.    (Nautical.)     a.  A  boom 
on  each  side  of  tlie  bow,  to  haul  the  fore-tack  to. 

b.  On  the  quarter  for  tlie  standing  part  of  the 
main-brace. 

c.  Over  the  stern,  to  extend  the  mizzen. 
Bump'er.   A  projecting  head  at  the  end  of  a  rail- 

tt'ay-car,  to  receive  or  deliver  the  contact  when  cars 


Fig.  973. 


Car-EuinpeT. 

come  together,  and,  by  transferring  the  force  to  a 
spring,  moderate  the  jar  incident  to  the  collision. 
In  the  illustration  the  spring  is  of  a  spiral  form. 
See  also  Buffer. 

Bump'ing-post  (Railway  Engineering.)  A 
timber  or  set  of  timbers  at  the  termination  of  a  rail- 
road track,  to  limit  the  motion  of  the  train  in  that 
direction.      In  the  example,   the  three  members,  — 


Fig.  974. 


a  -I  □  0 

D      - 

Bumping- Post 

sills  4,  posts  2,  and  braces  13,  —  are  bolted  together, 
and  a  part  of  the  strain  transferred  from  the  posts  and 
thrown  upon  the  sill  beneath  the  track. 

Bunch.  1.  (Mining.)  The  expanded  portion  of 
a  pipe-vein ;  that  is,  one  which,  instead  of  preserving 
a  uniform  size,  has  contractions  and  expansions.  A 
body  of  ore  not  continuous  like  a  course.  Also  called 
a  squat. 

2.  (Flax-numufacturc.)  Threebundles,  or  180,000 
yards;  of  linen  yarn. 

Each  bundle  has  60,000  yards,  and  is  made  up  of 
20  hanks,  each  having  10  leas,  and  each  lea  being 
300  yards  in  length.     See  Bundle. 

Biin'der-boat.  The  surf-boat  of  the  Malabar 
coast  of  India. 

Bun'dle.  (Flax-manufacture.)  Twenty  hanks, 
or  60,000  yards,  of  linen  yarn  make  a  bundle. 

Table. 
120  yams  of  2*  yards  =  300  yards  =  1  lea. 
10  leas  '  3,000  yards  =  1  hank. 

20  hanks  60,000  yards  =  1  bundle. 

3  bundles  180,000  yards  =  1  bunch. 

Bun'dle-pil'lar.  (Architecture.)  A  column  or 
pier  with  others  of  small  dimensions  attached  to  it. 

Bun'dling-ma-chine'.  One  for  grasping  a  num- 
ber of  articles  into  a  bundle  ready  for  tying.  Ma- 
chines of  this  character  are  used  for  fire-wood, 
asparagus,  and  many  other  things  sold  in  tied 
bundles.  The  handle  is  adjusted  in  [losition  to  ex- 
pand the  bands  or  straps  for  receiving  the  article  to 


BUXDLING-PRESS. 


405 


BUNG. 


Bitndting-Machine. 

be  bound,  when  it  is  drawn  down,  and  by  a  slight 
tuni  of  tlic  liand-piece  the  raacliine  will  be  locked 
and  the  Inmdle  held  securely  until  tied  up. 

Bun'dling-press.  A  ]iress  in  which  hanks  of 
yam  ai-e  pressed  into  cubical  packages  for  transpor- 
tation, stoi'agc,  or  sale. 

The  press  has  an  iron  frame  beneath  the  wooden 
table,  on  the  respective  ends  of  wlxich  the  yam  and 
the  tying  twine  are  placed.     The  hanks  of  yarn  are 

Fig.  976. 


Fig.  977. 


Bttndling-  Press. 

placed  between  the  standards  of  the  press-bo.\,  the 
sides  of  which  are  slotted,  to  allow  the  strings  to  be 
laid  in  i>osition  before  the  yam  is  filled  in.  The 
top  is  then  shut  down  and  secured  by  the  key-rods, 
which  enter  the  notches  in  the  top  bars. 

The  iron  cross  Is  then  turned,  operating  a  pinion 
beneath  the  table  ;  the  pinion  engages  with  and 
tnnis  a  large  cog-wheel,  to  one  of  whose  arms  a  pitman 
is  connected.  The  pitman  raises  the  follower,  which 
forms  the  bottom  of  the  press-box,  and  squeezes  the 
bundle  of  hanks  against  the  top  pieces  which  form 
the  cover.  The  stiings  are  then  brought  around 
and  tied,  the  slits  in  the  sides  and  top  of  the  box 
permitfing  them  to  come  against  the  cotton. 

After  tying,  the  pressure  is  slackened,  the  key- 
rods  withdrawn,  the  cover  thrown  back,  and  the 
tied  bundle  withdrawn. 

The  invention  shown  in  Fig.  977  is  primarily  de- 
signed for  bundling  yarn,  but  is  adajited  for  com- 
pressing other  like  materials.  It  consists  of  a  frame 
having  uprights  i  i  at  each  side,  carrying  trans- 
vei-se  bars  c  c  at  top.  For  use,  the  yarn  to  be 
Imndled  is  placed  on  the  bars  c  c,  the  platen  e 
haWng  been  previously  run  out  on  the  extension  d  ; 


Bundling- Press. 

cords  are  passed  around  the  bundle,  and  the  platen 
is  run  in  on  its  guides  and  forced  down  by  means  of 
the  screw  /,  compressing  the  wool  into  a  small 
space  ;  the  cords  are  then  tied,  the  platen  run  out 
again,  and  the  bundle  removed. 

Bang.     1.   {Coopering.)     A  stopper  for  the  large 
opening  in  the  bulge  of  a  cask  called  the  bung-ho\e. 

The  common 
bung    is     merely  Fig  978 

a  thick  circular 
piece  of  wood  or 
cork,  over  which 
a  square  piece  of 
tin  is  usually 
nailed.  Improved 
devices  relate  to 
means  for  admit- 
ting air  to  allow 
the  contained  liq- 
uid to  be  drawn, 
or  for  permitting 
gases  generated 
inside  to  escape 
before  attaining  a 
dangerous  degree 
of  pressure. 

Fig.  978  {A)  is 
designed  to  allow 
the  carbonic  acid 
generated  during 
the  process  of 
femientation  to 
depart  without 
allowing  access  of 
external  air,  whose 
oxygen  aggiavates  Bungs. 

the  process. 

The  carbonic  acid  passes  up  tube  d  in  the  bung  a, 
and  escapes  into  the  air  around  the  lower  edges  of 
the  cone  c,  which  is  submerged  in  the  reservoir  b, 
the  latter  being  filled  with  water,  or  preferably  with 
the  must,  wine,  or  beer  with  which  the  cask  is  filled. 
It  is  a  substitute  for  a  bent  tube,  inserted  into 
the  bung,  ami  its  other  end  inverted  into  a  tumbler 
of  liquid  which  stands  on  the  top  of  the  cask. 


BUNG-BORER. 


406 


BUOY. 


5  is  a  bung  with  a  siiriiig  l)lug. 

C  lias  an  inner  bridge  into  which  the  stem  of  tlie 
bung  screws. 

Z)  is  a  screw-bung. 

E  is  a  bung  with  a  vent  and  a  screw  vent-plug. 

2.  (Pottery.)  A  pile  of  seggars  forming  a  cylin- 
drical column  in  a  kiln. 

Bung-bor'er.  (Coopering.)  A  conical  auger  for 
leaminj;  out  a  Inmg-hole. 

Bung-cut'ter.    A  machine  for  cutting  bungs. 

Tlieie  are  four  forms  :  — 

1.  The  annular  borer.  (See  Augek.)  This  has  a 
pointed  cutter  on  a  stem,  like  a  center-bit  without 
the  routing-cutter. 

2.  A  latlie  which  turns  the  circular  bung." 

3.  A  cylindrical  saw  which  advances  against  the 
blank  (or  conversely)  and  cuts  out  a  circular  disk. 

4.  A  descending  tubular  knife  which  cuts  the 
disk  out  of  the  stufl',  or  cuts  a  square  blank  into  a 
circular  shape. 

Of  the  latter  class  is  Fig.  979,  in  wliich  the  square 
blocks  are  jjaced  in  a  vertical  pile  in  the  hopper, 
and  fed  automatically  one  by  one  to  the  plunger,  by 
which  they  are  forced  through  the  circular  cavity  of 

Fig.  979. 


Bung-  Cutler. 

the  cutter  and  formed  into  cylindrical  blanks,  i  is 
the  feeding  slide-bar  which  pushes  the  lowest  blank 
of  the  pile  beneath  the  plunger  c,  which  forces  it 
down  upon  the  circular  cutter  D. 

Bun 'go.  {Boat.)  A  kind  of  canoe  used  in  the 
Soutlicrn  States  and  in  South  America. 

Bvmg-start'er.  (Coopering.)  Afloggcr.  A  bat 
to  start  the  bung  of  a  cask  by  beating  on  the  bulge 
alongside  of  the  bung. 

Bung-vent.    A  passage  for  admitting  air  through 

the  bung  of  a  cask,  to  allow  a  free 

Fig.  980.  flow  of  liquid  from  the  ta]i.      In 

the   exam]ile,   tlie  cavity  in  the 

K-?!?*^  bung  comniuuieatcs  with  the  at- 

I  mosphere  and  with  tlie  interior 

I  of  the  barrel  by  se]iaiate  passages. 

y         -.,--1      Y    I  The  valve  in  the  cavity  rises  free- 

"   ly  to  admit  air,   hut  resists  the 

Biing-Vtni.  passage  of  gases  from  the  barrel. 

See  also  BuNO. 

Bunk'er.    (Xcddical.)    A  coal-space  below  decks 


on  steaiiieis, 
Bun'sen-bat'ter-y. 


Invented  by  Bunsen,  Pro- 


fessor of  Chemistry  at  Breslau.  .Vlso  called  the 
E/eetropoion  Battery  and  the  Carbon  Battery.  A 
modification  of  the  Grove  battery,  carbon  or  gas- 
coke  replacing  the  iilatiiunii,  and  a  solution  of  bi- 
cliromate  of  potash  replacing  the  nitric  acid  of  the 
Grove  battery. 

In  this  fonii  of  battery,  the  carbon  or  coke  is 
sonietinies  formed  into  a  cup,  replacing  both  the 
platinum  and  the  porous  cup. 

There  are  several  modilications  of  the  Bunsen  bat- 
tery, mainly  mechanical,  looking  to  a  more  coinjiaet 
airangement  of  the  elements,  economizing  space,  etc. 

There  are  also  several  formulas  for  the  biehroniate 
solution :  — 

Buii.sen  :  5  pounds  bichromate  of  potash  dissolved 
in  2  gallons  boiling  water. 

Prevost  (September  27,  1870):  water,  800;  bi- 
chromate potash,  50  ;  sulphuric  acid,  50  ;  chromic 
acid,  2. 

V.  Barjou  :  bichromate  of  jiotasli,  quicklime,  sul- 
phuric acid. 

B.astet  (September  26,  1871) :  bichromate  of  pot- 
ash, water,  nitrates  of  either  soda  or  potassa,  and 
suljiburic  acid. 

Bunt.  (Xautical.)  The  middle  perpendicular 
portion  of  a  sail. 

Bunt'ing.  (Fabric.)  A  thin  woolen  stuff  of  which 
flags  are  made. 

Bunt'ing -i'ron.  (Glass.)  The  glass-blower's 
pipe. 

Buntline.  (Xautical.)  One  of  the  ropes  attached 
to  the  fuot-roi)e  of  a  sail,  which  passes  in  front  of  the 
canvas,  and  is  one  of  the  means  of  taking  it  in,  turn- 
ing it  up  forward  so  as  to  spill  the  wind  and  avoid 
bellying. 

Bunt 'line-cloth.  (Xautical.)  The  lining  sewed 
up  a  sail  under  the  buntline,  to  prevent  the  rope 
from  charing  the  sail. 

Buoy.  A  floating  body  anchored  or  fastened  in 
the  vicinity,  and  employed  to  point  out  the  position 


Sttoyx. 

of  anything  under  water,   as  a  ship's  anchor,  reef, 
shoal,  or  danger  of  any  kind. 

Buoys,  in  geiiei-al,  are  divided  into  three  kinds  : 
the  nun-buoy  (r),  which  is  in  the  form  of  a  parabolic 
spindle,  generally  truncated  at  one  end,  and  when 


BUOY. 


407 


bur-cutti:r. 


inteiitled  as  a  mark  by  whicli  to  point  out  a  shoal, 
airauged  to  carrj'  a  mast  or  frame  of  cage-work,  and 
loaded  so  as  to  float  in  a  vertiral  position.  Smaller 
buoys  of  this  kind  are  used  as  anchor-buoys. 

The  can-buoy  (b)  is  conical,  frusto-conical,  or 
conoidal  in  shape,  and  Hoats  upon  its  side  when 
moored. 

The  cask-buoy  is  a  short  frastum  of  a  spindle, 
truncated  at  each  end  ;  it  is  sometimes  cylindrical 
or  nearly  so.  It  is  chieHy  used  for  carrying  the 
warps  of  vessels  laying  at  moorings.  A  good  tight 
common  cask  may  be  used  for  the  same  purpose, 
and  is  far  less  e.xpensive. 

Life  or  safety  buoys  are  intended  to  save  the  life 
of  a  pei-son  falling  overboard.  They  aie  snspended 
below  a  ship's  taH'rail,  and  arc  so  arranged  tliat  they 
can  be  let  go  at  a  moment's  notice  ;  tlie  same  pull 
which  casts  the  buoy  loose  lighting  a  port-lire, 
to  indicate  the  position  of  the  buoy  to  the  person 
overboard  as  well  as  to  the  crew  of  the  boat  sent  to 
pick  him  up,  thus  sen'ing  as  a  point  of  resort  for  i 
both.  Such  is  the  life-buoy  of  Lieutenant  Cook.  Aj 
fuse,  composed  of  a  jiroper  mixture  of  pliosphide  of  i 
calcium,  is  attached  to  the  buoy.  In  Ci\se  of  a  man 
overboard,  the  life-preserver  is  thrown  into  the 
water ;  the  moment  the  fuse  becomes  wet,  it  begins 
to  give  oti'  a  gas  which  takes  lire  in  the  air  ;  and  the 
wetter  it  becomes  the  more  gas  and  the  brighter  the 
light  produced .  The  light  can  be  made  to  last  an 
hour.     See  Life-buoy. 

SjMr-biwys  are  also  frequently  employed  to  point 
out  cliannels  in  rivers  and  less  exposed  situations  ; 
these  are  nothing  more  than  masts  or  spars  of 
proper  length,  painted  of  any  desired  color,  and 
anchored. 

Buoys  are  made  either  of  wood  or  sheet-iron  ; 
gutta-percha  sti'etched  on  wooden  or  metallic  frames 
has  also  been  jiroposed. 

When  employed  to  point  out  shoals  or  dangers, 
they  are  painted  of  some  distinctly  visil)le  color, 
and  where  more  than  one  is  anchored  in  tlie  .same 
vicinity,  their  colors  are  varied  so  that  they  may  be 
readily  distinguished  from  each  other  ;  for  example, 
the  buoys  on  one  side  of  a  channel  may  be  black 
and  those  on  the  other  red,  so  that  the  navigator 
can  tell  at  once,  by  the  color,  on  which  side  they  are 
to  be  passed.  Herbert's  buoy  (c)  is  intended  to  be 
anchored  by  having  the  mooring-chain  attached 
near  its  center  of  gra%nty,  so  as  to  rediu^e  the  ten- 
dency to  pitch  and  roll  in  rough  water  and  impart 
greater  stability  to  the  bnoy  ;  the  shape  of  the  buoy 
and  the  conical  hollow  in  its  base  also  conduce  to 
these  objects. 

An  improved  buoy  if),  designed  to  have  similar 
advantages,  was  patented  by  W.  M.  Ellis,  Oct.  7, 
1S56.  It  is  moored  by  attaching  the  cables  iu  the 
line  of  the  calculated  center  of  tidal  jiressure  ;  and 
the  forked  or  V-link  or  shackle  is  connected  to  the 
buoy  by  means  of  a  trunnion-bolt  passing  through  a 
metallic  tube  or  pipe  set  and  secured  within  the 
buoy.  The  figure  /will  show  the  method  of  effect- 
ing these  objects. 

Submerged  buoys  have  been  suggested,  anchored 
by  a  weight  heavier  than  the  lloating  power  of  the 
buoy.  As  the  weight  ceases  to  exert  a  sinking 
force  when  it  reaches  the  bottom,  the  capacity  of  the 
buoy  to  sustain  a  load  is  the  same  as  if  it  floated  at 
the  surface,  and  an  upright  or  spindle  on  its  upper 
part  presents  but  a  small  surface  to  the  action  of 
waves.  Two  or  more  such  buoys  srmk  to  the  dead- 
water  point  may  be  .so  arranged  as  to  support  a 
snperstnicture  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  as  in  d. 

Buoys  in  certain  situations  may  be  moored  by 
screw-piles  \e},  which  are  readily  driven  by  rotation 


into  the  sand  or  mud,  and  energetically  oppose  re- 
traction. 

Other  designations  are  :  — 

Anchor  buo}',  one  attached  by  a  rope  to  an  anchor 
to  show  the  jiosition  of  the  latter. 

Cable  buoy,  an  empt)'  cask  to  keep  a  hempen 
cable  above  the  bottom  in  rocky  anchorage. 

Leadinrj  buoy,  in  the  form  of  a  ndllstone. 

Sounding  buoy,  used  in  sounding  an  anchorage- 
giound. 

The  slings  of  a  buoy  are  tlie  part  of  the  buoy-rope 
bent  to  or  around  the  buoy. 

Buoy-rope.  (Nautical.)  The  rope  which  fas- 
tens a  Ijuov  to  an  anchor. 

Buoy-safe.     A  fig  982. 

metallic  body  di- 
vided into  compart- 
ments, by  which  it 
is  braced,  and  hav- 
ing water-tight 
doors  opening  to 
the  inside.  The 
buoy  has  an  en- 
circling aimor  of 
cork. 

Bur;  Burr.  1. 
(Machinery.)  A 
small  circular  saw 
or  toothed  drum 
used  on  a  mandrel 
placed  between  the 
centei"s  of  a  lathe. 

2.  (ilctal-work-  Buoy-Saff. 
ing. )    A  roughness 

left  on  metal  by  a  cutting-tool,  such  as  a  gi-aver  or 
tuming-chisel.  The  bur  of  a  gi-aver  is  removed  by 
a  scraper  ;  that  of  a  lathe-tool  by  a  buniishcr  or  in 
the  polisliing  process.  A  bur  is  purposely  made  on 
a  currier's  knife  and  a  comb-maker's  file,  and  in 
each  case  constitutes  the  cutting  edge. 

3.  (Knittiny-inachine.)  A  wheel  with  thin  plates 
or  projections  inclined  to  the  axis  of  the  bur,  and 
used  to  depress  the  thread  between  the  needles 
and  below  the  beards ;  it  is  then  called  a  sinker.  It 
becomes  a  knocker-off  when  it  raises  the  loops  over 
the  top  of  the  needle.     See  SiXKEK. 

4.  A  fluted  ream- 

ing-tool.  Fig.  983. 

5.  (Dentistry.) 
A  dentist's  instru-  ■ 
ment  of  the  nature 
of  a  drill,  but  hav- 
ing a  serrated  or 
tile-cut  head,  larger 
than  the  shank. 
The  instruments 
are  made  of  many 
sizes,  and  the  heads 
are  spherical,  bul- 
bous, cylindrical, 
frustal,  disk- 
shaped,  or  conical.  Densisfs  Burs 

In   the  example 
are  shown   the   round,   xchecl,   inverted  cone,   cone, 
cylinder,  cylindroid,  conoid,  bure. 

6.  A  triangular  chisel. 

7.  A  planchet  driven  out  of  a  sheet  of  metal  by  a 
punch. 

8.  A  washer  placed  on  the  small  end  of  a  rivet 
before  the  end  is  swaged  down. 

9.  The  jel,  sprue,  or  neck  on  a  cast  bullet. 
Bur-chis'el.    A  triangular  chisel,  used  to  clear 

the  coinei's  of  mortises. 
Bur-cut'ter.     (Mctal-tcorking.)     A  nijipers   for 


nURDEN. 


408 


BURGLAR-ALARM  LOCK. 


cutting  awiiy  the  llange  from  a  leaden  bullet  or  ball. 
A  bnr-iiipjier. 

Bur'den.     1.  (Nautical.)     The  tonnage  or  carry- 
ing caiiaeity  (by  weight)  of  a  vessel. 

2.  (MelaUarijij. )     The  charge  of  a  furnace. 

3.  (MiniiKj.)     The  tops  or  heads  of  stream  work, 
which  lie  over  the  stream  of  tin. 

Bur-dett'.     (Fabric.)     A  cotton  stuft". 
Bur-drill.     A  drill  with  an  enlarged  head  used 
by     operative     den- 
Fig  284.  lists. 

The  set  consists  of 


<)   8    0©   y 


'©   W^ 


Eitr- Drills. 


pulp-canal  reamer 
small  and  larger ;  tin 
round  bur-drill ;  the 
excavator ;  the  un- 
dercutting bur-drill. 
See  also  Bl'R. 
Bu-rette'.  A  small,  graduated  glass  tube  used 
in  pliaiMiacy  or  in  the  laboratory  for  measuring  or 
transferring  small  ciuantities  of  liqiiid.  It  some- 
times has  a  stop-cock,  and  the  discharge  through 
its  small  orilice  is  sometimes  checked  by  the  finger 
placed  on  the  opening  above,  as  in  the  veliiidte  or 
■pipette. 

As  invented  by  Gay  Lussac,  for  dividing  a  fluid 
into  minute  portions,  it  consists  of  a  large  tube, 
graduated  to  jilTi  '^nd  -po'iTTi,  and  a  smaller  parallel 
connected  tube. 

Bur-gage.  (Metal-working.)  A  plate  perforated 
with  holes  of  graduated  sizes,  whose  numbers  deter- 
mine tlie  trade  sizes  of  drills  and  burs. 

Bur-gee'.     {Nautical.)     A   flag  ending  in   two 
jioints.     See  Flag. 
Bur'geoise.     (Printing.)     A  size  of  type.     See 

BOUKGKCJISE. 

Burg'lar-a-larm'.    A  device  to  be  attached  to  a 
Fig.  9So. 


tols,  or  torpedoes,  sometimes  associated  with  devices 
for  lighting  a  lamp,  and  in  one  case  (Powell,  July 
23,  1861)  having  an  arrangement  for  upsetting  the 
bed,  and  thereby  calling  the  attention  of  the  sleeper 
to  the  disturbance.  The  contrivance  instanced  by 
the  Marquis  of  Worcester,  with  alarm,  fire,  tinder,  and 
pistol,  is  described  in  his  "Century  of  Inventions," 
and  is  cite<l  ante,  page  56. 

One  device  has  a  hinged  plate  on  the  threshold  of 
the  door,  and  partially  concealed  by  the  carpet.  The 
foot  of  a  person  entering  tlie  room  depresses  the  plate, 
and  by  means  of  a  lever  and  rod  actuates  a  bell, 
whose  ringing  gives  notice  of  the  presence  of  the  in- 
truder. 

Another  :  an  ordinary  clock-alarm  is  placed  witlu 
in  a  case  attached  to  the  door,  and  is  sprung  by  the 
opening  of  the  door. 

The  illustration  shows  three  fonns  :  a  pistol  a  fas. 
tened  to  the  door-jamb  by  its  pivoted  post,  whose 
tang  screws  into  the  jamb.  Its  muzzle  is  jiresented 
towards  the  crack  of  the  door,  and  its  trigger  is 
tripped  when  the  door  opens,  with  consequences  to 
the  chambermaid  or  too  impulsive  friends. 

b  is  placed  anywhere  in  the  room,  and  is  tripped 
by  a  cord  leading  to  a  door  or  window  whose  surrep- 
titious opening  is  to  be  announced. 

c  is  a  torjicdo  suspended  by  a  pin  from  the  door, 
and  dropped  when  the  latter  opens. 

Fig.  9S6  shows  one  of  the  numerous  forms  of  the 
application  of  the  electric  circuit  and  apparatus  to 
guard  the  windows  and  doors  of  a  house. 

Copper  wires  running  through  the  house  are  con- 
nected with  a  battery,  and  have  circuit  connections 
attached  to  the  doors  and  windows,  so  that  when  a 
door  or  window  is  opened  the  armature  is  released 

Fig.  986 


door  or 
from  w 
by  trav 
As  th 
a  noise 


a  window,  to  make  an  alarm  when  it  is  opened 

ithout.     Some  alarms  are  portable,  to  be  used 

lers  in  sec\iring  their  doors  against  intnision. 

ir  name  indicates,  they  are  intended  to  make 

when  starteil,  and  they  consist  of  bells,  pis- 


Electro-Ma^netic  Burglar- AInnil. 


fiom  the  magnets,  and  causes  a  bell  to  strike, 
lights  a  fluid  lanq)  or  candle. 

"The  circuit  being  completed  by  the  motion  of  the 
door  or  window,  the  magnet  B  attracts  the  armature 
C,  and  sets  free  the  detent,  so  that  the  weight  runs 
the  alarm-hannner,  while  the  match-puller  is  recipro- 
cated nu<l  lights  the  lam)!  L. 

Burg'lar-a-larm'  Lock.  A  lock  with  an  alarm 
apparatus  attached  so  that,  when  properly  set,  the 
same  will  be  jiut  in  operation  and  an  alarm  sounded, 
in  case  the  bolt  of  the  lock  is  inq)roperly  moveil. 

Wlien  the  latch  is  drawn  in,  tlie  escapement  is  set 
in  motion,  being  driven  by  the  cog  gearing  and 
spring,  each  pulsation  of  the  escapement-lever  being 
a  blow  of  the  hannner  upon  the  bell. 


BURIAL-CASE. 


409 


BURNING. 


Fig.  9S7 


BurgUtr-AJarm  Lock. 

Bur'i-al-case.  A  mummy-shaped  form  of  coffin, 
made  of  various  materials,  wood,  metal,  earthen- 
ware, concrete,  asplialtum  compounds,  papier- 
mache.  Its  furnishing  and  arrangement  involve 
improvements  in  the  lids,  glass  over  the  face,  means 
of  fastening,  hennetical  sealing,  and  the  complete 
isolation  of  the  body  from  air  by  enveloping  the 
corpse  in  a  resinous  or  other  au--excluding  com- 
pound. 

Bu'rin.  1.  (Engraving.)  The  cutting-tool  of  an 
engraver  on  metal.     A  graver. 

2.  {Masonry.)  A  triangular  s'juare-shaped  steel 
tool  whetted  otf  oblii[uely  at  the  end,  so  as  to  exhibit 
a  diamond.  It  is  sliapcd  like  a  graver,  and  is  used 
by  the  marble-worker. 

Burlap.  (.Fabric.)  A  coarse,  heavy  goods  for 
wrapjiiiig,  made  of  jute,  flax,  mauilla,  or  hemp. 

Burring.  {Woohn-nvinufaclure.)  A  process  in 
which  woolen  cloth  is  examined  for  rents,  flaws, 
knots,  defective  yarns,  etc.,  a  deficiency  being  made 
good  with  a  needle,  and  offensive  matters  removed. 
This  is  done  after  scouring  and  hffoK  fulling. 

Burl  has  the  same  old  English  definition  as  Bur, 
and  the  name  of  the  process  is  probably  derived 
from  the  plan  of  picking  out  the  burs  from  the 
cloth. 

Burl'ing-i'ron.  (jroolen-mami/aclure.)  A  sort 
of  pincliers  or  uipjiers,  used  in  burling  cloth. 

Burl'ing-ma-chine'.  One  for  removing  knots 
and  foreign  matters  projecting  from  the  surface  of 
woolen  cloth  before  falling. 

Bum'er.  That  part  of  a  lighting  apparatus  at 
which  combustion  takes  place.     See  Gas-bukxer  ; 

La.MI'-BUKXEK. 

Also  applied  to  the  corresponding  portions  of  gas- 
healcrs  and  gas-slovcs  (which  see).  See  also  Vapok- 
BL"KXEK  ;  Petroleum  Stove. 

Bur'nett-iz  ing.  A  process  for  preventing  decay 
of  wood  anil  fibrous  materials  or  fabrics,  patented  in 
England  by  Burnett,  1S37. 

The  wood  or  fiber  is  immei'sed  in  a  solution  of 
chloride  of  zinc,  1  pound  ;  water,  4  gallons  for  wood, 
5  gallons  for  fabrics,  2  gallons  for  felt,  contained  in 
a  wooden  tank. 

Timber  is  saturated  two  days  for  each  inch  of 
thickness,  and  then  set  on  end  to  di-ain  for  from  two 
to  fourteen  weeks. 

Cotton,  yarns,  cordage,  and  woolens  aiie  immersed 
for  forty-eight  houi-s. 

Bum'iug.  1.  (Metal- icorking.)  Joining  metals 
by  melting  their  adjacent  edges,  or  heating  the  ad- 
jacent edges  and  running  into  the  intermediate  space 
some  molten  metal  of  the  same  kind. 


It  differs  from  soldering  in  this  :  — 

In  burning,  a  heat  is  required  sufficient  to  melt 
the  original  metal,  and  a  Hiux  is  seldom  iwed. 

In  soldering,  a  lower  heat  is  used  and  a  more  fusi- 
ble metal  employed,  assisted  by  a  flux. 

The  superior  quality  of  the  former  process  arises 
from  the  fact  that  the  joint  will  withstand  the  same 
heat  as  the  body  of  the  article. 

It  is  apt  to  be  stronger,  as  the  article  soldered  ha.s 
usually  more  tenacity  than  the  solder  ;  tin-plate  or 
copper  than  the  alloy  of  tin  and  lead,  for  instance. 

The  article  burned  together  being  homogeneous, 
the  parts  expand  and  contract  evenly  by  changes  in 
temperature  ;  the  soldci-s  have  a  greater  range  of  ex- 
pansion by  given  changes  of  temperature  than  the 
metals  they  connect. 

The  solders  oxidize  more  or  less  freely  than  the 
metals  they  connect,  and  establish  galvanic  circuits 
which  destro\'  the  integiity  of  the  joint ;  especially 
in  the  presence  of  heat,  moisture,  or  acids. 

As  an  instance,  the  leaden  vessels  and  chambers 
for  sulphuric  acid  cannot  profitably  be  uniteil  with 
tin  solder,  as  the  acid  acts  so  freely  on  the  tin.  The 
joint  was  therefore  made  by  doubling  the  edges  in  a 
hollow  lap  and  pouring  red-liot  lead  on  to  the  joint. 
This  is  now  performed  by  burning  together,  the  heat 
being  applied  by  an  airo-hydrogen  blow-pipe.  See 
Blow-pipe. 

Pewter  is  burned  together  by  a  nearly  red-hot  sol- 
deiing-bit,  which  melts  a  strip  of  pewter  laid  in  the 
angle.     Su]ierttuous  metal  is  filed  ott'  when  cold. 

Brass  is  burned  together,  as  in  the  case  of  bra.ss 
mural  circles  for  observatories,  that  are  from  4  to  6 
feet  in  diameter,  and  are  cast  in  six  or  more  segments. 

The  ends  of  the  segments  are  filed  clean  ;  two 
pieces  are  fixed  vertically  in  a  sand-molii,  in  their 
relative  positions  ;  a  shallow  space  is  left  around  the 
joint,  and  the  entire  chaige  of  a  crucible,  say  thirty 
or  fort}'  pounds  of  the  melted  brass,  a  little  hotter  than 
usual,  is  then  poured  on  the  joint  to  heat  it  to  the 
melting-point.  The  metal  overflows  the  shallow  cham- 
ber or  hole,  and  runs  into  a  pit  prepared  for  it  in  the 
sand,  but  the  last  quantity  of  metal  that  remains 
solidifies  with  the  ends  of  the  segments  and  forms  a 
joint  almost  or  quite  as  j)erfect  as  the  general  sub- 
stance of  the  metal.  The  process  is  repeated  for 
every  joint  of  the  cucle. 

Cast-iron  is  also  united  by  burning.  It  was  first 
practiced  by  the  native  smiths  of  India  and  China, 
who  occasioned  much  surprise  to  their  Occidental 
neighbors  by  the  way  in  which  they  mended  cast- 
iron  kettles  and  pots,  which  were  supposed  to  be 
irretrievably  ruined. 

The  first  notice  of  it  by  Europeans  appears  to  have 
been  by  Van  Braam,  in  1794-  95,  who  was  attached 
to  the  Dutch  Embassy  at  Pekin,  and  who  afterwards 
settled  in  the  United  States. 

The  figure  represents  the  itinerant  artist  with  his 
portable  forge,  at  work  in  the  street.  The  front 
lialf  of  the  wooden  chest  is  his  Fung-Senng,  or  bel- 
lows. Its  jjrinciple  is  that  of  the  double-acting 
force-pump,  and  it  is  constnicted  wholly  of  wood, 
except  the  valves  and  packing  of  the  piston,  which 
are  paper,  and  singularly  durable.  The  long  coarse 
file,  with  a  prolonged  smooth  extremity  to  slide 
through  a  ring,  fixed  on  the  chest,  is  a  common  ac- 
cessory to  a  tinker's  budget.  By  the  arrangement, 
he  possesses  a  tolerably  good  substitute  for  a  bench 
and  vise,  and  can  increase  or  diminish  the  pressure 
of  the  file  on  the  object  operated  on,  at  pleasure. 

The  European  plan  for  burning  together  cast-iron 
surfaces  consists  in  using  an  excess  of  met.il  which 
is  poured  continuously  through  the  fissure  until  the 
edges  of  the  metal  are  iu  a  semi-fluid  condition. 


IJUKXING-GLASS. 


410 


BUKNINO-MIRROR. 


Fig.  988. 


much  as  in  the  ca.se  of  the  brass  mural  circles  pre- 
viously mentioued. 

As  nearly  analogous  to  the  ju-st-described  jiro- 
cesses,  may  be  mentioned  in  this  place  the  modes  of 
uniting  metal  to  metal  by  simi>!e  heat  and  contact. 

A  thin  plate  of  silver  and  a  stouter  bar  of  copper, 
their  surfaces  being  scraped  perfectly  clean,  are  tied 
together  by  a  binding-wire  and  united  by  partial 
fusion  without  the  aid  of  solder.  The  two  metals 
are  raised  to  a  heat  just  short  of  the  melting-point 
of  silver,  and  when  afterwards  rolled  the  two  metals 
maintain  a  pei-fect  contact  and  the  same  proportional 
thickness  however  attenuated  tliey  may  become. 

The  compensation  balance  of  the  cln-onometer  and 
superior  watches  is  another  example  of  the  union  of 
metals  by  heat  and  contact. 

The  balance  is  a  small  Hy-wlieel  made  of  one  piece 
of  steel,  covered  with  a  hoop  of  hras.s.  Its  princi- 
ples and  applications  are  described  under  B.\L.\NcE 
{which  see).  The  two  metals  are  thus  united  :  the 
disk  of  steel,  when  turned  and  pierced  with  a  cen- 
tral liole,  is  fi.'ced  by  a  little  screw-bolt  and  nut  to 
the  bottom  of  a  small  crucible  with  a  central  eleva- 
tion smaller  tlian  the  disk.  The  brass  is  melted  and 
poured  into  the  crucible  around  the  disk.  Wlien 
cooled,  the  crucible  is  broken,  the  supertlnous  brass 
is  turned  off  in  the  lathe,  the  arras  are  made  by  the 
file  as  usual,  and  lastly,  the  hoop  is  divided  in  two 
places,  at  opposite  ends  of  its  diametiical  arm. 

A  little  black-lead  is  sometimes  introduced  between 
the  steel  disk  and  tlie  crucible. 

Tlie  airo-hydrogen  blow-pipe,  a  modification  of  the 
oxyhydrogen  blow-pipe  invented  by  Dr.  Hare,  of 
Pliiladelphia,  is  used  in  melting  the  adjacent  edges 
of  metals  so  as  to  unite  them  by  fusion,  or  in  fusing 
strips  of  the  same  metal  over  a  seam  or  joint  where 
the  edges  of  sheet-metal  abut  upon  eacli  other.  See 
Blow-pipk. 

2.  (Ceramics.)  The  final  heating  of  clay  ware, 
wliich  clianges  it  from  the  di-kd  or  biscuilcd  condi- 
tion to  the  perfect  ware.  Tlie  glaze  or  enamel  is 
applied  to  the  baked  ware,  and  is  vitrified  in  the 
hwrn  iiiq, 

Burn'ing-glass.  (Optics.)  A  convex  lens  of 
large  size  and  sliort  focus,  used  for  causing  an  in- 
tense heat  by  concentrating  the  sun's  rays  on  a 
veiy  small  area. 

Pliny  states  that  the  ancients  had  globes  of  glass 
and  crystal  which  produced  fire,  and  Lactaneus  adds 
that  a  glass  sphere  full  of  water  did  the  same. 

Any  convex  lens  may  be  employed  as  a  burning- 
glass,  its  calorific  ellect,  as  in  the  case  of  a  mirror, 
being  proportional  to  the  number  of  rays  concen- 
trated in  « given  area,   or  to  the   relative  circular 


areas  of  the  lens  and  the  spot  on  which  the  refracted 
rays  fall. 

About  1774,  M.  de  Trudano  constructed  a  hollow 
gla.ss  lens,  of  11  feet  focus,  filled  with  oil  of  turpen- 
tine, of  wliich  it  held  140  I'aris  pints  (nearly  enual 
to  the  same  number  of  English  quarts).  By  this 
lens  a  bar  of  steel  4  inclies  long  and  J  of  an  inch 
square  was  melted  in  five  minutes.  Three  and  six 
livre  silver  pieces  were  fused  in  a  few  seconds,  and 
gi-ains  of  platinum  were  melted  sufficiently  to  cohere, 
but  not  to  form  a  splierical  drop. 

The  "Parker"  lens  or  burning-glass  was  made  in 
London  at  a  cost  of  §3,500.  It  was  of  flint  glas.s, 
36  inches  in  diameter,  double  convex,  its  sides  por- 
tions of  a  sphere  of  18  feet  radius.  Its  focus  was  6 
feet  8  inches  ;  diameter  of  focus  at  tliat  tlistance,  1 
inch  ;  weight,  212  pounds.  A  second  lens,  of  16 
inches  diameter  and  weight  21  pounds,  was  used  to 
concentrate  the  rays,  the  focal  distance  being  then 
63  inches,  the  diameter  of  focus  1-  ineli.  This  lens 
was  carried  to  China  by  an  officer  in  the  suite  of 
Lord  Macartney,  and  left  at  Pekin. 

The  effects  of  the  burning  arrangement  were  as 
follows  :  — 


Substances. 

Gold  (pure)  20 

Silver  (pure)  20 

Copper  (pure)  33 
Platinum 

(pure)  10 

Nickel  16 

Bar-iron  1 0 

Cast-iron  10 

Steel  10 

Topaz  3 

Emerald  2 

Flint  19 


Weight.    Time.  Weight.    Time. 

Grains.  Seconds.  Substances.     Grains.  Seconds. 


4  Carnelian  10  75 

3  Jasper  10  25 

20  Onyx  10  20 

Garnet  10  17 

3  Spar  10  60 

3  Uotten-stone  10  80 

12  Slate  10  2 

3  Asbestos  10  10 

12  Limestone  10  35 

45  Pumice-stone  10  24 

25  Lava  10  24 

30  Volcanic  clay  10  60 


See  B1TRNING-MIRP.0R. 

Burn'ing-house.  (Metalhtnjy.)  A  miner's  term 
for  a  kiln  or  ruasting-furnace  in  which  volatile  min- 
eral matters  are  expelled,  as  the  sulphur  from  tin 
pyrites.     A  kiln. 

Burn'ing-mir'ror.  A  concave  mirror,  or  a  com- 
bination of  ]ilane  mirrors,  so  an-anged  as  to  concen- 
trate the  sun's  heating  rays  on  a  common  object. 

The  most  celebrated  of  these  are  the  mirrors  of 
Archimedes,  wlio  thereby  Imrned  the  Roman  rteet  of 
Marcellus  at  Syracuse.  Each  concave  mirror  was 
separately  hinged,  and  they  were  brought  to  bear  in 
combination  upon  tlie  object  in  the  common  focus. 

In  Peru,  previous  to  the  Spanish  Conquest,  the 
rays  of  the  sun  were  collected  in  a  concave  mirror 
and  fire  kindled  thereby. 

Besides  the  familiar  instance  of  the  burning  of 
the  fleet  of  Marcellus  by  Archimedes,  another  in- 
stance is  cited  by  tlie  historian  Zonaras,  who  records 
that  Proclus  consumed  hy  a  similar  apparatus  the 
ships  of  the  Scythian  leader  Vitalian,  when  he  be- 
sieged Constantinople  in  tlie  beginning  of  the  sixth 
century.  It  must,  however,  be  mentioned  that  Ma- 
laba,  another  old  chronicler,  says  that  Proclus  oper- 
ated on  this  occasion  by  burning  sulphur  showered 
upon  the  ships  by  machines. 

Stettala,  a  canon  of  Milan,  made  a  parabolic  re- 
flector with  a  focus  of  45  feet,  at  which  distance  it 
ignited  wood.  It  is  understood  to  be  the  first 
of  that  form,  though  Digges  in  the  sixteenth  century, 
Newton  and  Napier  in  the  seventeenth  century,  ex- 
perimented with  parabolic  mirrors. 

Villette,  an  optician  of  Lyons,  constructed  three 
mirrors  aliout  1670.  One  of  them,  purchased  by 
the  King  of  France,  was  30  inches  in  diameter  and 
36  inches  locus.     The  diameter  of  the  focus  was 


BUKNING-ON. 


411 


BUKNISH-GILDING. 


about  1  inch.  It  imiuediately  set  fire  to  green 
wooil ;  it  fused  silver  and  copper  in  a  few  seconds, 
and  in  one  minute  vitrified  brick  and  flint  earth. 

The  Baron  von  Tchionhausen's  mirror,  1687,  was 
a  concave  metallic  plate  5  feet  3  inches  ui  diameter, 
and  having  i>  focal  length  of  3i  feet.  Its  cfl'ects 
were  similar  to  those  of  the  minor  just  cited,  and  it 
is  recorded  that  slate  was  ti-anslbrmed  into  ii  kind 
of  black  glass,  which,  when  laid  hold  of  by  a  pair 
of  pinchers,  could  be  drawn  out  into  filaments. 

Burton  made  a  machine  with  140  plane  mirrors 
4x3  inches,  jilaced  in  a  frame  and  separately  ad- 
justable by  tem])er-screws.  AVith  24  of  the  mirroi'S 
adjusted  to  a  common  focus  at  a  distance  of  66 
French  feet,  he  fired  pitch  and  tow.  With  a  poly- 
hedron frame  set  with  168  pieces  of  plain  looking- 
glass,  6  inclies  sijuare,  he  fired  beechwood  at  150 
feet,  and  melted  a  silver  plate  at  60  feet.  He  then 
constructed  one  on  similar  principles,  with  360 
mirroi'S  8x6  inches  in  a  frame  8x7  feet.  With 
this  most  metals  were  melted  at  25  to  40  feet  dis- 
tance, and  wood  was  burned  at  210  feet  distance. 

Buru'ing-on.  A  \irocess  of  mending  castings 
by  uniting  two  fractured  portions,  or  by  attaching 
a  new  piece  to  a  casting. 

The  casting  is  so  fitted  into  a  mold,  in  connection 
with  a  pattern,  that  the  latter  portion  shall  represent 
the  piece  required.  The  mold  being  opened,  the 
pattern  is  removed  and  the  mold  reclosed,  leaving 
the  casting  in  position.  Metal  is  then  flowed 
through  the  mold  ontil  the  face  of  the  casting  be- 
comes softened,  when  the  flow  is  stopped,  and  the 
mold  allowed  to  fill  in  the  usual  manner. 

Wlien  two  castings  are  to  be  united,  tlie  molten 
metal  is  poured  through  a  space  between  them  until 
the  respective  surfaces  become  softened  so  as  to  unite 
fairly  with  the  metal.  The  flow  is  stopped  and  the 
chink  allowed  to  fill.  It  is  then  cooled  in  the 
ordinary'  manner.     See  Bur.xiNG. 

Bur'nish-er.  A  tool  for  smoothing  or  pressing 
down  surfaces  to  close  the  pores  or  obliterate  lines 
or  marks. 

The  engraver's  burnisher  is  made  of  steel,  ellipti- 
cal in  cross-section,  and  coming  to  a  dull  point  lilce 

Fig.  989. 


Engravers^  Burnishers. 

a  probe.  The  larger  one  in  the  figure  is  the  ordinary 
form,  and  the  smaller  one  is  used  by  stipple-engrav- 
ers. 

Burnishers  are  often  made  of  dogs'  teeth  (the  ca- 
nine tooths,  whicli  is  of  a  convenient  shape  and  size 
for  some  purposes,  and,  like  other  teeth,  has  a  very 
hard  enamel. 

They  are  also  sometimes  made  of  agate,  which  is 
an  extremely  hard  mineral,  and  is  useful  in  burnish- 
ing paper  for  collars.  Paper  is  much  more  wearing 
than  steel  softened  for  the  engraver  or  die-sinker, 
owing  to  the  presence  of  silex  in  the  fiber. 

Burnishers  of  bloodstone  are  used  for  putting  gold- 
leaf  on  china-ware. 

Agate  burnishers  are  used  by  bookbindere. 

The  gilder's  burnisher  is  of  agate  or  porphyry. 

A  round  broach  is  used  for  burnishing  pivot- 
holes. 

For  cutlers'  use  the  buraisher  is  inlaid  into  a 
piece  of  wood  with  handles  like  a  spoke-shave. 

The  cloy-hurniaher  used  by  cutlers  is  inserted  into 
a  handle  which  has  a  ring  and  staple  at  one  end,  so 


that  the  left  hand  of  the  operator  is  free  for  handling 
the  work. 

For  still  larger  work,  the  burnisher  is  at  the  bot- 
tom end  of  a  pole  suspended  from  the  ceiling. 

A  flat-bladed  burnisher  is  used  in  restoring  the 
edges  to  the  teeth  of  the  comb-maker's  files.  "These 
teeth  are  made  by  a  file,  not  a  chisel,  and  have  a  for- 
ward inclination  of  15°. 

A  round  burnisher  is  also  used  to  restore  the  edge 
to  the  steel  scraper  used  by  cabinet-makei-s  in  fin- 
ishing surfaces,  especially  of  veneers. 

Also  by  the  currier  in  preserving  the  wire-edge  of 
his  knife.     CaUed  a  steel,  and  resembling  an  awl. 

The  dentist's  burnisher  h:is  a  bulbous,  spherical, 
or  probe-shaped  termination  for  smoothing  the  sui'- 
face  of  metallic  tilling  of  teeth. 

fig.  991. 

Fig.  990. 


Dentists'  Burnishers. 


The  shoemaker's  burnisher  is  for  finish- 
ing the  edges  of  boot-soles.  In  the  exam- 
ple, the  tool  has  a  movable  head  and  a 
metallic  socket,  so  that  the  stock  need  not 
be  injured  when  the  head  is  heated  for  use. 
See  Burnish IXG-M.\CHINE. 

Bur'nish-gild'ing.  A  mode  of  gilding 
consisting  of  the  following  processes  :  — 

The  stuH'  for  picture-frames,  looking-  Shoemaker's 
glasses,  etc.,  or  other  object  to  be  gilt,  is—  •S"""-"*"-- 

Primed  with  white  stuft'  in  several  coats.  This 
consists  of  hot  size  and  whiting. 

The  surface  is  smoothed  with  pumice-stone  and 
glass-paper. 

It  then  receives  a  number  of  coats  of  a  peculiar 
size,  formed  of  pipe-clay,  red-chalk,  black-lead,  suet, 
and  bullock's  blood,  thinned  with  a  solution  of  gela- 
tine. 

On  this  the  gold-leaf  is  laid  and  bumbhed.  See 
Gilding. 

Fig.  992. 


Btinttshtiig-JilncAine. 


BURNISHING-MACHINE. 


412 


HURT'S  NIPPERS. 


Bur'nish-ing-ma-chine'.  One  lor  giving  a  pol- 
ish by  compivssioii.  SiKh  are  tlie.  inacliiiies  lor  bur- 
nishing paper-collars  and  boot-soles.  One  of  the 
latter  is  shown  in  Fig.  992. 

The  last  w  is  secured  eccentrically  to  the  cross- 
head  (,  which  receives  motion  from  the  shafts  s  o  F 
and  band-wheels  g  y.  By  means  of  a  clutch  f  f  f" 
the  motion  may  be  reversed  so  that  the  boot-sole 
may  be  burnished  to  one  shank  and  then  turned  back, 
again.  The  burnishing-tool  also  revolves  with  its 
stock  (I  and  mandrel  C,  but  is  adjusted  relatively  to 
the  boot-sole  by  sliding-gages  which  do  not  partake 
of  the  motion. 

Burr.     1.  The  waste  or  refuse  of  raw  silk. 

2.  A  vitrified  brick. 

In  a  mechanical  sense,  see  Bur. 

Bur'ras-pipe.  A  tube  to  contain  lunar  caustic 
or  other  corrosive. 

Bur'rel-shot.  {ProjedUcs.)  A  medley  of  shot, 
stones,  chunks  of  iron,  etc.,  to  be  projected  from  a 
cannon  at  sliort  range.     Emergency  shot.     Larujrel. 

Bur'ring.  ( Woolcii-manufuclure.)  A  process  in 
the  manufacture  of  wool  by  which  burs  and  foreign 
matters  are  removed  from  the  wool,  which  has  been 
opened  by  the  preceding  loillowing-piocess. 

Bur'ring-ma-chine'.  A  machine  for  picking 
and  burring  wool.  It  follows  the  willoioing  ma- 
chine and  precedes  curding. 

A  picking  and  burring  machine  is  e.vhibited  in  a 
section  which  displays  the  working  paits.  A  is  the 
feed-cloth  by  which  the  wool  is  carried  into  the 
machine  ;  a  a  are  two  fluted  iron  rollers  which  draw 
in  the  wool,  and  it  is  then  e.xposed  to  the  action  of 

Fig.  993. 


Burring-  Mach  ine . 

a  heav)'  iron  beater  B,  which,  revolving  in  the  di- 
rection of  the  arrow-,  beats  and  separates  the  wool 
and  throws  it  down  on  the  cloth  D,  while  dust  and 
dirt  pass  through  the  grating  c^.  The  cloth  D  has  a 
chain  fastened  to  each  side,  the  links  of  which  work 
into  studs  on  the  rollers  d  d,  thus  ins\iring  regu- 
larity of  motion  ;  the  loose  wool  is  carried  forward 
by  this  cloth  under  the  wire  cage  E,  which,  pressing 
upon  it,  forms  it  into  a  loo.se  lap  or  fleece.  This  is 
taken  off  the  cloth  by  the  brush  F,  and  transferred 
by  it  to  the  comb-cylinder  A',  which  has  a  number 
of  fine  iron  combs,  set  longitudinally  round  its  cir- 
cumference. By  the  revolution  of  the  cylinder  the 
wool  is  carried  on  to  the  card-roller  (/,  which  takes 
it  off  the  comb-cylinder,  and  is  itself  stripped  by 
the  brush  //,  the  latter  returning  the  wool  to  the 
large  cylinder  A',  which  then  carries  it  forward  to 
and  against  a  steel  blade  or  straight  edge  placed  ver- 
tically at  a  very  small  distance  from  the  comb- 
cylinder  ;  the  latter  draws  the  wool  through  the 
narrow  slit,  but  every  bur,  seed,  or  other  foreign 


substance,  is  stopped  by  the  plate.  A  roller  /, 
covered  with  spiral  blades,  revolves  against  the 
)]late,  anil  carries  olf  the  arrested  bur.s,  together 
with  any  locks  of  wool  which  may  be  attached  to 
them,  and  throws  them  back  to  the  cylinder  i/,  the 
teeth  of  which  throw  them  back  over  the  bars  of 
a  grating  to  a  small  Huted  roller  N,  which  delivers 
the  lock  of  wool  —  by  this  time  detached  from  the 
bur  —  down  the  sloping  board. 

The  wool  which  has  passed  the  opening  at  the 
plate  is  cariied  on  by  the  combs  till  it  is  stripiied 
otl'  by  the  brushes  fixed  in  the  angles  of  a  large 
prismatic  roller  L,  which  delivers  it  down  the  in- 
clined e.\it-board. 

Bur'ring-saw.  A  serrated  wheel  or  blade  which 
works  in  a  burring-machine  to  seize  the  fibers  of 
wool  and  draw  them  away  from  the  burs,  which 
cannot  jiass  the  opening  through  which  the  saw 
works. 

Bur'niig-Twheel.  A  circular  or  annular  wheel 
with  seiiated  periphery,  used  in  burring  wool  or 
ginning  cotton. 

Fig.  995. 
fig.  994. 


Burring-  Wheel. 

Bur'rock.  {Hydraulic  Engineer- 
ing.) A  small  weir  or  dam  in  a  river 
to  direct  the  stream  to  gaps  where 
fish-traps  are  placed.  Burr-Pump. 

Burr-pump.  (Nautical.)  A  form 
of  bilge-water  pump  in  which  a  cup-shaped  cone  of 
leather  is  nailed  by  a  disk  (burr)  on  the  end  of  a 
jiump-rod,  the  cone  collapsing  as  it  is  depressed,  and 
expanding  by  the  weight  of  the  column  of  water  as 
it  is  raised. 

Burst'ing-charge.  \.  (Mining.)  A  small  charge 
of  fine  jiowder,  placed  in  contact  with  a  charge  of 
coarse  powder  or  nitroleum  to  ensure  the  ignition  o( 
tlie  latter.     It  is  usually  fired  by  voltaic  means. 

2.  (Ordnance.)  The  charge  of  powder  reciuired 
for  bursting  a  shell  or  case-shot  ;  it  may  be  poured 
in  loose,  or  placed  in  a  burster-bag. 

Bur'ton.  A  peculiar  style  of  tackle.  It  has  at 
least  two  movable  blocks  or  pulleys  and  two  ropes. 
The  weight  is  suspended  to  a  hook-block  in  tlie 
bight  of  the  ranning  part. 

This  arrangement  of  cords  and  pulleys  is  sus- 
ceptible of  great  variation,  so  as  to  increase  in  a 
twofold,  fourfold  ratio,  or  otherwise.  Each  pulley 
has  but  one  sheave,  and  there  are  as  many  ropes  as 
movable  pulleys.  Tlie  numbers  indicate  the  relative 
tensions  of  ailiVrent  cords.     (Fig.  996.) 

Bur'ton-tack'Ie.  An  arrangement  of  pulleys. 
See  Bt'iiToy. 

Burt's  Nip'pers.  .\n  instrument  used  for  keep- 
ing the  line  perjiendicular  in  deep-sea  soundings. 
It  is  suspended  from  a  bag  which  floats  on  the  sur- 
face, and  the  sounding-line  is  passed  between  a  plate 
or  spring  and  a  roller,  which  allow  it  to  run  iieely 
through  in  descending,  but  "nip"  it  when  it  strikes 


BUSH. 


413 


BUST. 


Fij?.  998. 


Spanish  Burton. 

bottom  and  stops  running  or, is  pnlled  backward. 
It  thus  also  indicates  the  precise  up-and-down  depth 
of  the  sounding. 

BusU.  (Fr.  boHchc,  a  mouth.)  A  bearing  for  a 
spindle  or  arbor,  as  in  the  case  of  the  wooden  chocks  ; 
called  also  followers,  which  .surround  the  spindle 
within  the  eye  of  a  bed-stone,  and  Ibrni  the  upper 
bearing  of  the  spindle.  A  piece  of  metal  or  wood 
inserted  into  a  plate  to  receive  the  wear  of  a  pivot 
or  arbor. 

A  thimble,  sleeve,  or  hollow  socket  placed  in  a  hole 
in  a  plate  or  block,  and  adapted  to  receive  a  spindle, 
gudgeon,  or  pivot.  It  forms  a  lining  for  a  bearing- 
socket. 

Old  and  worn  pivot-holes  are  bored  out,  bushed, 
and  a  new  pivot-hole  drilled.  The  collar  of  a  lathe- 
spindle  is  a  bush.  Gun-vents  are  bushed.  Bush- 
metal  is  a  bronze  —  copper  and  tiu  —  used  for  jour- 
nals. 

The  pivot-holes  of  the  old-fashioned  wooden  clocks 
were  bushed  with  box  or  pear-tree  wood.  Dogwood 
or  apple-tree  wood  also  affords  good  material  for 
wooden  bushing. 

The  circular  guide  in  which  a  rod  slides. 

A  circular  piece  of  metal  let  into  the  sheaves  of 
such  blocks  as  have  iron  puis. 

A  collar  around  a  piston-rod  or  a  bearing  in  a 
shaft-hanger  is  sometimes  called  a  bush.    See  BusH- 

IXG. 

Bush-ez-tract'or.  {Busbnndry.)  An  imple- 
mejit  for  pulling  out  bushes  and  grubs.  It  usually 
consists  of  a  lever  having  at  its  lower  end  a  claw, 
clevis,  or  grapjile,  which  pinches  the  stem  of  the 
bush  against  the  lever,  and  then,  the  lever  being 
depressed  by  rocking  on  its  rolling  shoe  or  axle,  the 
latter  forms  the  fulcrum,  and  the  grub  is  torn  up  by 
the  roots.  It  is  of  the  nature  of  a  claw-bar  or  cant- 
honk,  or  a  pair  of  claws. 

Bush-bam'mer.  1.  The  mason's  large  breaking- 
hammer. 

2.  The  miller's  hanmier  for  dressing  millstones. 
The  steel  bits  are  usually  detachable  from  the 
sockets  of  the  heads,  to  enable  them  to  be  dressed  on 
a  grindstone. 

In  the  example  the  frame  is  Ifiade  of  two  parts, 
with  shoulders,  and  with  caNTties  for  bolts,  and  pio- 
jections  from  the  base  for  the  support  of  the  cutters 
which  are  socketed  thereiu. 


Fig.  997. 


Fig.  998. 


Buslttngs. 


Buih'Hammer. 

Bush-har'ro'w^.  An  ag- 
ricultural implement  consist- 
ing of  a  number  of  limbs  or 
saplings  confined  in  a  frame 
and  dragged  over  gi-ound  to 
cover  grass-seed. 

Bush'ing.  A  lining  for  a 
hole.  Often  called  a  Bush 
(which  see). 

a  is  a  bushing  for  the  bung-hole  of  a  barrel. 

d  is  a  bushing  to  reduce  the  caliber  of  a  gun-bar- 
rel ;  a  taper  tube  is  brazed  in  place  at  the  end  betwee)i 
the  two,  and  makes  all  fast. 

c  is  a  breech-loading  cannon,  having  a  bushing 
secured  by  joint-screws  and  a  reinforce  on  the  exte- 
i-ior. 

d  is  a,  metallic  hub  with  an  inner  bushing  to  form 
the  axle-box. 

BuBh-scythe.  A  stout  short  scythe  for  cutting 
brush  and  briers. 

Busk.  A  stiffening  bone  or  plate  in  a  corset,  to 
maintain  its  shape  and  prevent  its  gathering  in 
folds  and  wrinkles  around  the  waist.  The  busk  is 
made  of  wood,  steel,  brass,  whalebone,  or  ^iilcanite. 

Bus3.  (Vessel.)  A  two-masted  lishing-vessel  of 
from  50  to  70  tons  burden.  It  has  a  cabin  at  each 
end. 

"They  liave  a  designe  to  get  the  king  to  hire  a 
docke  for  the  herring  busses  to  lie  up  in."  —  Pepvs, 
1661. 


Bust  A  statue  of 
the  upper  part  of  the 
person, embracingthe 
head,  shoulders,  and 
breast. 

Lysistratus,  the 
sculptor,  is  cited  as 
the  inventor  of  cast- 
ing busts,  etc.,  from 
molds,  328  B.  c. 
Busts  from  the  face 
in  plaster  of  Paris 
were  first  taken  by 
Andrea  Verocchi, 
A.  D.  1466.  The 
plaster  cast  is  made 
by  pouring  the  Huid 
plaster  around  the 
head  and  face,  which 
are  previously  well 
oiled,  to  prevent  ad- 
hesion, the  hair  being 
protected  by  an  oiled 
cap.     Wiien  the  plas- 


Fig.  999. 


Roman  Knivei,  etc. 


BUTCHEK-KNIFE. 


414 


BUTTEK-WORKER. 


tcr  has  partially  set,  and  while  it  is  yet  in  a  soft 
state,  tlie  mold  is  divided  into  sections  for  removal 
by  strings  or  fine,  wires  [ireviously  arranged  in  the 
interior.  Busts  are  now  turned  liy  machinery  con- 
structed on  the  jiiineiple  of  Blanchard's  lathe  for 
turning  incgular  forms,  which  was  originally  ap- 
plied to  turning  gun-stoel;s  and  spokes  for  carriage- 
wheels. 

Butch'er-kuife.  A  knife  for  cutting  meat-  The 
tang  of  the  blade  is  usually  riveted  between  two 
scales,  which  form  the  handle. 

The  Roman  butcher-knives,  nsed  also  for  sacrifi- 
cial purposes,  were  wide  at  the  hilt-end  of  the  blade, 
and  had  .sharp  points.  The  pole-axe  is  also  shown 
in  the  figure. 

Next  to  the  pole-axe  is  the  seva  or  sccespUa,  for 
cutting  the  throats  of  the  animals.  On  the  left  is 
the  dolabra,  for  dismembering.  Below  are  the  cul- 
tri  or  cn/tcUi,  for  skinning  and  slicing. 

But'ment-oheek.  (CUrpcntry.)  The  part  of  a 
mortised  timber  surrounding  the  mortise,  and  against 
which  the  shoulders  of  the  tenon  bear. 

Butt.  The  hinder,  larger,  or  blunter  end  of  an 
object  ;  as  of  a  gun,  a  connecting-rod,  a  crow-bar, 
etc. 

1.  The  end  of  a  connceting-rod  against  which  the 
boxinr/  is  attached  by  the  strap,  cotter,  and  1716. 

2.  The  end  of  an  object  where  it  comes  squarely 
against  another. 

3.  A  joint  where  the  ends  of  two  objects  come 
squarely  together  without  scarfing  or  chamfering. 

4.  A  form  of  door-hinge  which  screws  to  the  edge 
of  a  door,  and  butts  against  the  casing  instead  of  ex- 
tending along  the  face  of  a  door,  like  the  strap-hinge. 
It  consists  of  two  oblong  plates,  04ie  edge  of  each  of 
which  is  dentated  to  fit  its  fellow,  a  pintle  travers- 
ing each  interlocking  portion  to  form  a  joint.     See 

BlTTT-HINC.E. 

5.  a.  A  target. 

b.  A  wooden  structure,  consisting  of  several  thick- 
nesses of  hoards,  separated  by  small  intervals,  for  the 
pui'pose  of  ascertaining  the  depth  of  penetration  of 
bullets. 

c.  A  frame  of  iron  and  wood,  representing  a  large 
section  of  armor-plating,  and  moored  in  position  for 
determining  the  destructive  power  of  shot,  shell,  and 
given  charges  of  powder. 

d.  A  mound  of  earth  to  receive  the  bullets  in  the 
proof  of  gun-barrels. 

6.  (Shipbuilding.)  The  meeting  -  joint  of  two 
planl-s  in  a  strake.  The  joint  between  two  strakes 
is  a  scam. 

7.  The  thick  part  of  an  ox-hide. 

8.  The  standing  portion  of  a  half-coupling  at  the 
end  of  a  hose. 

9.  The  shoulder-end  of  a  gun-stock  covered  with 
a  heel-plate. 

10.  A  large  cask  containing  126  wine  gallons. 
Butt-chsiin.     {Saddlery.)    A  short  chain  which 

reaches  from  the  leather  tug  to  the  single-tree,  to 
each  of  wdiich  it  is  hooked. 

But'ter.  1.  (IFood-ivorking.)  A  machine  for 
saw^ing  off  the  ends  of  boards,  to  render  them  square 
and  to  remove  faulty  portions. 

In  the  large  saw-mills  of  the  lumber-regions  dou- 
ble butters  are  used,  one  saw  being  permanent  and 
the  other  adjustable  by  a  spline  on  a  grooved  man- 
drel, to  adapt  it  for  boards  of  varying  lengths.  The 
boards  are  laid  upon  parallel,  traversing,  endless 
chains,  with  dogs  at  intervals. 

2.  See  CHiinx. 

But'ter-fly-cock.  A  valve  having  two  semi- 
circular wings  pivoted  on  a  central  cross-bar.  A 
butterfly-valve. 


A  double  clack-valve,  each 
Fig.  1000. 


Butterfty-  Valvrx. 


But'ter-fly-valve. 

leaf  of  which  is  hinged 
to  a  bar  crossing  the 
passage-way,  as  in  the 
examples  annexed. 

a,  butterfly    pump- 
valve. 

b,  butterfly  throttle- 
valve. 

But'ter-is.     (Farri- 
ery.)    A   knife  with   a 

bent  shank,  used  by  blacksmiths  to  pare  the  hoofs 
of  horses.  It  has  a  blade  like  a  chisel,  and  is  oper- 
ated by  a  thrust  movement,  the  handle  resting  against 
the  shoulder. 

Tlie  term  is  probably  from  the  French  bouloir  ; 
Provincial,  boutavan.  Some  old  Roman  pariug-ini- 
plements  of  iron  are  yet  extant. 

But'ter-mold.  (Husbandry.)  An  implement  by 
which  pats  of  butter  of  a  given  size  are  shaped  and 
printed  for  market. 


Butter 
tongs.    An 

implement  for 
cutting  and 
transferring 
l)ieces  of  but- 
ter. In  Fig. 
lOOltheblades 
are  attached  to 
shanks  which 
unite  in  a 
spring  coil,  so 
as  to  separate 
them  when 
not  in  actual 
use. 
But'ter-work'er. 


Fig.  1001. 


Butter-  Tongs. 


(Husbandry.)   An  implement 


Fig.  1002. 


Butter-  Worker. 

for  pressing  and  rolling  butter  to  free  it  of  the  but- 
termilk.    It  niav  be  a  fluted  roller  working  in  a 


1003 


Butter-  Wortcer. 


bowd  or  on  a  board,   or  a  conical  roller  on  a  slant- 
ing board  which  permits  the  buttermilk  to  run  off. 


RUTT-HOWEL. 


415 


BUTTON. 


Butt-hO'w'el.  (Coopering.)  A  howeling-adze 
used  by  tooiwrs. 

Butt-hinge.  A  hinge  formed  of  two  plates  and 
interlocking  projecting  pieces  which  are  connected 
by  a  pinlh. 

The  buU-hinge  is  so  called  because,  instead  of 
fastening  on  the  faces  of  the  door  and  jamb  like  the 


Fig 

1004. 

3  O 

o 
o 

J 

o 
o 


o 


Butl-Hin^f. 

ancient  hinges,  the  leaves  are  seciired  to  the  door 
and  casing  at  points  which  abiU  upon  each  other. 

A  rising  bidi  is  one  in  which  the  leaf  attached  to 
the  door  ascends  as  the  door  is  openeil,  an  incline 
on  one  leaf  climbing  on  the  incline  of  the  part  it 
rests  on,  so  as  to  give  to  the  door  a  tendency  to 
descend  and  close  in  so  doing. 

The  following  names  are  known  in  the  trade  :  — 

Broad  butts.  Wrought-butts. 

Narrow  butts.  Table-butts. 

Loose-joint  butts.  Fast-joint  butts. 

Reversible  butts.  Acorn-tipped  butts. 

Shutter-butts.  Congress-butts. 

But'ting-ma-chine'.  A  machine  ha^•ing  planing- 
cutters  on  the  face  of  a  disk-wheel,  and  used  for 
smoothing,  cornering,  or  rounding  the  cuds  of  joists 

Kg.  1003. 


Butting-Machine.  ' 

or  small  timbers  used  in  the  frames  of  agiicultural 
implements,  etc.  The  stufl'  is  laid  alongside  the 
fence  or  gage,  and  is  fed  up  endwi.se  to  the  cutter. 

But'ting-ring.      (Vehicle.)     A    collar    on    the 
axle  against  which  the  hub  biUls,  and  which  limits 


Kg.  1006. 


Btating-Hing. 


the  inward  movement  of  the  wheel,  as  the  linch-piu 
or  axle-nut  does  the  outward.  In  the  example,  a 
bulting-tiange  on  the  axle  entei-s  a  groove  in  the  in- 
ner end  of  the  box,  and  abut.s  against  springs  whose 
elasticity  lessens  the  jar  when  the  wheel  plays  lon- 
gitudinally on  its  spindle. 

But'tlng-saw.  A  cross-cut  saw  attached  to  a 
stock  at  one  end,  and  used  for  butting  logs  on  the 
carriage  of  a  saw-mill.  XIany  logs  are  biought  to 
the  mill  with  the  slanting  kerf  given  by  the  axe  in 
felling  or  logging.  To  buil  a  log  is  to  cut  or  saw  it 
off  square  at  the  end,  so  that  it  may  lie  safely  upon 
the  rabbet  of  the  head-block  in  any  position,  and 
be  readily  held  by  the  dogs.  The  action  of  this 
saw  is  that  of  a  drag-^mw . 

Butt-joint  A  joint  in  which  the  pieces  come 
square  against  each  other,  endwise.  In  iron  work 
the  parts  are  welded,  and  the  term  is  used  in  con- 
tradistinction to  a  /n/)-joint  or  weld. 

But'tock.  (Shipbuilding.)  The  rounded-in,  over- 
hanging part  on  each  .side  and  in  front  of  tlie  rudder  ; 
tenninating  beneath  by  merging  into  the  run. 

But'tock-lines.  The  curves  shown  by  a  vertical 
longitudinal  section  of  the  after-part  of  a  ship's 
hull,  parallel  to  the  keel.  A  similar  section  for- 
ward exhibits  the  iou--lines,  and  a  coutin\ious  sec- 
tion through  the  whole  length  of  the  ship  the 
buttock  and  boxi^  lines. 

But'ton.  1.  A  small  circular  disk  or  knob  with 
a  shank  for  attachment  to  an  object,  and  forming,  in 
concert  with  an  opening  in  another  object,  or 
another  side  of  the  same,  a  means  of  fastening  the 
two  together. 

The  ancient  modes  of  fastening  dre.sses  were  pins, 
brooches,  buckles,  and  tie-strings. 

Iron,  steel,  brass,  copper,  pewter,  lead,  gold,  sil- 
ver, honi,  shell,  pearl,  tortoise-shell,  ivoiT,  bone, 
hoofs,  hair,  silk,  cotton,  linen,  Florentine,  gutta- 
percha, india-rubber,  vulcanite,  amber,  velvet, 
cloth,  glass,  porcelain,  wood,  enamel,  jet,  com- 
pressed earth,  clay,  precious  stones,  are  among  the 
most  prominent  substances  employed  in  the  manu- 
facture of  buttons. 

Buttons  of  brass  are  noticed  on  dresses  of  the 
tenth  centurj'.  About  1670  the  metallic  button- 
manufacture  of  England  took  its  rise. 

A  manufactor)-  was  established  in  Binningham, 

England,  16S9,  and  that  city  still  maintains  a 

preeminence  in  this  manufacture,  as  in  so  many  others, 

employing  no  less  than  4,981  pei'sons  in  this  branch 

of  industrv'  alone,  according  to  the  census  of  1851. 

Jletallic  buttons  with  shanks  are  usually  made 
by  punching  the  disks  forming  their  faces  out  of  a 
plate  of  sheet  brass  containing  less  zinc  than  com- 
mon brass  ;  the  edges  of  the  disks  are  afterwards 
trimmed  to  remove  the  bur.  and  their  faces  are 
planished  under  the  action  of  a  hammer. 

The  maker's  name  is  stamped  on  the  back  and  the 
face  embossed  at  one  operation,  by  means  of  cameo 
and  intaglio  dies. 

The  shanks  are  made  of  wire  by  a  machine ;  a 
shears  cuts  off  a  piece  of  suitable  length  from  the 
coil ;  a  stud  then  presses  again.st  the  middle  of  the 
cut  jnece,  and  forces  it  between  the  jaws  of  a  vice, 
whicli  give  it  a  staple-like  form,  compressing  it  so 
as  to  fomi  the  eye  of  the  shank  ;  it  is  then  struck 
by  a  small  hannner,  which  makes  it  level,  and 
another  movement  drops  it  into  a  box. 

The  shanks  are  then  ])laced  in  their  proper  posi- 
tions on  the  disks,  being  retained  by  a  bent,  flat 
strip  of  iron,  a  piece  of  solder  being  jilaced  at  the 
foot  of  each  shank.  A  hundred  or  more  are  then 
put  on  an  iron  plate  and  heated  in  an  oven  until 
the  solder  melts,  fixing  the  shank  and  forming  a 


BUTTOX. 


416       BUTTON-HOLK  SEWING-MACHINE. 


backing  to  tlie  Ijutton.  They  are  then  turneil  sepa- 
rately in  a  lathe  adapted  for  the  purpose,  and,  if  ile- 
biied,  gilt,  which  operation  was,  previous  to  the 
electro-plating  piocess  being  perfected,  performed  by 
coating  the  brass  disk  with  an  amalgam  of  mercury 
and  gold,  the  former  of  which  was  afterward  driven 
otT  by  heat. 

When  tlie  fiice  only  is  gilt,  the  buttons  are  tech- 
nically known  as  tups,  but  when  gilding  is  aiiplied 
to  the  wliole  surface  they  are  termed  nll-ovcrs. 
The  gilding,  though  extremely  thin,  admits  of  being 
brightly  polished  by  means  of  an  agate  or  blood- 
stone burnislier. 

Gilt  buttons  first  made  by  Taylor,  of  Birming- 
ham, England,  17t)8.    JIanufacture  improved,  1790. 

Metallic  buttons  without  shanks  are  formed  by 
stamping;  those  of  wood,  bone,  etc.,  are  turned; 
the  holes,  of  which  there  may  be  two  or  four  for  at- 
taching the  button  to  the  garment,  are  drilled  while 
the  button  is  in  the  lathe  by  means  of  four  long 
drills  converging  toward  the  button,  forming  all  four 
of  the  holes  at  once. 

Cast  buttons  are  made  by  taking  a  large  number 
of  impressions  in  a  mold  and  inserting  in  each  the 
loop  of  metal,  whose  ex]ianded  ends  project  into  the 
moid  and  are  surrounded  by  the  metal  of  the  button. 
The  buttons,  being  cleaned  from  the  sand,  are  chucked 
and  turned,  when  they  may  be  tinne<I,  silvered,  or 
gilded,  as  required. 

Papier-macdie  buttons  were  made  in  1778. 

Mother-of-pearl  buttons  are  cut  out  of  the  shell 
by  means  of  a  small  cylindrical  saw.  The  disks  are 
turned  in  a  lathe,  and  if  the  shell  be  sufficiently 
thick  it  is  split  so  as  to  form  two  buttons.  A  dove- 
tail hole  is  drilled  for  the  shank,  which  is  fixed  by 
a  slight  blow  with  a  hannner,  its  lower  part  ex- 
panding into  the  dovetail,  so  as  to  prevent  its  being 
readily  withdrawn.  The  ornamental  lUitings  and 
coiTugatious  when  present  are  formed  in  the  lathe 
by  means  of  an  eccentric  chuck  and  slide-rest. 

A  number  of  patents  for  making  covered  buttons, 
which  aie  in  such  extensive  u.se  for  outer  garments, 
have  been  taken  out  in  England  since  the  first 
patent  of  Sanders  in  1809;  but  the  general  prin- 
ciples of  construction  of  the  more  important  kinds 
may  be  reduceil  to  two  :  in  one  of  these  a  metallic 
disk  or  sliell  is  stamped  out  of  thin  sheet-iron,  for 
the  face  part,  and  a  smaller  disl:  or  collet,  having  a 
perforation  for  the  shank  to  pass  through,  is 
stamped  out  in  like  manner  for  the  back.  A  circular 
piece  of  the  textile  fabric  to  be  used  is  cut  out  by  a 
die,  and  a  pad  of  similar  shape,  commonly  made  of 
soft  paper,  silk,  and  thread  is  formed,  which  fills  up 
the  vacant  space  between  the  two  metallic  disks. 
The  parts  —  namely,  the  two  disks,  the  pad  and  the 
circular  piece  of  linen,  silk,  or  other  material  forming 
the  face  —  are  united  to  constitute  the  finished  but- 
ton by  means  of  a  stamping-press  and  appropriate 
convex  and  concave  dies.  The  sliank,  of  soft  mate- 
rial through  which  a  needle  can  be  passed,  protrudes 
at  back  tluough  the  ajierture  in  the  collet. 

In  the  other  plan,  the  disk  for  the  body  is  left 
flat,  and  the  back  piece  is  a  small  circular  disk  with 
a  round  hole  in  its  center,  and  having  its  edge  cut 
into  eight  sharp  triangular  points,  which  are  so 
bent  as  to  form  nearly  a  right  angle  with  the  disk, 
inclining  sliglitly  inward.  To  complete  the  button 
three  pieces  of  paper  and  two  ]>ieces  of  cloth  are 
necessary,  which  are  arranged  in  the  following  man- 
ner. 

On  the  piece  of  cloth  forming  the  outer  covering 
is  laid  a  yiiece  of  payier  of  the  san\e  size,  upon  which 
is  placed  the  iron  disk  forming  the  body  ;  on  this  is 
anotlier  piece  of  paper  the   same  size  as  the  body  ; 


Fig.  1007. 


on  this  is  a  small  pellet  of  paper  to  help  form  the 
shank ;  a  piece  of  coarse  cloth  is  laid  on  this,  and 
the  metallic  back  placed  over  it.  In  putting  on  the 
back,  the  cloth  is  gathered  up  over  the  whole  of  the 
materials  and  the  points  of  the  back  pressed  into 
the  cloth  ;  as  these  are  bent  slightly  inward,  the 
[iressvire  causes  them  to  bend  still  more  as  they 
enter  the  cloth,  forming  eight  little  hooks,  which 
hold  the  button  together  in  a  neat  and  etfectual 
numner  ;  the  paper  pellet  causes  the  cloth  to  pro- 
trude through  the  hole  in  the  back,  fonning  the 
cloth  shank  by  which  the  button  is  sewed  to  the 
coat. 

Fig.  1007  shows  two  forms  of 
sell-fastening  buttons,  having 
screws  which  pass  from  the  rear 
of  the  material  into  the  shanks. 

2.  (Carpcnlnj.)  A  small 
piece  of  wood  or  metal,  swiveled 
by  a  screw  through  the  middle, 
and  used  as  a  fastening  for  a 
door  or  gate. 

A  knob  on  a  sliding-bolt. 

3.  (Mctalluryy.)     A   globule 
of  metal  remaining  in  the  cupel  Self-Fasiemng  Buiions. 
after  fusion. 

But'ton-brace.  A  tool  for  making  buttons. 
The  handle  is  like  the  common  brace  ;  the  bit  has  cut- 
ters, but  no  router,  and  removes  a  circTilar  blank  or 
planchet  of  bone,  ]iearl,  wood,  or  whatever  the  ma- 
terial may  bo  ;  an  annular  bit  operating  like  a  crown- 
saw  or  trephine. 

But'ton-hole  Cut'ter.  A  device  on  the  shears 
principle,  5]iecially  ad.ijited  for  cutting  button-holes  ; 
the  variations  in  construction  principally  relate  to 
means  for  adjusting  the  length  of  the  cut,  and  its 
angle  with  the  edge  of  the  cloth. 

In  Fig.  1008,  the  cutter  d  may  be  ajiproaclied 
toward  the  center  of  motion,  so  as  to  cut  its  whole 

Fig  loas. 


ButtonHMe  Culler. 

length,  or  projected  outwardly  so  that  its  edge  may 
only  jiartially  bear  against  the  jaw  a,  to  make  a 
shorter  cut. 

Button-hole  Sew'ing-machine.  In  work- 
ing button-holes  by  machinery,  it  is  common  for  the 
perforating-needli!  to  descend  first  through  the  ma- 
terial back  from  the  slit,  and  then  through  the 
slit,  or  else  a  thread  may  be  carried  from  the  under 
side  up  over  the  edge  of  the  material,  and  be  locked 
by  the  needle  in  its  next  descent.  The  needle  may 
be  made  to  descend  through  tlie  material  and  through 
the  slit,  by  moving  the  material  laterally,  as  well  as 
forward  by  the  feed,  as  in  patent  to  Jliller,  JIarch 
7,  1854  ;  or  the  neeille-carrying  box  may  be  moved 
laterally  after  each  .stitch,  by  means  of  a  cam,  as  in 
patent  to  Huinphrej-,  October  7,  1862.  The  needle- 
thread  is  locked  at  each  descent  by  a  second  thread 
carried  by  either  a  looper  or  a  shuttle.  In  patent  to 
Sleiner,  June  19,  1860,  the  needle  and  shuttle  oper- 
ate as  in  an  ordinary  machine,  but  after  the  shuttle 
has  passed  through  the  loop  of  needle-thread,  a  hook 
catches  its  thread  and  pas.ses  it  in  the  form  of  a  loop 
up  through  the  button-hole  slit  and  spreads  it  in  the 
path  of,  and  the  needle  enters  it  at  its  next  descent. 


BUTTOX-HOLE  SHEARS 


41-; 


BVSSA. 


Fig.  loon. 


In  patent  to  l!e]ifii3s,  Jlay  23,  1S65,  tlie  needle  de- 
scends through  the  material  back  from  the  slit,  a 
loojier  passes  its  thread  through  the  loop  of  needle- 
thread,  and  then  passes  up  through  the  slit,  where 
its  loop  is  caught  by  a  hook,  and  sjiread  in  the  path 
of  the  needle,  which  entei-s  it  at  its  next  descent. 
Other  methods  of  working  button-holes  have  been 
attempted,  but  not  found  jiracticable. 

Button-hole  Shears.  A  scissors  having  an 
adjustability  for 
length  of  cut,  for 
the  purpose  of  cut- 
ting button-holes, 
n  one  e.xample,  a 

set   screw   on    one 

.y  l>art  of  the  sheai-s 
beai-s  against  a 
washer  on  the  oth- 


/V"    ^  \  i^J     ^^  er  portion,  to  regu 

v^  late  the  relative  lat- 

Biiiion-Hole  Cttiitr.  eral  adjustment  of 

the  two  parts. 
In  the  other  example,  the  button-hole  cutter  is  at- 
tached to  the  shank  of  the  shears. 

Fig.  1010. 


Button-HoU  Shears. 

But'ton-hook.  A  hook  for  grasping  a  button 
below  the  head,  in  order  to  draw  it  through  the  but- 
ton-hole and  fasten  it. 

But'ton  Key  or  Fas'ten-er.  A  spiing  loop, 
the  free  ends  of  which,  being  passed  through  the 
shank  of  a  button,  expand  so  as  to  hold  the  loop  in 
])Osition  and  keep  the  button  in  place.  A  piece  of 
coiled  wire,  making  two  or  more  tunis,  is  also  used 
for  this  purpose. 

But'ton-lathe.  A  machine  for  cutting  round 
disks  for  buttons.  The  material  consists  of  plates  of 
horn,  bone,  ivory,  wood,  mother-of-pearl,  etc.     The 

Fig  lOlL 


stuff,  and  the  wings  make  a  circular  cut,  cutting  out 
a  disk  of  the  material,  which  is  advanced  to  the  cut- 
ter by  a  sliding  bar  in  the  back  jwppet-head. 

In  the  example,  the  moving  jaw  of  the  clutch  is 
forced  against  the  blank  by  a  spring,  and  drawn 
back  by  depression  of  the  treadle.  The  bits  are 
brought  singly  and  alternately  against  the  blank, 
being  moved  theieto  by  the  bell-crank  hand-lever. 

But'ton-loom.  {It^camig.)  A  loom  for  weav- 
ing button-blank  coverings. 

But'ton-mold.  A  disk  of  bone,  wood,  or  metal, 
to  be  covered  with  fabric  to  fonn  a  button. 

But'ton  Riv'et-mg-ma-chine'.  A  tool  for 
fastening  buttons  to  gainients  by  swaging  down  on 
the  back  of  the  washer  the  end  of  the  rivet  which 
forms  the  shank  of  the  button.      In  the  example  the 

Fig.  1012. 


Buttoji-Lathe. 

cutter  is  like  a  center-bit,  except  that  both  of  the 
wings  are  cutters,  ami  not  one  of  them  a  router. 
Tile   tool  revolving,   the   center-pin    transfixes   the 


Buuon-Hivtttng  Prtss. 

plunger  is  pointed,  rotates  as  it  descends,  and  spreads 
the  end  of  the  rivet.  A  sleeve  on  the  plunger  fits 
the  hollow  in  the  face  of  the  button,  and  the  flanged 
head  of  the  rivet  is  bent  over  toward  the  fabric, 
which  is  thertby  clamped  against  the  convexity  of 
the  button. 

But'ton-tool.  A  tool  for  cutting  out  buttons  or 
circular   blanks    therefor.      An   annular   bit.      See 

BlTTON-LATHE. 

But'tress.  1.  (Masonrif.)  a.  A  pier  or  lean-to 
pillar  on  the  exterior  of  a  wall,  to  enable  it  to  with- 
stand an  interior  thrust,  as  in  the  ease  of  a  retaining 
or  breast  wall. 

b.  A  flying  buttress  is  one  which  is  in  the  form  of 
a  section  of  an  arch,  springing  fioni  a  wall  or  pillar. 
2.   (Forlifimtioii .)      A    counterfort   or   sustaining 
wall  or  pillar,  built  against  and  at  right 
angles  to  the  wall  to  which  it  foims  a  re- 
vetment.     See   COINTERFORT. 

Butt-vreld.  (Forying.)  A  weld  in 
which  the  edges  are  square-butted  and 
jammed  acainst  each  other,  and  then 
welded.      A  JHinp-ticld. 

Buzz-saiw.  Another  name  for  the  cir- 
ciJai'  saw,  derived  from  the  buzz  or  hum 
inciilent  to  the  high  speed  at  which  it  is 
run.     See  CintUL.\u  S.wv. 

By'ard.  {.Viiiinff.)  A  leather  breast- 
.stra]>  Used  by  mind's  in  hauling  the  wagons 
in  coal-mines. 

Bye-Twash.     (ffi/drnulic  Engineering.) 
a.  A  channel  to   divert  past  a  reservoir 
water  of  streams  which  would  otherwise 
flow   with    it,  and  which   are   impure   or 
otherwise  undesirable.     Called  also  a  di- 
vrrsion-ciit. 
b.  The  outlet  of  water  from  a  dam.     A  u-a.^le. 
Bys'sa.     {Firc-nrms.)     An  ancient  form  of  can- 
non for  throwing  stones. 


CAAJI. 


418 


cAr.i.i:. 


o. 


Caam.  Tlip  weaver's  reed.  The  sley  or  slaie. 
Cadiaiiiij,  the  setting  of  the  reed  by  the  disposing  of 
the  w.irp-tlireads. 

Cab.  1.  A  two  or  four  wheeled,  one-horse,  closed 
vehicle,  adapted  to  seat  two  persons  inside,  and  hav- 
ing an  elevated  seat  for  the  driver  in  front.  The 
hanson-cab  has  a  seat  behind  for  the  driver.  Tlie 
cab  of  Pickwick's  time  had  two  wheels  and  an  ont- 
.side  .seat  on  the  right  side,  over  tlie  wheeh  In  tlie 
one  shown,  the  driver's  seat  behind  the  boily  of  the 


Fi"  101.3 


cab  rests  on  a  spring,  and  is  snjiported  on  the  rear 
e.\tension  of  the  frame  of  the  veliicle.  '  It  has  a  sup- 
plementary seat  ne.\t  tlie  dash-board,  and  also  an 
opening  in  the  back  of  the  cover  to  permit  communi- 
cation  between  the  driver  and  jiassenger. 

Cabs  were  introduced  into  London  for  hire,  1823. 
Fifty  were  first  started  ;  there  are  now  7,000  in  that 
city. 

2.  The  covered  part  in  front  of  a  locomotive  which 
protects  the  engineer  and  fireman,  and  shields  the 
levers,  etc. 

Cab'bling.  {Mctallargn.)  A  process  of  breaking 
up  pieces  of  flat  iron,  to  be  fagoted,  reheated,  and 
rolled. 

The  series  of  processes  ai'e  as  follows  :  — 

1.  The  jiig'-iron  is  treatc<l  in  a  refining-furnace. 

2.  The  loop  is  forged. 

■3.  Jlelted  in  contact  with  charcoal,  and  worked 
with  a  rabble. 

4.  Tilled:  making  a  flat,  oval  plate. 

5.  C'abhhd ;  that  is,  broken  up  into  pieces. 

6.  Ftu/oled. 

7.  Reheated  in  a  revevberatory  furnace. 

8.  Hammered. 

9.  Rolled. 

Ca-be'ca.  (Fabric.)  The  finest  kinds  of  India 
silli,  as  distinguished  from  the  bariga,  or  inferior 
kind.      CaJicsac. 

Cab'i-net-file.  A  smooth,  single-cut  file,  used 
in  wood-working,  especially  by  furniture-makers  and 
joiners. 

Cab'i-net-or'gan.  (Music.)  A  superior  class 
and  size  of  reed  organ. 

Ca'ble.  1.  The  strongest  kind  of  rope,  chain,  or 
cluster  uf  wires  designed  for  holding  a  shi[)  at  anchor, 
for  supporting  the  roadway  of  a  suspension-bridge, 
for  mooring,  warping,  and  for  other  purposes. 


Cables  for  supporting  suspension-bridges  were 
fornierly  nnule  of  a  number  of  wire  ropes,  each  of 
which  consisted  of  wire  twisted  into  strands.  Sus- 
pension-bridge cables  are  now  made  of  separately 
stretched  steel  wires,  each  of  whicli  is  brought  to  a 
certain  strain,  and  the  hunch  bound  up  into  a  cable, 
wrapped,  parceled,  and  then  served  with  wire  and 
painted. 

Snljmai'ine  cables  for  telegraphic  purjioses  have 
an  interior  core  of  copper  wire  surrounded  by  wires 
twist(^d  after  the  manner  of  a  rope,  the  wliole  being 
ju'otected  by  a  non-conducting  waterproof  coating 
of  gutta-percha  or  imlia-rubber. 

A  large  cable-laid  rope  is  thus  m.ide  :  — 

Hemp  is  laid  up  right-handed  into  yariis. 

Yarns  are  laid  up  Ic/l-handcd  into  strands. 

Three  stramls  are  laid  up  right-handed  into  a 
hamscr. 

Three  hawsers  laid  up  left-handed  make  a  cable. 

See  Roi'E. 

l?elow  ten  inches  in  circumference,  a  rope  is  called 
a  hawser. 

Cables  or  ropes  are  — 

Screed ;  bound  with  rope,  marline,  or  other  small 
stuff,  to  prevent  dialing. 

Spliced ;  united  l.iy  working  the  yarns  or  strands 
of  the  two  portions  together.  • 

Parceled;  wrajiped  with  tarred  canvas. 

Worvied  ;  having  the  s]iiral  crevices  between  the 
lays  tilled  with  strands ;  usually  a  preliminary  to 
serving. 

A  cable' s  length  is  120  fathoms  ^  720  feet. 

A  stream  cable  is  a  hawser  for  mooring. 

To  bit  the  cable,  is  to  wind  it  around  the  bitts. 

To  buoi/  the  cable,  is  to  support  it  by  floats  which 
keep  it  clear  of  the  ground  in  a  rocky  anchorage. 

To  coil  the  cable,  is  to  dispose  it  in  lielical  tiers. 

To  cut  the  cable,  is  to  sever  it  by  an  axe,  or  by 
unshackling,  in  club-hauling  or  to  save  the  time 
necessary  for  weighing. 

To  drug  the  cable,  is  to  haul  it  in  the  wake  of  the 
vessel. 

'Vo  fleet  the  cable,  is  to  allow  it  to  surge  back  on 
the  vhcJps  of  tlio  capstan  or  windlass,  as  the  cable 
climbs  on  to  the  larger  part  of  the  cone. 

To  hca.ce  the  cable,  is  to  liaul  in  al)oard. 

To  nip  the  cable,  is  to  stop  the  running  out  by  a 
pinclung-ro|ie,  clamp,  or  lever. 

To  pay  out,  is  to  allow  the  cable  to  run  out. 

To  serce  the  calile,  is  to  wrap  it  with  ropes  to  keep 
it  from  being  chafed. 

To  slip  the  cable,  is  to  let  it  run  clear  out,  thus 
losing  the  cable. 

To  stopper,  to  fasten  to  the  bitts. 

To  unbeiid,  to  detach  from  the  anchor. 

To  undcrrmi ,-  with  hempen  hawsers,  to  take  on 
board  on  one  side  of  a  boat  and  pay  out  on  the  other, 
examining  and  cleansing. 

To  veer  a  cable,  tu  allow  it  to  run  out,  keeping 
command  over  it. 

A  kill}:  is  a  short  turn  in  a  cable  which  prevents 
its  running  through  the  hawse-hole. 

Ships'  cables  were  anciently  made  of  flax,  papyrus, 
or  spurtiiun  ;  more  lately  of  hemp  or  coir,  but  now 
usually  of  iron  links. 

A  henii)en  cable  of  12  inches  girth  and  120  fath- 
oms (720  feet)  long,  weighs  3,07.'>  pounds. 

The  weight  of  a  hempen  cable  (120  fathoms)  may 


CABLE-BUOV. 


419 


CAGE. 


be  ascertaine<l  by  niultiiilying  the  square  of  the 
girth  in  inches  by  21.  The  product  is  the  weiglit 
in  ])oun(ls,  nearly. 

The  breaking-strain  may  be  found  by  di\'iding 
the  weight  in  pounds  by  100  ;  this  gives  the  break- 
ing-strain in  tons. 

2.   A  molding  representing  a  cable  or  spiral  scroll. 

CaTDle-buoy.  {A^autiail.)  A  floating  object 
.secured  by  a  rojie  to  an  anchor,  to  denote  the  posi- 
tion of  the  latter. 

Ca'ble-grip'per.  A  lever  compressor  over  the 
cable-well,  and  by  which  the  cable  is  stopped  from 
running  out. 

CaTjle-hook.  1.  A  hook  for  attachment  to  the 
messenger  by  which  the  cable  is  hauled  in  on  a  man- 
of-war,  or  other  ship  liaving  a  large  number  of  hands, 
without  having  recourse  to  the  capstan.  It  may  also 
be  attached  to  a  hawser,  for  underrunning  the  cable. 

2.  A  hook  by  which  the  cable  is  handled.  Each 
seaman  has  a  hook  in  ligliting-up  the  cable  or  pack- 
ing in  tiers. 

Ca'ble-laid.  Heavy  rope,  laid  up  cable-wise. 
See  Cahle. 

Ca'ble-mold'ing.  A  bead  or  tonis  molding,  cut 
in  imitation  of  the  twisting  of  a  rope,  much  used  in 
the  later  period  of  the  Norman  style. 

Ca'ble-nip'per.  (Xautical.)  A  device  serving 
to  bind  the  lacsscuyer  to  the  cable,  and  composed 
of  a  number  of  rope-yarns  or  small  stufi'  marled  to- 
gether.* 

Ca'ble-shackle.  A  D-shaped  ring  or  clevis,  by 
which  one  length  of  cable  is  connected  to  another, 
or,  upon  occasion,  the  cable  connected  to  an  object, 
such  as  the  anchor-ring. 

Ca'ble-stop'per.  (Xautical.)  A  device  to  stop 
the  paying  out  of  the  cable.      In  the  example,  a 

Kis  1014. 


Cnhle.  Stopper. 

pair  of  jaws  .slide  on  the  rail,  being  moved  simul- 
taneously "by  an  eccentrically  slotted  wheel  and  a 
lever. 

The  rope  is  passed  around  the  pin  and  clamped 
by  both  jaws. 

CaTjle-tier.  (XauticaJ.)  a.  A  coil  of  a  cable. 
A  fake;  one  layer  of  cable  as  it  lies  in  a  tier. 

b.  A  cable-locker. 

Ca'bling.  {Archi/ccture.)  A  round  molding, 
frequently  used  in  the  flutes  of  columns,  pilasters, 
etc. 

Ca-boose'.  1.  {Xautical.)  A  small  house  on 
deck  in  which  the  cooking  is  done  on  a  merchant- 
vessel. 

2.  (Hailway  Engineering.)  A  car  attached  to 
the  rear  of  a  freight  train,  fitted  up  for  the  accom- 
modation of  the  conductor,  brakemen,  and  chance 
passengers. 

Cab'ri-o-let'.  A  vehicle  for  hire  introduced 
from  France  into  England  in  1823.  Shortened  into 
cab  (which  see). 

Cab'um.  (Xautical.)  Spun  rope-yani  for  seiz- 
iiiij,  worming,  and  similar  uses. 


Ca-ca'o-inill.  A  mill  for  giinding  the  nut  of 
the  Ihcobroma  cacao,  to  reduce  it  to  tlie  condition 
of  JUtkc  cacao.  It  ditlers  from  chocolate  in  being 
ground  with  a  portion  of  its  hull,  instead  of  being 
carefully  hulled  before  grinding.  It  is  mixed  in 
the  hopper  with  flour,  sugar,  etc.,  and  passed 
through  a  number  of  steel  mills  resembling  paint- 
mills,  by  which  the  nut  is  reduced  and  the  in- 
gredients intimately  incorporated  therewith  by 
means  of  friction,  heat,  and  the  oil  evolved  from  the 
nut. 

The  Theobroma  cacao,  "Food  for  the  gods,"  so 
named  by  Linn.'eus,  from  which  cacao,  broma,  and 
chocolate  are  made,  is  grown  in  Caraccas,  in  the 
sheltered  valleys,  500  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
sea.  The  Mexican  name  is  caeauall.  The  tiee  is 
20  feet  in  hight,  and  frequently  planted  with  in- 
termediate rows  of  coffee-trees,  to  shelter  the  young 
cacao-trees  from  the  scorching  heat.  The  crops  are 
gathered  in  December  and  June,  and  a  well-bearing 
tree  will  produce  from  20  to  .30  pods,  which  are 
gathered  in  a  jieriod  of  three  weeks  or  so,  as  they 
turn  yellow,  .\fter  being  allowed  to  lie  in  heaps 
for  a  time  to  farther  ripen,  the  pods  are  opened,  the 
pulp  removed,  and  the  beans  spread  on  mats  in  the 
sun.  As  they  dry,  each  obtains  a  hard,  thin  skin, 
and  is  of  the  size  of  a  kidney  bean.  The  next  pro- 
cesses are  those  of  the  manufacturer,  who  com- 
mences by  ^o.^sting  the  nuts  and  removing  the  husks. 

Ca-cha-ra'do.  (Fabric.)  A  kind  of  Spanish 
linen. 

Ca-dene'.  A  common  kind  of  carpet,  imported 
from  the  Levant. 

Cad'mi-uni.  Equivalent,  56  ;  symbol,  Cd.  ; 
specific  gravity,  8.65  ;  fusing-point,  450"  F.  A 
white  metal  resembling  tin  in  appearance  and  zinc 
in  properties. 

1  ts  use  is  as  an  ingredient  in  alloys. 

Cad'rans.  An  instrument  for  measuring  the  an- 
gles in  cutting  and  polishing  gems.     See  Angulom- 

F.TF.R. 

Caf  fa.  (Fabric. )  A  kind  of  painted  cloth  goods 
manufactured  in  India. 

Cag.  A  small  cask  used  for  packing  herrings  and 
other  provisions.     A  keg. 

Cage.  1.  The  prison  of  a  bird  or  other  animal. 
It  is  usually  made  of  wire,  sometimes  of  wicker,  slats, 
splints,  or  strips  of  metal. 

Fig.  1015. 


Bird-Cnge. 


CAOE. 


420 


CAISSON. 


Tliose  lor  squirrels  or  mice  have  usually  a  dormi- 
tory at  one  end,  and  a  cylinder  in  which  the  animal 
is  siijiposed  to  annise  himself  by  running  without 
making  any  progi'ess.     In  the  example,  the  bars  of 


1016. 


'.                      \ 

(                 ) 

( 

) 

'                   ) 

1                   1 

the  tread-wheel  are  maile  by  cutting  slots  in  a  sheet 
of  metal  subsequently  bent  to  a  cylindrical  shaiie. 

2.  (Mini'iu).)  a.  The  platform  on  which  trundles  or 
hutches  are  raised  or  lowered  in  a  shaft. 

In  coal-n^ining,  the  hukhfs  or  low-wlieel  cars  are 
loaded  and  brought  to  tlie  foot  of  the  shaft,  where 
from  one  to  four  are  placed  on  the  cage  to  be  ele- 
vated. Arrived  at  the  top,  the  cage  rests  on  the 
folding-boards,  which  open  before  it  and  then  shut 
automatically  beneath  it.  The  hutches  are  then  run 
oir,  dumped,  and  returned  to  the  cage,  to  be  lowered 
again.     See  Hoisting-m.4CHINE. 

Provision  is  made  to  stop  the  cage  in  ease  of  the 
breaking  of  the  hoisting-rope,  and  also  to  prevent  its 
over-winding. 

The  safety-cage  shown  in  Fig.  1017  runson  vertical 
guides,  and  has  a  cover  to  protect  the  men  iVom  fall- 
ing objects.  It  has  a  spring/,  which  bears  down  the 
rod  c  to  which  the   rope  is  attached.     In  case  the 

Fig  1017. 


S(ffety-Cage. 

hoisting-rope  breaks,  the  spring  forces  Jtpart  the  two 
jaws  c  c,  whose  claws  catch  into  the  wooden  gnide- 


Animnlcule-  Cage. 


bars  d  d,  and  arrest  the  downward  course  of  the  cage. 
b  b  are  coal-hutches  on  the  platforms  a  a  of  the  cage, 
and  the  illustration  shows  the  rope  as  broken  and 
the  descent  arrested. 

b.  The  trundle-wheel  of  a  whin  on  which  the  rope 
is  wound.     Also  called  a  drinn  or  a  turntree. 

3.  (MacJihirrii.)  a.  A  skeleton  frame  to  confine 
a  ball-valve  within  a  certain  range  of  motion. 

h.  A  wire  guard  jdaced  over  an  eduction-opening, 
to  allow  liquid  to  pass,  but  restrain  the  passage  of 
solids. 

4.  (Carpentry.)  An  outer  work  of  timber  for  in- 
closing another  work,  as  the 

cage  of  stairs. 

5.  For  microscopic  objects 
in  water,  a  cup  having  a  glass 
bottom  and  cover,  between 
which  a  drop  of  water  con- 
taining animalculie,  or  other 
minute  objects,  is  placed  for 
microscopic  examination,  in 
order  to  prevent  their  escaping  beyond  the  focus  of 
the  microscope. 

Ca-hier'.  [Bookbinding.)  A  pile  of  gathered 
.sheets  ;  the  successive  numbers  of  a  serial. 

Ca-ique'.     .\  boat  useil  on  the  Bosphorus. 

Cais'son.  1.  A  carriage  accompanying  a  field- 
piece  to  carry  ammunition,  and  participating  with 
it  in  its  maneuvers,  forming  in  line  in  the  rear  of 
its  piece  when  the  latter  is  in  action.  Tlie  name 
caisson  is  also  applied  to  an  ammunition-chest. 
See  GuN-r.\nRi.\OE. 

2.  A  water-tight  structure  or  bag  placed  beneath 
a  .sunken  ves.sel,  and  then  either  sup[ilied  with  air 
by  pumping  out  the  water  and  allowing  air  to  enter, 
or  distended  by  air  from  an  air-pump,  so  as  to  assist 
in  floating  tlie  vessel. 

3.  A  water-tight  box  or  casing  used  in  founding 
and  building  structures  in  water  too  deep  for  the 
cotfer-dani  ;  such  as  piers  of  bridges,  quays,  etc. 

The  caissons  employed  in  building  the  piers  of 
the  railroad  bridge  over  the  Susquelinnna  at  Havre 
de  Grace,  Md.,  are  an  example  of  the  use  in  the 
first-mentioned  capacity. 

Caissons  resting  upon  a  river-bed  subject  to  wash- 
ing have  proved  to  be  un- 
safe,   as    was    evinced    at 
Westminster  Bridge,  where  ■_..   _}. 
the  caissoy  was  undermined 
by  the  current  ;  the  struc-         n  n  n  n  n   n 
ture  was  saved    by  sheet-         \\  \\  .j  i;  ;;  ;: 
piling  and  underpinning. 

The  plan  ailopted  by 
Peronnet  and  other  emi- 
nent French  arcliitects  wa,s 
to  drive  a  substratum  of 
])iles,  which  were  sawn  off 
to  a  level  surface,  forming  a 
foundation  for  the  structure 
which  settled  the  caisson 
on  its  bed  of  ])iles  as  the 
masonry  progi-essed.  For 
the  purpose  of  securing  the 
coincidence  of  the  caisson  and  its  bed  of  piles,  one 
of  the  latter  was  allowed  to  project  upwardly,  as 
high  as  the  top  of  the  caisson,  occupying  a  well  or 
water-tight  curb  which  was  open  at  each  end.  The 
long  pile  formed  a  giiide,  causing  the  caisson  to 
.settle  correctly  into  position.  The  guide-pile  has 
been  occasionally  used,  but  is  by  no  means  a  neces- 
sary feature  of  the  work. 

When  the  work  is  concluded,  the  sides  of  the 
caisson  are  knocked  away,  leaving  the  pier  in  posi- 
tion, as  shown  in  the  illustration. 


Fig 

1019. 

LssJ 

.r-^,  , 

Caisaon. 


CAISSON". 


421 


CAISSON. 


a  rein'esents  tlio  sinking  of  the  caisson. 

b,  the  pier  on  its  t'onntlation. 

Tl>e  caissons  used  by  De  Cessart  in  1757  for  the 
jiiers  of  the  bridge  at  Sauniur  were  sunk  upon  a 
foundation  of  piles,  the  heads  of  which  were  pre- 
\'iously  cut  oft'  to  a  level  of  about  six  feet  below  the 
water-surface.  Each  caisson  was  48  x  20  feet,  the 
ends  being  poiiited  and  the  sides  removable,  so  that 
they  could  be  used  with  another  bottom  after  the 
masonry  was  laid  nearly  to  the  water-line.  The 
bottom  had  a  floor  of  lower  beams  laid  side  by  side, 
and  planks  14  inches  thick,  and  the  frame  tim- 
bers were  rabbeted  to  receive  the  upriglits  of  tlie 
sides,  which  were  secured  to  the  bottom  framing  by 
dovetails  and  wedges,  so  that,  the  latter  being  with- 
drawn, the  sides  were  disconnected. 

The  sides  were  16  feet  high,  of  scantling  laid 
on  edge  and  maintained  in  position  by  uprights, 
secured  by  struts  and  overhead  braces,  so  as  to  resist 
the  pressure  of  the  water,  and  also  by  la[i-joints  and 
uprights  at  the  angles  of  the  caisson,  the  whole 
carefully  calked.  The  caisson  was  built  on  the  bank 
of  the  river  upon  piles  cut  to  three  dilt'erent  bights 
above  the  water  ;  by  Idocking  np,  its  bottom  was 
kept  level  while  building,  and  by  removing  these 
blocks,  and  with  the  aid  of  jacks,  it  was  tilted  so 


middle  chamber  C,  acting  as  the  means  of  communi- 
cation, being  filled  with  air  at  normal  pressure,  or 
with  compressed  air,  according  as  it  is  in  communi- 
cation with  tlie  open  air  of  chamber  E  or  the  con- 
densed air  of  chamber  B.  The  device  which  thus 
acts  as  an  intermediate  is  termed  an  air-lock,  and  is 
the  notable  point  of  invention  in  the  apparatus. 

The  cast-iron  piles  which  support  the  arclied 
bridge  over  the  Medway  at  Kochestcr,  England, 
were  sunk  by  the  means  of  compressed  air,  which 
kept  them  empty  of  water  while  workmen  excavated 
the  materials  inside  the  piles.     Each  pier  consists 


as  to  .slide  readily  into  the  water,  when  it  was  towed 
into  position,  and  the  masonry  laid  until  it  sunk 
squarely  on  the  heads  of  the  piles  previously  driven 
for  its  reception. 

The  modern  or  pneumatic  caisson,  which  is  sunk 
through  quicksands  or  submerged  earth  or  rock,  is 
the  invention  of  M.  Triger,  who  contrived  by  the 
aid  of  air-pumps  to  keep  the  water  expelled  from 
the  sheet-iron  cylinders,  which  he  sunk  through 
quicksands  in  reaching  the  coal-measures  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  river  Loire,  in  France. 

The  seams  of  coal  in  this  district  of  France  lie 
under  a  stratum  of  quicksand  from  58  to  66  feet 
thick,  and  they  liad  been  found  to  be  inaccessible 
by  all  the  ordinary  modes  of  mining  pre^'iously 
practiced. 

Fig.  1021  illustrates  the  caisson  of  M.  Triger,  and 
shows  the  comparatively  simple  form  which  the 
apparatus  assumed  when  used  for  sinking  a  sim]de 
shaft  through  a  water-bearing  stratum  above  the 
coal.  Air  is  forced  in  through  the  pipe  A  to  the 
working-chamber  /?,  which  has  a  man-hole  in  the 
floor  above.  C  is  the  middle  chamber,  which  has 
also  a  man-hole  in  its  ceiling.  D  is  a  ]iipe  by  which 
sand  and  water  are  ejected  from  chamber  B,  under 
the  pressure  of  the  condensed  air  in  the  latter.  The 
pressnie  of  air  in  chamber  B  being  such  as  to  ex- 
clude the  water,  the  workman  descends  through  the 
man-hole  in  the  floor  of  chamber  E  and  closes  the 
tloor  behind  him.  Admitting  air  from  chamber  B 
until  the  pressure  is  eipial  in  the  two,  he  opens  the 
door  in  the  floor  of  chamber  C  and  descends  to  his 
work.     The    buckets    are    similarly   managed,   the 


rn 


Cai^^oji. 


of  fourteen  cast-iron  cylinders  placed  in  a  double 
row\  and  sunk  through  the  bed  of  the  river  into  the 
hard  chalk. 

This  plan  is  the  reverse  of  Pott's  mode  of  sinking 
cylinders,  in  which  the  air  is  withdrawn  from  the 
interior  so  as  to  utilize  the  pressure  of  the  atmos- 
phere in  forcing  the  pile  downward,  while  the  ma- 
terial, of  a  soniewliat  soft  nature,  ascended  into  the 
cylinder.  The  contents  were  from  time  to  time 
scooped  out,  and  the  air-exhausting  process  re- 
peated. This  plan  was  adnpteil  with  a  bridge  which 
crosses  the  Thames  near  Richmond.  England. 

Fig.  1022  is  a  section  of  the  movalile  iron  caisson 
used  In  building  the  piers  of  a  bridge  at  Copen- 
hagen, Denmark.  It  comprises  an  upper  chamber 
communicating  with  the  air,  an  intermediate  or  air- 
chamber,  both  equal  and  cylindiical  in  section,  ami  a 


CAISSON. 


422 


CALASH. 


loiver  working-chamber  of  larger  section  tlian  the 
foregoing,  and  adapted  to  the  shape  of  the  pier  ; 
the  wliole  raised  or  lowered  by  suspension-chains, 
and  ballasted  with  iron  and  water  contained  in  two 
annular  chambers  A  and  B,  surrounding  the  lower 
part  of  the  air-lock.  In  working,  the  apparatus 
was  lowered  to  the  bottom  of  the  water,  and  an  ex- 
cavation made  until  a  stratum  capable  of  fonning  a 
solid  foundation  was  reached  ;  u])ou  this  a  layer  of 
concrete  was  laid,  and  then  the  structure  completed 
with  brick-work  faced  with  granite  ;  the  caisson  was 
gradually  raised  as  this  progressed,  and  when  it  was 
finished  up  to  the  water-line,  the  caisson  with  its 

Fig  1022. 


Caitson  at  Copenhagen 

suspending  stage  and  tackling  was  lemoved  to  the 
site  designed  for  another  pier,  where  a  similar 
operation  was  re|)eated. 

Caissons  of  this  kind,  having  an  open  bottom  and 
provided  with  air-locks,  act  upon  tlie  princi|ilc  of 
the  diving-bell,  the  pressure  of  air  in  the  working- 
ch.amber  and  air-locks  being  equal  to  that  of  the 
depth  of  water  in  wliich  tliey  are  submerged.  This 
]-enders  the  use  of  tlie  air-lock  necessary, 

Tlie  piers  of  the  Illinois  and  St.  Louis  Railway- 
bridge,  across  the  Mississippi,  at  St.  Louis,  are  con- 


structed by  means  of  an  analogous  device.    Sec  Air- 
lock, opp.  p.  49. 

These,  however,  are  not  designed  to  be  removable. 
The  matter  to  be  excavated,  being  principally  sand, 
is  brought  up  by  .sand-pumps  with  extension  suction- 
pipes.  A  hose,  connected  with  a  force-pump,  is  em- 
ployed to  reduce  this  matter  to  a  proper  consistency. 
When  solid  rock  is  reached,  the  air-chamber,  locks, 
and  shafts  are  filled  with  concrete  to  the  top  of  the 
pier,  which  has  been  giadually  built  up  on  the  roof 
of  the  air-chaml)er,  and  around  the  caisson,  as  the 
sinking  of  the  latter  proceeded. 

The  caisson  designed  to  find  a  stable  surface  and 
estalilish  the  foundation  of  tlie  pier  for  the  East  River 
Bridge,  between  New  York  and  Brooklyn,  iS  rectan- 
gular ;  in  length,  16S  feet;  width,  102  feet;  inte- 
rior liight,  9h  feet,  with  a  roof  5  feet  thick  ;  the  sides 
are  9  feet  thick  at  the  roof,  sloping  down  to  a  round 
edge,  so  as  to  facilitate  its  entry  into  the  ground. 
This  part  is  of  cast-iron,  protected  by  boiler-plate  ;  the 
remainder,  of  heavy  tunliers  strongly  bolted,  braced, 
and  speci.ally  coated  to  prevent  leakage  of  air  or  wa- 
ter through  the  ])ores  and  joints.  It  is  iirovided  with 
»air-shafts  and  locks,  and  air-supply  shafts  for  the 
jciiambers,  and  also  two  water-cliaiiibers,  into  which 
materials  excavated  by  the  workmen  are  placed,  and 
elevated  by  a  peculiar  dredge. 

4.  A  sunk  panel  in  a  ceiling.      See  CoFFEK. 

5.  A  chest  tilled  with  explosive  material,  laid  in  or 
beneath  the  track  or  expected  position  of  an  enemy. 

Cake-cut'ter.  A  device  for  cutting  sheets  of 
dough  into  round  or  ornamental  forms,  as  heart- 
shajied,  etc. 

Cake-mix'er.  A  device  for  incorporating  together 
the  ingredients  of  cake,  etc.  It  consists  of  an  exte- 
rior case  containing  upright  stationary  fingers,  be- 
tween which  a  set  of  downwardly  projecting  lingers 
are  caused  to  rotate  by  means  of  an  attaclied  crank, 
the  dough  or  batter  being  stirred  between  the  two. 

Cal'a-bas.  An  early  light  form  of  nmsket.  Used 
in  and  after  Lt/S. 

Cal  a-man'co.  (Fabric. )  A  woolen  stuff,  check- 
ered in  tlie  warp,  so  that  the  cliecks  are  seen  on  one 
side  only.  It  was  fashionable  in  the  time  of  Addison 
and  his  compeers.  The  stuff  had  a  fine  gloss,  and  was 
used  for  ecclesiastical  habits.  The  original  goods  of 
that  name  was  made  of  camel's-hair,  as  the  name 
mduates. 

Cal'a-niine.  A  native  carbonate  of  zinc.  The 
ouginal  means  of  alloying  copper  with  zinc,  obtain- 
ing brass.  This  beautiful  alloy  was  known  long  be- 
toie  the  true  theory  of  its  production  was  under- 
stood. Calamine  was  known  to  the  Greeks,  Komaus, 
and  Arabians,  but  does  not  seem  to  have  been  consid- 
eud  as  a  metallic  ore.  It  was  ascertained  empirically 
that  fusing  copper  in  contact  with  a  certain  stone 
4i\e  it  a  yellow  color,  and  the  result  —  brass  —  was 
highly  valued.  Aristotle  and  Strabo  refer  to  this 
i-aitli,  as  do  also  Ambrosius,  Bishop  of  Jlilan,  fourth 
century  ;  Priiuasius,  Bi.shop  of  Ailrnmetuni,  in  Af- 
rica, sixth  century  ;  and  Isidore,  Bislio]i  of  .Seville, 
seventh  lentury.  These  learned  jirelates  mention 
an  addition  by  which  copper  acquired  a  gold  color. 
This  was  undoubtedly  caiaininc. 

Albertus  Magnus,  A.  p.  1280,  seems  to  have  sus- 
pected the  tiiith  ;  but  it  was  reserved  for  Paracelsus, 
who  died  in  l.'i41,  to  define  zinc  as  a  metal  and  give 
it  the  ]iroper  standing  in  its  group.  The  great  Para- 
celsus was  an  empiric  rather  than  a  ])hiloso]iher,  but 
experiment  has  evolved  the  facts  around  which  the- 
ories ari'  s])un. 

Ca-lash'.  {Vchidc.)  A  light  carriage  with  very 
low  wheels.  It  may  be  open,  or  covered  with  4  fold- 
ing top,  wliich  may  lie  let  down  at  pleasure. 


CAI.ASH-TOP. 


423 


CALCULATING-MACHINE. 


Ca>Iash'  -  top. 

{Vehicle.}  A  fold- 
ing leather  top, 
with  bows  and 
joints  ;  somotimes 
called  a  ha/f-hcad. 

Cal'car.  1. 
{Glass-making.)  A 
furnace  in  which 
glass />■!<  is  calcined, 
to  effect  a  partial 
union  before  it  is 
vitrified  in  the 
glass  pot.  The 
word  is  derived 
from  the  French 
calquaise.    Colcar.    See  Fritting-furnacb. 

2.   {ifcbil.)     An  annealing  arch  or  oven. 

Cal'ci-na'tion.  0,\idation  by  the  application  of 
heat  and  aece.ss  of  air. 

Marble,  limestone,  and  chalk,  carbonates  of  lime, 
are  deprived  of  their  carbonic  acid  and  water  by  cal- 
cinalimi. 

Gj-jisuni,  alum,  borax,  magnesia,  are  deprived  of 
their  water  of  crystallization  by  calciiuUion. 

Copper  and  other  ores  are  calcined,  to  drive  off  the 
sulphur,  the  sulphurets  being  oxidized  and  sul- 
pluuic  acid  being  disengaged  and  volatilized. 

The  roasting  of  ores  is  a  common  and  analogous 
process.     See  Roastixg  ;  Dksuli'Hurizixg. 

This  exposure  of  a  body  to  a  strong  heat  destroys 
cohesion  of  the  parts,  and  renders  the  body  capable 
of  being  pulverized.  In  tliis  condition  metallic  bod- 
ies become  calxes  ;  otherwise  known  as  metallic  o.x- 
ides. 

Cal'ci-na'tion-pot.  A  sort  of  crucible  used  for 
pri'ii.ivin,;,'  aaiuial  eliareoal. 

Cal-ci'ner.     The  <  alriniug  or  roasting  furnace. 

Cal-oin'ing  -  fur'nace.  A  large  reverberatory 
furnace,  havnig  a  lire  at  one  end,  two  chinmeys  at 
opposite  corners,  four  doors  at  which  the  operation  is 
oljserved,  the  rabbles  introduced,  and  the  material 
withdrawn,  and  hoppers  above  by  which  the  ore  is  in- 

1023. 


v.oV,.'0\\\vV\v\\\\\V.\\\v\v^W\V'* 


Copper-Cakinins  Furnace. 

trodnced.  The  charge  of  copper  ore,  for  instance,  is 
about  3i  tons,  which  is  dropped  on  to  the  hearth 
Avhen  the  slidingbottoms  of  the  hoppers  are  withdrawn. 
The  hearth  is  23  feet  long  and  23  feet  wide,  the 
vaulted  ceiling  descendingtowardsthe  flues.  The  fire 
is  built  upon  scoriae,  which  are  piled  upon  the  grate- 
bars. 

The  effect  of  the  roasting  is  to  reduce  the  sulphu- 
rets, the  sulphur  uniting  with  oxygen  and  passing 
olf  in  a  gaseous  condition.  Ar.senic,  if  present,  is 
also  sublimed  and  carried  off.  The  product  is  in  a 
condition  for  smelting. 


Kotnri/  Calnitin^-Fiiriuiit 


The  process  with  this  charge  of  copper  ore  takes 
11-^  hours,  and  the  calcined  ores  are  raked  out  into 
reservoirs  below  the  door-nays. 

In  another  example,  the  cylinder  is  supported  on 
lollers,  and  is  lined  with  fire-brick.  It  is  also  pro- 
vided with  passages  to  contain  the  ore  to  be  calcined, 
and  to  conduct  the  products  of  combustion  from  the 
furnace.  The  passages  are  grooved  from  end  to  end, 
and  the  ore  is  sup))lied  to  the  same  by  means  of  a 
hopper,  the  supply  being  regulated  by  the  feed- 
de\-ice  ;  the  ore  escapes  through  into  the  trough, 
from  which  it  is  washed  by  a  stream  of  water. 

Other  forms  of  calcining-furuaces  are  circular,  hor- 
izontally-rotating tables.  See  Reducing  ;  Desl'l- 
pinniiziNG. 

Cal'ci-um.  Equivalent,  20  ;  symbol,  Ca.  ;  spe- 
cific gravity,  1.578  ;  melts  at  442°  F.  It  is  a  light- 
yellow  metal.  The  carbonate  of  lime  occurs  in  na- 
ture in  the  forms  of  limestone,  chalk,  and  marble.  The 
oxide  of  calcium  (lime)  is  an  ingredient  in  all  mor- 
tars and  cements,  and  enters  into  the  composition  of 
glass  and  jiottery. 

The  sulphate  of  lime  (gypsum)  occurs  naturally 
in  the  form  of  alabaster  and  selenite.  When  gi-ound, 
it  forms  the  well-known  plaster-of-paris,  used  for 
molding,  statuary,  and  for  manure. 

The  chloride  of  lime  is  weU  known  as  a  bleaching 
and  disinfecting  agent. 

Cal'ci-um-iight.  The  Drummond  or  oxyhydro- 
gen  light,  in  which  streams  of  oxygen  and  hydrogen 
are  directed  and  inflamed  upon  a  ball  of  lime  whose 
incandescence  gives  a  very  vivid  and  brilliant  light. 
See  DRUMMONn-LiciiT. 

Cal'cu-la'ting-ma-chine'.  The  abacus  is  the 
sinjp'.est  form  of  calculating-machine.     See  Abacus. 

A  number  of  these  are  considered  under  Arith- 
OMF.TER  (which  see). 

Pascal,  when  19  years  of  age  (1650),  invented  one 
which  forms  the  basis  of  most  of  the  calculating-ma- 
chines and  registers  of  the  present  day.  It  consists 
of  a  train  of  wheels  numbered  0  to  9,  and  gearing 
into  each  other  .so  as  respectively  to  represent  units, 
tens,  hundreds,  etc.  It  is  the  usual  registering-de- 
vice of  gas-meters,  etc. 

Babbage  commenced  one  at  the  expense  of  the  Eng- 
lish government,  in  1S21,  and  worked  upon  it  till 
1833,  when  work  u])on  it  was  susjiended,  after  an 
outlay  of  £15,000.  The  portion  completed  is  in 
the  library  of  the  King's  College,  Loudon. 

This  renowned  but  unfinished  machine  works  up- 
on a  peculiar  arithmetical  principle.  The  differences 
between  numbers  in  a  table  are  the  elements  out  of 
which  Mr.  Babbage  constructs  the  table  itself,  and 
on  this  account  he  called  his  a  Difference-Engine. 
For  instance,  in  a  table  of  square  numbeis,  1,  4,  9, 
16,  25,  36,  etc.,  the  diflerence  between  the  fir.st  and 
second  is  3  ;  between  the  second  and  third,  5  ;  and 
so  we  get  a  series,  3,  5,  7,  9,  11,  etc.     Again,  this 


CAIX'ULATING-INSTRUMENTS. 


424 


CALKNDAR-CLOCK. 


scries  of  Hrst  (liireri-iicfs,  if  viewed  in  a  similar  man- 
lier, iiresents  us  with  aiiotlier  ami  remarkable  series, 
2,  2,  2,  etc.  It  is  found  that  almost  all  numerical 
tables,  when  thus  analysed  i'nto  successive  orders 
of  dilferences,  end  at  last  in  a  wry  simple  series, 
constituting  the  materials  —  the  atomic  elements, 
so  to  speak — wdiich,  by  addition,  will  produce 
:dl  the  numbers  reiiuired  in  the  table.  The  process 
of  addition  lies  at  the  root  of  the  whole  method. 

How  to  aecomidish  this  by  meeiianism  was  the 
question  which  Jlr.  Babbage  undertook  to  solve. 
The  lir.st  term  of  the  table  and  the  first  term  of  each 
order  of  differences  being  given,  the  whole  table  can 
be  constructed  from  those  elements  ;  and  dials  were 
made  to  indicate  these  numbers.  There  are  rows  of 
dials  to  represent  the  successive  orders  of  diH'erences, 
and  rows  to  represent  the  successive  digits  in  a  num- 
ber ;  and  by  an  extraordinary  assemblage  of  mechan- 
ism, the  wheels  to  which  these  dials  are  attached  act 
upon  each  other  in  an  order,  determined  by  the 
original  adjustment.  Each  dial  has  on  its  edges 
the  set  of  digits  from  0  to  9.  There  are  axes  npon 
which  the  ilials  revolve  ;  teeth  to  the  wdieels  behind 
the  dials  ;  bolts  which  act  on  or  into  these  teeth  ; 
wedges  to  withdraw  the  bolts  ;  and  shoulders  which 
regulate  the  action  of  the  bolts  on  the  teeth-wheels  : 
all  this  determines  the  process  of  addition. 

When  it  is  understood  that  the  skillful  Dr.  Lard- 
ner  occupied  twenty-five  pages  in  the  Edinburgli  Re- 
view in  partially  describing  the  complex  action  of 
the  machine,  and- gave  up  other  features  as  hopeless 
without  a  mass  of  illustrative  diagrams,  we  shall  be 
pardoned  for  not  occupying  space  by  attempting  far- 
ther description. 

Harper's  JIagaziiie,  Vol.  XXX.  pp.  34-39,  gives 
some  account  of  it,  accompanied  by  a  cut. 

G.  and  E.  Seheutz,  Swedish  engineers,  constructed 
a  working  machine,  1837  -  43,  after  studying  the 
Babbiige  machine  ;  it  was  brought  to  England  in 
1854.  It  is  stated  to  have  been  bought  for  £1000 
for  the  Dudley  Observatory,  Albany,  is'.  Y. 

The  Messrs.  Schentz  have  since  completed  one  for 
the  British  government,  which  was  sulise(iuently 
employed  in  calculating  a  large  volume  of  life-tables, 
which  the  authorities  at  Somerset  House  declare 
never  would  have  been  undertaken  had  not  this  ma- 
chine been  in  existence. 

Cal'cu-la'tiug  and  Meas'ur-ing  In'stru- 
ments.     See  under  the  following  heads  :  — 


A  b.icus. 

Adding-machine. 

Addressing-machine. 

Almucanter-statf. 

Ambulator. 

Angular  instruments. 

Arrow. 

Atwood's  machine. 

Authometer. 

Back-start'. 

Balance. 

Ballot-box. 

Batter-level. 

Bench-marks. 

Bevel-square. 

Boning. 

Bow. 

Burette. 

Calculating-machine. 

Caliper-rule. 

Calipers. 

Chain-inclinometer. 

Cireumferentor. 

Circumventor. 


Coin-assorter. 

Coin-weighing  machine. 

Comparateur. 

Conformator. 

Counter. 

Counter-scales. 

Cros.s. 

Cross-staff. 

Danish  balance. 

Datum-line. 

Declinator. 

Delineator. 

Demi-circle. 

Dendrometer. 

Dividers. 

Dividing-engine. 

Dotchin. 

Dumpy-level. 

Dynamometer. 

Electrometer. 

Electric- balance. 

Fare-box. 

Fare-ri'gister. 

Faucet.  Measuring 


Forc'-staff. 

Funnel.  Measuring 

Gage. 

Gaging-rod. 

Garment-measurer. 

Gas-meter. 

Gas-register. 

fleometric  sciuarc. 

Grading-instrument. 

Ciraduated  glass. 

Grain-measurer. 

CJrain-scales. 

Grain-tester. 

Gun-pendulum. 

Gunter's  chain. 

Gunter's  scale. 

Hydrostatic  balance. 

Hygrometnc  balance 

Indicator. 

Jacob's  stall'. 

Label. 

Letter-balance. 

Le\'el  (varieties,  sec  Lev- 

EL). 

Leveling-staff. 
Libella. 
Limb. 

Linen-prover. 
Litrameter. 
Log. 

Lumber-measurer. 
Map-measurer. 
Meter  (varieties,  see  Me- 
te k). 
Metrograph. 
Metronome. 
Micrometer. 
Miter-square. 
Multiplyiug-machine. 
Najiier's  bones. 
Needle-instrument. 
Nonius. 

Nuinbering-machine. 
Numbering-stanip. 
Object-staff. 
Octant. 
Odometer. 
Optical  square. 
Outkeeper. 
Paging-machine. 
Peilonieter. 
Perambulator. 
Plane-table. 
Planimeter. 


Platform-scales. 

Plottiug-scale. 

Plumb. 

Prismatic  compass. 

Quadrant. 

Quadrat. 

Kecipiangle. 

Register. 

Scale. 

Scales. 

Sea-way  measurer. 

Sector. 

Semicircle. 

Sextant. 

ShulHe-scale. 

Sliding-seale. 

Specific-gi-avity    ajjpara- 

tns. 
Speed-indicator. 
Sphereometer. 
Spring-balance. 
Square. 
Stadium. 
Station-pointer. 
Steelyard. 
Stereometer. 
Surveying-cross. 
Surveying-chain. 
Surveying-compass. 
Surveying-instruments. 
Swan- pan. 
Tally. 

Tangent-scale. 
Tajie-measure. 
Testing-machine. 
Theodolite. 
Time-table. 
Touiists'  indicator. 
Transit. 
Traverse-board. 
Tiiangular-scale. 
Triiiod.  Surveyor's 
Tion. 
T-.--ciuare. 
Universal  .S([uare. 
Vernier. 

Vernier-compass. 
Vernier-transit. 
Volvette. 
W.iy-wiser. 
Weather-glass. 
Weigh-bridge. 
Weighing-machine. 
Weighing-scales. 


in  the  nature  of  an 
for   exhibiting  the 

(Siirijical.)     These 


See  al.so  specific  indexes  under  Meter  ;  Scopf.  ; 
Gage;  Gr.Ai-u  ;  Level;  I.nuicatop.  ;  Miciiume- 
TEi; ;  Rechsteh. 

Cal'cu-la'tor.  A  machine, 
ori'ery,  inveiiti-d  by  Ferguson, 
motion  of  the  heavenly  bodies. 

Cal'cu-li  Iu'stru-ment3. 
comprise  instruments  for  removing  stony  concretions 
in  the  human  bladder  ;  for  crushing  them  so  as  to 
iillow  them  to  pass  througli  the  urethra  and  be  dis- 
chai-ged  by  the  natural  flow  of  urine  ;  for  grasping 
and  withdrawing  them,  and  for  making  incisions 
into  the  bladder.  See  Lituontkipteu;  Litiiolabe; 
LrriioTO.MY  FoitcEPs;  Lithotomy  Knike;  Li- 
thotomy Staff,  etc. 

Cal'e-bas'ser-ie.  (Fr.)  A  Belgian  method  of  re- 
melting  ii.iu  in  a  sort  of  cupola  furnace. 

Ca-ieche'.   A  sujall  hooded  carriage  on  twowheels. 

Cal'en-dar-clock.     One  which  indicates,  iu  ad- 


CALENDAR-CLOCK. 


425 


CALENDAR-CLOCK. 


dition  to  the  minute  anii  lioui-  of  the  day,  the  day  of 
the  week  and  mouth,  —  sometimes  the  year  also, 
witli  the  phases  of  tlie  moon,  etc. 

The  Roman  calendar  is  said  to  have  been  intro- 
duced by  Romulus,  738  b.  c,  who  divided  the  year 
into  ten  months,  comprising  304  days  ;  fifty  days 
less  than  the  lunar  year,  and  lil  days  less  than  the 
solar  year.  Its  commencement,  therefore,  did  not 
correspond  with  any  fixed  season.  Numa  Pom- 
pilius,  they  tell  us,  713  B.  c,  correcteil  it  by  adding 
two  months,  and  made  it  commence  at  the  winter 
solstice.  Julius  Cwsar,  46  B.  c,  sent  for  Sosigenes 
of  Ale.^andria,  who  again  correited  it,  making  the 
year  365  days,  6  hours,  every  fourth  year  being  leap- 
year.  This  is  denominated  the  Julian  style,  and  pre- 
vailed generally  throughout  the  Roman  world.  Julius 
made  the  first  day  of  the  rcforared  year  begin  w'ith 
the  day  of  the  new  moon  following  the  solstice, 
which  day  thus  became  the  first  of  January. 

The  year  of  the  change  was  called  the  year  of 
confusion,  owing  to  its  containing  445  days.  The 
Greeks  left  otf  their  lunar  months,  and  their  in- 
tercalations of  45  days  every  fourth  year ;  the 
Egyptians  changeil  their  thot,  or  first  day  of  their 
year,  which  changed  from  one  season  to  another  ; 
and  the  Hebrews  did  the  like.  It  was  generally 
adopted  for  a  time  in  those  portions  of  the  three  con- 
tinents dominated  by  the  Romans. 

Time  works  changes,  but  changes  in  the  modes  of 
measuring  time  are  resented  innovations.  The  ver- 
nal and  autumnal  equinoxes,  the  summer  and  winter 
solstices,  each  formed  the  commencement  periods  for 
the  years  over  large  areas  of  country  at  various  times. 
The  uniformity  of  the  Roman  system  was  lost  when 
they  abandoned  their  provinces,  but  as  the  intellect- 
ualcenter  still  remained  in  the  South  the  nations 
again  gave  in  their  adherence.  By  an  edict  of  Charles 
IX.  in  1564,  the  beginning  of  the  year  was  ordered 
in  France,  at  January  the  first.  The  change  was 
not  made  in  England  till  a  much  later  period,  and 
is  far  from  invariable  even  now  in  that  country. 

In  the  time  of  Pope -Gregory  Xlll.,  \.  D.  1582, 
the  calendar  had  become  defective  to  the  amount  of 
ten  entire  days,  the  vernal  equinox  falling  on  the 
11th  instead  of  the  21st  of  March.  This  was  owing 
to  the  fact  that  the  solar  year  is  365  days,  5  houi-s, 
and  49  minutes  nearly,  instead  of  365  days,  6 
hours,  as  defined  by  the  Julian  system.  To  com- 
pensate for  the  error,  Gregory  ordained,  by  a  brief 
issued  October  5,  that  the  current-  year  (1582) 
should  have  only  355  days  ;  October  5  became 
October  15.  To  ob\-iate  further  irregularities,  it 
was  determined  that  a  year  beginning  a  century 
should  not  be  bissextile,  with  the  exception  of  that 
beginning  each  fourth  century.  Thus  the  years 
1700  and  1800  were  not  bissextile,  nor  will  1900  be, 
but  the  year  2,000  will  be  a  leap-year.  In  this 
manner  three  days  are  letrenched  in  400  years,  be- 
cause the  lapse  of  11  minutes  10.3  seconds  makes 
three  days  in  about  that  period. 

The  Protestant  States  of  Gei-many  adopted  the 
New  Style  at  various  times  from  1700  to  1774. 
Great  Britain  adopted  the  New  Style  by  act  of  Par- 
liament, September,  1752  ;  the  3d  of  the  month 
being  called  the  14th.  In  one  of  Hogarth's  pictures, 
"The  Election,"  a  drunken  bummer  holds  erect  a 
placard  with  the  inscription,  "Give  us  our  Eleven 
Days."  He  is  sitting  all  in  a  heap  upon  the  ground, 
protesting  against  the  loss  of  time  while  squander- 
ing the  present.  In  some  of  the  English  mining-dis- 
tricts, the  year  is  yet  divided  into  13  "  mining 
months."  Contracts  are  thus  made,  and  wages  paid  ; 
it  has  the  advantage  of  causing  the  month  and  the 
week  to  terminate  on  the  same  day. 


thus,  for  instance, 
2S  Dereniber.  1S72 


The  Greek  Church  have  not  adopted  the  Gregorian 
innovation,  as  thev  consider  it,  and  still  use  what  we 
call  O.  S.  (old  style).  The  Jews  have  their  own 
new  year  ;  so  have  the  Turks  ;  the  Chinese  celebrate 
their  new  year  by  making  a  dreadful  din. 

The  Russians  yet  adhere  to  the  Julian  style,  so 
that  in  writing  to    Russia   it   is   necessary   to    date 
12    ,r       1  25  September 

--   March,    or   -_-,,.  ,,      ,    or 
24  7  October    ' 

—  ,  as  the  case  may  be. 

9  January,  1S73  ' 
The  English  civil  year,  from  the  14th  centurj' 
till  the  adoption  of  the  New  Style  of  Gregory  XIII. 
in  1752,  commenced  on  Lady-day,  the  day  of  the 
Annunciation  of  the  B.  V.  M.,  March  25  ;  the  half- 
year  was  at  Michaelmas,  the  Feast  of  St.  Michael, 
September  29.  Leases  are  yet  drawn  in  England, 
occupation  and  rent  being  calculated  with  reference 
to  these  recurring  festivals.  The  Old  Style  is  still 
retained  in  the  English  Treasury,  so  that  the  Christ- 
mas dividends  are  not  considered  due  till  Twelfth- 
day,  the  midsummer  till  July  5,  and  so  on. 
The  usage  of  the  commencement  of  the  year  at  March 
25  is  still  retained,  so  the  first  day  of  the  finan- 
cial year  is  Lady-day  of  the  Ohl  Style,  that  is,  new 
Lady-day  March  25,  -I-  the  11  days  removed  by  act 
of  Parliament  1752,  =  April  6  ;  thus  embodying 
both  the  ancient  practices,  namely,  the  com- 
mencement of  the  year  at  about  the  vernal  equinox 
and  the  old  Julian  style,  which  had  lost  11  days  in 
1798  years. 

The  Mexicans  had  a  year  of  360  days  and  5  sup- 
plementary days.  They  divided  it  into  18  months 
of  20  days  each,  and  had  a  leap-year.  Their  year 
commenced  at  the  vernal  equinox. 

The  Peruvian  year  began  with  the  winter  solstice. 
The  Jewish  civil  year  is  12 
lunar  months  =  355  days. 
Their  ecclesiastical  year  be- 
gius  at  the  vernal  equinox, 
about  March  22.  The  civil 
year  5634  x.  M.  begins  Sep- 
tember 23,  1873,  and  ends 
September  11,  1874. 

The  Mohammedan  year  is 
12  lunar  months  =  355 
days  ;  the  year  1290  A.  H. 
(Anno  Hegirse)  commencing 
March  1,  1873,  and  ending 
February  17,  1874. 

The  Chinese  new  year 
commences  at  midnight  on 
the  recurrence  of  the  new 
moon  which  falls  nearest  to 
the  point  when  the  sun  is 
in  the  15°  of  Aquarius  ;  say, 
the  nearest  new  moon  to  the 
5th  of  February. 

The  first  day  of  the  new 
year  of  the  French  revolu- 
tionary period  was  Septem- 
ber 22,  1792  ;  their  year  consisted  of  12  months  of 
30  days  each,  with  five  sacred  (!)  days  at  the  end, 
dedicated  to  Virtue,  Genius,  Labor,  Opinion,  and 
Reward  ( ! ! ) .  The  bissextile  day  each  fourth  year  was 
devoted  to  the  renewal  of  the  oath  of  liberty. 

Tlie  appearance  of  the  calendar-clock  is  familiar, 
the  names  of  the  days  and  months  appearing  at  slits 
in  the  dial  or  case  ;  "or  else  indicated  by  pointers  on 
a  number  or  lettered  dial  or  dials.  The  illustration 
shows  one  of  the  first-mentioned  kind,  in  which  the 
names  of  the  days  of  the  week  and  months  of  the 
year  are  inscribed  on  two  revolving  drums,  and  pi-e 


1025. 


Calendar-Clock. 


sented  consecutively  at  slits  in   the   front   of    the 
case, — removed,  in  the  example,  to  expose  the  works. 


CALENDERING. 


426 


CALICO-PRINTINP,. 


Cal'en-der'ing.  Tlie  series  of  operations,  dif- 
fering iiccorcliiig  to  tlie  gooils,  of  straiglitening, 
damping,  pressing,  stretcliing,  starctliing,  drying, 
embossing,  and  watering  woven  goods  ;  including 
the  various  processes  intervening  between  the 
bleaching  or  dyeing  and  the  packing  for  market. 

The  fabric  is  lirst  passed  over  a  water-cistern, 
kept  constantly  full,  by  wliich  it  is  wetted,  pre- 
paratory to  being  drawn  through  a  pair  of  rollers,  by 
which  it  is  partially  smoothed.  It  is  also  ])ulled 
out  breadthwise,  and  the  edges  knocked  against  a 
smooth  beating-stock. 

It  is  now  ready  to  go  through  the  mangle,  which 
consists  of  a  number  of  rollers,  adjustable  to  any 
desired  pressure,  so  as  to  remove  any  creases  which 
may  remain.  For  this  purpose,  the  bottom  rollers 
are  sometimes  grooved,  the  grooves  spreading  out- 
wardly from  the  center  on  either  side.  Above  these 
are  three  smooth  rollers,  two  of  wood  and  one  of 
bi'ass,  which  enualize  the  surface  and  stretch  the 
cloth. 

The  starching  is  effected  by  di-awing  the  cloth 
under  a  roller,  which  dips  into  a  trough  of  flour- 
starcli,  fernicnteil,  previous  to  boiling,  to  deprive  it 
of  gluten.  Supertluous  starch  is  removed  by  other 
rollers,  between  which  the  cloth  passes,  and  falls 
back  into  the  trough. 

The  stuff  is  now  dried,  by  passing  it  over  heated 
cylinders  of  tinned  iron  or  copper  in  the  case  of 
heavy  goods,  while  muslins  are  merely  stretched  on 
frames  in  a  warm  room.  Wliat  is  called  jyatcnt finish 
may  be  given  it  by  working  the  two  long  sides  of 
the  frame  backwards  and  forwards  in  opposite  di- 
rections, giving  the  muslin  a  diagonal  motion,  which 
is  continued  until  it  is  quite  dry.  This  removes  the 
harsh  and  stiff'  appearance  caused  by  the  starch. 

The  process  of  giving  the  glossy  surface-finish 
distinctively  known  as  calendering  is  described 
under  Calkndkiuxg-m.vcuin'e. 

Cal'en-der'ing-ma-chine'.  Though  the  busi- 
uess  of  the  caleuderer  includes  all  the  tinishing  pro- 
Fig.  1028. 


Calenderins:-Mach  ine. 

cesses  by  which  bleached  or  dyed  cotton  and  linen 
goods  are  stretched,  starched,  glossed,  and  pressed, 
yet  the  calendcriwj-machinc  proper  is  a  machine 
between  whose  loaded  rollers  the  cloth  is  passed  to 
give  it  the  finish  and  luster  desired. 

Cloth  which  was  formerly  calenderi'd  by  burnish- 
ing with    a   smooth    flint-stone,  is   now  glazed   by 


passing  between  rollers,  one  of  which  moves  slower 
than  the  other,  so  that  a  rubbing  action  is  obtained. 

The  machine  was  introduced  into  England  by  the 
Huguenots  about  1685,  on  tlie  revocation  of  the  Edict 
of  Nantes.  This  edict  was  granted  to  the  Prot- 
estants of  France  by  Henry  IV.,  April  13,  1598, 
and  revoked  by  Louis  XIV.,  October  22,  1685. 
They  scattered  to  England,  to  Cliarleston,  S.  C, 
and  other  places,  taking  their  industry  and  their 
skill  with  them. 

The  fabric  is  first  damjjed  by  passing  it  slowly 
over  the  clamping  or  (legging  machine,  containing  a 
circular  brush,  the  points  of  which,  as  they  rapidly 
revolve,  just  touch  the  surface  of  the  water  and  dash 
a  cloud  of  fine  spray  against  the  cloth,  by  whicli  it 
is  unilbrmly  damped.    It  is  then  ready  for  calendering. 

By  means  of  a  weighted  lever,  or  by  screws  on  top 
of  the  calendering-machine,  any  required  amount  of 
pressure  may  be  applied  to  the  fabric  ;  a  very  great 
pressure,  by  flattening  the  threads,  gives  a  smooth 
and  silky  surface.  By  passing  two  folds  between 
the  rollers  at  the  same  time,  the  threads  of  each 
mutually  produce  a  meshed  appearance  on  the  other. 
A  watered  siirface  is  produced  by  passing  the  goods 
in  a  very  damp  statii  through  plain  or  indented 
rollers  ;  sometimes  a  slight  lateral  motion  is  given  it. 

The  rollers  are  heated,  when  required,  l>y  inserting 
a  red-hot  cylinder  into  them. 

Cal'i-ber.  1.  Tlic  bore  of  a  fire-arm  or  gun,  or  the 
weight  of  the  ball  which  fills  it  to  its  capacity, 
allowing  for  windage. 

Sometimes  applied  to  steam  cylinders  and  pumps. 

It  finds  three  diH'erent  modes  of  ex]iression  :  — 

a.  The  diameter  in  inches  ;  as,  8-inch  gun,  10- 
inch  cylinder,  etc. 

b.  In  the  weight  of  the  solid,  round  shot  adapted 
thereto  ;  as,  8-ponncler,  12-pounder  gun. 

e.  In  the  hundredths  of  an  inch  expressed  deci- 
mally ;  as,  carbines  and  rifles  of  .44,  .50,  .55  inch 
caliber. 

2.  (Horologij.)  a.  The  plate  on  wliich  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  pieces  of  a  clock  is  traced.  The  pattern- 
plate. 

b.  The  space  between  two  plates  of  a  watch, 
which  determines  the  flatness  of  the  movement. 

Cal'i-ber-com'pass.  A  form  of  calipers  adapted 
to  measure  the  sizes  of  bores.     See  C.iLII'EUS. 

Another  kind  is  used  for  measuring  shot  and 
shell.     See  SiiF.i.L-GAGE. 

Cal'i-ber-rule.  A  gunner's  calipers  ;  having 
two  scales  to  determine  the  weight  of  a  ball  from  its 
diameter,  and  conversely. 

Cal'i-co-prinfing.  A  mode  of  impressing  fig- 
ured designs  upon  cloth  ;  the  term  also  including 
modes  and  processes  not  strictly  mechanical. 

Calico  is  printed  cotton  cloth.  In  England,  such 
are  called  prints;  calico  being  the  plain  white  cotton 
cloth,  bleached  or  unbleached. 

The  name  calico  is  derived  from  Calicut,  a  sea- 
port of  JIalabar,  visited  by  Vasco  de  Gania  in  1498, 
and  afterwards  the  jirincipal  seat  of  the  I'oi'tuguese 
power  in  India.  Calico  was  brought  from  India  to 
England  in  1681. 

Where  the  art  originated,  it  cannot  be  said  to  be 
useless  to  inquire  ;  for,  though  the  positive  answer 
may  not  appear,  the  ini|uiry  leads  in  directions 
which  will  be  either  "  fresh  fields  and  pastures  new," 
or  to  regions  which  we  tread  again  with  pleasure  and 
enthusia.sni. 

The  Chinese  have  used  printing-blocks  from  time 
immemorial.  Printing  on  cloth  preceded  printing 
on  papei',but  it  cannot  now  be  determined  how  long 
ago.  Tlie  Chinese  applied  the  art  to  printing  on 
bark,  leaves,  skins,  or  scale-board. 


CALICO-PRINTING. 


427 


CALICO-PRINTING. 


The  natives  of  India  were  far  in  advance  of  all 
other  people,  both  in  the  variety  of  their  styles  and 
the  excellence  of  their  execution.  They  used  wa.x 
as  a  resist ;  used  inordants  of  different  kind.s,  so  as 
to  produce  dittereut  colors  by  boiling  the  cloth  in  a 
solution  of  one  color.  They  also  had  the  bimdamui 
style,  in  which  spots  are  left  white  by  topii-al  press- 
ure on  the  parts,  preventing  the  access  of  the  dye. 

Of  the  resist  style,  the  pallampoor  may  be  cited. 
In  this,  the  pattern  was  painted  in  wax  upon  the 
cloth,  which  was  then  dyed.  (See  P.\ll.\mpoor.  ) 
Of  tlie  mordant  stvle  we  have  an  excellent  account 
in  Pliny  (d.  A.  D.'79)  :  — 

"  Robes  and  white  veils  are  painted  in  Eg}'pt  in  a 
wonderful  way  ;  they  are  tirst  imbrued,  not  with 
dyes,  but  with  dye-absorbing  drugs,  by  which, 
though  they  seem  to  be  unaltered,  yet,  when  im- 
mersed for  a  little  while  in  a  caldron  of  the  boiling 
dye-liquor,  they  are  found  to  become  painted.  Yet, 
as  there  is  only  one  color  in  the  caldron,  it  is  mar- 
vellous to  see  many  colors  imparted  to  the  robe,  in 
consec^uence  of  the  inlluence  of  the  excipient  drug. 
Nor  can  the  dye  be  washed  out.  A  caldron,  which 
would  of  itself  merely  confuse  the  colors  of  cloths 
previously  dyed,  is  thus  made  to  impart  several  col- 
ors from  a  single  dye-stuff,  painting  as  it  boils."    See 

MoilD.^NT. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  Pliny  credits  the  Egyptians 
with  the  work  ;  this  may  be  true  as  to  the  goods  he 
saw,  but  it  is  also  quite  likely  that  the  goods  he  saw 
were  of  Hiudoostanee  manufacture,  brought  to  the 
Mediten-anean  by  the  Arabians.  It  is  evident  that 
the  Egyptians  also  practiced  the  art,  but  it  was  up- 
on linen,  and  not  cotton,  the  peculiar  stuff  which 
Heroilotus  calls  tree-wool  and  rightly  ascribes  to  In- 
dia. (See  Cotton.)  In  the  latter  country,  the  cali- 
co-printing, whether  of  the  resist  or  mordant  styles, 
was  performed  by  hand,  and  was  rather  painting 
than  priatincj,  as  to  the  mode  of  its  execution. 

Variegated  linen  cloths  of  Siilon  are  mentioned 
by  Homer  ;  and  Herodotus  speaks  of  the  garments 
of  the  inhabitants  of  the  Caucasus  as  variegated  with 
figures  dyed  by  infusions  of  leaves. 

Cortez  found  the  Mexicans  in  jiossession  of  the 
art,  their  garments  of  cotton  being  adorned  with 
Dolly  Varden  figures  in  black,  blue,  red,  yellow,  and 
green. 

The  art  was  practiced  in  Asia  Minor  and  the  Le- 
vant long  before  its  introduction  into  Europe,  and 
even  then  it  came  in  at  tlie  southwest,  with  the 
Saracens.  Abderahman  III.  founded  the  cotton, 
silk,  and  leather  manufactures  in  .Spain,  about  A.  D. 
930.  He  also  devoted  great  attention  to  the  sugar- 
cane, rice,  and  the  mulberry.  This  great  Arabian 
people  also  taught  Europe  to  make  Chinese  paper  of 
pulped  fiber. 

It  seems  a  pity  that  these  gentlemen  should  be 
worsted  by  those  gloomy  tyrants,  the  Pedros  and 
Philips,  and  that  the  liberality  and  civilization  of 
Cordova  should  be  superseded  by  the  bigotry  of 
Dominic. 

About  the  close  of  the  seventeenth  century,  Augs- 
burg became  famous  for  the  manufacture  of  its  print- 
ed cottons  and  linens.  About  the  same  time,  that  is, 
in  1696,  calico-printing  was  introduced  into  England 
from  France,  by  one  of  the  Fi-ench  victims  of  the 
revolution  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes.  He  established 
works  on  the  Thames,  near  Richmond.  This  vil- 
lainous act  of  Louis  XIV.  inured  to  the  benefit  of 
other  nations,  especially  England,  who  gave  an  asy- 
lum, to  many  industrious  artificers  and  artists. 
About  twenty-five  years  afterwards,  the  linen,  silk, 
and  woolen  nianufacturei-s  obtained  a  law  against  the 
use  of  printed  cotton  goods,  either  imported  or  home- 


made. This  was  relaxed  in  1730  to  this  extent,  that 
goods  with  linen  chain  and  cotton  filling  were  al- 
lowed to  be  printed,  paying  an  excise  duty  equal 
to  twelve  cents  jier  square  yard.  In  1774  this  re- 
striction was  removed,  all  cotton  printed  goods  were 
allowed  to  be  made  ;  the  duty  was  reduced  to  six 
cents  per  square  yard.  This  was  afterwards  increased 
to  seven  cents,  and  in  1831  was  abolished. 

The  history  of  the  fight  in  France  of  printed  cali- 
coes against  the  linen  and  woolen  manufacturers  is 
substantially  similar  to  that  just  recorded,  except 
that  the  government  of  France  resisted  the  mobs  in- 
stead of  becoming  subservient  to  them,  as  in  England. 
Thus  the  French  i)assed  thi-ough  the  ordeal  of  absurd 
sumptuary  legislation,  and  got  rid  of  the  incubus 
sooner  than  their  more  conservative  neighbors  north 
of  "the  Channel." 

"  Sir  Martin  Noell  told  us  the  di.spute  between 
him,  as  farmer  of  the  additional  duty,  ancV  the  East 
India  Conqiany,  whether  callico  be  linnen  or  no  ; 
which  he  says  it  is,  having  been  ever  esteemed  so  : 
they  say  it  is  made  of  cotton  woole,  and  grows  upon 
trees,  not  like  flax  and  hemp.  But  it  was  carried 
against  the  Com]iany,  though  they  stand  out  against 
the  verdict."  —  Pepys's Diary,  February  27,  1664. 

Coloring  substances  for  calico-printing  are  divided 
into  substantive  and  adjective.  The  former  are  capa- 
ble of  producing  permanent  dyes  of  themselves  ;  the 
latter  require  certain  intermediate  matters,  called 
mordants. 

The  commonest  mordants  are  the  acetate  of  iron, 
the  acetate  of  alumina,  and  some  solutions  of  tin. 

1.  Madder  or  chintz  style. 

The  parts  of  the  cloth  which  are  to  have  a  madder 
color  imparted  to  them  are  jirinted  with  a  mordant. 
After  aijeiny,  that  is,  allowing  the  mordant  to  be- 
come firmly  attached  to  the  cloth,  the  superfluous 
mordant  is  washed  away  by  a  warm  mixture  of  cow- 
dung  and  water.  It  is  then  washed  and  winced  in  a 
weak  solution  of  alum  and  size.  It  is  then  drawn 
through  a  colored  solution,  and  this  becomes  fixed  in 
the  parts  where  the  mordant  has  been  apjilied.  The 
cloth  is  washed  in  soap  and  water,  bran  and  water, 
or  dilute  solution  of  chloride  of  lime,  which  removes 
the  dye  from  the  unmordanted  portion  of  the  cloth. 
It  is  tlien  ready  for  linsing,  drying,  starching,  cal- 
endering, and  folding. 

2.  Printing  by  steam. 

In  this  process  the  colors  printed  with  a  mordant 
are  fixed  by  steam  driven  through  the  cloth  and  act- 
ing upon  the  mordant.  After  drying  and  ageing,  the 
thickening  material  is  washed  out,  and  tlie  cloth  fin- 
ished in  the  usual  manner  by  starching  and  calen- 
dering. 

3.  The  padding  or  plaquage  style. 

By  this  a  pattern  may  be  produced  on  white  or 
colored  ground,  or  a  ground  may  be  formed  for  a  de- 
sign in  other  colors.  The  cloth  is  spread  with  a  col- 
ored paste,  dried,  and  then  printed  with  another 
colored  solution  ;  a  chemical  reaction  takes  place 
wliere  the  colors  are  mingled,  forming  a  pattern  upon 
the  general  ground  of  the  former  color.  This  is  the 
style  referred  to  by  Pliny,  —  "a  design  on  a  white 
ground  is  produced  by  printing  with  one  solution 
anil  wincing  in  the  other." 

4.  The  resist  or  reserve  style. 

The  wdiite  cloth  is  printed  with  a  paste  which  re- 
sists the  action  of  color  when  the  cloth  is  placed  in 
the  vat.  The  cloth  is  then  dyed  in  the  piece,  and 
subsequent  washing  removes  the  dye  from  the  part 
protected  by  the  resist-paxte. 

5.  The  discharge  or  rongeant  style. 

The  dyed  or  mordanted  cloth  is  printed  with  a 
discharger,  which  renders  the  color,  where  it  is  im- 


CALICO-PRINTING. 


428 


CALICO-PRINTiNG. 


pressed,  colorless  or  soluble,  so  that  it  may  be' washed 
out. 

6.  The  cliina-hlicc  styh. 

This  is  only  practiced  with  indigo,  of  which  sev- 
eral shades  may  be  associated  with  white.  The 
bleached  calico  is  printed  with  a  combination  of  in- 
digo and  other  materials,  aged,  and  immersed  succes- 
sively in  three  solutions.  The  eft'ect  is  to  cause  the 
surface-indigo  to  permeate  the  cloth  and  become 
precipitated  in  an  in.soliible  form. 

7.  Decoloring  or  cii/cvagc  sli/le. 

The  dyed  goodsare  treated  with  chlorine  or  chromic 
acid  to  discliarge  the  colors  at  the  re(juircd  places. 

8.  Spirit-color  j>rintiiuj. 

The  colors  are  produced  by  a  mixture  of  dye  ex- 
tracts and  solution  of  tin,  called  by  the  dyers 
spirits  of  till. 

9.  The  bandanna  style,  in  which  spots  are  left 
white  by^opical  pressure  on  the  parts,  preventing 
the  access  of  the  dye. 

There  are  several  mechanical  modes  of  printing 
calico  :  — 

a.  Wooden  blocks  prepared  with  a  pattern  on  one 
surface  and  pressed  down  on  the  cloth  by  hand. 

J.  Several  such  blocks  fi.xed  in  a  frame  and 
worked  by  machinery. 

c.  The  pattern  engraved  on  a  flat  copper  plate, 
which  is  pressed  down  upon  the  cloth. 

d.  The  pattern  is  engraved  on  a  copper  cylinder, 
over  the  surface  of  which  the  cloth  is  made  to  travel. 
By  a  combination  of  cylinders,  variou.s  colors  are 
laid  on  to  form  a  various-colored  print. 

All  the  cheaper  in-inted  cottons  aje  now  printed 
by  tile  cylinder  process.  The  pattern  is  engraved 
on  a  roller  of  soft  steel,  about  three  inches  long  and 
one  in  diameter,  called  the  die,  so  as  to  exactly 
occupy  its  external  surface  ;  this  is  hardened  by 
being  heated  to  redness  and  suddenly  plunged  in 
colli  water.  The  design  is  then  transferred  by 
means  of  a  rotatory  press  from  the  die  to  a  similar 
small  roller  in  a  soft  stati-,  called  the  mi//,  pro- 
ducing an  impression  in  relief.  The  viill  is  then 
hardened  and  placed  in  a  rotary  press,  imprinting 
the  pattern  on  the  copper  qilindcr  from  30  to  40 
inches  long  and  from  4  to  12  inches  wide,  from 
which  the  calico  is  printed  ;  the  impression  has  to 
be  rejieated  a  sufficient  number  of  tinu's  to  cover  the 
face  of  the  copper  cylinder,  carc^  being  taken  to  make 
the  junctions  of  the  small  cylinder  accurately  lit 
each  other. 

For  costly  and  delicate  goods,  such  as  shawls  and 
velvets,  the  block  method  of  printing  is  still  adhered 
to.  Ill  this  method,  each  color  has  a  block  to  itself, 
on  which  a  certain  portion  of  the  pattern  is  cut  or 
engraved  ;  the  blocks  are  used  singly  and  by 
hand,  each  printing  as  much  as  its  size  will  permit. 
Where  the  whole  design  is  but  a  repetition  of  one 
small  pattern,  the  whole  surface  of  the  cloth  is  print- 
ed by  a  succession  of  applications  of  the  same  two  or 
three  blocks  ;  but  where  a  large  shawl,  for  example, 
displays  a  design  which  is  not  merely  a  repetition  of 
small  bits  of  jiattern,  the  numlier  of  blocks  often  be- 
comes multi])lied  to  an  extraordinary  degree.  A  fine 
barege  shawl  is  mentioned  as  having  required  more 
than  five  hundred  blocks  to  produce  the  entire  pat- 
tern, every  one  representing  a  ditt'erent  part  of  the 
device,  either  in  color  or  iiattern,  from  any  of  the 
others.  The  great  number  of  the  blocks  in  such  a 
case  is  principally  due  to  the  fineness,  intricacy,  and 
the  non-repetitive  character  of  the  pattern,  and  not 
to  its  size,  unlike  the  /oud  trousers  pattern  of  Re- 
gent Street,  which  required  that  three  gentlemen 
should  walk  abreast  to  exhibit  it. 

Ill  the  calico-printing  machine,  the  pattern  is  en- 


Fig.  1027. 


graved  on  cyl- 
inders of  cop- 
per,whichsup- 
ply  themselves 
with  their  re- 
spective colors 
during  their 
revolutions, 
by  means  of 
inking -aprons 
/  from  the  col- 
o  r  - 1  u  b  s  h. 
Each  cylinder 
is  engraved 
with  its  por- 
tion of  the  pat- 
tern in  relief, 
and  they  are 
so  arranged 
that  each 
makes  its  im- 
pression in  the 
exact  spot  in 
relation  to  the 
other  parts  of 
the  pattern. 
The  machine  illustrated  is  adapted  for  two  pattern- 
rollers.  The  cloth  to  be  jirinted  is  unwound  from  a 
roller  J,  and  passes  beneath  the  smooth  roller  a,  re- 
ceiving an  impression  from  each  of  the  rollers  c  as  it 
passes.  The  roller  a  runs  in  journal  boxes,  which 
are  regulated  by  a  set  screw  b  at  each  end,  and  a 
smoothing-roller  c,  actuated  by  a  set  screw  d,  holds 
the  cloth  against  the  roller  a.  The  pattern-rollers 
c  e  are  inked  by  the  aprons//,  which  {lass  over  the 
rollers  i  i  i,  the  outside  surfaces  of  the  aprons  coming 
in  contact  with  the  surfaces  of  the  rollers  g  g,  which 
revolve  in  the  ink-troughs  h  h. 

After  receiving  the  impressions  from  the  pattern- 
rollers  e  e,  the  cloth  h  is  led  ofl'  to  be  dried  and 
folded. 

In  another  form  of  the  machine,  each  copper  cyl- 
inder is  engraved  with  as  much  of  the  pattern  as 

Fig.  1028. 


Cniico-Printins  Mac/line. 


Cnli co-Printing  Mac/iine. 


the  printing  in  a  particular  color  ;  the  pattern  be- 
ing sunken  in,  not  raised  upon,  the  cylinder. 
The  cylinders  are  arranged  horizontally,  and  each, 
as  it  rotates,  dips  into  a  trough  containing  its  own 
particular  color,  mixed  as  a thickish  liquid.  Along 
knife,  called  a  doctor,  then  comes  in  contact  with  the 
surface,  and  scrapes  off  all  the  color,  except  that  con- 
tained in  the  engraved  lines  of  the  pattern.      The 


CALIDUCT. 


429 


CALIPER-SQUARE. 


cloth  is  made  to  travel  over  rollers  ami  beams,  and  to 
come  in  contact  with  the  printing-cylinders  in  suc- 
cession, being  pressed  u]ion  each  in  its  passage,  and 
receiving  from  each  an  impression.  The  cylinders 
are  exactly  placed  in  reference  to  the  pattern,  and 
the  tension  and  rate  of  the  cloth  is  so  regulated  that 
it  comes  to  each  cylinder  in  exact  time  and  place  to 
receive  each  color  in  proper  relation  to  each  other. 

Fig.  1028  shows  a  form  of  machine  in  which  the 
cloth  is  presented  serially  to  a  set  of  hexagonal 
prisms  whose  facets,  at  each  rotation  of  the  prism- 
carrier,  receive  their  color  from  cams  which  rotate 
in  their  respective  color-trouglis.  Two  of  these 
troughs  are  shown,  but  more  may  be  applied  if  de- 
sired. The  motion  of  the  prism-reel  and  of  the  color- 
cams  is  so  prearranged  that  the  salient  portion  of 
each  cam  advances  to  give  color  to  its  appropriate 
prism,  while  the  others  pass  by  uncoloi'ed.  10, 11, 12, 
are  ordinary  printing-rolls,  which  may  be  auxiliary 
to  the  prismatic  colorers.  A  is  the  main  cylinder 
whicli  carries  the  end  apron  on  which  the  cloth 
passes  from  the  pay-oft' roller,  past  the  printing,  and 
thence  to  the  dryer  or  ageing-loft. 

Cal'i-duct.  A  pipe  for  conve)ing  hot  water  or 
steam  for  heating  purposes. 

A  term  given  by  Cardinal  Polignac,  1713,  to  the 
pipes,  etc.,  in  which  air  was  heated  by  the  adjacent 
tire,  and  from  which  the  air  passed  into  the  room. 

They  were  used  by  the  ancient  Romans  (see  Hy- 
pocaust)  ,  and  in  the  Arab  palaces  of  Cordova,  in 
Spain,  about  A.  D.  1000,  being  imbedded  in  the  walls, 
and  carrying  the  heat  of  the  hypocaust  to  the  apart- 
ments in  winter. 

Ca'lin.  An  alloy  of  lead  and  tin,  used  by  the 
Chinese  as  a  lining  for  tea  canisters  and  boxes. 

Cal'i-pers.    An  instrument,  jointed  like  a  pair 

Fy  1029. 


r 

U^^^# 

3-£ 

IT' 
> 

fW 

IL 

J 

Lj.^»_r 

Cab'pnSt 

of  dividers,  but  with   arched  legs,  and  adapted  for 
taking  the  diameter  of  convex  or  concave  bodies. 

It  is  said  to  have  been  invented  by  an  artificer  of 
Nuremberg  in  1540.  This  will  not  do;  the  cali- 
pers is  a  mechanical  thumb  and  finger,  a  device  of 
very  ancient  date,  and  is  shown  ou  Roman  tombs. 
Sec  Com  r ASSES. 


a  is  a  bow  calipers,  with  arc  and  tangent  screw. 

b,  a  calipers  whose  legs  are  operated  by  a  worm- 
wheel  and  pinion. 

c  is  an  insidi:  and  outside  calipers  with  a  graduated 
arc  and  index-finger. 

d  is  a  calijiers  which  shows  by  the  index  and  arc 
at  the  joint  the  distension  of  the  jjoints.  One  leg 
has  a  spring,  and  expands  as  the  calipers  is  passed 
over  the  work,  the  index  on  the  leg  showing  the 
amount  of  variation  from  the  true  size  to  which  the 
joints  have  been  set. 

e  is  a  spring  calipers. 

/,  a  common  form  of  calipers  with  arc. 

(/,  inside  calipers,     h,  inside  and  outside  calipers. 

i  is  a  vernier  calipers,  for  inside  or  outside  meas- 
urements, which  reads  to  thousandths  of  inches. 
On  the  other  side  are  sixty-fourths  or  fiftieths  of  in- 
ches to  read  without  a  vernier.  The  description  of 
the  mode  of  using  this  instrument  is  well  worth  em- 
bodying here,  but  we  cannot  spare  room. 

j  is  a  spring  calipers  with  pivoted  operating  screw 
and  nut. 

fc  is  a  calipers  for  measuring  standing  or  cut  tim- 
ber ;  it  has  arms  about  thirteen  feet  long,  and  a 
brass  arc  on  which  are  figures  denoting  the  ijuarter- 
girth  in  feet  and  inches. 

Gunners'  calipers  are  for  measuring  the  bore  or 
caliber  of  guns  and  projectiles. 

A  scale  like  a  sliding-rule  has  different  sets  of 
numbers  engiaved  on  it,  to  exhibit  the  corresponding 
diameters  in  inches  and  weights  in  pounds. 

The  graduation  is  in  accordance  with  the  rule  that 
with  balls  of  the  same  metal  the  weights  of  the  balls 
are  as  the  cubes  of  their  diameters. 

Calipers  for  inspecting  hollow  projectiles  com- 
prise :  — 

Those  for  measuring  the  thickness  of  metal  at  the 
bottom,  at  the  sides,  and  at  the  fuse-hole  reinforce. 

The  first  consists  of  a  semicircular  arm  having  a 
diametrical  sliding  index  ;  the  second,  of  a  similar 
arm,  pivoted,  and  the  third  of  a  graduated  bar  with 
a  stationary  and  a  sliding  toe.     See  Shell-gage. 

Cal'i-per-square.  A  s<|uare  having  a  graduated 
bar  and  adjustable  jaw  or  jaws.  The  example  is  a 
rule  carrying  two  cross-heads,  one  of  which  is  ad- 
justed slightly  by  a  nut,  the  other  being  movable 
along  the  rule.  The  cross-heads  on  one  side  are 
adapted  to  the  measurement  of  interior  diameters  or 
sizes,  and  on  the  other  side  to  the  measurement  of 
external  sizes.     See  also  i,  Fig.  1029. 

Fig.  1031. 
Fi?.  1030. 


^ 


Caliper- Si  itare. 


CALIVER. 


430 


CAIXAUD   nATTEEY. 


Cal'i-ver.  An  old  I'orm  of  hand-gun.  Anarqucbics. 

Calk.  A  jirojection  from  a  shoe  or  clog  which 
digs  into  the  ice  or  frozen  ground  to  prevent  slip- 
ping. The  word  is  allied  to  the  Anglo-Saxon  word 
calc,  a  shoe  ;  or  the  Latin  calcar,  a  spur. 

In  a  horseshoe,  the  calk  a  consists  of  a  downward 
projection  from  the  heel,  made  by  turning  over  the 
iron  of  the  heel  and  sliarpening  it. 

The  calk  b  attached  to  a  boot  consists  of  a  plate 
with  spurs,  which  project  a  little  below  the  heel. 

Calk'ing.  1.  {Shipwrightinc/.)  The  process  of 
filling  the  seams  between  the  planks  of  vessels,  and 
of  spreading  the  ends  of  the  trceiiails,  by  driving  in 
oakum. 

Oakum  is  made  by  cutting  old  ropes  and  cables 
into  short  lengths  called  jmik,  and  picking  that  to 
pieces. 

The  seam  is  opened  by  a  reaming-iron,  driven  by 
a  hectic,  and  the  threads  of  oakum  driven  in,  one  af- 
ter another,  by  a  calking-iron  and  beetle.  It  is  far- 
ther compressed  by  a  tnaking-iron,  o^  horse-iron,  held 
by  one  man  and  driven  by  another.  This  is  called 
lwrsin(j-up. 

It  is  then  payed  with  melted  pitch. 

The  calking  of  plates  in  iron  ships  is  performed 
by  two  men,  —  one  holding  a  chisel  or  calking-tool, 
and  the  other  striking  it  with  a  hammer,  making  a 
slight  indentation  along  the  seam.  The  effect  of 
this  is  to  force  the  edge  of  one  plate  hard  against 
the  other,  and  thus  tiU  up  any  slight  crevice  between 
the  plates  which  the  rivets  have 
failed   to   close.     See    Calkixg- 

CHISEL. 

2.  Tracing  with  a  style  the  out- 
lines of  a  print  which  lies  on  a 
colored-chalk  paper  superimposed 
on  a  white  sheet  of  paper.  By 
this  means  a  chalk  outline  is  im- 
parted to  the  lower  paper.  It  is 
the  principle  of  the  manifold 
writer.     Also  written  calquing. 

Calk'ing  -  an'vil.  A  black- 
smith's anvil  or  hardy,  adapted  for 
the  turning  over,  forming,  and 
sharpening  of  horseshoe-calks. 

Calk'ing -chis'el.  Calking- 
chisels  for  closing  the  seams  be- 
tween iron  plates  are  made  of  dif- 
ferent sizes  and  forms.  The  an- 
nexed illustration  is  as  good  as  a 
specific  description.  It  shows 
chisels  in  side  and  front  views, 
and  also  the  operation. 

Calk'ing-i'roa.  A  C,a.lki>-g- 
CHisEL  (which  see). 

Calk'ing-tongs.  An  imple- 
ment for  sharpening  the  calks  of 
horseshoes.  In  the  example,  the 
set  screw  G  is  set  so  that  the  rear  of  the  calk  may 

Fig.  1033- 


Fig.  1032. 


u 


Calking-Chisek. 


Calking-  Ton%s. 

bear  against  it,  while  its  lower  edge  is  trimmed  by 
the  chisel-edged  jaw  H  without  detaching  the  shoe. 


Calk'ing-vise.  An 
anvil  with  a  jaw  at- 
tached, acting  as  a  vise 


to  gra.sp  the  shoe  while 

Calking-  \^se.  the  calks  are  sw'aged  by 

the  hammer. 

Calk-sharp'en-er.     A    device    for    sharpening 

horseshoe-calks.      In  the  example,  the  frame  £  is 

clamped  to  the  shoe  by  means  of  a  screw.     The  ro- 


Catk- Skarprner, 

tary  cutter   G  is  adjustable  on  the  frame,  and  is 
operated  by  a  crank  /.  •        " 

Calk-swage.    A  swage  for  Fig.  1036. 

forming  horseshoe-calks.  That 
illustrated  has  the  die-piece  B 
inserted  into  a  metallic  block  A, 
so  that  it  mav  be  readily  re- 
moved and  replaced  by  another. 
The  shank  sets  in  the  hardy- 
hole  of  the  anvil. 

Call.    A  boatswain's  whistle. 

Cal-Iaud      Bat'ter-y.      A  Calk-Swage. 

double-fluid    batterj',  invented 
by  Jean  Arniand  Callaud,  a  French  electrician ;  prac- 
tically a  modification  of  Daniell's. 

The  porous  cup  or  partition  is  dispensed  with,  a 
single  cell  being  used  ;  the  separation  of  the  fluids 
being  effected  by  their  difference  in  specific  gravity. 

In  the  cell  the  copper  or  —  element  is  at  the  bot- 
tom, while  the  zinc  or  -I-  element  is  susjiended  in 
the  upper  half  of  the  cell,  which  is  then  filled  with 
a  saturated  solution  of  sulphate  of  zinc.  Sulphate 
of  copper,  in  crystals,  is  then  gently  dropped  in,  fall- 
ing to  the  bottom,  where  it  dissolves,  and  remains, 
owing  to  its  greater  specific  gravity. 

Of  the  Callaud  battery,  there  are  several  modifi- 
cations ;  namely,  — 

Hill's,  in  which  a  vertical  glass-tube,  open  •  at 
both  ends,  is  introduced,  its  lower  end  resting  in  the 
copper  solution,  its  upper  end  extending  up  to  the 
top  of  the  cell.  Its  function  is  that  of  a  feeding- 
reservoir  for  the  copper  solution,  the  sulphate  of  cop- 
per being  introduced  therein. 


CALI^BELL. 


431 


CALORIMETER. 


Phelps's,  in  which  the  changes  are  merely  mechan- 
ical, giving  greater  surface  to  the  elements^  and  sus- 
pending the  zinc  by  a  central  upright  arm  from  a 
three-armed  support  resting  on  top  of  the  cell. 
The  Callaud  battery  has  met  with  great  favor,  and 
gone    into    extended 
use  on  account  of  its 
simplicity,    cheap- 
ness, and  constancy. 
Call-bell.       A 
small  stationary  hand- 
-  bell.     In   that  illus- 
ti'ated  a  vertical  plun- 
ger passes  through  the 
axis  of  the  beU,  and, 
by  means  of  its  slotted 
plate,     vibrates     the 
clapper,  which  is  piv- 
oted  beneath.      The 
blow   is  repeated   as 
[,_  the  plunger  is  again 
raised  by  the  spiral 
.  spring. 

Cal-li'o-pe.  Calliope  (the  sweet-voiced)  was,  in 
ancient  mythology,  the  muse  who  presided  over  epic 
poetry,  or  poetry  in  general. 

The  instrument  represented  in  Fig.  103S  can,  how- 
ever, hardly  lay  claim  to  be  called  sfccc^-voiced.     It 
consists  of  a  series  of  steam-whistles  toned  to  pro- 
Fig  1038. 


Ca-lor'ic-eu'gine.  A  name  conferred  by  Ericsson 
upon  his  hot-air  engine.     See  .iiR-EXGiXE. 

Ca-lor'i-fere.  A  French  heating-apparatus,  in- 
vented by  Bounemain,  of  Paris,  1777,  in  which  an 
ascending   current  of   hot  water   proceeds    from  a 

Fig.  1039. 


CaU-RU. 


Calmi/en. 

boiler,  and,  after  coursing  through  the  system  of 
heatmg-pipes  m  the  various  stories  and  apartments, 
descends  again  to  the  boiler,  comparatively  cool. 

The  system  has  been  amplified,  hot-water  urns 
being  placed  in  the  various  apartments  and  heated 
by  a  branch-pipe  from  the  main  artery,  the  cooled 
water  or  water  of  condensation  flowing  to  the  venous 
system  of  descending  pipes,  which  reach  again  the 
heart  whence  the  water  flowed. 

Watt  warmed  buildings  in  this  manner  in  1784. 

Cal'o-iif' ics.     In  the  systemaric  classification  of 

mechanical    subjects,   those    devices    concerned    in 

heating,  by  fire  directly  or  by  steam, 

hot  water,  or  hot  air  in  vessels  or  by  pipes 

or  flues. 

Heating  and  cooking  stoves,  grates, 
ranges,  and  fireplaces ;  hot-air  furnaces, 
flues,  and  ducts,  their  dampers,  valves, 
regulators,  and  thermostats  ;  gas  stoves 
and  cookers  ;  cooking-utensils,  and  the 
appliances  of  the  above.  See  list  under 
Stoves  .^xd  Heating-.^pplunces. 

Cal'o-rim'e-ter.  An  instrument  for 
measuring  the  quantity  of  heat  given 
out  by  bodies  in  passing  from  one  tem- 
perature to  another. 

Fig.  1040. 


CaUiope. 


duce  musical  notes.  The  valves  by  which  steam  is 
admitted  to  the  whistles  are  operated  by  keys  ar- 
ranged like  those  of  an  organ. 

It  is  sometimes  placed  on  the  upper  or  hurricane 
deck  of  steamboats,  serving  to  amuse  the  passen<rers 
and  a.stonish  the  natives  on  shore. 


Caionmeter. 

In  its  special  form,  as  invented  by 

Lavoisier  and  Laplace,  it  operates  by 
the  melting  of  ice  around  the  body  to 
be  tested ;  determining  the  specific  heat  of  the  body. 
This  method  consists  in  heating  a  given  weight 
of  the  body  up  to  some  fixed  temperature,  say  212° 
then  plunging  it  into  diy  ice,  and  subsequently  de- 
tei-mining  the  amount  of  ice  which  it  melts  in  cool- 
mg  down  to  32°. 


CALOIllMOTO:;, 


4.]2 


CAMEL 


The  body  whose  specific  heat  is  to  be  determined, 
after  having  been  weiglied  and  heated  for  some  time 
in  an  oil  or  water  bath,  is  placed  in  the  central 
compartment  M.  A  lid  is  quickly  placed  over  it, 
and  covered  with  povmded  ice,  whiidi  already  fills 
the  surroiiniling  vessel  A.  Over  this  another  lid  is 
placed  and  covered  with  ice,  which  the  outer  con- 
centric vessel  B  also  contains.  Finally  a  do\ible  lid 
covers  the  whole.  Tlie  vessel  M  is  tliin,  so  that  the 
ice  in  A  is  quickly  melted,  and,  rtowing  out  by  the 
stopcock,  is  collected  and  weighed.  The  ice  in  B  is 
but  little  affected,  and  any  w'ater  that  may  collect 
passes  off  by  stopcock  E. 

The  latent  heat  of  water  being  known,  the  specific 
heat  of  the  substance  n?fly  be  readily  calculated  from 
the  quantity  of  water  which  lias  been  melted  from 
the  ice  in  ^. 

Black's  method  was  a  single  block  of  ice  in  which 
a  cavity  was  made  to  contain  the  heated  body  over 
which  an  ice  cover  was  laid.  Aftei-  a  time  the  sub- 
stance and  cavity  were  wiped  diy  with  a  cloth, 
the  weight  of  the  water  of  liquefaction  determined, 
including  the  moisture  hnbibeil  by  the  cloth. 

Otlicr  modes  are  cited  by  writers  on  thermotics. 

Ca-lor'i-mo'tor.  A  voltaic  battery  formed  of  a 
single  pair  of  extremely  large  plates.  The  plates 
may  be  coiled  around  each  other,  and  suspended 
over  a  tub  of  acidulated  water,  into  which  they  may 
be  lowered  at  pleasure. 

The  apparatus  possesses  extraordinary  deflagrating 
powei'. 

Ca-Iotte'.  {Architecture.)  A  cup-shaped  eleva- 
tion or  small  dome  in  the  ceiling  of  a  chamber  or 
alcove,  to  increase  its  elevation ;  so  called  from 
calotte,  a  segment  of  a  sphere. 

Cal'o-type.  ( Phoiographij. )  A  process  invented 
by  Fox  Talbot.  Paper  saturated  with  iodide  of 
silver  is  exposed  to  light,  and  the  latent  image  devel- 
oped, and  afterwards  lix'ed  by  hyposulphite  of  soda. 

The  paper  is  floated  on  a  solution  of  iodide  of 
potassium,  dried,  floated  on  a  solution  of  nitrate  of 
silver.  The  effect  is  a  film  of  ioilide  of  silver,  by 
the  double  decomposition  of  the  two  salts  in  contact. 
Excess  of  salts  is  washed  away,  and  the  paper  dried, 
in  the  dark.  The  sheet,  before  use,  is  floated  on  a 
solution  of  gallo-nitrate  of  silver.  After  exposure 
in  the  camera  the  latent  image  is  developed  by 
nitrate  of  silver  and  saturated  solution  of  gallic 
acid ;  then  fixed  by  bromide  of  potassium  and 
hyposulphite  of  soda.  The  result  is  a  negative, 
which  by  a  repetition  of  the  process  produces  a 
positive. 

Calqu'ing.     See  Calkino. 

Cal'trop.    {FortiJicntioH.)    A  pointed  instrument 
to  impede  the  progres.s  of  cavalry. 
Fig.  1041  It  is  a  ball  with  four  spikes,  so 

arranged  that,  fall  as  it  will,  one  is 
vertical  and  the  other  three  stand 
as  a  tripod. 

Bronze  caltrops   (trihidus)  were 
■  used  by  the  Romans. 

Calx.      1.    Broken   and   refuse 
glass,  which  is  restored  to  the  pots. 
2.   A  metallic  oxide,  the  result  of 
Caltrop.  the  calcination  of  a  metallic  earth 

or  ore . 

Cal'y-on.  Flint  or  pebble  stone,  used  in  build- 
ing walls,  etc. 

Cam.  A  revolving  disk,  usually  of  a  spiral, 
eccentric,  or  heart  shape,  lixed  on  a  shaft ;  or  such 
other  form  as  to  impart  to  a  lever,  rod,  or  block  in 
contact  with  it  such  velocity  or  alternating  or 
variable  motion  as  may  be  required.  See  Cam- 
wheel. 


The  cam  for  one  form  of  expansion  gear  of  sti\am- 
engines  has  a  disk  of  cast-iron  whose  periphery  is 
cut  in  steps  so  as  to  suit  the  ditt'erent  degrees  of  ex- 
pansion. 

Ca-ma'ieu.  (Fine  Arts.)  A  painting  in  a  single 
color.     A  iniinochromc. 

Cam-ball  Valve.  A  valve  actuated  by  a  cam 
on    the    axis    of    a 

ball-lever,  so  .that,  as  rig- 1042. 

the  float  rises  in  the 
cistern,  the  cam  shall 
press     against     the  f 
stem    of    the   valve" 
and  close  it  against 
its  seat,  thus   shut-  Cam- Ball  Valve. 

ting  oH'  the  supply 

when  a  given  level  has  been  attained  in  the  cistern, 
tank,  or  boiler, 

Cam-bayes'.  Cotton  cloths  made  in  Bengal, 
Madras,  and  other  places  in  India. 

Cam'ber.  1.  A  curvature  upwards,  as  a  deck 
amidships,  a  bridge,  a  beam,  or  a  lintel. 

It  is  given  for  — 

a.  Conferring  stability,  as  in  a  bridge,  beam,  or 
girder. 

b.  Giving  a  water-shed,  as  in  a  deck  or  roof. 

c.  Compensating  for  settling  or  subsidence,  as  in 
the  soffits  of  straight  arches. 

2.   The  cur\e  of  a  ship's  plank. 

Cam'ber-beam.  A  lieam  which  is  laid  upon 
the  straining-hcnm  in  a  truncated  roof,  ami  supports 
the  lead  or  copper  covering  of  the  summit.  It  has 
a  slope  toivarils  each  end  to  run  oft'  the  water. 

CamTjer-slip.  (BricJchiying.)  A  strip  of  wood 
with  one  edge  curved  equal  to  a  rise  of  one  inch  in 
six  feet.  Used  for  striking  the  soffit-lines  of  straight 
arches,  to  give  them  a  slight  rise,  in  order  that  they 
may  s.'ttle  straight. 

Cam'brel.  An  iron  with  hooks  on  which  to 
hang  meat.     See  Gambrel. 

Cam'bric.  (Fabric.)  a.  A  delicate  linen  fabric, 
originally  manufactured  at  Camliray. 

It  is  of  fine  texture,  white,  and  is  checked,  striped, 
or  plain. 

b.  A  cotton  fabric  in  imitation  of  fine  linen.  Its 
varieties  are,  glazed,  white,  and  colored  for  linings  ; 
twilled,  figured,  striped,  and  corded. 

Came."  A  gi-ooved  bar  of  lead  adapted  to  hold  a 
pane  of  glass.  These  cames  cross  each  other  at 
angles,  being  usually  diagonally  disposed  in  lattice 
form  in  the  frame  of  the  window.  The  diamond- 
shaped  panes  are  termed  quancls ;  the  mode  of 
glazing,  fret-worlc. 

Cam'el.  1.  A  water-tight  structure  placed  be- 
neath a  vessel  or  a  load,  to  raise  it  in  the  water,  in 
order  to  assist  its  passage  over  a  shoal,  a  bar,  or  to 
enable  it  to  be  navigated  in  shoal-water. 

Camels  were  used  by  the  ancients  in  floating  and 
moving  heavy  obelisks  and  monoliths. 

The  camels  used  by  the  Venetians  for  floating 
large  vessels  over  the  Laguna  consisted  of  four  cases 
with  concave  sides,  so  made  as  to  embrace  the 
whole  ship.  They  were  towed  under  the  ship, 
fastened  together,  and  the  water  was  then  pumped 
out. 

Camels  are  in  frequent  use  in  Holland  for  floating 
vessels  over  the  sands  and  bars.  The  length  of  one  of 
these  camels  is  127  feet ;  the  breadth  at  one  end  is 
22  feet,  at  the  other  1 3  feet.  The  interior  is  divided 
by  water-tight  partitions. 

A  vessel  drawing  15  feet  of  water  could,  by  this 
means,  be  made  to  draw  only  11  feet,  and  the  lar- 
gest man-of-war  in  the  Dutch  service  could  be  made 
;  to  pass  the  sand-bars  of  the  Zuyder  Zee.     The  in- 


CAMEO. 


433 


CAMERA. 


vpiition,  ill  Holland,  is  ascribed  to  Meuves  Meinder- 
t.szoou  Bakker,  of  Amsterdam,  about  1688. 

The  approaches  to  Aiiisterdani  had  always  been 
olistnicted  by  sand-bars  and  similar  obstacles,  so 
that  vessels  of  heavy  draft  were  forced  to  receive  and 
deliver  the  greater  part  of  their  cargoes  several  miles 
below  the  city,  which  was  etfected  by  means  of  light- 
ers. To  enable  large  vessels  to  pass  the  shoals,  pre- 
vious to  the  invention  of  the  camel,  large  chests 
filled  with  water  were  fastened  to  their  bottoms,  and 
the  water  was  afterwards  pumped  out.  This  method 
was  atteniled  with  great  difficulty,  but  in  the  year 
1672  it  was  employed  to  get  the  whole  Dutch  fleet 
to  sea. 

The  camel  of  Bakker  consisted  of  two  half-ships 
built  in  such  a  manner  that  they  could  be  applied 
below  water  on  each  .side  of  the  hull  of  a  large  vessel. 

On  the  deck  of  each  were  a  nuinljer  of  windlasses 
from  which  ropes  proceeded  through  openings  in  the 
one,  and,  being  carried  under  the  vessel  to  be  raised, 
entered  like  openings  in  the  other,  and  were  carried 
to  the  windlasses  on  deck.  When  usecl,  a  sufficient 
quantity  of  water  to  sink  them  to  the  required  depth 
was  admitted  into  the  two  halves  of  the  camel  ;  the 
ropes  were  cast  loose,  and  the  vessel  conducted  be- 
tween them.  Large  beams  were  passed  horizontally 
through  the  port-holes,  with  their  ends  resting  on 
the  camel  on  each  side.  The  ropes  were  made  fast, 
the  ship  secured  between  the  two  parts  of  the  camel, 
and  the  water  pumped  out,  when  they,  of  course, 
rose,  bearing  the  ship  up  with  them.  By  this  ap- 
paratus, a  vesset  could  be  raised  from  four  to  six 
feet. 

A  primitive  arrangement  of  this  sort  was  used  by 
Perry  in  1813,  by  which  he  succeeded  in  getting 
his  two  largest  vessels,  which  drew  too  much  water 
to  cross  the  bar,  out  of  the  harbor  of  Erie,  Penn.,  in 
the  face  of  the  enemy.  The  guns,  loaded  and  shot- 
ted, were  whipped  out,  landed,  and  placed  in  bat- 
tery on  the  shore. 

A  large  scow  was  placed  on  each  side  of  the  vessel 
and  tilled  with  water ;  beams  were  passed  through 
the  jiorts,  resting  on  blocking  in  the  sunken  scows, 
which  were  then  pumped  out,  raising  the  vessels  sev- 
eral feet. 

The  camels  used  by  Colonel  Gowen,  in  removing 
the  sunken  vessels  which  obstructed  Scliastopol  har- 
bor, had  a  lifting- power  of  5,000  tons.  They  were 
nearly  submerged,  and  then  connected  by  chain-falls 
to  a  vessel,  through  the  ports  or  under  the  bottom. 
Being  then  pumped  out,  the  vessel  was  raised,  and 
floated  to  shallower  water,  when  the  process  was  re- 
peated, and  so  on. 

2.  (Stocling-framc.)  A  bar  mounted  upon  four 
wheels,  and  capable  of  being  drawn  foiward  and  back- 
ward tlirough  a  small  space.  Upon  it  are  mounted 
the  jac/cs  with  their  springs,  and  the  sJur-har  upon 
which  traverses  the  slur  by  which  the  jacks  are 
actuated   successively. 

Cam'e-O.     1.   Salient,  as  opposed  to  intaglio. 

2.   A  stcme  or  shell  carved  in  relief. 

The  peculiar  feature  required  in  the  material  is 
that  it  shall  have  parallel  layers  of  diH'ereiit  colors. 
Some  varieties  of  chalcedony  fulHll  this  reipiisition, 
as  the  nr/ofc,  which  is  striped  and  has  layers  of  vary- 
ing curvatures,  and  sometimes  curiously  contorted 
strata  around  a  general  center. 

Another  chalcedony  is  the  onyn-,  which  has  paral- 
lel layers  of  varying  colors,  and  is  considered  the 
choicest  material  for  cutting  cameos. 

The  commoner  material  for  cameos  is  the  conch- 
shell  (slromhvs),  a  moUusk  found  in  many  parts  of 
the  world,  and  having  two  distinct  layers  of  dilfer- 
eut  colors  and  character.     The  inner  layer  is  dark- 


coloi'ed,  black  in  the  finer  specimens  from  the  West 
Indies  and  South  America,  and  pink  in  other  speci- 
mens, whiidi  are  not  so  highly  prized,  as  being  less 
like  the  Oriental  onyx. 

The  porcclanous  or  inner  portion  is  very  hard  and 
intractable  to  tools  of  steel.  It  is  dark,  and  forms 
the  basis  or  ground  of  the  picture,  whicli  is  cut  in 
the  nacreous,  whiter,  exterior  portion,  which  yields 
readily  to  graving-tools. 

In  dividing  the  shell  into  pieces  of  suitable  size 
for  the  purpose  intended,  the  lapidary's  sheer  is 
used,  furnished  with  diamond  dust  orsonie  abra- 
dant of  sufficiently  hard  grit.  Whatever  may  be 
the  material  employed,  the  figure  is  cut  in  one  layer 
upon  the  other  layer  as  a  basis  or  gi-ound. 

The  piece  of  shell  is  cemented  to  a  block,  and  is 
cut  by  a  variety  of  carving-tools,  rather  ajiproaching 
the  chisel  in  their  manner  of  manipulation  ;  the  cut 
being  obliipiely  downwards,  to  a\'oid  scaling  otf  a 
layer  of  the  nacreous  shell. 

The  limits  of  this  work  forbid  detailed  artistic  de- 
scription. The  work  in  relief  is  polished  with  put- 
ty-powder, ap]ilied  by  a  tooth-brush. 

Engraving  in  relief  on  monocolored  gems,  such 
as  the  beryl  or  emerald,  does  not  fulfill  the  conditions 
of  the  true  cameo. 

Cam'e-o-in'crus-ta'tion.  During  the  last  cen- 
tury the  Bohemian  glass-makers  exciteii  surprise  by 
producing  bas-relief  casts  of  busts  and  medals  in- 
closed within  a  coating  of  white  Hint-glass,  and  an 
extension  of  this  art  was  subsequently  jiatented  in 
England.  The  process  consists  in  making  the  arti- 
cle to  be  incnisted  of  less  fusible  materials  than 
those  of  which  the  glass  by  which  it  is  incrusted  is 
composed.  A  mixture  of  China  clay  and  silicate  of 
potash  is  found  to  answer  this  requirement.  The 
bust  or  bas-relief  is  made  of  this  material  in  a  plas- 
ter mold,  and  after  being  slightly  baked  is  gradually 
cooled.  A  mass  of  transparent  glass  is  blown  hol- 
low, with  one  end  open,  and  the  clay  cameo,  heated 
to  redness,  is  placed  within  it.  The  mass  is  pressed 
or  welded  to  make  the  two  substances  adhere,  and 
the  glass-b'ower  draws  out  the  air  from  within,  thus 
causing  the  glass  to  collajise  and  to  firmly  unite  with 
the  cameo.  When  the  glass  is  cut  and  polished  to 
any  desired  form,  the  efiect  produced  is  striking  and 
beautiful ;  for  the  clay  cameo  or  bust  has  the  appear- 
ance of  unburnished  silver  isolated  in  the  midst  of 
the  solid,  transparent  glass.  Small  articles  are  in- 
crusted  in  a  more  expeditious  manner,  especially 
upon  glass  goblets  or  similar  hollow  vessels.  The 
hot  cameo  is  placed  upon  the  hot  vessel,  a  small 
piece  of  semi-liquid  glass  is  dropped  upon  it,  and 
this  both  fixes  the  cameo  in  its  place  and  forms  a 
glassy  layer  to  inclose  it. 

Cam'e-o-type.  (Photographij.)  A  fanciful  name 
given  to  a  small  vignette  daguerreotype  for  mount- 
ing ill  a  jcwele J  frame  like  a  cameo. 

Cam'e-ra.  The  cameras  used  in  photogra])hy 
are  known  by  names  which  indicate  construction  or 
purpose.     They  are,  — 

Folding,  so  as  to  be  portable. 

Expanding  ;  the  front  part  is  rigid  and  carries  the 
lens,  the  after  ]iart  slides  on  the  front  part,  and 
carries  the  dark  slide  and  focusing-screen. 

i?(.V7oit's-camcra  ;  the  front  and  after  sides  connect- 
ed by  a  flexible  cover. 

Copging-camerii. 

Solar  camera  ;  the  sun's  rays  are  transmitted 
through  a  transparent  negative. 

Stereoscopic  camera  ;  two  cameras  in  one,  takin" 
two  pictures  on  the  same  plate.  A  substitute  ar- 
rangement is  that  in  which  the  camera  receives  suc- 
cessive positions  on  one  stand  with  two  stations. 


CAMKRA-LUCIDA. 


434 


CAMLET. 


Panoramic  camei'a,  one  in  which  a  pictnre  niaj' 
be  taken  upon  one  flat,  including  an  angle  of  90° 
more  or  less.      Invented  by  Sutton.     See  also  Pho- 

TOO.r.AI'HIC  CAMERA. 

Cam'e-ra-lu'ci-da.  Founded  upon  the  inven- 
tion of  Baptista  Porta  (1589),  by  Dr.  Hooke,  about 
1674.  Improved  by  AVoUaston,  1805.  Phil.  Trans., 
Vol.  XXXVIII.  p.  741. 

It  consists  of  a  glass  prism  abed,  by  means 
of  which  rays  of  light  are  bent  by  two  reflections 
into  a  path  at  right  angles  to  their  previous  direc- 
tion. A  ray  of  light  proceeding  from  0  enters  the 
face  of  the  prism  at  ft,  is  reflected  by  b  an<l  c  till  it 
assumes  the  direction  c  E,  at  which  latter  point  is 
the  eye  of  the  observer. 

As  a  contrivance  of  Dr.  WoUaston,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  delineating  a  microscopic  object,  it  consists 
of  a  prism  fitted  on  the  front  of  the  eye-piece  of  the 
microscope  E,  in  place  of  the  cap  by  which  it  is 
usually  surmounted.  The  rays  passhig  through  the 
eye-piece  into  the  prism  are  reflected  from  its 
oblique  .surface  and  come  to  its  upper  horizontal  sur- 
face at  right  angles  to  their  former  direction,  and 


I  drawing  the  slides.     See  Photogbai'Hic  Camera; 
Sui.AU  Camera,  etc. 

Before  the  jdiotographic  art  had  attained  auy  ce- 
lebrity,  the   camera 

was  sold  in  the  stores  Kg.  1044. 

of  opticians  in  a  por- 
table form,  and  used 
in  taking  sketches 
from  life  and  from 
nature. 

The  beams  of  light 
enter  at  the  lens 
in  front  of  the  box, 
and  the  image  of  the 

objects  in  the  field  are  reflected  by  the  mirror  b 
against  the  under  side  of  the  gi'ound  gla.'is  a.  The 
outlines  of  the  objects  are  then  traced  on  the  ground 
glass,  or  on  a  sheet  of  paper  sufficiently  transparent 
for  the  purpose. 

Cam'e-ra-stand.     {Photography.)    A  frame  on 
which  the  camera  rests,  and  which  is  adjustable,  to 

Fig.  1045. 


Camera-  Obscura. 


Caviera-Lxtciila 


the  eye  receives  them  with  a  part  of  the  pupil, 
whileit  looks  beyond  the  prism,  with  the  other  part 
of  the  pupil,  to  a  white  paper  surface  X,  on  the 
table,  and  the  hand  follows  with  a  pencil-point,  P, 
the  outlines  of  the  object  apparently  projected 
thereon.  The  image  and  the  paper  orcupy  the  same 
field,  and  the  image,  therefore,  is  apparently  dis- 
played upon  the  paper. 

The  optigraph  is  an  instrument  for  the  same  pur- 
pose, but  of  dirt'iTcnt  construction.    See  Optigraph. 

Cam'e-ra-ob-sou'ra.  The  invention  of  this  in- 
stniment  has  been  credited  to  Roger  Bacon,  1297, 
and  to  Alberti,  1437.  It  was  described  by  Leonardo 
da  Vinci,  in  1500,  as  an  imitation  of  the  mechanical 
structure  of  the  eye.  The  theory  of  optical  sen- 
sation was  laid  down  by  Alhazen  the  Saracen,  A.  D. 
1100.     See  Binocular  Glasses. 

Baptista  Porta,  in  1589,  mentions  it  in  his  book 
on  "Natural  Magic."  Sir  Isaac  Newton  remodeled 
it,  1700.  Paguerre,  in  1839,  rendered  the  images 
obtained  therein  permanent,  after  Wedgewood,  Davy, 
and  Niepce  had  only  partially  succeeded.  See  Pho- 
tography. 

The  cam-'ra-obscura  as  described  by  Baptista  Porta 
is  a  dark  chamber  of  cylindrical  form,  with  a  lens  at 
one  end  and  a  white  card  or  paper  at  the  other,  so 
placed  as  to  \>i  within  the  focus  of  the  glass  upon 
which  the  external  im'ige  is  depicted. 

The  instrument,  for  the  uses  of  photographers,  has 
been  enlarged  and  improved,  .\chroniatic  and  peri- 
scopic  glass  have  been  employed  ;  facilities  for  ad- 
justment in  hight,  angle  of  presentation,  and  for 
focus,  and  arrangements  for  introducing  and  with- 


Camera- Stand. 

vary  the  bight,  horizontal  presentation,  or  inclina- 
tion of  the  optic -axis  as  may  be  required.  In  the 
example,  the  elevation  and  inclination  of  the  cam- 
era-platform are  obtained  by  a  com]>ound  arrange- 
ment of  lifting-bars,  ratchets,  and  pawls,  acting 
within  and  upon  a  frame  mounted  on  casters. 

Cam-gear  WTieel.  An 
arrangement  of  gearing.  Fijr.  1046. 

1.  The  motion  of  the  cam- 
shaped  cog-wheel  being  con- 
tinuous, and  the  rotation  of 
its  axis  in  uniform  times,  the 
speed  imparted  to  the  pinion 
is  variable,  and  the  respec- 
tive axes  alternately  ap- 
proach and  recede  as  the 
cogged  cam  revolves. 

2.  The  motion  being  de- 
rived from  the  pinion  by  the 
band  from  the  drum,  the 
meshing  of  the  pinion  with 
the  cogged  cam  will  give  a 
variable  vibrating  movement 

to  the  bell-crank  and  to  the  rod  connected  thereto. 

Ca'mi-on.  A  heavy  dray  for  the  transportation 
of  ordnance. 

Cam'let.  {Fabric.)  A  cloak-stufl"  formerly  rnade 
of  camel's  hair,  alone  or  mixed  with  silk  ;  since 
made  of  wool  and  silk  or  wool  and  flax.  It  was  a 
fashionable  cloak  stuff  in  the  days  of  our  fathers 
and  their  fathers.  It  was  rigid  from  close  weaving, 
and  nearly  waterproof.  It  went  out  when  india- 
rubber  fabrics  came  in. 


Cam-  Gear  Wkeel 


CAMOUFLET. 


435 


CAM-WHEEL. 


Camel's-haii-  cloth  is  used  for  tent  coverings  in 
Algiers  by  the  Kabyles  and  Berbers  ;  in  China  for 
carpets  ;  in  Turkey  for  soldiers'  coverlets ;  iu  Cir- 
cassia  for  dreadnaught  cloaks.  Fine  or  coarse,  its 
uses  are  great  and  various.  Marco  Polo  refers  to 
this  manufacture  at  the  city  of  Kalaka,  in  the 
proWnce  of  Tangut,  in  the  domain  of  the  great 
Genghis  Khan. 

"After  dinner,  I  put  on  my  new  camelott  suit ; 
the  best  I  ever  wore  in  my  life,  the  suit  costing  me 
above  £.  24  "  (Pcpijss  Diary,  1665).  This  was  a  rich 
silk. 

"This  night  my  new  camelott  riding  coate  to  my 
colored  cloth  suit  came  home "  (Pki'Vs,  1662). 
This  latter  was  possibly  not  "my  gray  cloth  suit 
and  faced  white  coate,  made  out  of  one  of  my  wife's 
petty-coates." 

Ca-mou'flet.    {Fortification.)     A  small  mine  or 
countermine  charge  intended  to  blow  in  the  side  of 
a  gallery. 
Cam'pa-ni'le.      {AnJiiiecture.)       A  bell-tower, 

principally     used 
Fig.  1047.  for    church    pur- 

poses,   but     now 
sometimes  for  do- 
mestic edifices  in 
the  Italian  style. 
Camp-bed.  A 
bedstead    for   the 
use     of    military 
men  or  travelers  ; 
they  are  variously 
constructed,     the 
object  being  light- 
ness and  economy 
laj.  of  space  for  facility 
of  transportation, 
and    are    usually 
n-ade  of  iron.     A 
cot. 
Camp-ceil'ing.     {Architecture.)     One  in  which 
the  marginal  portion  is  sloping,  following  the  line 
of  the  rafters,  while  the  mid-portion  is  level. 

Camp-chair.  A  form  of  folding  chair  adapted 
to  be  carried  by  a  pedestrian,  or  packe<l  away  in  an 
ambulance  or  wagon  when  on  the  march.     See  Fold- 

IXG-CH.\IR. 

Camp-kit.  A  box,  with  its  content.s,  for  con- 
taining soldiers'  cooking  and  mess  utensils,  such  as 
the  camp-kettle,  plates,  etc. 

Camp-mill.  A  mill  adapted  for  the  use  of  an 
army,  to  grind  gi-ain  on  the  march  or  in  camp.  It 
is  carried  on  a  wagon  or  running-gears,  and  is  some- 
times driven  by  the  wheels  in  traveling  ;  sometimes 
by  a  sweep  operated  by  horses  or  men  after  the 
wheels  are  anchored  or  sunk  in  the  ground. 

The  first  portable  mill  thus  adapted  to  its  own 
carriage  appears  to  have  been  invented  by  Pompeo 
Targone,  engineer  to  the  JIarquis  Ambrose"  Spinola, 
about  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century.     See  Grixd- 

IXG-.MILL  ;    H.\XD-MILL. 

Camp-ta'ble.  One  adapted  to  fold  into  a  small 
space  for  transportation. 

Camp-sheet 'ing.     (Hudraulic  EtJtjinecring.)    A 
piling  erected  at  the  foot  of  an  embankment  to  pre- 
vent the  out-thrust,  or  the  wasliing  by  the  current  j 
or  waves. 

It  consists  of  guide-piles  exteriorly,  against  which  I 
are  placed  wale-pieces,  which  are  horizontal  timbers.  , 
AVithin  these  are  driven  vertical  planks  of  the  na- 
ture of  pile-sheeting. 

Camp-stooL  A  chair  whose  frame  folds  up  into 
a  small  compass  for  convenience  of  packing  or  car- 
riage.    Camp-stools  were  known  in  ancient  Egypt,  \ 


Campanile. 


and  were  constructed  in  a  manner  similar  to  ours. 
They  frequently  occur  in  the  paintings,  and  some 
have  been  preserved  till  our  time.  One  found  at 
Sakkarah  is  in  the  Abbott  Collection,  New  York. 
See  CH.\ir. ;  Foliiixg-ch.^ir. 

Cetmp-stove.  A  light  sheet-iron  stove,  specially 
arranged  with  a  i-iew  to  portability,  and  adapted  for 
heating  a  tent  or  hut,  and  for  cooking  pui-poses. 

Camp-tu'li-coa.  {Fabric. )  A  compound  used 
as  a  substitute  for  carpet  or  oil-cloth. 

It  is  made  by  a  combination  of  powdered  cork  and 
the  poorer  qualities  of  india-rubber,  and  is  painted 
or  ornamented  on  the  .surface  like  oil-cloth.  It  is 
not  suitable  for  chambers,  as  being  a  good  con- 
ductor of  heat,  and  feeling  as  cold  to  the  bare  feet 
as  wood  or  oil-cloth.  A  convenient  application  of 
this  substance  is  for  cleaning  knives,  and  is  made 
by  covering  a  strip  of  wood  with  it ;  then  sprinkling 
the  surface  with  the  cleaning  powder,  and  rubbing 
on  the  knife.  The  surface  does  not  wear  away,  and 
the  result  is  very  satisfactoiT. 

Cam— shaft.  A  shaft  having  caTTis  or  ivipcrs,  for 
raising  the  pestles  of  stamping-mills.  A  tumbling- 
shaft,  or  tcaUoiccr.     See  C^m-wheel. 

Cam-'^heeL  A  wheel  with  a  projection  (or  pro- 
jections) either  on  the  periphery  or  face,  adapted 
to  give  motion  to  another  object  against  which 
it  impinges  by  sliding  contact.  The  zcijKr-wheei 
is  an  example  (which  see). 

In  the  illustration,  a  represents  the  cam-wheel  as 
lifting  a  stamp-rod  or  beetle  ;  in  b  the  duty  of  the 
cam-wheel  is  to  give  an  intermittent,  reciprocating 
motion  to  the  bar,  which  is  returned  by  a  spring 
after  each  impulse.      Their  forms  and  aiiplicaticns 


Fig.  1048 


^ 

m 


w 


Oim-mrcls. 


are  very  various,  and  the  actions  of  the  heart-wheel 
and  eccentric  are  substantially  similar.  The  Juart 
is  a  cam  with  a  regular  motion,  so  as  to  produce 
a  back  and  fonvard  reciprocation  in  equal  times 
without  any  sharp  percussive  action  ;  differiTig  in 
this  respect  from  the  action  of  the  two  prececling 
and  from  that  of  the  tilt-hammer.  See  Heart- 
wheel. 

c  is  a  cam  and  yoke  in  use  in  France  for  the  valve 
motion  of  steam-engines.  It  is  used  for  ginng  an 
intermittent,  rectilinear  reciprocating  motion.  The 
circular  disk  carries  the  cam  ;  the  valve  has  a  mo- 
mentary rest  and  then  a  rapid  motion,  a  single  stroke 
and  return  for  each  revolution  of  the  disk. 

Fig.   1049  is  an 


illustration  of  a 
cam-wheel  hav- 
ing a  waving  slot 
through  the  wheel, 
in  which  traverees 
a  roller  on  a  bar,  f 
which  communi- 
cates a  reciprocat- 
ing motion  to  the 
cutter  -  bar  of  a 
harvester. 

In     Fig.  1050, 


Fig  1049. 


Cam  Harvester-  M'heei. 


CAN. 


436 


CANAL. 


the  cams  are  on  the  faces  of  the  wheels  D  D,  consist- 
ing of  a  double  .-ievies  of  inclined  curves,  between 


D<mlile  Cam-Wheel. 

\v!ii<!h  is  the  race  U  of  the  roller  E,  whose  oscillation 
in  its  track  gives  the  reciprocation  to  the  rod  G  on 
the  end  of  the  cutter-bar. 

Fig.   1051  shows  a  disk  B  having  irregular  face- 
grooves,  by  which  are  actuated  the  bell-crank  levers 


Irregular  Cam'\n^el. 


of  the  needle-carrier  and  feed-bar  of  a  sewing-ma- 
chine. 

Can.  1.  A  sheet-metal  vessel  for  containing  liq- 
uids, etc.  Cans  are  commonly  cylindrical,  liut  for 
some  purposes  are  made  square  or  of  conical  form, 
and  provided  with  a  handle  and  spout,  as  oil-cans 
for  lubricating  purposes. 

2.  The  tin  cylinder  which  receives  a  sliver  from 
the  carding-maclune.  It  revolves  npon  a  center  ec- 
centric to  the  center  of  motion  of  the  delivering  sur- 
faces, thereby  causing  the  sliver  to  arrange  itself  in 
a  series  of  coils  throughout  the  area  of  the  can  ;  as 
the  can  is  fdled,  it  rises  against  a  plate  at  the  top, 
and  as  the  operation  proceeds  is  pressed  down  and 
condensed. 

Cans  derive  their  names  sometimes  from  peculiar- 
ity of  construction  or  material,  hut  more  usually 
from  their  purpose  or  intended  contents  ;  sucli  as  — 


Caustic  alkali. 

Oil. 

Fruit. 

Oyster. 

Gunpowder. 

Paint. 

Milk. 

Preserve,  etc 

Ca-nal'.  An  artificial  channel  fdled  with  water, 
and  designed  for  navigation. 

The  term  is  al.so  sometimes  applied  to  narrow 
straits  or  inlets  of  the  ocean. 

Egypt  and  Assyria  bear  the  palm  of  priority  in 
canals,  Their  immense  plains  were  early  irrigated 
by  water  from  the  rivers  Nile,  Eu]ihrates,  and  Ti- 
gris. The  main  arteries  of  their  network  of  water- 
courses became  the  avenues  for  the  transportation 
of  produce. 

The  great  canal  which  united  the  Nile  to  the  Red 
Sea  was  dug  by  the  orders  of  Sesostris  (1500  B.  c.) 
according  to  Strabo,  Pliny,  and  Aristotle  ;  so  that 
China  is  fairly  anticipated  for  once,  as  the  Great 
Canal  of  China  was  not  made  till  the  ninth  century 
A.  D.,  about  the  time  of  Charlemagne. 

The  Egyptian  canal  conunenced  about  twelve  miles 
above  the  modern  town  of  Belbays,  the  Bubnstis 
Agria  of  the  Komans.  It  was  about  96  miles  long, 
and  was  on  the  point  of  being  aljandoned  seveial 
times,  as  it  was  feared  that  the  fresh  water  of  the 
Nile  would  be  ruined  by  the  salt  water  of  the  Red 
Sea,  which  has  several  feet  greater  elevation  than 
the  usual  level  of  the  river.  The  difficulty  was 
avoided  hy  some  hydraulic  contrivance,  according 
to  Diodorus  Siculus  and  Strabo.  The  word  is 
translated  Sluice  (which  see).  It  was  probably  an 
inclined  chute. 

The  canal  built  by  Sesostris  was  reopened  by  Pha- 
raoh Necho  about  605  B.  c,  by  Ptolemy  Philadel- 
phus  about  300  n.  c,  by  the  Ca;sars,  by  the  Ca- 
liphs ;  and  was  abandoned  when  Vasco  de  Gama 
circuuinavigated  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope. 

The  canal  which  conducted  the  water  of  the  Nile 
to  Lake  Ma?ris  during  half  the  year,  and  distributeil 
it  during  the  other  half  for  the  purpose  of  irrigation, 
was  a  stupendous  work,  and,  according  to  Savary ,  was 
forty  leagues  in  length.  Two  additional  canals  were 
also  provided  with  sluices,  which  governed  the  in- 
flux and  eflflu.x.  Diodorus  Siculus  also  describes  the 
canal.  His  measurements  differ  from  the  modern 
ones. 

Herodotus  states  that  the  Lake  Mo?ris  was  exca- 
vated 1385  B.  c,  and  was  450  miles  in  circumfer- 
ence. It  was  probably  a  natural  basin  artificially 
adapted  as  a  reservoir  to  be  filled  during  high  Nile. 

Nebuchadnezzar  constructed  a  canal  400  or  500 
miles  long,  running  from  Hit,  the  Is  of  Herodotus, 
to  the  Bay  of  Graine,  on  the  Persian  Gulf.  It  is  re- 
ferred to  by  Strabo  (XVI.  1052).  It  has  been 
traced  by  Colonel  Rawlinson  from  Hit  almost  to  the 
Bay  of  Graine. 

Herodotus  and  Pliny  mention  the  canals  of  Asia 
Minor.  The  first  con.structed  in  Europe  was  proba- 
bly that  dug  by  Xerxes  across  the  low  Isthmus  of 
Athos.  The  Greeks  attemj)ted  to  cut  one  across  the 
Isthmus  of  Corinth. 

Among  the  early  European  canals  may  be  men- 
tioned the  canal  through  the  Pontine  Marshes,  made 
162  B.  c.  ;  and  the  Fossa  Phillistinaand  Carbonania, 
dug  by  the  Etruscans,  and  which  derived  their  water 
from  the  Padus,  now  the  Po. 

Cains  Marius,  51  B.  o.,  constructed  the  Fossa 
Marina  between  Aries  and  Fos,  a  haven  on  the 
Mediterranean. 

Lucius  Verns  undertook  to  unite  the  Saone  and 
Moselle,  and  also  to  unite  the  Mediterranean  and 
the  German  Ocean  by  means  of  the  Rhone,  Saone, 
Moselle,  and  Rhine.  His  death  prevented  the  exe- 
cution of  the  project. 

The  great  object  of  the  Romans  was  to  increase 
the  facility  of  transportation,  the  great  economical 
agent  of  civilization.  Their  land  and  water  ways 
were  the  arteries  and  veins  of  connucrce,  and   the 


CANAL. 


437 


CANAL. 


ligatures  which  bound  the  jirovinces  to  the  metrop- 
olis and  the  state. 

The  Khine  had  in  early  Roman  times  but  two 
outlets  ;  Virgil  eall.s  it  iicornis,  and  Tacitus  says 
that  the  largest  of  these  branches,  that  nearest  to 
Gaul,  is  called  Vahahim.  In  the  days  of  Char- 
lemagne the  Rhine  communicated  with  the  Escaut 
by  a  branch  of  the  Meuse  whii:h  has  since  disap- 
peared. A  great  inundation,  A.  D.  860,  obliterated 
many  minor  channels  near  the  efflux,  and  opened 
new  ones.  In  the  thirteenth  century  the  Zuyder 
Zee  was  converted  from  an  inland  fresh-water  lake 
into  a  gulf  of  the  sea  by  a  storm  which  destroyed 
the  barrier  between  it  and  the  latter.  The  Roman 
legions  under  Drusus,  n.  c.  12,  dug  a  canal  between 
the  Rhine  and  the  small  river  Sala,  as  a  military  de- 
fence ;  this  became  enlarged  into  a  third  branch  of 
the  Rhine  ;  it  is  mentioned  by  Pliny.  A  fourth 
branch,  the  Leek,  was  created  subse(^uently,  in  a 
similar  manner,  during  an  insurrection  under  Clau- 
dius Civilis. 

When  the  Roman  Empire  fell  to  pieces,  all  engi- 
neei'ing  enterprises  ceased,  and  the  completed  works 
fell  into  decay.  Charlenragne  revived  the  project 
of  uniting  the  Rhine  and  the  Danube,  so  as  to  con- 
nect the  German  Ocean  and  the  Black  Sea. 

The  first  canal  iu  England  was  the  Caerdike,  cut 
by  the  Romans. 

Canals  were  constructed  in  China  before  the 
Christian  era.  No  mention  is  made  of  canals  in  the 
Bible.  The  largest  hydraulic  works  therein  men- 
tioned are  those  of  Solomon,  who  introduced  abun- 
dant water  for  baths,  gardens,  and  fish-ponds, 
—  aqueducts,  not  canals. 

The  largest  canal  iu  the  world  is  the  Imperial 
Canal  of  China,  which  extemls  southward  from 
Pekin  and  unites  the  Pei-ho  with  the  Yang-tse- 
Kiang.  A  part  of  the  canal  was  constructed  in  the 
seventh  century,  and  a  part  in  the  ninth,  .a.,  d.  It 
is  825  miles  long,  and  with  its  connected  rivers  gives 
an  inland  navigation  of  2,000  miles,  and  connects  41 
cities.  Authorities  differ  as  to  whether  the  Chinese 
canals  overcome  grades  by  locks  or  inclined  planes. 
It  is  to  be  presumed  they  have  both. 

From  the  twelfth  to  the  fifteenth  centuries  canals 
in  the  Netherlands  were  made  in  great  numbers. 

The  ship-canal,  51  miles  in  length,  whereby  the 
commerce  of  Amsterdam  reaches  the  ocean,  is  wide 
and  deep  enough  to  Hoat  two  passing  frigates.  It 
was  built  1819  -  25,  at  a  cost  of  ^  4,250,000.  A  still 
deeper  and  wider  one  is  now  in  progress. 

Previous  to  the  invention  of  canal-locks  by  the 
brothers  Domenico,  sluices  were  employed  in  It<aly. 
These  were  boarded  conduits,  forming  chutes  down 
which  the  vessel  slid  or  floated  ;  a  gate  at  the  upper 
end  being  lifted  for  the  entrance  of  the  vessel,  and 
restored  again  to  foi'm  a  dam  to  preserve  the  upper 
level. 

Jlovable  gates  to  restrain  the  water  on  the  higher 
level  and  admit  the  passage  of  boats  were  introduced 
in  the  navigation  of  the  Tesino  and  Adda  to  Milan. 

Cresy  dates  the  invention  of  canal-locks  to  1188, 
when  Pitentino  restored  the  Mincio  to  its  ancient 
channel  to  the  Po,  from  whence  it  had  been  diverted 
by  the  Romans  in  the  time  of  Quintus  Curtius  Hos- 
tilius. 

The  canal  of  Languedoc,  which  unites  the  Garonne 
with  the  Mediterranean,  passes  across  the  narrow 
portion  of  France  north  of  the  Pyrenees,  and  is  150 
miles  in  length.  It  unites  the  Atlantic  and  Medi- 
terranean, and  was  constructed  liy  Audreossy,  an 
Italian  engineer,  in  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV.  The 
fall  from  the  sunnnit  at  Nanrouse  to  Cette,  on  the 
Mediterranean,  is  621  feet  6  inches.     The  fall  from 


the  summit  to  the  Garonne  is  198  feet.  There  are 
74  locks  on  the  eastern  portion,  26  locks  on  the  At- 
lantic section,  which  ends  at  Toulouse,  on  the  Ga- 
ronne ;  100  locks  in  all. 

The'surface  of  the  canal  is  64  feet  broad  ;  the  bot- 
tom, 34  feet ;  the  depth,  6  feet  4  inches.  The  canal- 
boats  are  80  feet  long,  18  feet  broad,  draw  5  feet  4 
inches  of  water,  and  carry  100  tons. 

The  canal  cost  $6,000,000. 

The  canal  of  Charolais  unites  the  Loire  and  Saone, 
which,  at  one  place,  ajiproach  within  eighteen  leagues 
of  each  other,  and  fall  into  the  Bay  of  Biscay  and 
the  Mediterranean  respectively.  The  project  was 
agitated  as  early  as  1555,  and  various  surveys  and 
reports  were  made,  as  well  as  several  connnencements 
attempted.  The  lavish  expenditure  upon  the  build- 
ings and  parks  for  the  personal  aggrandizement  of 
Louis  XIV.  delayed  the  works  of  public  utility,  and 
it  was  not  till  near  the  end  of  the  last  century  that 
it  was  opened.     Its  length  is  114.322  metres. 

The  canal  uniting  the  Somme  and  the  Scheldt  was 
undertaken  in  1776  and  completed  iu  1810.  The 
length  is  321  miles. 

The  canal  of  Orleans  is  45  miles  long,  uniting  the 
Loire  and  the  Seine. 

The  canal  between  the  Baltic  and  North  Seas  at 
Kiel  was  opened  1785.  That  from  the  Cattegat  to 
the  Baltic,  1794-1800.  The  main  Une  of  the  Ganges 
Canal,  525  miles  long,  for  irrigating  the  country  be- 
tween the  Ganges  and  the  Jumna,  was  opened  in  ' 
1854.  When  completed,  it  will  be  900  miles  long, 
and  will  irrigate  1,470,000  acres.  Its  estimated  cost 
is  £'1,555,548.     Sir  Proby  Cautley,  engineer. 

The  canal  in  England  joining  the  Tient  and  the 
Witham  was  made  A.  D.  1134,  in  the  reign  of  Hen- 
ry I.  The  Bridgewater  Canal  commenced  in  1759. 
In  England  there  are  2,800  miles  of  canals. 

Of  the  American  canals  :  — 

The  James  River  and  Kanawha,  147  miles  long, 
overcomes  the  greatest  grade,  having  a  lift  of  1,916 
feet. 

The  Morris  and  Essex,  101  miles  long,  overcomes 
a  grade  of  1,674  feet,  accomplished  by  29  locks  and 
22  inclined  planes. 

The  Eric,  by  DeWitt  Clinton,  is  the  longest,  363 
miles,  wuth  84  locks. 

The  Erie  Canal  was  commenced  in  1817,  and  com- 
pleted in  1825.  The  main  line  leading  from  Albany, 
on  the  Hudson,  to  Buffalo,  on  Lake  Erie,  measures 
363  miles  in  length,  and  cost  about  $7,200,000. 
The  Champlain,  Oswego,  Chemung,  Cayuga,  and 
Crooked  Lake  Canals,  and  some  others,  join  the 
main  line,  and,  including  these  branch  canals,  it 
measures  543  miles  in  length,  and  cost  upwards  of 
.'111,500,000.  This  canal  was  originally  40  feet  in 
breadth  at  the  water-line,  28  feet  at  the  bottom,  and 
4  feet  in  depth.  Its  dimensions  jn-oved  too  small 
lor  the  extensive  trade  which  it  had  to  support,  and 
the  depth  of  water  was  increased  to  7  feet,  and  the  ex- 
treme breadth  of  the  canal  to  60  feet.  There  are  84 
locks  on  the  main  line.  These  locks,  originally  90 
feet  in  length  and  15  in  breadth,  and  with  an  aver- 
age lift  of  8  feet  2  inches,  have  since  been  much  en- 
larged. The  total  rise  and  fall  is  692  feet.  The  tow- 
path  is  elevated  4  feet  above  the  level  of  the  water,  and 
is  10  feet  in  breadth.  At  Lockport  the  canal  de- 
scends 60  feet  by  means  of  5  locks  excavated  in  solid 
rock,  and  afterwards  jiroceeds  on  a  uniform  level  for 
a  distance  of  63  miles  to  Genesee  River,  over 
which  it  is  carried  on  an  nqueduct  having  9  arches 
of  50  feet  span  each.  Eight  and  a  half  miles  from 
this  point  it  passes  over  the  Cayuga  marsh,  on  an 
embankment  2  nules  in  length,  and  in  some  places 
70  feet  in  hight.     At  Syracuse,  the  "long  level" 


CANAL. 


438 


CANAL. 


conmiences,  which  extends  for  a  distance  of  69^ 
miles  to  Frankfort,  without  an  interveninf;  look. 
Aftei'  leaving  Frankfort,  the  canal  crosses  the  river 
Mohawk,  first  by  an  acjueduet  748  feet  in  length, 
su])))orted  on  16  piei-s,  elevated  25  feet  above  the 
surface  of  the  river,  an<l  afterwards  by  another  aque- 
duct 1,188  feet  iu  length,  and  emerges  into  the  Hud- 
son at  Albany. 

The  widest  are  the  Cornwall,  Beauharnois,  and 
Lachine  (Canada),  being  respectively  12,  11,  and  8i 
miles  long,  ami  150,  190,  and  120  feet  wide.  Each 
lias  a  depth  of  10  feet,  and  locks  200  feet  long,  re- 
spectively 55,  45,  and  55  feet  wide.  The  most  costly 
pet  mile  is  the  Lachine  (Canada),  Si  miles  long, 
cost  $2,000,000  ;  .1235,934  per  mile.'  The  Chesa- 
peake and  Delaware  cost  $203,703  per  mile.  The 
cheapest  per  mile  is  the  Ohio  and  Erie,  307  miles 
long,  §15,300  permile.  The  greatest  number  of  locks 
are  on  the  .Seliuylkill  Canal,  108  miles  long,  120  locks. 

The  Welland  (Canada),  36  miles  long,  admits  ves- 
sels of  a  tonnage  of  500  tons.  The  locks  have  dou- 
ble the  capacity  of  any  other.      Cost,  $7,000,000. 

The  Suez  Canal  connects  the  Mediterranean  and 
the  Red  Sea,  thus  uniting  the  Atlantic  and  Indian 
Oceans,  and  saving  the  immense  (Uloitr  around  the 
continent  of  Africa  foimerly  necessary  to  reach  the 
Indies  from  any  portion  of  Europe.  The  length  of 
the  canal  is  about  90  miles,  having  a  depth  of  from 
20  to  26  feet,  and  a  width  of  from  180  to  300  feet, 
snlficient  to  accommodate  vessels  pa.ssing  each  other 
on  tlie  transit  from  ocean  to  ocean.  The  total  cost 
of  this  canal,  with  the  necessary  docks,  etc.,  was 
about  $100,000,000. 

In  the  making  of  the  Suez  Canal,  the  total  amount 
of  earth  removed  amounted  to  about  ibur  hundred 
million  cubic  yards.  By  working  day  and  night, 
the  machines  of  M.  Borel  and  Lavelley  were  able  to 
remove  78,056  to  108,000  cubic  metres  jier  month. 

After  ten  years  of  labor  this  great  work  was  com- 
pleted. Upon  the  17th  of  November,  1S69,  the 
opening  of  the  canal  was  inaugurated  iu  the  presence 
of  the  Empress  Eugenie  and  the  Emperor  of  Austria, 
and  of  princes,  ambassadoi's,  and  men  of  science 
from  Europe  and  America. 

The  transit  l>etween  the  two  seas  was  safely  made 
by  the  fleet.  But  the  reipiisite  depth  had  not  been 
ittained.  Seventeen  and  a  half  feet  of  draft  could 
he  carried  through  the  canal.  Since  then  the  depth 
}ias  been  increased  to  twenty-two  feet,  and  ultimate- 
ly will  be  twenty-six  feet. 

The  length  of  the  canal  is  100  miles.  The  estab- 
lislied  surface-width  is  about  328  feet,  except  in  dif- 
ficult cuttings,  wiiere  it  is  190  feet.  The  lea.st  bot- 
tom width  is  72  feet.  The  highest  ground  cut  through 
is  at  El  Guisr,  where  it  is  85  feet ;  at  Serapeum  it  is 
62  feet  ;  and  at  Chalouf,  near  Suez,  it  is  56  feet. 

The  excavation  of  the  canal,  although  of  consider- 
able difficulty,  was  exceeded  by  the  necessity  for 
creating  artificial  harbors  at  the  extremities.  The 
harbor  at  Port  Said,  upon  the  Mediterranean,  has 
the  general  form  of  a  triangle,  the  base  resting  on 
the  shore  and  the  longer  side  on  the  west,  protecting 
the  entrance  from  the  moving  sand.  The  longer  arm 
or  mole  is  8,200  feet,  extending  to  the  26-feet  curve 
of  sounding.  It  is  proposed  to  extend  this  mole 
2,300  feet  farther.  As  this  harbor  is  exposed  to 
northeast  win^s,  an  inside  basin  has  iieen  construct- 
ed. The  area  of  the  outer  harbor  is  e(iual  to  400 
acres,  and  will  permit  twenty  line-of-battle  ships  to 
swing  freely  at  anchor. 

At  the  other  extremity  of  the  canal,  a  mole  2,550 
feet  in  length  protects  the  channel,  which  has  been 
dredged  to  tlie  depth  of  27  feet.  The  mole  at  Suez 
diti'ers  from  that  at  Port  Said  in  construction  ;  the 


latter  being  formed  of  concrete  blocks  of  13  cubic 
feet,  the  former  of  stone  ijuarried  from  the  neighbor- 
ing mountain. 

The  following  is  a  summary  of  the  expenditures  up 
to  the  date  of  the  opening  of  the"canal  :  — 

General   expenditures    for   preliminary 

surveys  from  1854  to  1859         .         .  $15,825,525 
General  expenses  of  administration  and 
negotiations     between     France     and 

Egypt 3,394,245 

Sanitary  service,  1866-1869     .         .  121,410 

Telegraph  service           .....  34,000 

TransjTOrt  service,  boats,  stock,  buildings  1,644, 435 

Payment  of  contractors  for  material  3,442,785 

Dredging-machiues  and  heavy  plant     .  6,819,240 

Workshops 844,150 

Works  of  construction,  canal,  and  ports  43,534,330 

Miscellaneous 1,392,495 

Expenses  of  various  branches  of  com- 
pany management    ....  3,841,050 


$80,893,665 


The  average  cost  of  the  canal  per  mile  is       $808,936 

This  magnificent  work  is  a  better  scheme  than  the 
proposition  of  another  Frenchman  ;  to  dig  a  canal 
from  the  Bay  of  Acre  to  the  water-shed  of  the  Jor- 
dan, and  across  the  water-shed  between  the  Dead 
Sea  and  the  Gulf  of  Akabah,  thus  uniting  the  Medi- 
terranean \nt\\  the  Red  Sea. 

Tlie  depression  of  the  valley  of  the  Jordan  is  a 
long  narrow  basin,  200  miles  in  length  and  about 
20  in  breadth.  ^Vbout  one  fourth  is  now  covered 
with  water.  It  includes  the  Dead  Sea  and  the  Lake 
of  Tiberias,  which  are  60  miles  apart,  and  the  river 
Jordan,  by  which  they  are  connected.  The  depth 
of  the  ordinary  surface  of  the  water  in  the  Dead 
Sea  is  1,388  feet  below  the  Mediterranean  water- 
level,  and  the  depth  of  water  in  the  deepest  part  of 
the  Dead  Sea  is  1,350  feet  ;  showing  the  total 
depth  of  this  great  depression  to  be  2,738  feet  below 
the  Mediterranean  level.  The  land  adjacent  to  the 
sea,  however,  is  a  talile-land  3,000  feet  above  the 
Mediterranean,  so  that  the  whole  depth  of  this 
gi'eat  natural  gorge  is  about  6,000  feet.  The  gorge 
is  continued  through  the  Red  Sea  into  the  Indian 
Ocean,  but  a  ridge  113  feet  above  the  Red  Sea 
separates  the  waters  of  the  Gulf  of  Akabah  from 
those  of  the  Salt  Lake.  The  fissure,  with  the  ex- 
ception stated,  may  thus  be  said  to  extend  from 
Mount  Hermon  to  .\kabah,  350  miles,  and  thence 
to  the  Straits  of  Babelmandeb,  1,200  miles  farther. 

The  water  of  the  Red  Sea  has  a  few  feet  elevation 
above  that  of  the  Mediterranean,  which  would  make 
a  water- fiill  of  1,400  fi-et  deptli  if  the  water-shed  at 
the  north  end  of  the  Gulf  of  Akabah  were  to  be  cut 
through,  allowing  the  gorge  to  fill  with  the  waters 
of  the  south. 

This  would  add  about  1,400  feet  depth  of  water 
to  the  Dead  Sea,  and  would  put  the  lower  end  of 
the  Jordan  that  far  iinder  water.  The  city  of 
Tiberius  would  be  submerged  GOO  feet  below  the 
surface  of  the  salt  water,  and  the  waters  would 
ramify  among  the  hills  of  Jud<'a  and  the  affluents  of 
the  Jordan  till  they  found  themselves  checked  by 
the  mountains  of  "the  land  of  Zebulon  and  the 
land  of  Naphtali,  beyond  Jordan,  Galilee  of  the 
Gentiles."  The  sites  of  Capenianm  and  Bethsaida 
would  thus  experience  a  part  of  the  fate  of  Sodom, 
submergence  in  salt  water,  while  the  Dead  Sea  would 
be  somewhat  freshened. 

.\queducts  with  cast-iron  beds,  supported  by 
arches  and  piers,  were  introduced  by  Telford,  1793- 


CANAL. 


439 


CANAL-LOCK. 


1829,  in  the  construction  of  several  canals ;  the 
Shrewsbury,  anil  the  Ellesniere  and  Chester,  for 
instance.  The  aqueduct  over  the  Ceirog  is  710  feet 
in  length,  and  tlie  water  surface  70  feet  above  tlie 
level  of  the  river  ;  ten  arches  have  each  40  feet  span. 
The  breadth  of  the  top  is  22  feet ;  breadth  of  water, 
11  feet ;  depth,  5  feet. 

The  stone  piers  are  33  feet  in  depth  and  13  in 
thickness  ;  tlie  spandrels  have  longitudinal  walls, 
supporting  the  east-iron  plates  w'hich  fonu  the  bot- 
tom of  the  canal.  The  plates  have  flanges  on  tlieir 
edges,  and  are  united  by  means  of  nuts  and  screws. 

The  sides  of  the  canal  are  built  of  cut-stone  upon 
the  cast-iron  bed ;  they  are  5^  feet  thick  on  each 


side,  and  the  stone  is  backed  with  hard-burned  brick 
laid  in  cement.  The  sides  have  iron  railings.  It 
was  completed  in  ISOl,  and  cost  about  §  100,000. 

Another  aqueduct  on  t)ie  same  canal,  the  Elles- 
mere  and  Chester,  at  Pont-y-Cysyllte,  is  1,007  feet 
long,  and  the  water-level  is  127  feet  above  the  waters 
of  the  Dee.  It  has  2  abutments  and  18  piers.  The 
piers  are  founded  on  sandstone  rock,  are  12  x  20 
feet  at  the  bottom,  and  7t  x  13  feet  at  the  top. 
For  70  feet  of  their  hight  Ihey  are  solid,  and  the 
reidaining  50  hollow,  the  walls  being  2  feet  in  thick- 
ness, with  one  inner  cross-wall.  The  width  of  the 
water-way  is  11  feet  10  inches,  of  which  the  towing- 
path  covers  4  feet  8  inches,  leaving  7  feet  2  inches 


Fig.  1052. 


X  1 

1 1 

Dee  Aqueduct. 


for  the  boat.     The  tn\ving-patli  stands   upon  iron 
pillars,  and  the  water  flows  beneath  it. 

The  embankment  cost  about      .         .     §42,000 

Masonry 10.5,000 

Iron-work 85,000 


§232,500 


In  this  aqueduct,  the  sides,  as  well  as  the  bottom, 
are  made  of  cast-iron.  The  arches  have  a  sjjan  of 
45  feet,  and  a  rise  above  the  springing,  7  feet  6 
inches. 

Canals  are  classed  as  :  — 

Level  or  dilch  canals  ;  consisting  of  one  reach, 
level  throughout. 

Lateral  canals  ;  which  connect  places  in  the  same 
valley,  the  fall  being  in  one  direction  only. 

Summit  canals  ;  in  which  the  work  crosses  one  or 
more  summits,  at  which  provision  of  water  must  be 
supplied. 

Canals  are  now  projected  :  — 

To  turn  Lake  Michigan  into  the  Mississippi. 
This  is  under  way. 

Across  the  Isthmus  of  Corinth.  This,  as  has  been 
remarked,  was  projected  600  i).  c.  It  attracted  the 
attention,  also,  of  Demetrius  Poliorketes,  Julius 
Cffisar,  Caligula,  and  Herodes  Atticus  ;  but  it  was 
reserved  for  Nero  to  take  the  first  active  step  toward 
the  accomplishment  of  this  end.  He  completed  a 
canal  for  a  distance  of  3,683  feet  on  the  Corinthian, 
and  6,946  feet  on  the  Savonian,  side  of  the  isthmus. 

This  important  historical  fact  has  been  lately  ascer- 
tained through  the  investigations  of  ilons.  Grimaud 
de  Caux.  The  entire  width  of  tlie  isthmus  at  that 
point  amounts  to  about  18,799  feet,  so  that  it  would 
seem  the  canal  was  more  than  half  cut  through.  A 
canal  across  the  Isthmus  of  Corinth  would  shorten 
the  route  from  Trieste  to  Athens  forty-one  hours  for 
sailing-vessels,  and  fifteen  hours  for  steamers  ;  from 
ilarseilles  to  Athens  fourteen  hours  for  sailing-ves- 
sels and  five  liours  for  steamers  ;  and,  finally,  from 
Gibraltar  to  Athens  six  hours  for  the  former  and  two 
and  a  half  for  the  latter. 

A  large  ship-ianal  to  connect  the  Baltic  and  North 
Seas.  There  are  now  two  small  ones  across  the  Isth- 
mus of  Holbtein,  —  the  Streckeuitz  Canal,  1390  -  98, 


between  the  Elbe  and  the  Trave  ;  and  the  Schles- 
wick  Holstein,  or  Eyder  Canal,  1777-84,  between 
Kiid,  on  the  Baltic,  and  Rendsburg,  on  the  Eyder. 

Ca-nal'-boat.  A  large  boat,  generally  decked, 
and  towed  by  horses  ;  they  vary  in  capacity,  ac- 
cording to  the  width  and  depth  of  the  canal  on 
which  they  are  employed.  The  usual  capacity  of 
those  on  the  Chesapeake  and  Ohio  Canal,  one  oif  the 
widest  and  deepest  in  the  United  States,  is  110  to 
115  tons  of  coal. 

Rankine  states  that  the  heaviest  boat  one  horse 
can  draw  at  a  speed  of  from  2  to  2i  miles  per  hour 
weighs  with  its  cargo  105  tons,  is  about  70  feet  long, 
12  feet  broad,  and  draws  4i  feet  of  water. 

A  boat  to  be  drawn  by  one  horse  at  the  rate  of  3J 
to  4  miles  per  hour  will  be  about  70  feet  long,  6  or 
7  broad,  and  draw  about  2i  feet  of  water. 

Ca-nal'-bridge.  A  bridge  adapted  to  form  a 
viaduct  above  the  water-way.  Movable  canal- 
bridges  may  be  of  one  of  the  following  kinds  :  — 

1.  Turning    horizontally.      See    Swing-bridge; 

PiVOT-EUIDOE. 

2.  Turning  vertically.     See  B.-vscule-bridge. 

3.  Rolling  horizontally  and  in  the  direction  of  its 
length  ;  one  form  of  draicbridrje. 

4.  Lifting  vertically.     See  Lift-bridge. 

5.  Floating  in  the  canal  and  withdrawn  into  a 
dock  to  allow  masted  boats  or  vessels  to  pass.  See 
Floating-bridge. 

Ca-nal'-lift.  A  contrivance  for  conveying  a 
canal-boat  from  one  level  to  another  without  the 
use  of  water  in  the  usual  lock.  It  may  be  of  the 
nature  of  the  slip  or  marine  railway,  such  as  used  on 
the  Morris  and  Essex  Canal,  N.  J.,  or  it  may  be  a 
mechanical  lift  by  means  of  tackle.  In  one  case  it 
is  proposed  to  float  the  vessel  in  a  caisson  which  is 
supported  in  level  position  on  a  wedge-shaped  frame 
whii'h  traverses  on  the  ways. 

Ca-nal'-lock.  An  inclosure  with  gates  at  each 
end,  forming  a  connection  between  the  upper  and 
lower  levels  of  a  canal. 

In  the  accompanying  drawings,  A  is  the  loch- 
cJmmber ;  a  a,  the  side  walls  ;  E  the  floor,  or  invert. 
The  size  of  the  chamber  is  a  little  longer  than  the 
longest  boat  ref|uired  to  occupy  it  ;  its  breadth  say 
1  foot  wider  than  the  said  boat ;  its  depth  1  ^  more 


CANAL-LOCK  GATE. 


440 


CANCELING-PKESS. 


Fig.  1053. 


then  drawn  from  the  lock  by  the  bUiice  in  the  gate 
at  the  lower  end,  and  when  the  water  in  the  lock  is 
at  the  hiyht  of  the  lower  level,  the  lower  gates  are 
opened,  and  the  boat  allowed  to  pass  out. 

To  elevate  the  boat  from  a  lower  to  a  higher  level, 
the  water  in  the  lock  is  bionght  to  the  lower  level 
by  opening  the  sluice  at  that  end,  if  necessary,  the 
gates  being  then  opened  and  the  boat  passed  in, 
these  gates  are  again  closed,  and  water  admitted 
by  the  upper  sluice  until  a  sufficient  higlit  is  at- 
tained, wlien  the  upper  gates  are  opened  and  the 
boat  passed  out  of  the  lock. 

Can-buoy.  {Nauiiad.)  A  conical  buoy.  See 
Buov. 

Can-cart.  A  lightly  framed  two-whccded  vehicle 
suiiporting  a  large  can  for  containing  milk,  etc. 


Cannl-Lock  I^LnngituiUiml  Section). 


than  tlie  draft  of  a  loaded  boat  plus  the  lift,  and, 
say,  2  feet  added  for  the  coping. 

"The  floor  is  level  with  the  bottom  of  the  lower 
reach,  and  is  recessed,  for  the  opening  of  the  lail- 
gatcs.  The  head-bay  has  suk  walls  having  ija.lc- 
chambers  to  receive  the  head-gales.  The  tloor  is 
level  with  the  upjier  pond. 

The  sides  of  tin-  tail-bay  end  in  curved  wings, 
and  the  fioor  or  apron  is  jiitched  with  dry  stone. 

At  the  head  of  the  lock-chamber  is  the  lift-wall, 
above  which  are  the  hcad-yalcs,  whose  lower  edges 
press  against  the  luad  miter-sill. 

The  tail-gales,  which  close  against  the  tail  miter- 
sill. 

The  culverts  through  the  side  walls  shown  in 
dotted  lines  are  for  filling  or  emptying  the  lock- 
chamber.  These  sluices  are  governed  by  slide- 
valves. 

The  cylindrical  recesses  in  the  side  walls  in  which 
the  gates  are  hinged  are  called  Iwlloio  quoins. 

Each  gate  is  composed  of  a  heel-post,  miter-post, 
balance-bar,  a-oss-picecs,  cleading,  and  diagonal 
bracing. 

There  was  a  lock  at  London  Bridge  m  Pepys  s 
time,  1661  ;  at  least,  he  calls  it  such.  It  was  prob- 
ably a  sluice,  and  the  chatty  fellow  "was  fain  to 
stand  upon  one  of  the  piers  about  the  bridge,  before 
the  men  could  drag  their  boat  through  the  lock." 

Ca-nal'-lock  '  Gate.  The  hinged  doors  at 
each  eml  of  a  canal-lock,  which  are  opened  and  closed 
to  admit  the  passage  of  vessels.  Of  these  there  are 
two  at  each  end  of  the  lock.  They  are  hung  on 
pintles  in  the  stone-work,  and  open  outwardly, 
bein"  turned  by  levers,  similar  to  the  tiller  of  a 
rudd'cr,  and  wdien  closed  the  two  edges  must  fit  as 
accurately  together  as  possible  to  prevent  the  pas- 
sage of  water. 

At  least  one  gate  at  each  end  must  be  provided 
with  a  sluice  or  flood-gate  near  its  bottom.  When 
a  boat  is  to  pass  froni  a  higher  to  a  lower  level  in 
the  canal,  the  gates  at  the  lower  end  are  closed,  and 
water  admitted  into  the  lock  at  the  other  end  until 
the  water  in  the  lock  is  at  the  same  hight  as  that 
of  the  canal  above  ;  the  upper  gates  are  then  opened, 
and  the  boat  admitted  into  the  lock,  when  these 
gates  and   their  sluice  are  closed.      The  water  is 


The  illustration  gives  a  clear  idea  of  the  arrange- 
ment. 

Can'cel.  A  leaf  to  be  cut  out  and  replaced  by  a 
corrected  ]tage. 

Can'cel-li.  Among  the  Romans,  iron  gratings 
and  trellis-work ;  in  modern  buildings,  latticed 
windows  made  with  cross-bars  of  wood,  iron,  lead, 
etc. 

Can'cel-ing-press.  A  press  having  a  plunger 
which  defaces  a  piinted  stamp.     These  presses  are 


Fig.  1055. 


Fig.  1056. 


P 


Canceling-Starnp, 


Gincelinii-PTess. 


usually  worked  by  a  blow  or  by  a  lever.  In  some, 
the  face  of  the  stamp  is  cancelled  by  printing  ujion 
it  the  date  of  cancellation,  as  iu  the  example  (Fig. 


CANCELIXG-STAMP. 


441 


CANDLE. 


1055,  in  whicli  a  socket  in  tlie  lower  end  of  the 
I'lungei'  lias  a  type-chase,  which  may  have  movable 
type  to  indicate  month  and  year  inside  the  motto  of 
the  chase,  which  may  be  the  title,  etc.,  of  the  finn. 
A  central  slot  in  the  face  of  the  chase  is  occupied  by 
one  link  of  an  endless  chain,  whose  consecutive  links 
have  type  corresponding  to  the  days  of  the  month, 
and  moved  in  the  req^uiied  succession  by  sprocket- 
wheels  in  the  plunger. 

In  other  fonns  of  canceling-stamps  the  plunger  is 
armed  with  blades  or  points,  which  penetrate  and 
tear  the  paper  of  the  printed  stamp,  so  that  it  may 
not  be  restorable  by  a  process  which  would  discharge 
the  ink  of  cancellation. 

Such  an  one  is  represented  in  Fig.  1056,  which  is 
operated  by  percussion  of  the  plunger  or  roUition  of 
the  screw. 

Can'oel-ing-stainp.  A  press  for  defacing  print- 
ed stamps,  to  prevent  their  re-use.    See  C.\nc£LING- 

IT.F.SS. 

Cau'de-la'brum.  A  lamp-stand.  Its  tripedal 
form  among  the  ancients  is  believed  to  have  been 
derived  from  the  shape  of  its  predecessors, — braziers 
or  basins  for  holding  fuel,  mounted  on  tripods. 

Among  the  Greeks  and  Komans  they  were  highly 
ornamental,  and  made  of  bronze  and  marble.  They 
survived  until  lately  in  the  liranched  sticks  for  the 
candles  whereby  halls  and  stately'  dinner-tables  were 
illuminated. 

"Euphorion,  in  his  'Historic  Commentaries,' says 
that  the  young  Dionysius,  the  tyrant  of  Sicily,  dedi- 
cated, in  the  Prytaneum  of  Tarentum,  a  candlestick 
capable  of  containing  as  great  a  number  of  candles 
as  there  are  days  in  the  year."  — Athen^us,  in  the 
"  Deipnosophists." 

Can'di-teer'.  (Fortification.)  A  protection  for 
miners,  consisting  of  brushwood,  etc. 

Can'dle.  A  cylinder  of  tallow,  wax,  parafiine, 
stearine,  spermaceti,  or  other  fatty  material,  in  the 
axis  of  which  is  a  woody  wick  consisting  of  parallel, 
woven,  or  twLsted  fibres,  or  a  rush. 

We  may  presume  that  the  earliest  forms  of  porta- 
ble artificial  lights  were  brands  and  torches,  to 
w'hich  succeeded  cressets  and  lamps.  An  elevated 
fire  in  a  brazier  or  cresset,  fed  at  intervals  with  in- 
flammable material,  such  as  wood  and  fatty  or  oily 
matters,  would  be  an  effective  light  for  Eastern 
habitations,  where  the  courts  are  open  to  the  sky. 
We  use  its  substantial  equivalent  at  camp-meetings. 
It  must  be  remembered  that  the  uses  of  artificial 
light  for  reading  and  study  are  comparatively 
modem  ;  the  universal  lighting  up  of  every  house  as 
soon  as  darkness  covers  the  land  is  a  modem 
necessity  and  a  modern  invention.  The  long  winter 
evenings  of  previous  generations  were  spent  by  the 
light  of  the  fire,  not  of  lamps  or  candles,  so  far  as 
the  bulk  of  the  peojjle  of  all  lands  was  concerned. 
But  a  very  small  number  could  read,  and  books 
were  so  scarce  that  kings  gave  security  when  they 
borrowed  them  ;  Bibles  were  chaini;d  in  churches  ; 
and  there  was  one  law  for  the  man  who  could  read,  j 
and  another  for  him  who  could  not,  the  fomier  \ 
being  entitled  to  "  benefit  of  clergy."  In  reviewing 
the  mode  of  life  of  kings  500  years  since,  in  com- 
paratively barbarous  England,  we  find  one  of  the 
royal  Plautagenets  sitting  on  a  stool  whose  three 
legs  were  driven  into  the  dirt  forming  the  floor  of 
his  bedchamber  on  the  second  floor,  over  the  arched 
ceiling  of  the  common  hall  below.  His  i|ueen  sits 
on  tlie  foot  of  the  bedstead,  and  as  evening  draws 
on  they  find  themselves  sleepy  after  a  heavy  supper 
of  beef  and  beer.  As  the  drowsy  king  has  sworn 
himself  Iioai-se  in  recounting  to  his  Siitellites  the 
hunting  adventures  of  the  day,  and  has  no  scholastic 


resources,  being  unable  to  read  and  haviu<;  no  books, 
he  finds  time  heavy  on  his  hands. 

While  meditating  on  the  question  of  whether  it 
is  worth  while  to  kick  olf  his  boots  before  going  to 
bed,  he  is  interrupted  by  a  chamberlain,  who  sleeps 
above,  and  has  no  way  of  ascending  except  by 
coming  through  the  royal  apartment.  As  times 
were  not  then  what  they  once  were,  when  the  folks 
scattered  themselves  promiscuously  over  the  floor  of 
the  hall,  and  people  were  becoming  effeminate,  the 
king'  bids  his  architect  to  contrive  some  mode  by 
which  his  bedroom  shall  not  be  made  a  ]ias.sage-way 
for  the  garreteers.  To  the  disgust  of  the  said  cham- 
berlain, "o'  rainy  nights,"  the  builder  makes  an 
outside  staircase  "like  a  ladder,  and  his  lordship  in 
attendance  may  go  up,  and  in  at  the  window. 

Such  people  had  but  little  use  for  a  candle  ;  they 
rose  early,  ate  heartily,  and  slept,  and  no  doubt 
snored  heaWly. 

Scholars  are  scattered  all  along  the  pathway  of 
history  ;  but  as  for  kings,  their  councilors,  and  the 
common  people,  they  weie  like  Scott's  hero,  Wil- 
liam of  Deloraine,  the  "stark,  moss-trooping  Scot," 
who,  whatever  other  faults  he  might  have  had,  was 
guiltle-ss  of  violating  a  lady's  correspondence. 

"  .And  safer  by  none  may  thy  errand  be  done. 
Letter  or  line  know  1  never  a  one." 

If,  as  Byron  says,  "  Jlarmion  is  exactly  what 
William  of  Deloraine  would  have  been  had  he  been 
able  to  read  and  write,"  the  plentiful  lack  of  learn- 
ing was  in  his  favor,  as  one  had  better  remain  a 
mere  cattle-thief  than  become  worse. 

Lamps  were  known  in  all  the  ancient  countiies 
where  civilization  had  dawned.  In  China,  India, 
Egypt  and  Etruria,  they  have  been  so  long  used 
that  the  memory  of  man  runneth  not  to  the  con- 
trary. Comparatively  modern  Greece  and  Rome 
gathered  them  from  the  nations  whence  they  de- 
rived their  civilization,  their  mechanic  arts,  their 
conveniences,  and  all  but  their  fine  arts.  In  this 
latter  respect,  while  they  still  retained  much  of  the 
conventional,  they  burst  the  absurd  fetters  with 
which  the  priests  had  crippled  the  artists  of  Egypt. 
The  sensuous  and  scoffing  Greek,  though  a  man- 
nerist in  his  own  way,  would  naturally  prefer  a 
warm  model  to  a  stone  Pasht.     See  Lamp. 

Some  nations  have  been  fortunate  in  the  possession 
of  bitumen,  or  mineral  pitch,  so  termed,  and  have 
used  it  for  lighting  purposes  from  time  immemorial. 
This  has  been  the  case  especially  with  the  Asiatic 
nations  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Caspian  Sea. 

Splinters  of  wood  saturated  in  rock-oil,  olive-oil, 
or  animal  grease,  may  be  considered  as  incipient 
candles ;  and  the  likeness  became  still  more  apparent 
when  a  frayed  piece  of  soft  bark  or  a  twisted  lock  of 
natural  fiber,  such  as  that  of  cotton  or  the  asclepias, 
was  dipped  in  melted  bitumen,  pitch,  or  an  animal 
grease  that  is  hard  at  ordinary  temperatures. 

The  candle  (aindcla)  was  used  by  the  Eomans 
before  the  invention  of  lamps  (luccrncK).  Roman 
candles  had  wicks  of  rush  (scirpus),  and  were  made 
of  wax  {area)  or  tallow  [scbaeea). 

Alfred  the  Great  used  a  graduated  wax  candle  as 
a  time-keeper,  and  placed  it  in  a  lantern  to  equalize 
its  consumption  by  preventing  Haring. 

Splinters  of  wood  saturated  with  animal  fat  were 
used  in  England  by  the  poor,  A.  D.  1300.  The  pith 
of  swamp-rush  {Juncu^  cjfa^tts)  was  subsequently  used 
for  a  wick,  and  answered  the  purpose  tolerably, 
though  it  conducted  the  grease  slowly,  gave  a  very 
modeiate  light,  and  was  easilyextinguished  by  drafts. 
It  is  still  used  there,  and  is  called  a  rush-light. 

Diogenes  (330   E.   c),  who  searched  in  daylight 


CANDLE. 


442 


CANDLESTICK. 


with  a  lantern  for  an  honest  man,  was  anticipated  by 
thiee  hundred  j'cars  in  tlie  prophecy  of  Zejihaniah, 
wherein  it  is  declared  that  Jerusalem  shall  be  searched 
with  candles,  and  the  men  that  are  settled  on  their 
Ic^es  shall  be  punished.  The  camlles  so  frequently 
referred  to  in  Scripture,  generally  in  metaphor,  were 
no  doubt  cores  of  twisted  fibers  dipped  in  |iitch, 
wax,  or  tallow.  The  candlesticks  in  their  sacred 
buildings  were  very  rich  and  ornate,  and  became  a 
regular  charge  for  a  division  of  the  priests.  It  is 
jirobable  light  was  continually  maintaiued,  as  in  the 
Alagian,  Egyptian,  and  Grecian  temples. 
Candles  are  of  several  varieties  :  — 

1.  Para  fine ;  obtained  from  the  distillation  of 
coal  at  a  low  heat,  also  from  lignite,  peat,  and  wood. 
Frequently  combined  in  candles  with  sperm  and 
fltearine.     See  Paraffine. 

2.  Spermaceti.  Usually  of  wax  and  spermaceti. 
These  are  molded. 

3.  Ooinposition.  Mixtures  of  spermaceti,  tallow, 
with  a  little  resin  or  wax,  in  various  proportions. 

4.  Stearine.  In  June,  1825,  Gay  Lussac  obtained 
a  patent  in  England  for  candles  made  of  the  stearic 
acid  of  tallow,  lard,  or  cocoanut  oil. 

The  fatty  acids  are  separated  from  the  glycerine 
by  caustic  lime,  the  fat,  lime,  and  water  being  boiled 
and  stirred  together  until  the  mixture  is  fully  sa- 
ponified. The  lime  is  then  saturated  by  agitation 
with  dilute  sulphuric  acid,  which  forms  a  solid  sul- 
phate of  lime,  and  sets  the  fatty  acids  at  liberty  ;  the 
latter  rise  to  the  surface,  and  are  decanted  from  the 
limy  sediment.  The  traces  of  lime  are  removed  by 
washing  in  dilute  sulphuric  acid  and  then  in  clear 
water.  The  oleic  acid  is  removed  by  placing  the 
mass  in  bags  and  subjecting  it  to  heat  and  pressure 
in  a  hydraulic  press.  The  solid  stearic  and  marga- 
ric  acids  are  farther  pressed,  purified,  washed  while 
in  a  heated  condition,  decanted,  and  run  into  molds. 

5.  Tallow.     These  are  molded  or  dipped. 

6.  Palm-oil.  This  is  obtained  by  bruising  and 
boiling  from  the  fruit  of  the  oil-palm  (Elais  guinecti- 
sis).  It  contains  about  66  per  cent  of  a  solid  white 
fat  known  as  palmitine.  The  oil  is  bleached,  com- 
pressed in  woolen  bags.  The  solid  matter  is  melted, 
decanted,  a  little  was.  added,  and  run  into  the  molds 
in  the  fi'ames. 

7.  7F«.i;  candles  are  not  easily  molded,  and  are  there- 
fore prepared  by  pouring  wax  on  suspended  wicks  ; 
the  cylindrical  form  being  afterwards  given  by  roll- 
ing hot  between  a  wooden  slab  and  a  wet  table. 

Larger  wax  candles  are  made  by  rolling  a  wick 
into  a  sheet  of  wax,  in  a  spiral  of  gradually  increas- 
ing diameter.  Such  were  those  of  Drury-lane  rcdi- 
vivus,  — 

*'  Tis  sweet  to  view  from  half  past  five  till  six 
Our  long  wax  candles  with  short  cotton  wicks." 

Wax  tapers  are  made  by  drawing  a  string  at  a 
regulated  speed  through  a  pan  of  melted  wax. 

The  Keforniation  greatly  decreased  the  consump- 
tion of  wax  candles  and  the  keeping  of  bees.  In 
the  Castle  of  Wittenberg  and  its  church  35,750 
pounds  of  wax  lights  were  burned  yearly.  In  the 
beginning  of  the  fourteenth  century,  wax  and  tallow 
candles  were  uhconimon.  Philip  the  P.ald,  Duke  of 
Burgundy  about  1361,  oH'ered  to  St.  Antony  of 
A'ienne,  for  the  restoration  of  the  health  of  his  sick 
son,  as  much  wax  as  the  latter  weighed,  and  was  held 
to  have  made  a  princely  offer.  In  January,  1779, 
14,000  wax  candles  were  lighted  at  once  in  the  cele- 
bration of  a  feast  in  the  Electoral  Palace  of  Dresden. 

Candles  which  require  no  snuffing  have  slender 
wires  twisted  in  with  the  cotton  of  the  wick.  When 
burning,  the  top  of  tlie  wick  turns  outward  in  such 
a  way  as  to  enable  the  oxygen  of  the  air  to  consume 


Dipping- Machine, 


the  charred  substance,  which  it  cannot  do  when  in 
the  middle  of  the  liame. 

Night-lights  are  short  thick  candles  with  small, 
thin  wicks. 

Machines  are  used  for  making  candles  with  an 
inner  core  of  soft  or  inferior  material,  such  as  tallow, 
and  a  I'oating  of  hard  or  superior  substance,  such  as 
puraHine. 

Can'dle  -  dip'ping  Ma-chine'.  A  frame  by 
which    a     large 

number    of    de-  Fig- 1057. 

pendent  wicks 
are  dipped  into  a 
cistern  of  melted 
tallow  and  then 
lifted  out  of  it, 
the  process  being 
repeated  until  a 
sufficient  thick- 
ness of  tallow  has 
accumulated  on 
the  wick.  The 
candle-dipper 
shown  is  intend- 
ed to  give  a  de- 
temiinate  weight 
to  any  number 
of  caudles.  The 
wicks  are  sus- 
pended on  rods  from  one  end  of  the  balance-bar,  and 
a  weight  is  placed  in  the  scale  at  the  other  end. 
The  wieks  are  rejjeatedly  dipjjed  into  the  tallow-vat 
until  they  acquire  the  desired  weight. 

Can'dle-mold.  The  Sieur  Le  Brez  of  Paris  is 
said  to  have  been  the  inventor  of  molding  candles. 

The  Marquis  of  Worcester  in  his  "Century  of  In- 
ventions," 1655,  speaks  of  brass  candle-molds  in 
which  a  man  may  make  500  dozen  in  a  day.  He 
adds  an  ingredient  to  whiten,  cheapen,  and  render 
the  candle  more  lasting. 

At  the  present  day,  candle-molds  are  usually  made 
of  pewter  or  tin  ;  in  some  cases  glass  has  been  em- 
ployed. They  may  be  inserted  in  a  wooden  frame, 
the  upper  part  of  which  serves  as  a  trough  ;  or 
several  molds  may  be  permanently  attached  to  a  tin 
trough,  the  whole  constituting  a  single  mold.  Each 
mold  consists  of  a  cylindrical  tube  having  a  conical 
tip,  with  a  circular  ajterture  through  wdiich  the 
doubled  wick  is  drawn,  by  means  of  a  hooked  wire, 
allowing  the  loop  to  project  a  little  beyond  the  open 
end  of  the  mold  ;  while  the  other  end  of  the  wick 
projects  beyond  and  clo.ses  the  a))erture  in  the 
conical  tip.  Sticks  or  wires  are  passed  through  the 
loops,  their  ends  resting  on  the  edges  of  the  mold- 
frame.  The  mold  is  placed  open  end  up,  and  the 
melted  tallow  poured  into  the  trough  by  means  of  a 
ladle.  When  sufficiently  hard,  they  are  withdrawn  by 
means  of  the  wires  or  sticks  passing  through  the  loops. 

Caii'dle-stick.  A  well-known  domestic  utensil 
employed  for  holding  and  carrying  a  lighted  caudle, 
uow  tp  a  gi'eat  extent  superseded  by  the  introduction 
of  gas,  kerosene,  etc. 

The  candlesticks  of  the  ancients  were  very  ornate, 
and  those  belonging  to  the  temple  w^orship  were 
large  and  many-branched.  The  candlestick  of  the 
Hebrew  Tabernacle  was  in  the  first  apartment ;  a 
constantly  burning  light  was  a  feature  in  the  wor- 
ship of  most  Eastern  nations.  A  candlestick  or 
lamp-stand  was  emblematical  of  the  priest's  office, 
and  was  used,  in  metaphor  at  least,  as  an  emblem 
of  acceptable  oblation  ;  as  in  Revelation,  where 
rejection  is  inthnated  by  the  threat,  "  I  will  come 
unto  thee  quickly,  and  will  remove  thy  candlestick 
out  of  his  i)lace,  unless  thou  repent." 


CANDROY. 


443 


TANK-KNIFE. 


CaniUpsticks  are  mentioned  in  England  in  tlie 
reign  of  Edgar,  A.  D.  957. 

Can'droy.  A  machine  used  to  prepare  cotton 
clotlis  for  printing,  .spreading  out  the  fabric  as  it  is 
rolled  around  the  laiiping-roller. 

Cau'dy.  From  the  Sanskrit,  l-anda.  Sugar  is 
from  Sanskrit,  'sarkara.     See  SuoAi:. 

A  preparation  of  sugar  or  molasses,  either  alone 
or  in  i-'onibination  with  other  substances,  to  flavor, 
color,  or  give  it  the  desired  consistency. 

Sugar-candy,  as  known  to  the  Hritish  confectioner, 
and  known  as  rock-candy  in  the  United  States, 
consists  of  large  eiystals  of  sugar  clarified  with  a 
lesser  nuantity  of  charcoal-powder  than  usual,  and 
not  liltered,  and  the  crystals  aggregated  on  strings 
suspended  in  the  vessel  in  which  it  is  evaporated, 
and  then  left  to  cool. 

Candies  of  various  kinds,  colors,  flavors,  and 
shapes,  are  made  by  different  combinations  of  in- 
grediejits,  processes,  and  machines,  which  cannot  be 
considered  at  length  in  this  work.  See  "The  Art 
of  Confectionary,"  Tilton  &  Co.,  Boston,  1866  ;  Jar- 
nn's  "  Italian  Confectioner,"  London,  1861. 

lu  one  form  of  candy-making  machine,  the  cand)' 

Fk.  105S. 


CaTuly-Making  Machine 

■  in  its  plastic  condition  passes  between  geared  rolls 
in  which  are  dies  or  molds,  and  having  a  slight  space 
between  their  outer  faces ;  side-rolls  are  also  employed 
for  giving  uniform  speed  ;  and  the  molded  fignres  pass 
out  on  endless  bands  driven  in  op)>osite  directions, 
both  sides  of  the  fignres  being  thus  set  or  chilled. 

Cane.  1.  The  stem  of  a  plant  of  the  genus 
Cnlavtiis,  very  conunon  in  the  South  of  Asia  along 
the  margins  of  rivers  and  lagoons.  It  is  split  into 
ribbons,  and  used  for  making  chair  seats  and  backs. 
Machines  are  adapted  for  splitting,  planing,  and 
polisiiing  rattan  for  the  various  purposes  to  which 
it  is  adapted.  After  the  removal  of  strips  having 
the  polished  cuticle,  the  core  or  central  portion  is 
rounded  and  used  for  basket-making  and  other  pur- 
poses.    See  Rattan. 

2.  The  sugar-cane  {Saccharum  officinanim).  See 
Sugar. 

3.  A  walking-stick. 

In  the  manufacture  of  canes  great  quantities  and 
varieties  of  materials  are  consumed.  The  black- 
thorn and  crab,  cherry-tree  and  furze-bush,  sapling 
oak  and  Spanish  reed  (Arundo  donnx),  are  the 
favorites.  Then  come  supple-jacks  and  )nmentoes 
from  the  West  Indies,  rattans  and  palms  from  Java, 
white  and  black  bamboos  from  Singapore,  and  stems 
of  the  bambusa  —  the  gigantic  grass  of  the  tropics 


—  from  Bonieo.  These  are  cut  at  certain  seasons, 
freed  from  various  appendages,  assorted  into  sizes, 
ami  seasoned,  ilany  different  jirocesses  are  required 
to  finish  even  the  cheapest  cane.  The  bark  is  to  be 
removed  after  boiling  the  stick  in  water,  or  to  be 
polished  after  roasting  it  in  ashes  ;  excrescences  are 
to  be  manipulated  into  points  of  beauty  ;  handles 
straightened  and  shanks  shaped  ;  forms  twisted  and 
heails  rasped ;  tops  carved  or  mounted,  surfaces 
charred  and  scraped,  shanks  smoothed  or  varnished, 
and  bottoms  shaped  and  ferruled.  JIalacca  canes 
have  frequently  to  be  colored  in  parts,  so  that  stained 
and  natural  surfaces  are  not  distinguishable  ;  ivory 
for  handles  is  turned  or  carved  into  shape  ;  horns 
and  hoofs  for  handles  ai'e  baked,  to  retain  their 
forms  ;  tortoise-shell  raspings  are  conglomerated  by 
pressure  into  ornamental  shapes,  and  lithographic 
transfers  are  e.xtensively  used  upon  walking-sticks 
for  the  Parisian  market. 

The  Egyptian  gentleman  did  not  consider  himself 
"fixed"  without  a  walking-cane.  He  affected  a 
certain  little  horn  or  prong  near  the  handle-end. 
The  lotus-flower  was  a  favorite  knob.  Their  canes 
varied  from  3i  to  6  feet  long.  Their  names  were 
inscribed  on  them  in  hieroglyphics. 

4.   A  water-raising  device.    See  Hydu.^ulic  Cane. 
Cane-gun.    A  weapon  comprising  a  gun-barrel 
with   its   discharging  devices,  arranged  within  the 
shaft  of  a  cane  so  as  to  present  the  appeai-auce  of  an 
ordinaiT  walking-stick. 

Cane-har'vest-er.    A  machine  for  cutting  sugar- 
cane or  sorghum  in  the  field.      It  differs  but   little 
essentially  from  the  Cokx-haiivester  (which  see). 
In  one  form  it  has  saws  or  blades  which  cut  the 
cane  near  the  ground,  the   cane  falls   over  into  a 
cradle,  and  a  cross-cut  saw  cuts  off'  the  top,  whose 
imperfectly      matured      sap 
injures   the    quality   of    the 
sugar  by  its  feculence,  and  its 
quantity  of    micrystallizable 
sugar. 

Cane-juice  Bleach'er. 
An  afi]iaratns  foi-  decolorizing 
cane-juice  by  means  of  sul- 
phurous acid  vapor.  As  the 
cane  is  crushed,  the  juice 
from  the  rollers  passes  by  a 
trough  into  a  cylinder,  in  which  is  a  revolving  agi- 
tator consisting  of  a  perforated  cylinder  with  paddle- 
wheels.  At  one  side  of  the  cylinder,  and  communi- 
cating with  it,  is  a  tank  with  a  perforated  cover,  on 
which  a  stream  of  water  is  projected.  The  tank 
communicates  with  an  oven  containing  sulphur,  the 
vajior  of  which  escapes  into  the  tank,  where  it  is 
jiurified  by  the  water,  and  then  passes  into  the 
cylinder,  where  it  is  mingled  with  tlie  cane-juice  by 
means  of  the  agitator. 

Cane-knife.  A  knife  like  a  sword  or  Spanish 
machete,  use<i  for  cutting  standing  cane.  It  has  a 
blade  from  IS  to  24  inches  long,  and  is  made  in 
various  patterns  for  the  Southern  or  South  American 
market. 

The  necessities  of  the  sorghum  culture  in  the 
United  States  have  given  rise  to  several  special 
tools,  among  which  are  the  strip]iers.  {See  C.\NE- 
STKIPPEK.)  These  are  for  the  pnrjiose  of  removing 
the  blades  from  the  stalk,  the  former  being  gi-een, 
immature,  and  absorbent,  tending  to  depreciate  the 
quantity  ami  quality  of  the  juice,  which  is  feculeut 
enough  at  any  time. 

The  cane  must  be  topped  also,  for  the  same 
reason  ;  the  saccharine  juices  of  the  top  are  crade 
and  immature,  and  the  panicle  is  not  calculated  for 
the  purpose,  its   duty  being    to    elaborate   starch. 


CANE-MILL. 


444 


CANE-SPLITTER. 


wliidi  is  somewhat  matured  af.  the  season  of  cut- 
tinj;. 

Cane-mill.  A  machine  for  gnndmg  sugar-cane 
or  sorghum-stalks. 

By  a  system  of  levers  A  and  jB  the  roll  C  is  forced 
uj)  against  the  top  roll  in  close  contact  with  it,  so  as 


Kg.  1059. 


Fig.  1061  shows  a  sorghum-mill  on  a  somewhat 
smaller  scale,  having  three  rolls  which  give  two 
|ioints  of  pressure.  The  cane  is  fed  by  a  nairowing 
spout  between  the  rolls  J  K,  and  then  between  J  L. 
The  juice  is  received  in  a  pan,  the  rolls  are  kept 
clean  by  a  scraper,  and  the  bagasse  delivered  on  to 
a  discharge-board. 

Fig.  1061. 


Sugar- Cane  Mill. 

to  mash  large  and  small  canes.  The  strain  is  regu- 
lated by  the  shifting  of  the  weights  on  the  compound 
levers,  so  as  to  iiroduce  any  pressure  required.  The 
power  is  applieil  to  the  pulley  D,  and  transmitted  to 
the  up]ier  roll  through  the  pinion  E.  The  endless 
apron  f  carries  the  cane  to  be  trushed. 

In  Fig.  lOtfO,  the  cane  is  fed  into  the  mill  by  an 
endless  belt  G,  and  is  held  by  the  rollers  H  tj,  while 
the  revolving  knives  C  F  chop  it  into  pieces,  which 
fall  on  the  crushing-wheel  beneath.  This  wheel 
grates  the  pieces  against  the  concave  and  reduces 
them  to  a  pulp,  which  then  drops  on  the  expressing- 
rollers,  whei-e  it  is  subjected  to  a  jet  of  steam,  which 
is  emitted  by  the  nozzle  Z',  and  the  bagasse  eventu- 
ally carried  out  by  the  endless  apron  r. 


Sugar- Cane  Mill. 

Caiie-pol'ish-ing  Ma-chine'.  A  machine  fur 
polishing  the  hard  siliceous  cuticle  of  rattan-splints 
alter  they  are  split  and  rived  from  the  cane.  See 
Rattan  ;  Cane-wouking  Machine. 

Cane-press.  Bessemer's  cane-jjress  has  a  plunger 
reciprocating  in  a  trunk  into  which  the  cane  is  ni- 
tioduced  transversely.  A  length  of  cane  is  cut  off 
at  each  stroke  of  the  plunger,  and  then  jammed 
against  the  mass  of  cut  cane,  which  is  eventually 
driven  out  at  the  open  end. 

Cane-scrap'er.  A  machine  for  cutting  away  the 
woody  liber  from  the  back  of  a  splint  of  rattan,  to 
bring  it  to  a  thin,  pliable  strand  or  braid,  for  weav- 
ing into  a  chair-seat  or  for  similar  use.    See  Rattan. 

Cane-splifter.  One  for  cutting  and  riving  splints 
from  ratlaii.  See  Cane-wokking  Machine  ;  Rat- 
tan. 

Fig.  1062. 


Cane-Mill. 


Caite-Strippers. 


CAXE-STUirrER. 


445 


CAXXOX. 


Cane-strip'per.  A  knife  for  stripping  and  top- 
ping cauf-stalks. 

The  cane-knife  and  stripper  a  has  a  spring  jaw, 
wliich  coincides  with  an  indentation  in  the  lilade,  to 
form  a  circular  opening.  This,  lieing  clasped  npon 
the  stalk,  is  drawn  rapidly  ilowiiwaril,  stripping  oH" 
the  leaves,  and  the  blade  is  ready  for  topping  when 
needed. 

The  cane  may  be  stripped  while  standing  in  the 
field,  which  .some  prefer. 

The  cane-knile  and  stripper  b  has  a  spring  jaw, 
which  is  arranged  like  the  cnrved  guard  on  a  swoid- 
hilt.  The  dotted  lines  show  the  position  assumed  by 
the  spring  jaw  when  opened  to  be  placed  over  a  stalk. 
Other  forms  of  cane-strippei-s  are  tubes  armed  with 
knives,  which  strip  the  leaves  from  the  stalk  which 
passes  through  the  tube, 

Cane-'work'ing  Ma-chine'.  Machines  for  split- 
ting the  strcndi,  splints,  or  braids  of  rattan  from  the 
central  portion  of  the  cane.  The  part  used  is  the 
polished  bark,  and  the  machines  for  working  it  are 
known  as  cane  splHlers,  plaiurs,  scrnpcrx,  shnvos, 
dressers,  reducers,  polishers.  Some  of  these  names 
are  synonymous. 

Splitters  make  longitudinal  incisions  through  the 
hark  at  such  distances  apart  as  may  suit  the  circum- 
ference of  the  cane  and  the  desired  width  of  the 
strand.  The  cane  is  forced  through  an  opening, 
which  has  radial  knives  which  divide  the  strands, 
and  tangential  chisels  which  lift  the  strands  and  part 
it  from  the  central  core,  a  cone  spreading  the  strands 
outward  clear  of  the  core.  The  next  operation  is  to 
plane,  pare,  or  shave  the  inner  or  woody  side  of  the 
strand,  so  as  to  make  that  side  quite  smooth  and 
bring  the  strand  to  an  even  thickness.  The  machine 
lias  adjustable  knives  and  gages. 

The  reduced  splints  are  then  ix)lished  by  passing 
beneath  rapidly  rotating  wheels. 

Can-frame.    A  cotton-roving  machine  in  which 

the  roving  is  received  into  cans.    A  cnn-roving  frame. 

Can'gan.   [Fabric.)    Chinese  coarse  cotton  cloth. 

It  is  in  pieces  6  yards  long,  19  inches  wide,  and  has 

a  ti.xed  currency  value. 

Can-hook.  A  device  for  slinging  casks  in  hoist- 
ing. The  ends  of  a  piece 
of  rope  are  reeved  through 
the  eyes  of  two  flat  hooks 
and  stopped.  The  tackle 
is  hooked  to  the  middle  of 
the  bight. 

Can'is-ter-shot. 
Spherical  iron  shot,  small- 
er than  grape,  and  used 
with  guns  of  all  calibers 
up  to  10  inches.  They  are 
laid  in  tiers  in  a  tin  case  or 
cani>ter  somewhat  smaller  in  diameter  than  the  bore 
of  the  gun,  having  an  iron  plate  at  the  top  and  bot- 
tom. The  interstices  between  the  shot  are  filled  in 
with  sawdust  clo!-ely  packed,  and,  when  full,  the 
iron  cover  is  put  down,  and  the  end  of  the  canister, 
which  is  cut  into  slips  for  the  purpose,  is  turned 
down  over  it.  Different-sized  shot  are  provided  for 
each  description  of  cannon,  those  for  howitzei's  be- 
ing smaller  than  those  for  giins  of  the  same  caliber. 
Of  the  former,  48  shots  are  packed  in  the  canister, 
and  of  the  latter,  27.  Canisters  are  employed  against 
masses  of  troops  at  short  ranges  ;  at  distances  greater 
than  about  400  yards,  case-shot  are  considered  more 
efficient.  Canisters  for  the  12-pounder  mountain- 
howitzer  are  always,  and  those  for  the  smaller  rifled 
guns  generally,  filled  with  musket-bullets. 

Can-knife.  A  domestic  implement  for  cutting 
open  the  lids  of  tin  cans.     See  Ca\"-01'EXEK. 


Can'ne-quin.   (Fabric.)   White  cotton  cloth  from 

till'  Eii>t  Indies. 

Can'non.  1.  A  fire-ami  of  a  size  which  requires 
it  to  be  mounted  for  firing.  As  synonymous  with 
ordnance  or  arlillerii,  it  includes  givat  guns,  how- 
itzers, and  mortars;  the  latter  are  jiieces  of  relatively 
short  bore  and  large  caliber,  for  firing  shells.  How- 
itzei-s  are  short  pieces  with  sub-caliber  chambei-s, 
anil  are,  in  some  respects,  a  grade  between  guns  and 
mortai-s. 

The  name  is  derived  from  the  .same  root  as  cnnne 
(Fr. ),  a  reed;  and  the  English  words  can,  cane, 
canal,  cnnoe,  etc.,  which,  with  the  German  Lanne, 
Latin  canna,  and  Greek  Kdwa,  are  inesimiably  de- 
rivatives from  some  Sanscrit  root  signifying  a  tubu- 
lar or  hollow  object.     See  HowiTZF.K  ;  JIoistar. 

The  earliest  cannon  was  doubtless  Chinese,  for 
thence  came  gunpowder.  The  history  of  cannon  is 
the  history  of  Gunpowder  and  of  Fire-works 
(see  under  those  heads).  The  nitrous  efflorescence  of 
the  Tartar  plains  combined  with  the  carbon  of  the 
argol  fuel,  and  caused  a  sputtering  beneath  the  pip- 
kins of  the  nomads  ;  curiosity  and  ingenuity  com- 
bined the  materials  more  intimately,  and  chance  or 
care  added  the  third  ingredient,  sulpliur.  Doubt- 
less the  paper  cases  and  bamboos  which  were  charged 
with  the  restless,  fiery  .'^tuff  were  first  of  all  intended 
for  mere  fireworks  and  dazzling  exhibitions  ;  but,  as 
the  art  advanced,  the  intennittent  firework  was  in- 
troduced, which  discharged  balls  of  fire  at  intervals. 
This  appears  among  ns  as  the  lionian  candle,  —  a  ver)' 
absurd  name.  By  taking  a  tube  of  inci eased  size, 
putting  in  a  larger  charge,  and  a  missile  on  toji  of 
the  latter,  we  have  a  fire-arm  ;  and  this  may  have 
been  the  condition  of  the  matter  when  the  advanced 
guard  of  Alexander  was  met  in  Northern  India  by 
a  jieople  who  fought  them  with  "  balls  of  fire,"  as 
the  ancient  historian  narrates.  The  word  cannc,  a 
reed,  is  well  chosen  ;  for  the  original  tube  was  a  reed 
or  biimhoo  in  all  probability,  and  w.as  also  called  by 
that  name.  The  thing  and  its  title  have  kept  well 
together  for  two  or  three  thousand  years.  This 
sometimes  happens,  as  in  the  case  of  two  kinds  of 
cloth  well  known  in  England,  and  to  some  extent 
here,  barracan  and  camlet.  FalstafTsays  : —  "Two 
rogues  in  barracan  (coniipted  into  bxehram)  set  at 
me " ;  not  knowing  that  he  was  talking  Arabic, 
—  barroldn,  bnrkdn,  a  garment  of  camel's  hair, 
from  barik,  a  camel.  Our  gossiping  friend  Samuel 
Pejiys,  and  the  more  stately  Sir  William  Tem- 
ple, prided  themselves  on  their  camlet  clokci, 
which,  if  genuine,  were  even  then  made  of  camel's 
hair,  as  they  were  in  the  time  of  Esau  and  .lacob. 
The  word  is  abont  the  same,  strange  to  say,  in  the 
Aramean  and  Aryan  tongues  (Heb.  gdmdl ;  At. 
(jnmnl :  Greek,  ahm^XosI,  which  may  be  accounted 
tor  by  supposing  that  the  Semitics  received  the 
animal  and  its  name  from  its  original  proprietors, 
the  men  who  crossed  the  Hindoo  Koosh,  and,  occu- 
pying the  country  of  the  five  rivers,  became  trading 
acquaintances  of  the  Mesopotamia!!  nations. 

Reference  to  the  itse  of  tlie  fire-driven  balls  occurs 
at  intervals  along  the  pathway  of  history,  and  there 
is  b)it  little  doubt  that  the  Greek  empeiors  po.ssessed 
some  modes  of  projecting  fire  and  exjilosives,  perhaps 
balls,  as  early  as  the  seventh  century.  Conde,  in 
his  Historj'  of  the  Jloors  in  Spain,  speaks  of  them  as 
used  in  the  attack  on  fortified  places  as  early  as 
1118,  and  at  the  siege  of  Cordova,  12S0.  It  is  rea- 
sonable to  suppose  that,  failing  to  enter  Europe  at 
the  Byzantine  Gate,  the  advent  would  be  by  the  I'il- 
lai-s  of  Hercules,  by  which  route  arrived  cotton,  pa- 
per, clocks,  medicines,  the  present  (Hindoo)  system 
of  notation,  and  many  other  things,  including  the 


CANNON. 


446 


CANNON. 


shirt,  its  name,  uses,  and  materials  (chemise:  Sp. 
cammi;  Ar.  kaiiiis ;  not  shirt,  whicli  only  means 
short,  and  has  nothing  to  do  with  it).  Even  the 
Arabic  kamis  betrays  the  origin  of  the  stuff,  being 
from  the  Sanscrit  kschauma,  a  language  of  a  ditfer- 


Fig.  1064. 


Famous  Cannon  of  the  World. 


ent  family  from  the  Arabic,  the  name  being  evidently 
imported  from  India  by  the  Arabs  along  with  the 
material ;  for  the  trce-vool,  as  Herodotus  calls  cotton, 
was  known  as  an  Indian  production  in  the  time  of 
the  "  Father  of  History,"  whose  credit  grows  bright- 
er and  brighter  as  years  roll  by,  —  tardy  justice. 


In  the  eleventh  century,  if  we  may  credit  the 
chronicle  of  Alphonso  VI.,  written  by  Pedro,  bishop 
of  Leon,  the  vessels  of  the  king  of  Tunis,  in  the  at- 
tack on  Seville,  "had  on  board  a  number  of  iron 
jnpes,  o\it  of  which  volumes  of  thundering  tire  were 
discharged." 

In  the  fourteenth  century  the  references  to  the 
uses  of  cannon  became  common.  Ferdinand  took 
Gibraltar  from  the  Rfoors  by  cannon,  in  1308,  Pe- 
trarch refers  to  them  about  the  same  time.  The  Eng- 
lish (at  Crecy,  li)4ti),the  Jloors,  Arragonese,  French, 
and  Danes,  used  them  during  that  century. 

Metallic  cannon  were  originally  made  by  welding 
bars  of  iron  longitudinally  and  binding  thenr  by 
rings,  which  were  shrunk  on  over  them  while  hot,  — 
a  plan  which,  with  some  modifications,  has  been  re- 
vived of  late  years,  and  seems  more  feasible  in  the 
present  state  of  the  arts  than  it  was  500  years  ago. 

Some  of  these  ancient  guns  were  breech-loaders, 
having  a  removable  chamber,  insertable  in  the 
breech,  where  it  was  wedged,  for  the  purpose  of  con- 
taining the  charge  of  powder. 

The  balls  originally  used  were  of  stone,  in  some 
cases  weighing  800  pounds  or  more,  as  is  the  case  of 
the  Mohanniied  II.  gun,  mentioned  presently. 

Fig.  1064  shows  the  relative  sizes,  and,  to  some 
extent,  the  mode  of  construction,  of  a  number  of  the 
larger  and  more  celebrated  of  the  pieces  of  ordnance. 

a  is  the  Tzar-Ponschka,  the  great  bronze  gun  of 
Moscow,  cast  in  1586.  Bore,  122  in.  long,  36  in. 
diameter;  chamber  70  in.  long,  19  in.  diameter; 
total  exterior  length,  210  in.  ;  weight,  86,240 
pounds. 

b,  great  bronze  gun  of  Bejapoor,  India,  Malik-I- 
Mydan,  the  "  Master  of  the  Field."  Cast  in  1548. 
Bore,  28.5  in.  ;  total  length,  170.6  in.  ;  weight, 
89,600  pounds. 

c,  bronze  cannon  of  Mohammed  II.,  A.  D.  1464. 
Bore,  25  in.  ;  total  length,  17  ft.  ;  weight,  41,888 
pounds. 

d,  the  Dulle-Oride,  of  Ghent,  Holland.  Wronght- 
iron,  made  in  1430.  Bore,  25  in.;  total  length, 
197  in.  ;  weight,  29,120  pounds. 

c,  great  bronze  gun  of  Agra,  India,  Dhool- Dhancc. 
Cast  in  1628.  Bore,  23.2  in.;  total  length,  170.2 
in.  ;  weight,  67,648  pounds. 

/,  wrought-iron  gun,  Mons  Meg,  Edinburgh. 
Made  before  1460.  Bore,  20  in.  ;  total  length,  159 
in.  ;  weight,  12,768  pounds. 

g,  Michdctte  Ic  Grand,  at  Mont  St.  Michel. 
Wrought-iron,  made  in  1423.     Bore,  19  inches. 

h,  Michdctte  le  Petite,  at  the  same  place.  Bore, 
15  in. 

i.  Mallet's  mortar,  1857-58.  Bore,  36  in.; 
weight,  93,840  pounds. 

j,  English  wrought-iron  nmzzle-loading  35-ton 
gun.     Bore,  12  in. ;  weight,  48,400  pounds. 

k,  Krupp's  breech-loading  steel  gun.     Bore,  11  in. 

I,  sea-service  mortar.  Bore,  13  in.  ;  weight, 
11,200  pounds. 

m,  68-ponnder  ;  weight,  10,740  pounds. 

n,  Armstrong  breech-loader.      Bore,  7  in. 

For  relative    sizes  of   projectiles,   see    Cannon- 

BAI.LS. 

The  names  adopted  for  cannon  in  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury may  be  interesting  ;  — 


Name. 
Aspick 

Basilisk  .... 
Bastard  or  f  carthoun 
Cannon  loyal  or  carthoun 
Culverin 
Demi-culverin 


Weight  of  Ball. 

4  pounds. 

48  pounds. 

30  pounds. 

48  pounds. 

,  18  pounds. 

9  pounds. 


CANNON. 


447 


CANNON. 


Name. 
Dragon 
Falcon     . 
F.ilconet 
Half  cartlioun 
A[oyen 
Rabiriet   . 
Saker 
Serpentine 
Siren 


Weight  of  Ball.  I 

6  pounds. 

6  pounds. 

1  to  3  poiinils. 

24  pounds. 

10  to  1 2  ounces. 

16  ounces. 

5  to  8  pounds. 

4  pounds. 

.     60  pounds. 


Cannon  or  ordnance  as  at  present  constructed,  and 
used  in  Europe  and  America,  may  be  divided  into 
three  classes  :  guns,  or  cannon  proper,  howitzers, 
and  mortars.  Carronades,  which  were  a  short,  light 
species  of  cannon,  intended  for  firing  solid  shot  at 
short  ranges,  with  small  charges  of  powder,  are  now 
nearly  obsolete.  They  were  used  on  shipboard,  and 
were  principally  distingnished  by  having  no  trun- 
nions, being  secured  on  their  carriages  or  "slides" 
by  a  bolt  passing  through  a  lug  or  "navel  "  cast  on 
their  under  side,  and  by  a  peculiar  internal  and  e.x- 
ternal  chamfer  at  the  muzzle  ;  the  name  is  derived 
from  that  of  the  foundry  on  the  river  Carron,  in 
Stirlingshire,  Scotland,  where  they  were  originally 
cast. 

Guns,  as  distinguished  from  howitzers  or  mortars, 
are  intended  for  firing  either  solid  shot,  shells,  or 
ease-shot,  genei'ally  at  moderate  elevations,  and,  in 
the  case  of  smooth-bore  guns,  with  comparatively 
high  charges  of  powder,  varying,  according  to  the 
species  of  projectile  and  the  object  desired,  to  from 
J  to  J  the  weight  of  the  solid  shot  proper  to  the  cal- 
iber. Tile  bore  at  the  muzzle  has  a  slight  chamfer. 
The  perpendicular  portion  of  the  muzzle  is  the 
fiKe. 

The  different  parts  of  a  gun  or  howitzer  are  desig- 
nated as  follows  :  the  breech,  including  the  whole 
mass  of  metal  in  the  rear  of  the  bottom  of  the  bore, 
and  extending  to  the  rear  of  the  base-ring  ;  the  c%s- 
cabel,  including  the  base  of  the  breech  and  knob  ; 
the  reinforce,  or  reinforces,  including  the  thickest 
part  of  the  gun  in  front  of  the  base-ring  and  extend- 
ing forward  to  the  eliase,  or  conical  part  which  ter- 
minates at  the  neck,  or  thinnest  part  of  the  gun, 
where  the  swell  of  the  mu;!zle  begins  ;  or,  should 
there  be  no  swell,  all  the  part  in  rear  of  the  face  of 
the  muzzle  is  included  in  the  chase.  The  trunnions 
are  short  journals  which  support  the  gun  on  its  car- 
riage, the  width  of  which  is  determined  by  the  dis- 
tance between  the  rimbases. 

In  the  accompanying  section  of  a  32-pounder  gun, 
from  A  to  B  ii  the  C(cscabel,  A  being  tlip  knob  of  the 


3'2-Potinripr  S^a- Coast  Gun. 

cascabel  and/  the  base  of  the  breech ;  a  is  the  ba^sc- 
ring ;  from  o.  to  C  is  the  first,  and  from  C  to  D  the 
second  reinforce ;  from  D  to  E  is  the  chase,  expand- 
ing into  the  swell  of  the  muzzle  F,  which  terminates 
in  the  lip  G ;  i  is  the  ellipsoidal  bottom  of  the  bore, 
indicated  by  the  dotted  lines  ;  e  shows  the  diameter 
and  position  of  a  rimbase,  and  d  that  of  a  Irimnion. 
The  diameter  of  the  latter  in  guns  is  usually  the  same 
as  that  of  the  boi-e,  and  in  howitzers,  and  mortars 
of  the  old  pattern,. as  that  of  the  chamber,  e  is  the 
chase-ring,  an  ornamental  fillet.  The  position  of 
the  vent  is  show^n  at  y ;  its  diameter  is  invariably  two 


tenths  of  an  inch.     Rifled  guns  have  a  vent-piece 
of  wrouglit-copper  screwed  into  the  piece. 

Guns  for  use  on  ship-hoard  have  a  slot  in  the 
knob  of  the  cascabel  to  receive  the  breeching,  a  stout 
rope  secured  to  ring-bolts  in  the  side  of  the  vessel 
for  the  purpose  of  cliecking  the  recoil. 

Rifled  cannon  were  first  employed  in  actual  ser- 
vice in  Louis  Napoleon's  Italian  campaign  of  1859. 
General  James's,  1861,  were  the  first  introduced  into 
the  United  States  service.  These  were  service-pat- 
tern smooth-bores,  riHed  and  furnished  with  pro- 
jectiles also  invented  by  General  James.  Captain 
Parrott's  gnu  soon  followed  James's.  This  was  con- 
structed by  shrinking  a  wrought-iron  leiuforce  over 
the  breech  of  a  cast-iron  core,  and  was  noted  for  its 
fewness  of  grooves  and  smallness  of  caliber  in  pro- 
portion to  the  wei};ht  of  the  ]>rojectile,  which  was 
very  elongated.  Wiard's  gun  was  of  steel,  ham- 
mered and  welded,  and  was  accompanied  by  a  pecu- 
liar and  novel  carriage.  The  3-inch  "  Ordnance"  or 
Griffin  gun  was  finally  adopted  for  ritled  field- 
artillery,  and  large  numbers  were  in  service  at  the 
close  of  the  civil  war  in  the  United  States.  This  is 
a  wrought-iron  gun  weighing  about  820  pounds, 
rifled  with  7  grooves,  and  carrying  a  projectile 
weighing  about  10  pounds.  A  cast-iron  rifled  siege- 
gun,  4t-inch  caliber,  and  carrying  a  projectile  weigh- 
ing about  30  pounds,  was  introduced  into  the  ser- 
vice at  the  same  time. 

About  1812,  Colonel  Bomford,  U.  S.  A.,  intro- 
duced a  chambered  gun  called  by  him  the  colum- 
biad.  These  were  made  thicker  at  the  breech  and 
thinner  at  the  nmzzle  than  was  then  customary. 
This  form  was  somewhat  modified  in  the  shell-guns 
of  Colonel  Pai.xhans,  of  the  French  army,  about 
1822,  wliich  found  their  way  into  the  United  States 
land-service  at  a  later  period  under  the  name  of 
sea-  coast  howitzers. 

Experiment  has  gradually  led  to  the  practice  of 
increasing  the  thickness  of  ordnance  at  the  breech 
and  reducing  it  at  the  muzzle,  and  making  the  re- 
sisting surfaces  curvilinear.  A  large  share  of  credit 
in  this  respect  is  due  to  the  late  Admiral  Dahlgreu, 
U.  S.  N. 

The  Rodman  gun,  from  the  late  Colonel  Rodman, 
U.  S.  A.,  resembles  in  general  ibrm  the  Dahlgren 
gun,  but  is  cast  with  a  core,  through  which  a 
stream  of  water  circulates  while  cooling,  instead 
of  solid,  in  the  ordinary  way  ;  this  tends  to  harden 
the  metal  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  bore 
and  increase  its  tenacity.  This  mode  of  casting  is 
principally  applied  to  the  larger  calibers,  from  8  to 
20  inches.  A  gunof  the  latter  size,  weighingll6,000 
pounds,  throws  a  projectile  of  nearly  1,100  pounds 
upwards  of  4i  miles  at  an  elevation  of  25°,  with  a 
maximum  chai-ge  of  200  pounds  powder. 

The  extreme  length  of  the  piece  is  20  ft.  3  in.  ;  of 
bore,  17  ft.  6  in.  ;   and  greatest  diameter,  5  ft.  4  in. 

The  Crimean  war  (1854)  imparted  quite  an  im- 
pulse to  the  improvement  of  ordnance  and  projec- 
tiles. 

Lancaster's,  one  of  the  first  of  these,  obviated  rifling 
by  making  the  bore  elliptical,  but  witli  a  gradual  twist 
throughout,  so  that  a  projectile  of  corresponding 
shape  would  receive  a  rotary  motion  during  its  pas- 
sage through  the  bore. 

Armstrong's  first  gun  was  made  in  1S55,  and  a 
patent  obtained  in  1857.  It  has  been  extensively 
adopted  in  the  British  service.  It  is  built  up  of 
layers  of  wrought-iron  bars  twisted  spirally  in  re- 
verse directions  over  a  steel  core,  and  bound  to- 
gether by  one  or  more  wrought-iron  rings  shrunk  on 
at  a  white  heat.  A  peculiar  breech-loading  niechan- 
ismisalsoused  with  this  gun.     See  AiiMSTUOxo  GuN. 


CANNON. 


448 


CANNON. 


In  the  Ames  cannon,  a  series  of  eonipoiinii  longi- 
tudinal lings  are  consecutively  welded  to  a  concave 
breech-piece,  upon  a  reniovalile  mandrel. 

Bhikeley's  cannon  is  composed  of  an  inner  tube, 
which  may  be  of  mild  steel,  upon  which  an  outer 
tube  of  less  extensible  material,  as  hard  steel,  is 
shrunk.  His  first  English  patent  was  in  1855. 
Tlie  American  patent,  in  which  the  process  here 
mentioned  is  described,  bears  date  1864. 

Whitworth  commenced  e.xperiuienting  about  1855, 
and  his  guns  underwent  a  satisfactory  test  in  ISdO. 
The  leading  peculiarities  are  a  bore  which  is  hexag- 
onal in  cross  .section  without  grooves,  and  having  a 
rapid  twist ;  the  projectile  is  a  hexagonal  bolt  wliose 
spiral  conforms  to  the  twist  of  the  bore  and  is  desti- 
tute of  knobs  and  used  without  a  sabot.  The  de- 
vice for  breech-loading  ditfers  from  that  of  Arm- 
strong. 

Krupp's  first  steel  cannon  (1849)  were  objected 
to  on  account  of  their  novelty  and  expense.  He 
has  since  furnished  cannon  to  Asia  as  well  as 
Europe.  He  has  used  a  mixture  of  steel  and  iron, 
the  latter  metal  increasing  tlie  elasticity. 

The  compound  was  cast  in  plumbago  crucibles, 
and  forged  while  still  at  a  red  heat  under  an  enor- 
mous steam-hammer,  comiiressing  the  mass  two  or 
three  per  cent,  ami  nearly  doubling  its  tensile 
strength.  Cannon  of  over  S-inch  bore  are  made  up 
of  several  concentric  rings  ;  those  of  a  smaller  size 
are  forged  solid. 

Krupp's  monster  gun,  at  the  Paris  Exposition  of 
1867  (see  illustration  on  opposite  page),  consists  of 
an  inner  tube  weighing  20  tons,  upon  which  are 
alirunk  cast-steel  rings,  forming  at  the  breech  a 
threi?fold  and  at  the  muzzle  a  twofold  layer  of 
metal ;  these  are  made  fi'om  massive  ingots  without 
welding,  weighing  together  30  tons. 

The  total  weight  of  the  gun  is  50  tons  ;  caliber.  14 
in.  ;  total  length,  17i  ft.  ;  weight  of  solid  shot, 
1,212  pounds;  weight  of  shell,  1,080  pounds; 
charge  of  powiler,  Irom  110  to  130  pounds.  A 
special  car  weighing  24  tons  was  constructed  for 
the  transportation  of  this  gun  to  Paris. 

The  gun  is  mounted  on  a  steel  carriage  weighing 
15  tons,  supported  on  a  center-pintle  chassis  weigh- 
ing 25  tons. 

The  breech-loading  is  on  Krupp's  patent  plan. 
The  shot  or  sliell  is  raised  by  a  block  and  fall,  and 
is  rolled  into  the  side  of  the  breech  through  an  aper- 
ture closed  by  a  slide. 

Tliough  many  breech-loading  guns  of  this  or 
similar  construction  were  employed  by  North  Ger- 
many iluring  the  late  Franco-Prussian  war,  we 
know  of  none  at  all  approaching  it  in  size. 

Baron   Wahrendorff,  of   Sweden,    some   30   to   40 


Fig  106S. 


secured  by  a  transverse  breech  plug  an<l  wedge. 
Caralli's  rifled  cannon  of  later  date  loaded  at  the 
breech  in  a  nearly  similar  way. 

Tlie  Broadwell  breech-loading  cannon  has  a  .steel 
wedge  or  breech-block  A,  moving  horizontally  in  a 
mortise  B,  made  through  the  breech  of  the  piece  at 
right  angles  with  the   bore.     This   breech-block   is 


BroaiiWfWs  Breech-Bhck  {Dttait  View). 

operated  by  means  of  a  partially  threaded  screw,  E, 
located  in  its  rear  side,  which  finds  its  socket-thread 
in  the  gun  behind  it,  and  is  thus  locked  in  position 
at  the  moment  of  fire. 

One  half-turn  of  this  screw  is  sufficient  to  loosen 
the  block,  and  jiermit  it  to  be  easily  withdrawn  to 
the  position  for  loading  the  piece. 

The  gas-check  consists  in  a  ])ecnliarly  curved 
steel  ring  d,  located  in  a  correspondingly  shaped 
chamber  in  the  bore  of  the  gun  immediately  in 
front  of  the  breech-block.  When  the  charge  is  fired, 
tills  ring  is  expandeil  by  the  gases  and  pressed 
tightly  against  the  walls  of  its  chamber  and  also 
against  a  steel  bearing  plate,  D,  let  into  the  face  of 
the  breech-block,  thus  forming  a  perfectly  tight  gas- 
check. 

Fig-  ines 


BroadwelVs  Brefch-Loailing  Gun. 


years  ago,   contrived   a  breech-loading  cannon,   in  i 
which  the  bore  extended   the  whole  length  of  the 
piece,  the  projectile  being  passed  in  at  the  rear  and  | 


An)tnwe>ils  of  English  Jron-Clads. 


CANNON. 


449 


CANNON-BALL. 


The  aiinament.s  of  tlie  British  iron-clad.s  are  of 
hea%'ier  ami  heavier  guns  as  years  go  by.  The  an- 
nexed figure  gives  a  com|iarison  of  the  relative  pro- 
portions and  weights  of  the  guns  :  A,  "  War- 
rior's "  armament,  —  6S-pounder ;  4f-ton  gun. 
charge,  16  pounds.  £,  "  Bellerophon's  "  annaraent, 
—  250-pounder  ;  12-ton  gun;  charge,  43  pounds. 
C,  "Hercules's"  armament,  — 400-pounder  ;  18-ton 
gun  ;  charge,  60  pounds.  D,  "Monarch's"  arma- 
ment. —  tiOO-pounder ;  25-ton  gun  ;  charge,  "0 
pounds.  S,  "Thunderer's"  armament, — 600- 
poiinder  :  30-ton  gun  ;  charge,  100  pounds. 

These  figures  are  e.Kceeded  by  the  latest  English 
gun  (the  3D-ton),  which  is  by  no  means,  however, 
what  it  is  paraded  as  being,  —  the  largest  gun  in  the 
world. 

Pounds. 
M'oolwieh,  35  tons  7  cwt.  (English  count)  =  79,084 
Armstrong  (Big  Will)  .      '   .         .         .     .50,400 

Krupp,  14-inch  (1,080-pounder)      .         .       100,000 
Rodman,  smooth-bore  (20-inch)  .         .   116,497 

The  "Thunderer,"  4,400  tons,  and  the  "  Fury," 
5, 000  tons  burden,  are  designed  eacli  to  carry  four  of 
these  35-ton  guns,  in  two  turrets,  two  guns  being 
placed  in  a  turret  side  by  side. 

Among  the  earliest  cannon  made  in  Europe  were 
brecck-loackrs,  specimens  of  which  are  preserved  in 
the  Artillery  Museum  of  Woolwich,  England. 

The  charge  was  inserted  in  an  iron  cylinder,  which 
was  fixed  by  wedgesin  its  place  in  the  breech  of  the  gun. 

Breech-loading  cannon  were  introduced  by  Daniel 
Spekle,  who  died  in  1589,  and  by  Ulfanus. 

Cannon  of  ice  were  made  at  St.  Petersburg  in 
1740,  and  repeatedly  fired, —  a  whim. 

All  the  rifled  cannon  in  the  British  .service  of 
le.ss  than  6.3-inch  caliber  are  breech-loaders. 

At  the  siege  of  Badajoz,  the  firing  was  continued 
for  104  hours,  and  the  number  of  rounds  fired  from 
each  24-pounder  iron  gun  averaged  1,249  ;  at  the 
siege  of  St.  Sebastian  each  piece  was  fired  about  350 
times  in  15i  hours.  But  few  of  these  pieces  were 
rendered  unserviceable  ;  but  it  is  estimated  that 
three  times  the  number  of  brass  guns  would  have 
been  required  to  produce  the  same  ert'ect,  or  main- 
tain such  long  and  rapid  firing. 

An  experimental  Armstrong  32-pounder,  weigh- 
ing 26  cwt.,  with  a  charge  of  6  pounds  and  an  ele- 
vation of  33°,  sent  its  projectile  9,153  yards.  The 
range  was  carefully  measured.  Mr.  Whitworth 
states  that  his  little  3-pounder,  fired  at  Southport, 
attained  a  range  of  9,688  yards.  The  long  experi- 
mental 7-inch  gun  of  six  tons,  designed  by  Mr. 
Lynall  Thomas,  with  25  pounds  of  powder,  propel- 
ling a  shot  of  175  pounds,  and  fired  with  an  eleva- 
tion of  37A°,  ranged  10,075  yards.  There  have 
been  several  other  instances  of  long  ranges,  and 
there  would  be  more  but  for  the  general  uselessness 
of  firing  at  distances  where  no  aim  can  possibly  be 
taken. 

The  accelerating  principle  has  been  again  and 
again  suggested,  and  consists  in  increasing  the 
velocity  of  the  projectile  by  the  ignition  of  successive 
charges  of  powder  during  the  passage  of  the  ball 
through  the  bore.  Henry  Bessemer,  and  Captain 
Fitzmaurice  of  the  British  navy,  are  yet  inventing 
and  confident.  The  former  designs  a  tube  60  feet 
long,  with  charges  60  in  number,  fired  by  electricity 
in  ([uick  succes.sion,  so  that  each  may  exert  its  force 
before  the  ball  escapes  at  the  nnizzle. 

Jloncreiff's  plan  for  inounting  ordnance  is  to 
make  the  recoil  of  the  gun  in  firing  swing  the  gun 
backward  and  downward,  so  a-s  to  depress  it  below 
the  sill  of  the  embrasure  and  allow  the  gunners  to 
load  it  without  exposure  to  the  enemy. 


Various  modes  of  mounting  and  operating  g\ms 
have  been  devised  for  monitor  and  turret  use,  for 
which  consult  patents  of  Eads  and  Ericsson.  Very 
ingenious  indeed  are  many  of  these  de\'ices. 

2.  i.Vachincr;/.)  A  metallic  hub  or  sleeve,  fitted 
to  revolve  on  a  shaft  or  with  it. 

Can'non-ball.  Properly  speaking,  this  term 
should  only  be  applied  to  spherical  solid  projectiles ; 
but  it  appears  to  have  become  generic,  extending  to 
elongated  bullets  for  rifled  guns,  and  even  to  hollow 
projectiles. 

Technically,  balls  are  termed  solid  shot,  or  simply 
shot,  to  distinguish  them  from  hollow  jirojectiles". 
They  are  now  universally  made  of  cast-iron,  though 
stone  was  formerly  employed,  and  was  used  in  some 
instances  by  the  Turks  as  late  as  1827. 

In  South  America  balls  of  copper  were  formerly 
used,  this  metal  being  there,  at  that  period,  cheaper 
than  iron. 

The  Fadera  mentions  an  order  of  Henri'  V.,  x.  D. 
1418,  to  the  clerk  of  the  works  of  his  ordnance,  for 
making  7,000  stone  balls  for  his  cannon,  of  different 
sizes,  from  the  quarries  of  Maidstone,  in  Kent. 
Although  iron  lialls  are  noticed  as  being  used  by 
the  Fiench  towards  the  close  of  the  14th  century,  . 
yet  no  mention  is  made  of  them  in  English  histoiy 
before  1550,  when,  in  an  ac(iuittance  for  delivering 
up  the  artillery  at  Boulogne,  they  are  styled  bouleiz 
(le  fcr.  Stone  balls  were  not  entirely  laid  aside  in 
England  till  the  civil  war,  time  of  Charles  I. 

Elongated  bullets  for  rifled  cannon  are  now  fre- 
quently, especially  by  English  writers,  termed 
"  bolts."  These  are  often  made  flat-pointed  or 
angularly  pointed,  to  more  readily  penetrate  iron 
plating.     (See  m.  Fig.  1069K 

Shells  are  hollow  projectiles  in  which  is  placed  a 
quantity  of  powder  sufficient  to  burst  them  when 
exploded  by  means  of  a  fuse.     See  Fuse  ;  Shell. 

Case-.shot  are  thinner  than  .shells,  adapting  them 
to  contain  a  nuniher  of  bullets,  wliich  are  scattered 
at  the  moment  of  bursting.  • 

All  projectiles  are  made  smaller  than  the  bore  of 
the  gun  which  they  are  intended  to  fit.  The  dif- 
ference between  their  diameter  and  that  of  the  bore 
of  the  gun  is  termed  the  windnyc.  This  is  much 
less  for  rifled  than  for  smooth-bore  arms,  the  former 
in  some  cases  amounting  to  .15,  and  the  latter 
usually  to  .025  of  an  inch. 

Of  the  class  adapted  for  rifled  guns,  those  most 
jirominent  during  the  late  civil  war  in  this  country 
were  the  Parrott,  Hotchkiss,  and  Shenkl.  See 
Shell. 

Projectiles  for  rifled  cannon  may  be  given  a  rotary 
motion  by  the  expansion  of  a  soft  metallic  sabot  at 
the  rear,  or  by  means  of  studs  cast  on  or  affixed  to 
the  shell.  The  former  by  their  expansion  at  the 
moment  of  firing  fill  the  grooves,  while  the  latter 
are  necessarily  compelled  to  follow  the  grooves, 
being  unable  to  leave  them  without  being  torn 
away. 

Fig.  1069  shows  a  few  of  the  numerous  kinds  of 
cannon-projectiles  which  have  been  devi.sed. 

a,  the  "Hotchkiss."  At  the  moment  of  firing, 
the  wedge-shaped  piece,  shown  in  section,  is  driven 
forward,  expanding  a  soft  metal  ring  which  fills  the 
gi'ooves. 

h  b,  the  ".James."  The  gas  passes  through  the 
aperture  at  the  back,  dri^^ng  out  a  number  of  pins, 
which  expand  a  fibrous  mass  surrounding  the  shot 
and  encircled  by  a  metallic  ring,  which  is  thus 
forced  to  enter  the  grooves.  In  the  second  this  is 
efl'ected  without  the  aid  of  pins. 

c  c  are  vertical  and  longitudinal  sections  of  a 
similar  projectile  having  a  detachable  point. 


CANNON-BALL. 


450 


CANNON-BALL. 


d,  "Read."  The  gas  enters  through  lioles  around 
the  base,  and  expand.s  an  encircling  band. 

e,  "Slialer."  Driving  lonvard  the  metallic  cup 
at  the  base  Hattens  it  and  expands  the  sabot. 

_/',  "Cochran."  A  band  of  copper  wire  is  ex- 
panded by  forcing  forward  a  cup  at  the  base  of  the 
projectile,  against  a  cylinder  which  surrounds  the 
latter. 

(J,  "  Boekel."  The  illustration  shows  the  annular 
soft-metal  packing  being  attached  to  a  projectile  by 
a  swage  and  dies  while  tlic  point  is  held  on  an  anvil. 

h,  "Atwater."  The  packing  of  wire  webbing  or 
cloth  is  expanded  by  wedges  driven  forward  by 
plungers  at  the  base  of  the  shot. 

i,  "Woodbury,"  a  spirally  gi-ooved  projectile, 
with  a  sabot  similarly  groo\'ed,  for  tiring  from  a 
smoot}i-bore  gun. 

j,  "  Taggart,  "  has  a  spirally  flanged  central  aper- 
ture intended  to  cause  the  bullet  to  rotate  on  its 


Angel-shot. 

Bar-shot. 

Bolt. 

Bomb. 

Burrel. 

Canister. 

Carcass. 

Case-shot. 

Chain-sliot. 

Cross-bar  shot. 

DouLile-headed  shot. 

Grape-shot. 

See  also  Pkojectiles,  for  list  of  otlier  missiles 
impelled  by  discharge  from  cannon. 

See  also  Weapons. 

Fig.  1070  gives  an  idea  of  the  [jroportionate  mag- 
nitudes of  some  of  the  projectiles  of  celebrated  can- 

FiR.  1070. 


Langrel. 

Nail-shot. 

Koiind  shot. 

Sand-shot. 

Segment-shell. 

Shell. 

Shrapnel. 

S]iherical  case-shot. 

Sub-caliber  shot. 

Tier-shot. 

Trundle-shot. 


Caniwn-Projfctites. 

axis  by  atmospheric  action  when  fired  from  a 
smooth-bore  gun. 

k,  "Sigourney,"  has  projecting  spiral  ribs  to 
take  the  grooves  and  impart  rotary  motion,  and 
annular  belts  which  fit  the  lands  and  direct  the 
flight. 

I,  the  "Carrie"  ball,  conoidal  at  each  end,  and 
having  an  annular  groove  deepening  from  front  to 
rear,  into  which  is  cast  a  soft-metal  packing-ring. 

m,  a  "bolt"  with  chisel-edged  points  for  cutting 
thi-ongh  iron  plating.  The  annular  groove  between 
the  cutting-edges  and  the  point  is  tilled  with  soft 
metal,  to  prevent  retardation  of  the  flight. 

n,  an  elongated  bullet  with  sjiiral  flanges  for  im- 
parting rotary  motion  when  fired  from  a  smooth- 
bore gun.  It  will  be  obvious  to  practical  men  that 
some  of  the  last  projectiles  figured  would  be  of  little 
service. 

0,  an  "accelerating"  projectile.  This  bullet  has 
in  front  a  plunger,  which,  on  striking  an'  object,  ex- 
plodes, by  percussion,  a  charge  contained  in  a 
chamber,  giving  a  new  impetus  to  the  projectile. 

For  varieties  of  cannon-shot,  see  under  the  follow- 
ing heads  ;  — 


non.  The  diameters  and  weights  are  inscribed  in 
figures  ;  the  upper  figure  being  the  bore,  the  lower 
figure  the  weight,  of  the  shot.  (The  balls  a  I  i,  in 
the  figure,  are  of  stone. ) 

For  description  of  the  cannon  themselves,  see 
Cannon. 

In  Fig.  1070,  a  is  the  stone  projectile  of  Tsar- 
Pooschka  (Muscovite). 

b  shows  seven  sizes  of  the  Turkish  granite  balls  of 
Scutari,  weighing  respectively  373,  498,  747,  810, 
871,  1,182,  and  1,640  pounds. 

c  is  the  basalt  ball  of  MnUk-y-mydan  (Indian). 

d  is  the  granite  ball,  of  the  great  gun  of  Moham- 
med II. 

e,  the  stone  ball  of  Dulh-Grietc  (Flemish). 

/,  stone  ball  oi  r>hoot-llhniice  (East  Indian). 

q,  stone  ball  of  Mons  Mrg  (Scotch). 

A,  granite  ball  of  MichdcUe  le  Grand. 

i,  granite  ball  of  Michclrltr  U  Petite. 

j.  Mallet's  iron  bomb  (English). 

k  tos,  English  elongated  iron  projectiles. 

t,  68-pound  ball  (1841). 

M,  Liege,  French,  1,000-pound  ball  (1832). 

V,  "  Beelzebub  "  and  "Puritan,"  American,  1,100- 
pound  ball  (1866). 

w,  Rodman,  American,  450-pound  ball  (1866). 


CANNON-CASTING. 


451 


CANOE. 


Can'non-cast'ing.  The  molds  for  brass  cannon 
are  t'oiTued  by  wrapping  a  long  taper  rod  of  wood 
with  a  peculiar  soft  rope,  over  wliiuh  is  applied  a 
coating  of  loam,  which,  as  the  work  proceeds,  is  dried 
over  a  long  fire,  a  templet  being  applied  to  form  the 
proper  outline.  This  model  is  made  about  one  third 
longer  than  the  gun  is  to  be.  It  is  next,  when  dry, 
blackwashed,  and  covered  with  a  shell  of  loam  not 
less  than  three  inches  thick,  secured  by  iron  bands, 
which  is  also  carefully  dried.  The  model  is  next  re- 
moved by  withdrawing  the  taper  rod  and  the  rope, 
and  extracting  the  pieces  of  loam.  The  parts  for 
the  cascabel  and  trunnions  are  formed  upon  wooden 
models,  and  then  attached  to  the  exterior  of  the  shell ; 
handles,  dolphins,  or  ornamental  figures,  are  modeled 
in  wax,  and  placed  on  tlie  clay  model  previous  to 
molding  the  shell,  from  which  they  are  melted  out 
before  casting. 

When  dry,  the  shells  are  placed  muzzle  upward  in 
a  pit  in  front  of  the  funiace  or  furnaces,  and  the 
earth  thrown  in  and  well  rammed  around  them.  At 
the  same  time,  a  vertical  runner,  which  enters  the 
mold  near  the  bottom,  or  not  higher  than  the  trun- 
nions, is  made  for  each  mold,  terminating  in  a  trough 
or  gutter,  at  the  far  end  of  n  liieh  is  a  square  hole  to 
receive  any  excess  of  metal.  The 'runners  are  stopped 
by  iron  bars,  which  are  successively  withdrawn  as 
the  preceding  mold  in  order  becomes  filled,  and  the 
furnace  or  furnaces  are  tapped  by  an  iron  bar  \vith  a 
taper  end,  so  as  to  regulate  the  flow  of  metal,  by 
making  a  larger  or  smaller  orifice,  as  requii-ed.  A 
spade  or  gate  across  the  gutter  at  a  certain  point 
prevents  the  metal  from  flowing  beyond  this  till  the 
molds  towards  that  end  are  fUled,  and  when  the 
last  is  removed  the  metal  is  allowed  to  flow  into  the 
square  pit  before  refened  to. 

The  general  process  with  iron  cannon  is  very  simi- 
lar. In  all  such  large  castings  a  large  head  or  sprue 
must  be  allowed  to  maintain  a  pressure  adequate  to 
produce  a  sufficient  solidification  at  the  breech,  where 
the  metal  should  be  strongest. 

In  casting  the  first  20-inch  gun  at  Fort  Pitt  Foun- 
dry, in  1864,  the  mold  was  in  four  pieces  ;  the  core 
was  on  the  Rodman  plan,  a  fluted  cylinder  of  cast- 
iron,  circular  or  semi-elliptical  at  the  lower  end, 
and  closed  at  top  by  a  cap  through  which  a  pipe 
enters,  conducting  water  to  the  bottom,  from  wliioh  it 
rises  to  near  the  top,  and  is  carried  ott'  by  a  waste-pipe. 
Five  furnaces,  charged  in  all  with  105  tons  of 
metal,  were  employed,  —  two  containing  2.3  tons,  one 
39,  and  the  two  smaller  between  5  and  10  tons  each. 
The  molten  metal  was  admitted  to  the  bottom  of  the 
mold  through  two  gates,  one  on  each  side.  Six  hours 
were  required  for  its  complete  fusion,  which  was 
maintained  for  one  hour  twent5'-four  minutes,  when 
the  large  furnaces  were  tapped,  filling  the  mold  in 
twenty-two  minutes.  So  long  as  a  constant  flow  of 
water  was  admitted  to  the  core,  the  temperature  of 
that  issuing  from  the  discharge-pipe  did  not  exceed 
92°  F.,  faUing  within  twenty-one  hours  to  57°  ;  but 
when  the  How  was  stopped,  the  temperature  rose  to 
the  boiling-point.     (See  page  447.) 

Can'non-clock.  A  cannon  with  a  burning-glass 
over  the  vent,  so  as  to  fire  the  priming  when  the 
sun  reaches  the  meridian.  Such  pieces  were  placed 
in  the  Palais  Royal  and  in  the  Luxembourg,  at 
Paris. 

Can'non-lock.  A  contrivance  placed  over  the 
toucli-holc  of  ;i  lannon  to  explode  the  charge. 

Can'non-met'al.  A.n  alloy  of  copper  and  tin. 
See  Grx-METAi.  :  Alloy. 

Can'non-pin'ion.  (Horologj/.)  A  squared  tu- 
bular piece,  ]ilaced  on  the  arbor  of  the  center-wheel, 
and  adapted  to  hold  the  minute-hand. 


Cannon-Stove. 


'      Cam'non-roy'al.     An  old  grade  of  service-can- 
non. Si  inches  bore,  6t)-pounder.     A  cnrthoun. 

Can'nou-stove.    A 
cast-iron    stove,     some-  Kg.  1071. 

what  cannon  -  shaped, 
the  lower  portion,  or 
bosh,  forming  the  fire- 
pot  and  the  upper  a  ra- 
diating surface.  It  has 
no  flues  proper,  but  the 
stove-pipe  stands  upon 
the  top,  encircling  the 
thimble.  The  door  is 
above  the  level  of  the 
usual  level  of  the  coals, 
and  the  middle  zone  of 
the  stove  may  have,  as 
in  the  example,  doors 
and  panes  of  mica. 

Can'nu-la.     (Surgi- 
cal.)    A  small  tube  in- 
troduced by  means  of  a  - 
siihlle  into  a  cavity  or 
tumor,  to  withdraw  a  fluid. 

Ca-noe'.  A  light  boat,  narrow  in  the  beam  and 
adapted  to  be  paddled. 

The  coracle  of  the  ancient  Rritons  was  a  frame  of 
willow  covered  with  hides.  The  North  American 
Indian  made  his  canoe  of  cedar-wood  covered  with 
an  unbroken  sheet  of  the  bark  of  the  white  birch. 
The  Indians  of  the  plains  used  buflalo-hide.  In 
the  wooded  regions  devoid  of  birch  the  canoe  was  a 
shaped  and  hollowed  log. 

The  Rob  Roy  canoe,  so  celebrated  from  the  ad- 
ventures of  II r.  Macgregor  in  traveling  3,000  miles 
on  the  naWgable  streams  and  head-waters  of  Europe 
and  Asia,  was  made  of  well-seasoned  and  selected 
plank.  Such  a  canoe  is  13  feet  long,  26  inches  wide,  12 
inches  deep,  and  has  a  "comber"  of  2  inches.  The 
opening  in  the  deck  in  which  the  voyager  places 
himself  is  4  feet  long  and  1  foot  8  inches  wide.  X 
canoe  for  two  persons,  sitting  face  to  face,  should  be 
about  two  thirds  larger. 

In  New  York,  the  form  and  construction  knorni 
as  the  nautilus  is  most  approved,  it  is  made  of  wood, 
the  keel  being  oak  and  the  hull  of  cedar.  Abroad, 
there  are  several  types,  all  more  or  less  in  favor. 
Assuming  the  traveler  to  weigh  one  hundred  and 
sixty  pounds,  a  nautilus  should  have  a  length  of 
1 4  feet,  and  a  beam  of  2  feet  4  inches.  It  is  low-  • 
est  amidships,  its  depth  there  being  12  inches,  ris- 
ing to  20  at  the  stern  and  22  at  the  bow.  In  each 
end  is  a  water-tight  compartment,  and  the  whole 
is  so  contrived  that  in  event  of  a  capsize  it  will 
right  itself  as  soon  as  relieved  of  its  burden.  It  is 
fitted  with  a  sprit-sail,  7  feet  from  tip  to  boom, 
and  is,  indeed,  calculated  more  for  sailing  than  pad- 
dling, while  the  reverse  is  the  case  with  most  of 
the  English  canoes. 

Appliances  and  means  are  carried  for  cooking, 
fi.shing,  hunting,  etc.  ;  and  in  suppljdng  these  minor 
conveniences  much  ingenuity  and  adaptiveness  has 
been  disjilayed.  Xu  apparatus  heated  by  a  spirit- 
lamp  serves  for  the  preparation  of  food.  Water- 
proof haversacks  carry  tea,  coffee,  sugar,  rice,  and 
other  comestibles,  as  well  as  quinine  to  cure  the 
ague,  which  pui-sues  bipeds  without  feathers  who 
paddle  about  in  wet  places. 

Canoes  are  also  made  of  galvanized  iron,  caont- 
chouc,  and  paper.  The  latter  comes  the  nearest  in 
lightness  to  Hiawatha's  :  — 

"  Thus  the  Birch  Canoe  w-is  builded 
In  the  valley,  by  the  river, 
Iq  the  bosom  of  the  forest ; 


CANON. 


452 


CAN-SOLDERING  MACHINE. 


And  the  forest's  life  was  in  it, 
All  its  mystery  and  its  magic, 
All  the  tightness  of  the  bitt;h-tr«e. 
All  the  toughness  of  the  cedar, 
All  the  larch's  supple  sinews  ; 
And  it  Boated  on  the  river 
Like  a  yellow  leaf  in  autumn, 
Like  a  yellow  water-lily." 

The  canot'S  of  the  Feejees  are  double,  of  unequal 
size  ;  the  smaller  serving  as  an  outrigger.  Large 
cues  are   100  feet  in  length.     The  two   canoes  are 


Can'OpeTl^r. 

connected  by  a  platform  about  15  feet  wide,  and 
projecting  two  or  three  feet  beyond  the  sides.  The 
bottom  of  each  consists  of  a  single  plank  ;  the  .sides 
are  fitted  by  dovetailing,  and  closely  united  by  lash- 
ings passed  through  flanges  left  on  each  of  the  pieces. 
The  joints  are  closed  by  the  gum  of  the  bread-fruit 
tree.  The  sails  are  large,  and  made  of  mats.  The 
mast  is  about  half  the  length  of  the  canoe,  and  the 
yard  and  boom  are  still  longer.  Captain  Cook  esti- 
mated the  naval  force  of  the  Society  Islands  at  1,700 
war-canoes,  manned 
by  68,000  men.  See 
Boat,  pp.  311,  312. 
Can'on.  1.  (Sur- 
gical. )  An  instru- 
ment used  in  se\ving 
up  wounds. 

2.  (Printing.)  A 
large  type,  used  for 
posters  and  handbills. 

3.  The  part  of  a 
bell  by  which  it  is 
suspended.  Other- 
wise called  the  ear. 

Can'on-bit.  The 
barrel  of  a  bit  ;  the 
portion  in  the  mouth 
of  a  horse. 

Can-o'pen-er.  A 
domestic  implement 
for  opening  cans  con- 
taining fruit,  oys- 
ters, and  what  not. 
The  illustration  shows 
several  forms. 

abas  a  prong  which 
is  thrust  through  the 
tin  and  forms  a  ful- 
crum for  the  cutter. 

b  is  designed  to  bore 
a  round  hole. 


c  is  a  lever-arrangement  to  pry  up  the  lid  of  a  can 
which  is  held  down  by  the  pressure  of  the  atmos- 
phere. 

d  e,  like  a,  have  points  which  form  fulcrums  or 
centers  of  oscillation  for  the  cutters. 

Can'o-py.  (Arcliikdare.)  A  covering  or  hood, 
the  enricheil  projecting  head  to  a  niche  or  tabeniacle. 
The  tablet  or  drip-stone,  whether  straight  or  circu- 
lar, over  the  heads  of  doors  or  windows,  if  enriched, 
is  so  called. 

Can-rov'ing  Ma-chine'.  (Cotton-manufacture.) 
In  this  machini-  the  slivers  from  the  cans  c  c  are 
drawn  through  the  rollers  a  b  c,  tlic  proper  pressure 
being  maintained  by  a  weight  d,  and  the  consoli- 
dated slivers  delivered  into  the  can  g,  fi.xed  to  a 
pivot  at  the  bottom,  j..    jqjj 

and  supported  at 
the  neck  /,  while  it 
is  made  to  revolve 
by  a  strap  passing 
round  the  puUej's 
71  and  h.  This  ro- 
tary motion  gives 
the  sliver  a  slight 
twist,  which  con- 
stitutes it  a  roving, 
as  it  passes  in,  and 
coils  it  up  in  the 
can  in  a  regular 
manner. 

When  the  can  is 
full,  it  is  opened, 
the  roving  taken 
out  and  transported 
to  a  roving-machine,  where  it  is  wound  upon  reels 
ready  for  spinning. 

Can-sol'der-ing  Ma-chine'.  In  this  apparatus 
a  clutch  on  the  end  of  a  shaft  having  a  bevel-wheel 
gearing,  with  the  bevel-wheels  turned  by  the  central 
pulley,  is  placed  at  either  end  of  the  frame,  enabling 
two  workmen  to  operate  at  once.  Beneath  each 
clutch  is  a  bracket  for  receiving  a  soldering-fur- 
nace.     A  can,  with  its  bottom  or  top  inserted,  is 

Fig   1074 


Can-Roving  Machine. 


Can-Soldering  Machitie. 


CAXT. 


453 


CANVAS-CUTTER. 


fixed  upon  the  clutch,  the  treadle  being  depressed 
to  throw  the  bevels  out  of  gear,  and  withdraw  the 
clutch  from  the  surface  of  the  metal  in  the  soldering- 
fiimaces ;  releasing  the  treadle,  the  bevels  are  thrown 
into  gear,  and  a  spring  forces  the  r«l  bearing  the 
clutch  downward,  until  the  lower  edge  of  the  can  is 
slightly  immersed  in  the  molten  solder,  and  caused 
to  rotate  against  the  surface  of  a  soldering-iron  held 
therein,  after  which  the  treadle  is  again  depressed 
and  the  can  removed. 

Cant.  An  angle  ;  a  bevel  ;  a  chamfer  ;  a  slope  ; 
an  arris  ;  a  hip  ;  a  ridge. 

1.  (Building.)  a.  A  canted  wall  is  one  which 
forms  an  angle  with  the  face  of  another  wall. 

h.  A  canted  column  is  one  whose  flutes  are  formed 
in  cants  instead  of  curves. 

c.  When  the  angles  are  removed  or  absent  from  a 
post,  beam,  or  pillar,  it  is  said  to  be  canted. 

d.  A  canted  molding  is  one  which  has  angular 
turns,  but  no  quirks  or  circular  work.  See  Mold- 
ing. 

2.  (Coopering.)  One  of  the  segments  forming  a 
side  piece  in  the  head  of  a  cask. 

3.  (Sautical.)  A  piece  of  wood  laid  upon  the 
deck  of  a  vessel,  to  support  the  bulkheads. 

i.  (Shipbuilding.)  A  caiU-timbcr  or  cant-frame  is 
one  which  is  not  square  with  the  keel ;  less  than 
90°. 

5.  The  angle,  as  of  the  head  of  a  bolt.  A  bolt 
with  a  hexagonal  or  octagonal  head  is  said  to  be  si-x 
or  eight  canted. 

A  segment  of  the  rim  of  a  wooden 


6.  (Gearing.) 
cog-wheel. 

Can'ta-lon'. 
stuff. 

Cant-block, 
canting  whales  : 


(Fabric.)      A    species  of  woolen 


(Xautical.)  A  large  block  used  in 
that  is,  turning  them  over  in  flens- 
ing. The  c<i;j/-purchase  is  suspended  from  the  main- 
ma.st  head. 

Cant-board.  A  division  in  the  conveyer-box  of 
a  flour-bolt,  t<j  sepai-ate  grades  of  flour  or  offal. 

Cant-chis'el.  X  long  and  strong  chisel  mth  the 
basil  and  a  rib  on  one  side. 

Cant'ed.  A  term  applied  to  an  object  when  a 
comer  is  chamfered  off,  —  not  rounded  ofi',  but  pre- 
senting angles.     See  C.\n"t. 

Ceint-fall.  (Xautical.)  The  purchase  used  in 
turning  over  the  carcass  of  a  whale  when  Reusing. 

Cant-file.  A  file  hartng  the  shape  of  an  obtuse- 
angled  triangle  in  its  transverse  section  ;  used  in 
filing  the  inner  angles  of  spanners  and  wrenches  for 
bolts  with  hexagonal  and  octagonal  heads. 

Kant  is  an  edge  or  comer  in  many  of  the  old  dia- 
lects of  Europe,  and  the  Greek  Kavdos,  the  corner  of 
the  eye,  has  an  allied  signification. 

Cant-hook.  A  lever  and  suspended  hook  adapt- 
ed for  turning  logs  in  the 
yard,  on  the  skidis,  or  on 
the  saw-mill  carriage. 

Also,  a  sling  with  hooks 
for  raising  and  tilting  casks, 
to  empty  them. 

Can'tick-quoin.  (Nau- 
tical.)    A   triangular  block 
of  wood,  used  in  chocking  a 
cask,  to  keep  it  from  rolling 
when  stowed. 
Can'ti-lev'er.     One  of  a  series  of  timbers,  of  the 
nature  of  consoles,  projecting   from   the    face   of  a 
wall  to  sustain  an  eave,  cornice,  entablature,  or  bal- 
cony.    A  mod  a  Inn. 

Cant'ing-trheel.  A  star-wheel  for  an  endless 
chain.  The  cogs  are  canted  ;  that  is,  the  comers 
cut  off.     See  St.\p.-wheel. 


Cctn'tle.  {Saddlery.)  The  upwardly  projecting 
portion  at  the  rear  part  of  a  saddle.     See  Pommel. 

Cantling.  (Brick-making. )  The  lower  of  two 
courses  of  burned  brick  which  inclose  a  brick-clamp. 

Cant-mold'ing.  One  neither  perpendicular  to 
the  horizon,  nor  to  the  plane  of  the  object  to  which 
it  is  attached. 

Can 'ton.  (Building.)  A  salient  comer  formed 
of  a  pilaster  or  quoins,  which  project  beyond  the 
general  faces  of  the  walls. 

Can'ton-flan'neL  (Fabric.)  Cotton  cloth  upon 
which  a  nap  is  raised  in  imitation  of  wool. 

Can-toon'.  (Fabric.)  A  strong  cotton  goods, 
with  a  corded  surface  on  one  side  and  a  satiny  finish 
on  the  other. 

Cant-timber.  (Shipbuilding).  One  of  the  tim- 
bers at  the  end  of  a  ship  which  are  canted,  that  is, 
rise  obUquely  from  the  keel.  The  forward  pair  of 
cant-limbers  are  called  the  knig/Uheads,  and  form  a 
bed  for  the  reception  of  the  bowsprit.  The  cant- 
timbers  towards  the  stem  incline  forward ;  those 
towards  the  stem  incline  aft. 

A  cant  is  an  angle,  and  the  timbers  in  the  narrow 
interior  angles  at  the  stem  and  stern  are  called  carii- 
ti7nbcrs. 

The  timber  at  the  extreme  angle  is  built  in  solid, 
and  is  called  the  dead-u'ood. 

Can'vas.  (Fabric. )  From  cannabis,  hemp.  An 
unbleached,  heavy  cloth  of  hemp  or  flax,  used  for 
sails,  tents,  backing  for  pictures,  bed-bottoms,  and 
for  other  purposes  where  a  fabric  of  great  stability  is 
required. 

An  open  variety  is  used  for  tambour  and  worsted 
work. 

Canvas  for  sails  is  made  from  18  to  24  inches 
wide,  and  numbered  from  0  to  8,  No.  0  being  the 
thickest.  A  bolt  is  from  39  to  40  yards  long.  The 
best  is  made  of  long-fibred  flax. 

Bolts  of  canvas  weigh  from  25  to  48  pounds,  and 
strips  ]  inch  wide  have  a  tenacity  varying  from  200 
to  480  pounds. 

Can'vas-cut'ter.  A  machine  for  cutting  can- 
vas,   card-board,    and    other    sheet   materials    into 


Canvas- Ciitter. 


strips  ;  the  stuff  is  fed  lietween  rollers  D  D,  guided 
by  a  strip  Q,  and  slit  by  a  knife  L,  which  is  ad- 


CANVAS-FRAME. 


454 


CAOUTCHOUC. 


justed  to  such  distance  from  tlie  latter  as  may  be 
desired. 

Can'vas-frame.  (Calico-printing.)  A  diaphragm 
of  canvas  in  a  paiut-vat  used  in  a  certain  process  of 
calico-printing.  The  color  is  admitted  by  a  stop- 
cock below,  and  up  to  the  level  of  the  canvas. 

Can'vas-stretch'er.  A  quadrilateral  frame  on 
which  canvas  is  extended  for  jjainters'  uses.     In  the 


Fig.  1077. 


Canvas-SlrfilrheT. 

one  shown,  the  miter-joints  have^  dowel-pins,  and 
are  expanded  by  the  wedges,  the  pins  in  the  open 
center  of  the  latter  preventing  their  falling  out. 

Caout'chouc.  Commonly  called  gum-elastic  or 
india-rubber.  A  substance  derived  from  the  sap  of 
Tai'ious  trees,  of  which  the  Jalropha  dastica,  called 
by  the  natives  luvec,  flourishing  in  the  plains  of 
Brazil,  toward  the  lower  part  of  the  Amazon  River, 
is  the  principal  source  of  production.  It  was  first 
brought  to  Europe  in  the  early  part  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  and  fifty  years  later  was  mentioned  by  Ur. 
Priestly  as  a  substance  e.xcellently  adapted  for  re- 
moving pencil-marks  from  paper.  Crumb  of  bread 
had  previously  been  employed  for  this  purpose. 

The  sap,  obtained  by  tapping  the  trees,  is  dried 
over  a  lire,  which  gives  it  the  dark  appearance  ob- 
servable in  the  i-ubber  of  commerce.  For  many 
years  its  various  adaptabilities  seemed  unperceived, 
but  in  1791  Sanmel  Peal  obtained  a  patent  for 
water-proofing  fabrics  by  means  of  this  gum  dis- 
solved in  spirits  of  turpentine  ;  though  this  does 
not  seem  to  have  led  to  any  practical  results.  Be- 
sides turpentine,  ether,  bisulphide  of  carbon, 
naphtha,  some  of  the  volatile  oils,  and  especially 
benzole,  are  its  best  solvents.  Acids  and  alkalies 
exert  but  little  influence  upon  it. 

Hancock,  1823,  and  Mackintosh,  were  the  first 
wlio  really  applied  this  gum  to  its  present  uses. 
Their  original  processes  consisted  in  applying  it,  dis- 
solved in  some  of  the  fluids  before  mentioned,  to  the 
surface  of  a  web  of  cloth  ;  this  might  be  doubled, 
constituting  a  perfectly  waterproof  gamient ;  but  a 
mass  of  such  laid  together  became  almost  inseparable 
in  warm  weather,  compelling  seamen  an<l  others 
much  exposed  to  wet  under  the  tropics  to  jirefer  the 
old-fashioned  oil-cloth  overcoat  to  the  "Mackin- 
tosh." This  was  remedied  by  the  vulcanizing  pro- 
cess discovered  by  Goodyear. 

The  modes  of  manufacture  up  to  a  certain  point 
of  the  manufacture  under  the  old,  or  non-vulcaniz- 
ing, and  the  present,  or  vulcanizing,  processes,  are 
very  similar.  The  mass  of  rubber  bottles,  blocks,  or 
strips,  were  formerly  compacted  under  a  hydrostatic 
press,  and  afterward  cut  by  knives,  operated  by  ma- 
chinery, into  sheets  and    strips    as   required.     For 


forming  elastic  or  corrugated  goods  the  rubber 
threads  were  passed  between  rolls  and  kept  at  their 
full  tension  during  this  proces.s,  stretidiing  them  to 
several  times  their  natural  length ;  this  caused  them, 
when  cold,  to  lose  their  elasticity.  Tliey  were  then, 
either  naked,  or  covered  with  tine  thread  of  silk  or 
cotton,  used  as  the  warp  or  weft  threads  for  the 
material  to  be  fabricated,  and  when  this  was  woven 
their  elasticity  was  restored  by  passing  a  hot  iron 
over  the  goods.     Vulcanizing  obviates  this  necessity. 

In  the  jn-esent  state  of  the  art,  the  material  is  first 
cleansed  by  extracting  the  leaves,  bark,  dirt,  and 
other  foreign  substances,  as  far  as  can  be  done  by 
hand,  and  cut  into  strips  by  a  revolving  knife,  and 
then  transferred  to  large  fluted  iron  roUei-s  tenned 
"crackers,"  which  grind  out  most  of  the  extraneous 
materials.  From  the  crackers  it  is  taken  to  the 
washing-machine,  a  large  vat  where  it  is  cut  into 
small  pieces  by  knives,  and  where  it  undergoes  a 
kneading  and  washing  process  which  removes  the 
remaining  dirt  and  foreign  matters.  It  is  next 
transferred  to  a  grinding-maehine,  composed  of  large 
hollow  iron  cylinders  revolving  in  opposite  direc- 
tions, where  the  small  pieces  formed  by  the  washing- 
machine  are  kneaded  into  a  homogeneous  mass,  and 
is  then  left  to  di'y.  When  sutticiently  dried,  — which 
takes,  perhaps,  several  months,  — the  rubber  is  trans- 
ferred to  the  mixing-machine,  in  which  it  passes 
between  hollow  iron  cylinders,  heated  by  steam 
through  their  axes  to  a  regulated  temperature,  where 
it  is  farther  ground  and  more  thoroughly  incorpo- 
rated. The  vulcanizing  ingi-edients  are  added  at 
this  stage  of  the  process. 

These  may  be  varied  to  suit  the  caprice  of  the 
manufacturer,  or  to  adapt  the  material  more  particu- 
larly to  special  uses.  The  combination,  through 
the  influence  of  heat,  of  suljdiur  with  the  gum,  gives 
it  the  peculiar  properties  acquired  by  vulcanization, 
though  other  ingredients  are  largely  added. 

Chailes  Goodyear  in  his  original  patent  preferred 
5  parts  sulphur  and  7  white  lead  to  25  caoutchouc. 
The  particular  proportions  of  these  and  other 
articles  are,  howe^'er,  we  believe,  generally  preserved 
as  secrets  among  rubber-manufacturers,  each  having 
special  formulas  of  his  own. 

Vulcanized  rubber  is  unalterable  at  a  moderate 
heat,  has  not  the  stit-ky  tendency  before  referred  to, 
and,  when  cut  into  threads  for  elastic  goods,  does 
not  require  to  be  subjected  to  a  reheating  ]irocess. 
This  article  may  be  and  has  been  rendered  as  hard  as 
horn,  and  used  for  combs,  knife-handles,  and  even 
rolled  into  thin  sheets  and  employed  as  a  substitute 
for  paper. 

The  substance  called  ebonite,  invented  by  Mr. 
Charles  Goodj'ear,  who  devoted  his  whole  life  to  the 
development  of  the  capaViilities  of  caoutchouc,  con- 
tains from  30  to  60  per  cent  of  sulphur,  and  has 
various  otlier  ingredients,  as  .shellac,  gutta-percha, 
chalk,  barytes,  pi])e-clay,  or  white  ritriol,  added  there- 
to. It  is  used  for  knife-handles,  combs,  and  orna- 
mental articles,  being  very  hard  and  susceptible  of  a 
high  polish.  Equal  parts  of  gutta-jicrcha  and  caout- 
chouc combined  with  sulphur  form  a  compound  re- 
sembling liorn,  and  which  may  be  used  lor  the  same 
purposes.  Sometimes  gypsum,  resin,  or  white-lead, 
are  added  to  this.  See  Ivory,  Ai;tificial  ;  Hard- 
nuEiiKii ;  Ptroxyline  ;  Vui.rAxiTE. 

Caoutchouc,  exposed  to  a  heat  of  600°  F.  in  a 
close  vessel,  yields  an  oily  liquid  which  is  an  excel- 
lent solvent  of  the  gum  itself. 

A  very  tenacious  glue  is  formed  by  dissolving  the 
gum  in  coal-tar  naphtha,  and  evaporating  the  mix- 
ture to  the  consistency  of  cream,  and  adding,  when 
heated,   twice   its  weight  of  shellac.      For  use,   the 


CAP. 


455 


CAPPED   RAIL. 


glue  is  heated  to  a  temperature  slightly  aboTe  that 
of  boiling  water.     This  is  known  as  marine  glue. 

Cap.  1.  {iVcar.)  A  cover  for  the  head,  with  or 
without  a  visor,  but  without  a  brim. 

In  early  times  people  went  bareheaded.  An  Eng- 
lish law  of  1571  commanded  all  persons  except  gen- 
tlefolks and  officials  to  wear  a  woolen  cap. 

The  Romans  long  went  without  any  covering  for 
the  head,  and  ancient  statues  are  bareheaded.  Caps 
were  once  a  sjTubol  of  liberty,  and  manumission  of 
a  slave  \j-as  conferred  by  the  gift  of  a  cap.  The  gen- 
eral use  of  caps  is  referred  to  A.  D.  14i9.  In  the 
reign  of  Henry  VII.,  hats  were  Hniited  in  price  to 
20  fi.  and  caps  to  2  s.  8rf.,  A.  D.  1483  In  1571,  an 
act  of  Pai'lianient  made  their  wear  compulsory,  ex- 
cept for  maids,  gentlefolks,  laud  and  office  holders. 
See  Hat. 

2.  (Architecture.)  a.  The  upper  member  of  a  col- 
umn or  pilaster.     A  capital ;  a  coroiia. 

b.  A  coping  of  a  wall  or  parapet. 

c.  A  cornice  above  a  door. 

d.  The  upper  member  of  a  molding. 

3.  ( Carpentry. )  a.  The  lintel  of  a  door  or  win- 
dow-frame. 

b.  A  beam  joining  the  tops  of  a  row  of  posts  in  a 
frame.     A  plate. 

c.  The  hand-rail  of  a  stairs  or  balustrade. 

4.  {Nautical.)  a.  A  thick,  strong  block  of  wood 
with  a  round  and  a  square  hole  through  it,  used  to 
confine  together  the  head  of  one  mast  and  tlie  foot 
of  the  one  above  it  ;  or  the  jib-boom  to  the  bow- 
sprit. 

In  smaller  craft,  a  lower  cap  receives  the  heel  of 
the  topmast,  and  acts  as  a  substitute  for  the  fid  and 
trestle-trees  used  in  vessels  of  a  larger  description. 

b.  A  parceling  or  covering  at  the  end  of  a  rope. 

5.  {Ordnance.)  a.  A  sheet  of  lead  laid  over  the 
vent  of  a  cannon.     An  apron. 

b.  A  copper  capsule  containing  a  fulminate,  and 
placed  upon  the  nipple  to  explode  the  charge  on  the 
fall  of  the  hammer. 

6.  (Machinery.)  a.  The  upper  half  of  a  journal- 
box.  The  lower  half  is  the  pillow.  See  Pillow- 
block. 

h.  The  iron-banded  piece  (Fig.  107S)  on  the  end 
of  a  wooden  pump-rod  or  pitman  by  which  it  is  con- 
nected with  a  working-beam. 

7.  (Civil  Engineering.)    The  horizontal  beam  con- 


Fig.  1078. 


Fig.  1079. 


Main-Cap. 


Windmill-Cap. 


necting  the  heads  of    a  row   of  piles   of  a  timber 
bridge. 

8.  (Millicrightinij.)  The  movable  upper  story  of 
a  windmill.     (Fig.  1079.) 

9.  (Bookbinding.)  The  covering  of  a  head-band 
or  the  envelope  of  a  book  while  binding. 

10.  (Horology.)  The  inner  case  which  covers  the 
movement  in  some  forms  of  watches.  It  is  now  nearly 
discontinued. 

11.  The  tire  of  lead  and  tin  on  the  periphery  of  a 
glazing-wheel. 

12.  A  size  of  paper.  Flat  cap  is  14x17  inches  ; 
double  cap  is  17  x  28  ;  foolscap  and  legal  cap  are  of 
various  sizes,  from  7A  x  12  to  the  size  of  a  fiat  cap- 
sheet  folded  8i  X  14.  Foolscap  is  folded  on  the  long 
edge  ;  legal  cap  on  the  top  or  short  edge. 

13.  A  little  capsule  containing  fulminate,  placed 
on  the  nipple  of  a  gun,  and  exploded  by  the  fall 
of  the  cock  to  fire  the  piece.  See  Pepxussion- 
c-Ar. 

Ca-pade'.     (Hat-making.)     A  bat. 

Ca-par'i-son.  (Menage.)  The  bridle,  saddle, 
and  trappings  complete  of  a  horse  for  military  ser- 
vice. 

Ca'pel-li'na.     (Sp.)     The  bell  or  cover  of  the  pile 
of  amalgam  bricks  (jiina)  in  the  Spanish  process  of 
separating  the  mercury  from  the  metal.     See  Amal-  ' 
GAMATOn  (Fig.  141). 

Ca'per.  (Xauticrd.)  A  kind  of  vessel  formerly 
used  liy  the  Dutch  as  a  privateer. 

Cap'il-la-ry-fU'ter.    A  simple  mode  of  freeing 
water    of    its    larger   mipurities   by 
means  of  a  cord  of  loose  fiber,  such  as       Fig.  1080. 
cotton  candle-wick. 

The  water  in  the  upper  chamber  '  " 
passes  into  the  wick,  and,  being  ele- 
vated by  the  capillary  action,  passes 
down  the  tube,  and  drops  into  the 
pitcher,  which  is  placed  in  the  cliara- 
ber  to  receive  it. 

Cap'il-la-rim'e-ter.     An   instru- 
ment for  testing  the  quality  of  oils  ^ 
by   indicating    the   quantity   of    oil  CapUlnnj- Filter. 
which  falls  from  a  given-sized  point 
under  cei-tain  circumstances  of  tem)ierature,  etc. 

Cap'i-ted.  1.  (Architecture.)  The  head  or  up- 
permost part  of  a  column  or  pilaster.  The  capitals 
of  the  columns  constitute  the  principal  and  most  in- 
dicative mark  of  the  respective  orders. 

2.  (Fortification.)  An  imaginary  line  bisecting  the 
prominent  salient  angle  of  a  bastion  or  other  work. 

3.  {Distilling.)     The  head  of  a  still. 

4.  (Printing.)     A  large  or  upper-case  lettei'. 

Cap'o-niere'.  (Fortification.)  A  work  consist- 
ing of  a  double  parapet,  covering  a,  passage  across 
tlie  ditch  to  the  gorge  of  the  ravelin.    See  Bastion. 

Certain  differences  in  construction  give  rise  to  the 
following  names  :  — 

Covered  or  cascmated  caponiere. 

Open  caponiere. 

Single,  simple,  or  7i(i7/ caponiere. 

Palisade  cajioniere. 

Cap'pa-dine.  Silk  floss  or  waste  obtained  from 
tile  cocoon  after  the  silk  has  been  reeled  oft'. 

Cap-pa'per.  1.  A  kind  of  writing-paper.  Ruled 
witli  blue  lines,  and  folding  on  the  back,  it  is  fools- 
cnp  :  with  red  lines  to  form  a  margin  on  the  left 
hand,  and  made  to  fold  on  the  top,  it  is  legal  cap. 

2,  A  size  of  paper  from  7h  x  12  to  SJ  x  14. 

3.  A  coarse  wTapping-paper. 

Capped  Rail.  A  railroad  rail  which  has  a 
steel  cap  attached  to  an  iron  body.  It  is  generally 
made  by  so  disposing  the  .steel  in  a  fagot  as  to  form 
the  edge  of  that  metal,  in  rolling.     It  is  otherwise 


CAPPING-BKICK. 


456 


CAPSTAN. 


Fig.  1081. 


and 


Capped  Rail. 

known  as  a  steel-loppcd  or  steel-headed   rail.     Si' 
Kail. 

The  illustration  shows  a  mode  of  cappin; 
soliitg  rails  as  a  measure  of  repair. 
Cap'ping-brick.  A  copiiig-hrick. 
Cap'piug-oif.  {Gluss-mahing.)  Thi-  mode  of 
detaching  the  elosed  end  of  a  blown  eyliiider  by 
drawing  a  circle  around  it,  bringing  it  into  the 
shape  of  an  open-ended  cylinder  ready  for  splitting 
longitudinally. 

Cap'piiig-plane.  (Joiucry.)  A  plane  used  for 
the  upper  surfaces  of  staircase  rails,  which  are 
faintly  rounded. 

Cap-pot.  {Glass-mukiivi.)  A  covered  glass-pot 
or  crucible. 

Cap-scut'tle.  (Shipbuilding.)  The  framing  of 
coamings  and  head-ledges  around  a  hatch  and  a  top 
which  sluits  closely  into  a  rabbet. 

Cap-square.  One  of  the  plates  wliich  keep  the 
trunnions  of  a  gun  in  place.  Thej'  are  secured  by 
keys  and  chains  to  the  trunnion-plates,  wdiich  rest 
in  depressions  in  the  cheeks  of  the  gun-carriage. 

Cap'stan.  A  hoisting  or  hauling  machine,  con- 
sisting of  a  drum  set  vertically  and  revolved  by 
handspikes. 

Capstans  are  single  or  double,  according  as  they 
have  one  or  two  barrels  upon  the  same  spindle. 
The  double-capstan  is  revolved  by  two  sets  of  men 
on  two  decks. 

They  are  also  known  as  fore  or  aft  capstans,  ac- 
,  cording  to  position.     The  Jure  capstan  stands  about 
midway  between  the /o/-c  and  nuiin  masts.     The  aft 
capstan  about  the  same  distance  abaft  the   main- 
mast. 

Capstans  were  used  by  the  ancient  Romans  in 
transporting  the  Kgyi>tian  obelisks. 

The    druui-ca|istau    for  weighing   heavy    anchors 
was    invented    bv   Sir   Samuel 
Fig.  1082  Morland    about  "  1661.      In     a 

simpler  form  it  was  used  by  the 
English,  French,  and  Spanish 
ill  the  fifteentli  century. 

The  capstan  ditlers  from  the 
wiudlass  in  having  an  upright 
a.\k>,  the  Ijars  being  placed  in 
tlie  sockets  of  the  drum-head 
D,  and  revolving  liorizontally 
as  the  sailors  walk  around, 
pushing  the  bars  before  them, 
and  winding  the  cable  on  the 
Capsian.  whelps,    /K.     In   this  mode   of 

e.xerting  manual  power,  a  force 
of  about  35  pounds  is  obtained,  which  is  about  i  of 
what  a  man  can  exert  upon  a  windlass,  which  has  a 
horizontal  a.\is,  enabling  the  men  to  swing  their 
weight  on  the  bars.  The  capstan  has,  however, 
many  advantages,  among  which  may  be  enumerated 
—  compactness,  as  it  does  not  stretch  across  the 
forecastle  of  a  vessel ;  facility  for  allowing  a  large 
number  of  men  to  work  at  it  sinuiltaueously  ;  con- 
tinuity of  its  work,  as  the  bars  do  not  reipiire  to 


be  unshipped  after  making  a  r^uarter  of  a  revolu- 
tion. 

The  capstan  has  a  central,  vertical  spindle,  which 
passes  through  one  or  more  decks,  and  is  securely 
stepped  at  some  point  below,  according  to  the  size 
and  character  of  the  vessel.  The  spindle,  in  passing 
down  through  several  decks,  may  have  arrangements 
for  being  worked  by  men  at  several  levels.  Upon 
the  spindle  S  are  firmly  attached  the  several  parts. 
The  drum-head  D  iias  scjuare  sockets  for  the  cap- 
stan-bars, which  are  about  10  feet  long.  Under  the 
drum-head  is  the  barrel,  consisting  of  the  whelps 
W,  and  beneath  the  barrel  is  the  j)au-l-licad,  which 
has  a  series  of  pawls  around  its  periphery,  engaging 
the  notches  in  the  pawd-rim,  which  is  a  circular 
ratchet  attached  to  the  deck.  The  drum-liead, 
barrel,  and  2^""'l->''"0  are  lirndy  attached  to  the 
spiiuUe  and  revolve  with  it,  the  cable  winding  on 
the  whelps  and  the  pawls  preventing  back- lash. 

In  Phillips's  capstan  (Fig.  108:3),  the  drum-head 
is  fi.xed  upon  the  spindle  and 
turns   it  round.     A  vertical  *'ig.  1083. 

iron  bolt  passing  through  the 
drum-head  locks  it  to  the 
barrel,  and  the  whole  capstan 
turns  round  with  the  spindle, 
forming  a  "single  purchase." 
When  the  locking-bolt  is 
withdrawn,  the  wheel-work 
(shown  in  horizontal  section) 
acts  between  the  sjiindle  and 
the  barrel,  and  a  power  of  3 
to  1  is  gained.  The  spindle 
makes  3  turns  and  the  barrel  | 
makes  1,  and  they  revolve  in 
opposite  directions. 

Hi.N'nMAKSH  (English  Pat- 
ent, 1827)  added  a  winch 
and  hand  and  bevel  gearing  to 
the  capstan-head,  for  occa- 
sional use.  It  was  partly  in 
the  drum-head  of  the  capstan  | 
and  partly  in  the  barrel. 

A  portable  capstan  for  tlie 
purpose  of  hauling  ditching- 
nnichines  and  mole-plows, 
moving  buildings,  and  other 
similar  work  in  whicli  a  Compound  Capstan. 
strong  power  is  to  be  applied, 

is  shown  in  the  illustration.  Tlie  chain  or  rope  is 
wound  around  the  roller,  which  is  in  some  cases 
moved  by  hand-spikes  in  the  hands  of  laborers, 
but  in  the  United  States  is  usually  moved  by  a 
circular  sweep   and  a  draft  animal   or  two.     It  is 


~  ~i    *"-■>''  ^^  ^w^'        iriililh     I  -<<  t  \ 


Portable  Capstan. 

usually  anchored  when  in  use.     The  sweep  is  shown 
as  broken  off. 

In  Fig.  1085  is  shown  a  steam-capstan,  in  which  two 
cylinders  A  A  are  connected  optionally  to  the  steanl- 
pumps  C  C,  or  to  the  shaft  D  of  the  train,  whereby  the 
capstan  E  is  revolved.  The  connections  between 
the  pumping-eiigines  and  the  pumps  may  be  readily 
uncoupled,  and  the  capstan  thrown  into  gear  with 
said  engines.     A  regulating-screw  is  combined  with 


CAPSULE. 


457 


CAR. 


Steam-  Capstan. 


the  friction-clutch,  which  throws  the  capstan  into 
gear  with  the  engines,  so  that  the  effect  of  said 
clutch,  respecting  the  power  or  speed  of  the  capstan, 
may  be  varied. 

In  moving  the  mass  of  granite,  weighing  1,500 
tons,  and  used  as  a  pedestal  for  the  statue  of  Peter 
the  Great,  in  St.  Petersburg,  Count  Carbury  used 
capstans,  the  fall  passing  to  pulley-blocks,  which 
were  secured  resjwctively  to  the  load  and  to  posts 
set  firmly  in  the  ground. 

When  Vitruvius  moved  the  columns  of  the 
Temple  of  Diana  at  Ephesus  from  the  quarry  to  the 
site,  he  inserted  an  iron  pin  into  each  end  of  the 
column,  and  to  this  attached  a  quadrilateral  as 
long  and  wide  as  the  column.  Oxen  were  attached 
to  the  frame,  and  tlie  column  rolled  along  on  the 
ground.  This  was  the  method  devised  by  Ctesibus 
of  Alexandria.  Jletagenes,  son  of  Vitru^^us,  varied 
the  plan  in  moving  the  entablature  of  the  same  tem- 
ple, making  the  iron  pivots  at  the  ends  of  the  block 
work  as  axles  in  the  hubs  of  massive  wheels.  Paeo- 
uius  suspended  his  block,  which  was  designed  for  a 
pedestal  for  Apollo,  upon  wheels  in  a  similar  manner. 
He  then  united  the  wheels  by  scantling,  so  as  to  make 
a  perfect  cylinder.  A  rope  was  wound  around  this, 
and  uncoiled  as  the  oxen  progressed  and  rolled  the 
cylinder. 

Cap'sule.  1.  A  saucer  of  clay  or  bone-ash  in  which 
samples  of  ores  or  metals  are  roasted  or  oxidized. 

2.  An  evaporating  dish  of  porcelain  or  other  ware. 

3.  A  gelatinous  envelope  for  ofi'ensive  medicine. 

4.  The  shell  of  a  metallic  cartridge. 
Cap'tive  Bal-loon'.     One  which  is  tied  to  -the 

eartli  by  a  rope,  so  as  to  restrain  itsascensive  and  wan- 
dering power. 

In  the  summer  of  1868  the  largest  of  its  kind  was 
p.xhibited  near  London  ;  it  had  a  cubic  capacity  of 
300,000  feet,  an  ascensional  power  equal  to  eleven 
tons,  from  which,  however,  h;ui  to  be  deducted  the 
weight  of  car  and  rope,  the  latter  weighing  about 
four  tons.  It  was  capable  of  carrying  thirty  people 
with  ballast.  To  render  its  ascending  power  as  great 
as  possible,  pure  hydrogen,  obtained  from  water,  in 
place  of  coal-gas,  was  used.  The  resistance  orascen- 
sive  powerof  the  balloon  requireda200-horse-power  en- 
gine to  overcome  it  and  draw  it  down.     See  B.\lloox. 

Car.     A  wheeled  vehicle. 

The  invention  is  ascribed  to  Erichthonius,  of 
Athens,  about  1486  B.  c.  It  will  not  do.  Pliny,  and 
other  commentators  of  his  day,  knew  but  little  of 


Egypt.  (SeeCHARiOT;  Cart.)  Covered  and  cushioned 
cars  were  used  by  the  Romans.  (See  C.\RI:I-\GE.) 
Triumphal  cars  were  introduce4  by  Tarquin  the  El- 
der, 616  B.  c.  Csesar  relates  that  Cassibelaunus,  of 
Britain,  after  dismissing  all  his  other  forces,  retained 
4,000  war-chariots  about  his  person  ? 

In  the  United  States  the  term  has  become  re- 
stricted almost  entirely  to  vehicles  designed  for  trav- 
eling on  railways.  The  varieties  are  numerous,  and 
are  named  from  their  intended  use  or  from  some  pe- 
culiarity in  theii-  construction. 


Adhesion-car. 

Aerial  car. 

Box-car. 

Coal-car. 

Dummy-car. 

Dumping-car. 

Freight-car. 

Gravel-car. 

Hand-car. 

Irish-car. 

Jaunting-car. 


Petroleum-car. 

Platform-car. 

Provision-car. 

Refrigerating-car. 

RevoMng-car. 

Safety-car. 

Sleeping-car. 

Street-car. 

Tank-car. 

Tool-car. 

Wrecking-car. 


The  railway-cars  of  the  United  States  are  carried 
upon  trucks  which  have  a  swiveling  adjustment  be- 
neath the  car,  to  assist  in  turning  curves.  This  is 
especially  necessan,'  with  long  cars  and  on  roads  with 
curves  of  short  radius. 

The  cars  of  street-railways,  being  comparatively 
short,  have  pedestals  for  the  axle-boxes  attached  di- 
rectly to  the  bed-frame. 

The  cars  constructed  in  1830  for  the  Liverpool 
and  Manchester  Railway,  England,  had  four  wheels, 
but  no  springs ;  the  bodies  consisting  of  sills,  to  which 
the  journal-boxe«  were  bolted,  and  upon  which  the 
floors  were  laid.  These  cars  were  foinied  without 
roofs.  In  1831,  one  Mr.  Joseph  Knight  proposed  to 
emploj'  springs  under  all  cars,  to  support  the  body 
of  the  car  and  contents,  and  also  suggested  that  the 
treads  of  car-wheels  sliould  be  made  conical,  for  the 
purpose  of  facilitating  their  pa.ssage  around  the  curves 
of  the  road. 

Cars  for  the  transportation  of  passengers  in  Eng- 
land and  Scotland  consist  of  three  classes,  the  first 
class  being  well  finished,  and  provided  with  seats  for 
the  passengers  to  sit  upon,  which  seats  are  furnished 
1  with  cushions.  The  second  class  are  of  plain  fin- 
j  isli,  without  cushions  or  ornaments.  The  third  class 
are  little  more  than  plain  boxes  set  upon  wheels  and 
I  supplied  with  seats,  but  in  many  cases  without  any 


CARACK. 


458 


CAR-AXLE. 


roof.  In  addition  to  tlicse  three  classes,  tliere  are 
wliat  are  termed  "  nii.xed  carriages,"  which  consist 
of  three  compartments,  the  center  one  being  for  first- 
class  passengers,  and  the  two  end  ones  for  second- 
class  passengers. 

Tlie  American  car  has  a  gangway  lengthwise  of  the 
ear,  the  seats  on  each  side  reversible,  so  that  the  car 
may  travel  eitlier  end  forward  ami  yet  allow  the 
passenger  to  "face  the  horses."  It  excites  the  ad- 
miration of  the  average  Briton,  and  will  yet  be  the 
favorite  form  of  car  the  world  over. 


Fig.  1U86. 


Irish  Jaunting-Cars. 


3.  A  kind  of  two- 
wheeled  Irish  vehicle 
in  which  the  passen- 
gers on  the  two  seats 
sit  back  to  back,  fac- 
ing forward  and  back- 
ward, as  in  one  of  the 
fignres  ;  or  else  side- 
ways, the  seats  being 
over  the  wheels  and  a 
well  in  the  center  ;  or 
else,  as  in  the  other 
figure,  a  vehicle  in 
which  the  seats  for  the 
passengers  face  each 
other,  while  the  driver 
has  a  seat  in  front.  Such  cars  are  known  as  Irish 
cars,  or  jaunting-cars. 

Car'ack.  (Ndutical.)  A  kind  of  large  trad- 
ing-ship, used  by  the  Portuguese  in  the  East  In- 
dies. 

Car'a-cole.  (Carpcntr;/.)  A  term  sometimes 
used  for  a  staircase  in  a  helical  or  spiral  form. 

Car'a-co-li.  An  alloy  of  gold,  siher,  and  cop- 
per, designi'd  for  factitious  jewelry. 

Car'a-core.  {Matitical.)  A  light  ves.sel  u.sed  by 
the  natives  of  Borneo  and  the  adjacent  islands,  and 
by  the  Dutch  as  a  coast-guard  vessel  in  their  East 
Indian  possessions. 

Car'at.  a.  A  weight  of  3.077  gi-ains,  used  in 
weighing  diamonds. 

b.  A  twenty-fourth  part  of  a  piece  of  gold  under 
assay  or  estimation. 

The  name  is  derived  from  Carat,  the  sweet-pea, 
a  measure  of  weight  among  the  Arabs,  equal  to  four 
grains  of  barley. 

Car'a-van.  {Vehicle.)  a.  A  vehicle  for  convey- 
ing passengers  between  Cairo  and  Suez.  It  is  shaped 
like  a  light  wagon,  with  top  and  curtains.  A  num- 
ber of  them  used  to  meet  the  passengers  arriving  by 
the  Red  Sea  or  Mediterranean  steam  vessels,  and  con- 
vey them  across  a  portion  of  the  Egyptian  territoiy. 
This  route  was  established  by  Lieutenant  Waghorn. 

6.  A  large  inclosed  vehicle  for  conveying  wild 
beasts  and  other  objects  of  interest  in  a  traveling 
exhibition. 

c.  A  capacious  covered  vehicle  for  moving  furni- 
ture, etc. 

Car'a-van-boil'er.     A  wagon-shajied  boiler. 

Car'a-vel.  {Xnulical.)  a.  A  small  ship,  gal- 
ley-rigged, formerly  used  by  the  Spanish  and 
Portuguese. 


6.  A  boat  used  by  the  French  in  the  herring- 
fishery. 

Car-ax'le.  (Railway.)  The  .shaft  which  passes 
through  the  naces  or  hubs  of  the  car-wheels,  and 
on  which  the  latter  are  shrunk  or  pressed.  In 
the  earlier  forms  of  railway  car-axles,  the  wheels 
rotated  on  the  axles,  as  in  the  case  of  ordinary  road- 
carriages.  The  practice  has  long  since  become 
almost  universal  to  fasten  the  wheels  of  cars  to  their 
axles,  in  order  that  they  may  successfully  with- 
stand the  severe  strains  and  jars  to  which  they  are 
exposed  by  the  weight  and  surging  of  the  cars  and 
the  inequalities  of  the  track. 

Axles  have  been  made  hollow,  to  obtain  greater 
strength  with  economy  of  metal,  but  are  not  in 
common  use,  owing  to  the  increased  expense  of  manu- 
facture. 

Fig.  10S7,  A  shows  the  form  and  proportions  of 
an  axle. 


Car- Axle. 

E,  collar  ;  diameter,  3J  inches. 
D,  collar  ;  length,  f  of  an  inch. 

B,  journal ;  length,  5  inches. 

C,  journal  ;  diameter,  3J  inches. 
J,  axle  ;   length,  6  feet  7^  inches. 

F,  hub-seat ;  length,  12j  inches. 

G,  hub-seat ;  diameter,  3J  inches. 
H,  taper  ;  length,  3  feet  6i  inches. 
/,  middle  ;  diameter,  3i  inches. 

In  addition  to  the  ordinary  forai  of  axle,  many 
devices  have  been  invented,  though  but  few  adopted, 
to  obviate  special  ditficulties. 

The  axle,  constructed  of  one  piece  of  metal,  and 
with  the  wheels  fixed  finnly  thereon,  is  subject  to 
severe  torsional  strain  in  turning  curves,  when  the 
outer  wheel  has  a  circle  of  a  larger  arc  to  traverse, 
compelling  the  wheel  on  the  inner  and  shorter  circle 
to  slip.  The  torsion  of  the  axle  is  very  detrimental, 
and  the  slipping  of  the  wheel  is  equivalent  to  grind- 
ing on  the  rail,  and  retards  the  train.  To  avoid 
these  difficulties,  the  axle  has  been  made  in  two 
parts,  either  by  double  bearings  for  the  shorter 
axles,  as  in 
Fig.  10S8, 
in  which  a 
yoke  sur- 
mounts the 
wheels,  and 
is  secured  to 
the  ax  1  e- 
boxes  by 
screw-bolts, 
or  by   some  Car-AorU. 

other  equiv- 
alent arrangement,  such  as  Du  Bri's  Patent,  1863. 

Fig.  1089  is  an  illustration  wherein  the  axle  is 
di\-ideil  at  the  mid-length,  the  inner  ends  of  which 
are  supported  in  a  box  or  sleeve.  See  also  patent 
of  Heh-ett,  1865. 

In  another  form  of  the  divided  axle,  one  portion 
of  the  axle  is  hollow,  and  forms  a  sleeve  for  the 
other,  as  in  Fig.  1090. 

TAYLOii's  car-wheel  (English  patent.  May  11, 1841) 
specifies  an  arrangement  in  which  one  wheel  is  fixed 
to  a  solid  axle,  and  revolves  in  a  hollow  axle  affixed 
to  the  opjjosite  wheel. 


Fig.  108S. 


CAR-AXLE  BOX. 


459 


CAR-AXLE  LATHE. 


Fig.  10S9. 


Divided  Car-AjcU. 

These  various  forms  of  double  axles,  which  render 
necessary  a  multiplication  of  parts,  and  consequent 


Fig.  1090. 


Hollow  Diviih'l-Axle. 


liability  to  get  out  of  repair,  have  never  come  into 
general  use. 

Car-Axle  Box.  (Railway  Engineering.)  The 
chamber  which  contains  the  journal  of  a  car-axle, 
its  lubricant,  and  brasses,  and  which  slides  upon 
and  down  in  the  hanger  or  pedestal  as  the  springs 
contract  or  expand. 

In  Fig.  1091,  B  B  in  the  box  containing  the  lu- 
bricant and  its  vehicle,  tow  or  cotton.  A  is  the 
journal  of  the  axle,  haxing  a  collar  on  its  end,  to 
prevent  its  pulling  out.  A  saddle  has  its  seat  on  the 
journal,  and  also  forms  a  key  for  the  collar  on  the 
end.  G  H  are  sections  with  semicircular  grooves, 
which  fit  upon  the  shoulder  of  the  journal  and 
keep  out  dirt  and  grit.  The  upper  section  G 
acts  by  graWty,  the  lower  section  by  means  of 
a  spring  L  L  beneath  it.  /  /  are  guides  for  the 
slide-plates  G  H,  which  bear  against  the  ring  0 
shrunk  on  the  shoulder  of  the  axle. 

Fig.  1092  shows  the 


Fig.  1091. 


IS 

^ 

•l' 

'                     "     -  ■." 

) 

V 

b 

If  \ 

^ 

relation  of  the  box  to 
the  !uinger,  which  may 
also  be  clearly  seen  in 
C.\r.-TKUCK.  The  box 
B  lias  trunnions  d  d 


Axle-Box  and  Hanger. 

fitted  for  sliding  blocks  b,  which  are  adapted  to  guides 
formed  in  the  hanger.  G  is  the  saddle  upon  which 
the  weight  is  imposed  ;  this  rests  upon  a  plate  ?)i,  and 
the  latter  upon  the  bearing-block  or  brass  which  lies 
upon  the  journal,     c  is  the  axle-box  cover. 

The  English  railway  axle-box  has  two  pieces,  di- 
vided at  the  level  of  the  diameter  of  the  axle,  at 
which  point  it  is  fastened  together  by  iron  bolts. 
Brasses  surround  the  bearing  portion  of  the  axle, 
which  receives  oil  from  a  chamber  above.  An  in- 
clined lid  on  the  outside  of  the  box  allows  the  cham- 
ber to  be  replenished  with  oil  when  necessary. 

Car-ax'le  Box-cov'er.  {Railwai/  Engineering.) 
The  lid  on  the  uppi-r  outer  portion  of  the  axle-box, 
which  is  lifted  to  renew  the  oil  and  tow  or  other 

Fig.  1093. 


Ajdi'Boz  Cover. 

lubricating  material,  and  the  tow  or  cotton  waste. 
The  lid,  usually  hinged,  tits  on  an  inclined  seat, 
and  is  secured  by  latches  or  othennse,  as  in  the 
example,  where  it  is  clamped  against  the  inside  of 
the  box  by  a  bolt  and  an  outer  bridge-piece  over  the 
opening. 

Car-az'le   Lathe.     .\  lathe  specially  designed 

Fig.  1094. 


CAR-BASKET. 


460 


CARBON-LIGHT. 


for  tui'uing  car-wheel  axles,  being  strongly  geared 
for  heavy  cut.  The  axle  is  hung  upon  the  centers 
b  e,  on  the  heaj  and  tail  stocks  a  d,  and  Ls  rotated 
by  the  Clement  drivei-  c  on  the  face-plate,  which  de- 
rives its  motion  from  the  gear-wheel  h  and  band- 
pulley  i.  The  slide-rest  n,  which  carries  the  cutter 
m,  has  an  automatic  feed-motion  by  the  rod  j,  wheel 
k,  pinion  and  connections,  and  also  a  rack-feed  /, 
with  nuick  hand-traverse.  The  working  parts  are 
fended  from  chips,  and  also  from  the  water  which 
drips  from  the  can  g  upon  the  cutting-tool. 
Car-bas'ket.     (Railway.)     A  shelf  or  rack  in  a 


Fig.  1095. 


Car-Busket. 

passenger  car  to  contain  small    packages,    shawls, 
satchels,  hats,  etc. 

Car'bine.  A  small  arm  with  a  short  barrel, 
adapted  for  the  use  of  cavalry,  and  having  a  bore  of 
.44  or  .50  inch,  or  thereabout. 

They  appear  to  have  come  into  notice  in  the  army 
of  Henry  II.  of  France,  1559.  The.  arm  was  34 
feet  long,  and  tlie  practice  was  to  fire  and  fall  back 
beliind  the  rear  rank,  who  fired  and  followed  suit. 
The  troops  were  light  cavalry,  and  the  arm  seems  to 
have  had  a  wheel-lock. 

The  term  now  is  applied  to  a  short  gun  adapted 
for  cavalry,  of  which  many  breech-loading  varieties 
have  been  tried  in  the  United  States  army  with 
greater  or  less  success.    Previous  to  tlie  general  in- 
troduction of  breech-loaders,  the  fire-arm  in  com- 
mon use  for  cavalry,  as  well  as  engineers  and  heavy 
artillery,   was    a    species  of    carbine    denominated 
musketoon,    differing    from    the    musket    only    in 
length  and  in  the  fact  that  the  arm  for  the  cavalry 
was  provided  with  a  sliug-bar  for  more  convenient 
carriage  on  horseback  ;  those  for  the  engineers  and 
artillery    were    generally    furnished    with    sword- 
bayonets.     These  all  ajipear  to  have  corresponded 
nearly  in  caliber  and  general  dunensions  with  the 
modern  French  cnnibine. 

The  Spencer  rifle  was  extensively  used  by  the 
cavalry  of  the  ITnioii  army  during  the  late  war. 

Car'bine-tllim'ble.  A  stift'  leathern  socket, 
secured  to  a  ^'-ring  on  the  off-side  of  the  saddle  by 
a  strap  and  buckle.  It  receives  the  muzzle  of  the 
horseman's  carbine. 

Car'bou-bat'ter-y.  .\nother  name  for  the 
"  Bunsen "  galvanic  battery,  in  wljicli  carbon  or 
gas -coke  replaces  the  platinum  of  the  "Grove" 
battery,  and  a  solution  of  bicliromate  of  ])otash  re- 
places the  nitric  acid.  The  carbon  is  sometimes  in 
the  form  of  a  cup,  and  thus  constitutes  the  porous 
cup  as  well  as  an  element.  Sometimes  known  as 
the  Electropoion  Battery,  though  this  is  a  generic 
term,  and  is  ecjually  applicable  to  other  fonns.     See 

BUNSKN  B.iTTEl'.Y. 

Car-bon'ic-a'cid  En'gine.  1.  .\n  engine  driven 
by  the  expansive  power  of  condensed  carbonic-acid 


gas.  Bkunel's  gas  engine,  1804,  was  driven  by  the 
increment  of  pressure  due  to  the  passage  of  hot 
water  through  a  coil  in  the  gas-reservoir.  See  Gas- 
engine. 

2.  A  machine  for  impregnating  water  with  car- 
bonic-acid gas  as  a  beverage.     See  Aeratoh. 

3.  A  form  of  fire-engine  in  which  water  is  ejected 
by  the  pressure  due  to  the   evolution   of  carbonic 


1096. 


Carl/onic-Aci'/  Eimine. 

acid  in  a  closed  chamber  over  water  ;  or  in  which 
carbonic  acid  is  ejected  with  the  water,  in  order  to 
assist  in  extinguishing  fire  by  the  exelnsion  of 
o.xygen  therefrom.  In  the  example  (Fig,  1096),  the 
pumps  are  made  to  discharge  water,  into  which  a 
stream  of  carbonic  acid  is  constantly  driven  by  an 
air-pump  after  the  water  has  left  the  pump-cylinders. 
See  Fn:E-KNOiNE  ;  Fihe-annihilatoI!. 

Car'bou-iz'er.  A  tank  or  vessel  containing  ben- 
zole, or  other  suitable  liquid  hydrocarbon,  «nd 
through  which  air  or  gas  is  passed,  in  order  to  carry 
off  an  inflammable  vapor.     See  Carbuketor. 

Car'bon-iz'ing-fur'nace.  An  apparatus  for  car- 
bonizing wood,  disintegrating  rocks,  etc.  Composed 
of  a  furnace  or  fire-chamber,  movable  upon  a  station- 
ary frame,  both  vertically  and  horizontally,  and  pro- 


Carbonizlns  Fumacf. 

vided  with  a  nozzle,  by  which  tlie  flame  is  directed 
upon  the  object.  The  furnace  is  connected  to  a 
blast -apparatus  K  K  by  means  of  a  flexible  tube  and 
a  pipe  ;  a  fine  stream  of  water  flows  into  this  tube 
from  a  tube  C  connected  with  a  water-reservoir  D, 
and  the  pipe  is  surrounded  by  a  water-chamber,  to 
prevent  the  heat  from  affecting  the  flexible  tube. 
The  wood  to  be  acted  upon  is  passed  before  the  noz- 
zle A,  being  supported  on  rollers  attached  to  a  suit- 
able tranie. 

Car'bon-light.   The  light  produced  between  and 


CARBONOMETER. 


461 


CARBON   TOOL-POINT. 


upon  two  carbon  points,  between  wliich  passes  a  cur- 
rent of  electricity.     .See  Electuic  Light. 

Car'bon-om'e-ter.  An  instrument  to  detect  the 
presence  of  an  excess  of  carbonic  acid  by  its  action 
upon  lime-water. 

Car'bon-print'ing.  In  1838  or  1839,  Mr.  Mun- 
go  I'onton  first  pointed  out  the  effect  of  light  in  l>ro- 
dncing  colorable  changes  in  compounds  of  bichro- 
mate of  potassa and  organic  matters.  Mr.  Fox  Talbot 
appears  to  have  been  the  first  to  appreciate  the  cfl'ect 
of  light  in  rendering  insoluble  the  compounds  of 
bichromate  of  potash  and  gelatine.  Poitevin,  in 
1855,  was  the  first  to  use  carbon,  adopting  the  bi- 
chromate of  gelatine  as  a  vehicle,  availing  himself  of 
its  insoluble  character  after  exposure.  The  process 
was  as  follows  :  Paper  was  coated  with  a  compound 
of  bichromate  of  potassa,  gelatine,  and  lamp-black, 
in  cold  distilled  water  ;  this  is  allowed  to  dry  in  a 
dark  room,  subsequently  exposed  beneath  a  negative 
for  a  few  minutes,  according  to  the  character  of  the 
solution  and  of  the  light,  then  dissolving  off  with 
hot  water  the  parts  not  aflfected  by  the  actinic  action  of 
the  light.  The  picture  resulting  from  this  treat- 
ment is  a  positive  print  in  black  and  white,  of 
which  the  shades  are  produced  by  the  carbon  of  the 
lamp-black.  Poitevin  also  introduced  various  colors 
into  the  same  process. 

Poitevin,  later,  introduced  another  process  for 
carbon-printing  under  a  positive.  The  paper  is  floated 
in  a  bath  of  gelatine  dissolved  in  lukewarm  water 
and  colored  with  lamp-black.  Such  paper  is  sensi- 
tized in  a  dark  room  by  immersion  in  a  solution  of 
sesquichloride  of  iron  and  tartaric  acid.  This  ren- 
ders the  gelatine  insoluble,  even  in  boiling  water. 
The  sheets  are  dried  and  exposed  under  transparent 
positives  in  the  printing-frame.  The  parts  of  the 
film  acted  upon  by  light  become  soluble  in  hot  wa- 
ter, the  iron  salts,  under  the  influence  of  light,  be- 
ing reduced  by  the  tartaric  acid,  restoring  the  or- 
ganic matter  to  its  natural  solubility.  The  sheet  is 
then  washed  in  hot  water,  which  removes  the  ferru- 
ginous compound  and  develops  the  picture. 

Swann,  of  Newcastle-upon-Tyne,  about  1861,  was 
the  first  to  introduce  into  a  practical  process  the 
transfer  of  the  film,  after  exposure,  to  another  sur- 
face, with  the  face  of  the  film  downwards,  so  as  to  ad- 
mit of  the  dissolving  off  of  the  unaltered  gelatine 
and  pigment,  without  undermining  the  delicate  por- 
tions of  the  picture.  It  will  be  manifest  that  the 
depth  to  which  the  actinic  rays  penetrate  the  film 
differs  according  to  the  transparency  of  the  negative, 
and  with  the  light  tints  wiU  penetrate  but  a  very 
short  distance.  With  such  tints,  —  when  the  solu- 
tion takes  place  from  the  face,  — when  the  free  gela- 
tine comes  to  be  dissolved,  the  thin  coating  of  in- 
soluble gelatine  and  pigment  representing  the  more 
delicate  shades  becomes  undermined  and  floats  away. 
Swann,  to  avoid  this,  transferred  the  film  with  its 
affected  side  downward  on  a  sheet  of  paper,  washed 
from  the  back  of  the  film,  and  transferred  back  again 
to  the  paper  on  which  it  remained. 

Argentotype  is  a  modified  form  of  carbon  picture 
introduced  by  Weuderoth,  in  which  the  print  is 
backed  by  a  polished  plate,  to  bring  up  the  high 
lights.  Johnson  proposes  tin  as  a  substitute,  cheaper 
and  less  likely  to  tarnish. 

The  carbon  process  has  been  carried  forward  in 
several  different  directions.  A  hardened  film  of 
bichromated  gelatine  has  been  pressed  in  a  sheet  of 
lead  in  a  hydraulic  press,  and  a  reverse  in  lead  ob- 
tained, from  which  gelatinous  casts  may  be  taken. 
See  Woodbury  Process. 

The  gelatine  film  carrjdng  the  impression  is  used 
toprintfrom  directly  in  ordinary  ink.  See  Heliotype. 


Car'bon  Tool-point.  An  application  of  the 
diamond  to  meclianical  purposes.  These  points 
are  used  to  point,  edge,  or  face  tools  for  drilling, 
reamiug,   sawing,   planing,   turning,   shaping,   carv- 


Dickinson  s  Cnrhon  Tool-Points. 

ing,  engraving,  and  dressing  flint,  grindstones, 
whet-stones,  emery,  corundum,  tanite,  or  tripoli 
wheels,  iridium,  nickel,  enamel,  crystals,  glass, 
porcelain,  china,  steel,  hardened  or  otherwise,  chilled 
iron,  copper,  or  othei*  metals. 

1  is  a  triangular  prism-like  cutter  for  turning  or 
working  stone,  etc. 

2  is  a  flat  drill-point  for  drilling  stone,  glass,  or 
metal. 

3  is  a  burin  for  cutting  or  turning  metal. 

4  is  a  quadrangular  prism  for  working  stone, 
etc. 

5  is  a  hexahedron  to  be  inserted  in  the  edge  or 
face  of  a  circular  saw  for  cutting  stone. 

6  is  a  double-sided  trapezoid,  used  in  various 
positions  for  marking  or  turning  stone,  steel,  or 
other  substances. 

7  is  a  chisel  point  or  cutter  for  turning  metal, 
etc. 

8  is  a  drill-faced  parallelogram  for  pointing  com- 
bination drills  for  drilling  and  reaming  stone,  metal, 
etc. 

9  is  a  quadrangular  prism  with  a  planer  cutting- 
point  for  cutting  or  planing  metal,  etc. 

10  is  a  truncated  prism  for  working  stone, 
etc. 

11  is  similar  to  8,  and  used  for  the  same  pur- 
pose. 

12  is  a  truncated  prism  used  for  facing  or  edging 
ring  or  cylinder  drills  and  circular  saws  for  cutting 
stone,  metal,  etc. 

13  is  a  quadrangular  double-faced  drill-point  for 
drilling  stone,  etc. 

14  is  a  quadrangular  pyramid  used  for  reaming 
stone  or  metal. 

15  is  similar  to  5,  and  is  used  for  the  same  pur- 
pose. 


CARBOY. 


462 


CAR^BRAKE. 


16  is  a  (juadiangular  cube  with  graver- 
edge  for  cutting  metal,  etc. 

1 7  i.s  a  Hat  octahedrou  for  drilling  stone, 
glass,  etc. 

18  is  a  flat  ovoid  ;  with  double  drill- 
point,  for  drilling  or  countersinking  stone, 
metal,  etc. 

19  is  a  tetrahedron,  used  the  same  as  18. 

20  is  a  pyraniidical  drill-point,  used  the 
same  as  18  and  19. 

21  is  a  truncated  prism,  used  the  same 
as  1  and  10. 

22  is  a  drill-pointed  prism-reamer. 

23  is  similar  to  22,  and  used  in  the  same 
manner. 

24  is  the  same  as  7,  with  angular  edges,  and  used 
for  the  same  purpose. 

25  is  a  double-inclined  plane-wedge  for  cutting 
stone  or  metal. 

2ti  is  a  quadrangular  wedge  for  turning  stone  or 
metal. 

27  is  an  acute  conical-turned  diamond-point,  used 
for  engraving,  etching  steel  by  bank-note  engravers. 

28  is  a  diamond  in  its  natural  crystallized  state, 
as  found  in  the  mines. 

Car'boy.  A  large  globular  vessel  of  green  glass 
inclosed  by  basket-work  or  a  box  for  protection.  In 
the  latter  form  the  box  has  rope  handles,  and  the 
mouth  and  neck  of  the  carboy  protrude  through  the 
top  of  the  box.  It  is  used  for  carrying  chemicals, 
such  as  sulphuric  acid,  the  vitriol  of  commerce,  of 
which  it  contains  160  pounds,  or  12  gallons  of  water. 

It  is  like  a  demijohn  (danuujhan,  Persian)  except 
in  its  purpose.  The  latter  is  intended  to  contain 
sjiiritb. 

Car-brake.  (Railway  Engineering.)  An  appara- 
tus by  which  pressure  is  applied  to  the  wheels  of 
railway  cars,  to  check  their  speed  and  eventually  stop 
their  revolution. 

The  usual  accessories  are  the 

Shoe. 


Fig.  1100. 


Brakc-wlwel. 
Brake-lever. 
Brake-bar. 


llicbber. 


1.  The  brake  is  usually  hand-operated  by  the 
brakeman  or  guard  on  the  car  platform  or  roof,  as 
the  ease  may  be.  Passenger  railway-cars  and  street- 
cars have  on  the  platform  a  brake-wheel  or  lever,  the 
revolution  of  whose  axis  winds  up  a  chain  which  ac- 
tuates the  levers,  rods,  bars,  and  .shoes,  as  in  Kig. 
1099,  and  the  apparatus  is  kept  at  its  tension  by  a 

Fig.  1099. 


Car-Bralce. 

click  working  into  a  ratchet-wheel  on  the  stem  of  the 
brake-lever.  The  illustration  shows  au  arrangement 
of  longitudinal  brake-rods  beneath  the  cars,  connect- 
ed together  by  chains,  so  that  the  brakes  are  brought 
into  operation  if  any  of  the  car-couplings  give  way. 
One  form  of  the  systeiu  of  rods  and  bars  beneath 
the  car  is  shown  in  Fig.  1100,  in  which  a  single  le- 
ver F,  pivoted  at  mid-length,  is  operated  by  chains 


Car-Brake  {Plan). 

and  rods  from  the  brake-wheel  on  either  platform. 
To  the  lever  are  attached  rods  G  H,  proceeding  to 
the  brake-bars,  which  carry  the  shoes. 

Fig.  1101,  A  is  a  plan  of  the  Hodge  brake,  invent- 
ed in  1849.  The  illustration  shows  the  portions  be- 
longing to  one  truck  ;  the  rod  a  passes  to  the  other 
truck,  where  the  braking -devices  are  repeated,  so 
that  the  action  on  the  wheels  of  both  trucks  is  co- 
incident and  equal,  by  motion  derived  from  the 
brake-wheel  on  the  platform  at  either  end  of  the 
car.  b  is  the  rod  which  is  pulled  endways  by  the 
winding  of  the  chain  on  the  stem  of  the  brake-wheel. 
This  rod  b  pulls  u)ion  the  lever  c,  which  is  pivoted 
at  mid-length  to  the  rod  o,  and  at  its  other  end  by 
rod  h  to  the  lever  c,  which  is  a  lever  of  another  or- 
der, and  transmits  to  the  rod /and  brake-bar  g  half 
the  power  exerted  upon  b.  It  will  be  seen  that  the 
end  of  lever  c  attached  to  the  rod  h  is  the  fulcrum 
for  the  attainment  of  effect  on  the  rod  a,  while  the 
latter  is  the  fulci'um  lor  rod  h  :  each  is  a  moving  ful- 
crum, and,  the  effect  upon  each  being  equal,  the  force 
of  the  man  upon  the  brake-wheel  is  evenly  divided 
between  the  wheels  of  the  respective  tracks. 

Fig.  1101,  i/ shows  the  English  form  of  lever-brake 
for  coal  or  gi'avel  cars.  It  has  a  bar  pivoted  to  the 
frame,  and  a  shoe  to  act  upon  each  wheel  as  the  le- 
ver is  depressed. 

Fig.  1101,  Cis  the  Stevens  brake,  1851,  in  which 
the  action  of  the  brakes  on  the  wheels  of  the  respec- 
tive trucks  is  also  coincident  and  equal.     The  draw- 
ing shows  but  one  truck,  but  the  rod  a  connects  the 
levers  of  the  respective  tracks,  so  that  the  operation 
from  either  end  is  effective  upon  the  whole,  the  re- 
sult being  more  thorough  if  the  brake-wheel  of  the 
far  end  b(^  left  locked,  so  as  to  form  an  ultimate  ful- 
crum for  the  system  of  levers  set  in  motion  from  the, 
for  the  time,  operative  end. 
A  pull  on   the  chain  b  vi- 
brates the  lever  c  on  its  ful- 
crum, the  rod  d,  and  brings 
the  shoe  e  against  tlie  wheel ; 
but    the   fulcrum    is   itself 
moved,  and,  by  drawing  on 
the  rod  (I,  moves  the  lever/ 
and  draws  the  shoe  g  against 
the  other  wheel.     In  effect- 
ing this,  the  upper  end  of  the 
lever  is  made  the  fulcrum  ; 
liut  tills  is  itself  movable, 
transmitting  by  rod  a  one 
half  of  the  force  originally 
expended  to  the  braking  ajiparatus  of  the  other  car. 
Fig.  1101,  D  is  another  brake  of  allied  natuie,  the 
force  of  the  rotation  of  the  brake-wheel  stem  a  in 
winding  on  the  chain  being  transmitted  by  rod  b  to 
a  wheel  c  under  the  center  of  the  car,  and  thence  by 
rods  d  g  to  the  levers  which  operate  the  brake-bars 
of  tile  resiiective  trucks.    The  course  of  the  connect- 
ing-rod between  the  two  brake-levers  of  a  truck  is 


CAR-BRAKE. 


463 


CAR-BRAKE. 


Fig.  1101. 


car  upon  another.  In  Fig.  1103,  the  brake-bars  of 
a  train  ai'e  simultaneously  worked  by  means  of 
longitudinal  connecting-rods  under  the  car-beds  and 
gimbal-joint  connectious  between  cars.  Tlie  longi- 
tudinal screw-shaft  turns  in  bearings  in  the  truck, 
and  operates  a  nut  which  is  connected  to  and 
actuates  the  brake-levers. 

3.  Brakes  operating  continuously  throughout  the 
train  are  found  in  the  patents  of  Marks,  1854, 
acting  by  i-ods  and  chains  ;  Stewart,  1859,  having 
rods  and  cog-wheels ;  Burrows,  1862,  by  rods  and 
levers. 

Devlan's  patent  of  1861  acts  by  gi-asping  the  axle 


Fig.  1103. 


isfc^ 


drawn  in  dotted  lines,  representing  it  as  on  the  other 
side  of  the  wheels. 

2.  The  devices  are  numerous  in  which  the  collid- 
ing of  the  cars,  as  the  rate  of  motion  is  slacked,  or 
as  the  brake  is  put  upon  the  engine  or  forward  car,  is 
made  to  put  the  brakes  of  the  train  in  operation,  the 
effect  of  the  brake-action  being  proportionate  to  the 
energy  with  which  the  forward  car  or  engine  opposes 
the  momentum  of  the  cars  following.  One  form  is 
shown  in  Fig.  1102.     When  the  engine  is  checked 

Fig.  1102. 


and  the  buffer-bars  come  together,  the   brakes  are 

applied  to  the  cars  by  power  derived  from  the  sliding 
motion  of  the  buffer-bars  and  transmitted  through 
the  medium  of  the  rods  and  levers. 

The  action  in  this  case  is  by  the  bumping  of  one 


Car- Brake. 

of  tlie  wheels  ;  Blanchard's,  1866,  by  a  shoe  on  the 
rail. 

Of  the  car-brakes  exhibited  at  the  Paris  E.xposi- 
tion,  1862,  Creamer's  was  automatic,  instantaneous, 
and  simultaneously  applied  to  all  the  wheels  of  each 
car. 

The  machinery  of  the  system  in  common  use  re- 
mains unaltered,  but  there  is  added  to  it  a  reserved 
power  in  the  form  of  a  closely  wound  and  powerful 
spiral  spring,  which  may  be  set  free  by  the  pulling 
of  a  trigger,  and  which,  when  free,  is  a  substitute  for 
the  force  of  the  brakenian.  The  apparatus  is  under 
the  control  of  the  engineer  or  the  conductor,  on  any 
car. 

With  Achard's  electro-magnetic  brake,  each  car- 
riage in  the  train  is  supplied  with  a  battery  of  six 
Daniell  cells,  connected  with  each  other  and  with 
the  engine  foot-plate  by  means  of  four  insulated 
wires  passing  through  the  whole  length  of  the  train. 
By  means  of  these  electric  wires  two  distinct  electric 
cuiTents  may  be  created,  either  of  which  may  be 
closed  or  broken  by  altering  the  position  of  a  handle 
placed  before  the  engine-driver.  The  electro-mag- 
netic force  Tipou  an  armature  on  each  car  is  made  to 
wind  a  barrel  and  draw  upon  a  chain  which  vibrates 
the  levers  and  applies  the  brakes. 

4.   Anotlier  class  of  car-brakes  consists  of  those  in 

which  braking-de^•ices  of  the  cars  individually  are 

operated  by  means  of  an  elastic  fluid,  air  or  steam, 

the  operative  devices  of  each  car  being 

under  the  control  of  the  engineer,  upon 

■■■I  the  locomotive. 

— cJ ^-1      Steam-operated  devices  are  of  different 

dJ LI  fonns  .  _ 

a,  steam-pipes  connected  throughout 
the  train  and  operating  a  piston  in  a 
cylinder  on  each  car,  to  work  the  brakes. 

b,  a  rod  and  chain  connected  through- 
out the  train,  the  operative  devices  being 
a  single  cylinder  on  the  locomotive. 

c,  an  air-pi])e  connected  throughout 
the  train,  a  cylinder  and  piston  beneath 
each  car  to  opei-ate  the  brakes,  an  air- 
pump  on  the  locomotive  to  condense  air, 

which  is  carried  by  the  pipes  to  all  the   cylinders 
in  the  train. 

Tlie  Westinghouse  Air-Brake  employs  atmos- 
pheric air  as  the  medium  for  transmitting  power  to 
the  brakes.     This  is  condensed  to  the  required  ex- 


CAR-BUFFER. 


464 


CARBURETOR. 


tent  by  a  steam-pump  placed  between  the  driving- 
wheels  or  in  other  convenient  position  on  the  loco- 
motive. Tlie  air  is  forced  into  a  reservoir,  so  that 
a  sufficient  supply  may  be  ready  for  use.  From 
this  reservoir  it  is  conducted  back  under  the  cars  of 
the  train  by  pipi's,  connected  between  the  cars  by 
india-rubber  hose  ami  valved  couplings.  Under 
each  car  is  a  cylinder  to  which  the  compressed  air  is 
admitted  forward  of  a  piston,  the  stem  of  which  is 
connecteil  to  a  bell-crank  attached  to  the  brake- 
levers  by  rods,  so  that,  when  air  is  admitted  in  front 
of  the  piston  in  the  cylinder,  the  brakes  are  at  once 
applied  to  the  wheels.     See  BuAKE,  p.  356. 

There  have  been  numerous  attempts  to  secure 
automatic  and  sinuiltaueous  action,  throughout  the 
cars  of  a  train,  by  power  derived  from  a  single  im- 
pulse or  operation.  Room  cannot  be  spared  for 
their  systematic  description,  but  the  following 
patents  may  be  consulted  :  — 

Bessemer(English)1841  Hodge        .  .     1860 

Hancock  (English)  1841  Dwelley.  .         1865 

Nasmyth(EnglislO  1839  Davidson   .  .     1860 

Petit       .          .          1840  Jlarsh     .  .          1864 

Birch          .         .     1840  Virdin        .  .     1869 

Can-  (English)         1841  Wilco.x  .  .         1856 

Walber       .         .     1852  De  Bergues  .     1868 

Fuller     .         .         1859  Chatelier  .         1868 

Sickels       .         .     1857  Lee    .         .  .     1868 

Cuney    .         .         1855  Ambler  .  .         1862 

Goodale     .         .     1865  Branch       .  .     1858 

Peddle   .         .         1867  McCrone  .         1865 

Car-buffer.  {Railway.)  A  fender  between  cars. 
In  the  English  practice,  the  ends  of  the  car-frames 
carry  elastic  cushions,  or  buffer-heads  with  springs. 
In  our  practice  the  spring  is  usually  behind  the  draw- 
bar.    See  BuFFEii. 

Car-bump'er.  An  elastic  arrangement  to  lessen 
the  jerk  incident  to  the  contact  of  colliding  cars  as 
the  rate  of  speed  is  slackened.     See  Buffek. 

Car'bu-ret'or.  An  apparatus  through  which  coal- 
gas,  hydrogen,  or  air  is  passed  through  or  over  a 
liquid  hydrocarbon,  to  increase  or  confer  the  illu- 
minating power.  They  may  be  said  to  be  of  two 
kinds,  though  the  purpose  differs  rather  than  the 
construction  :  — 

1.  For  enriching  gas. 

2.  For  carbureting  air. 

The  former  of  the  two  was  the  primary  idea  ;  the 
latter  was  suggested  as  the  matter  was  developed. 

By  carbureting  the  gas  you  may  use  poorer  coal. 
Bituminous  coal  gives  off  different  gases,  accoiding 
to  the  quality  of  the  coal  and  the  way  it  is  distilled, 
and  gives  off  different  qualities  of  gas  at  different 
stages  of  the  process  of  distillation.  The  value  of 
tlie  gas  as  a  lighting  medium  depends  upon  the 
quantity  of  volatile  hydrocarbons  ;  and  the  object 
of  pas.sing  it  through  the  benzole  of  coal-tar  or  the 
volatile  oils  derived  from  petroleum  is  to  enrich  the 
gas  by  the  addition  of  hydrocarbon  vapors.  Where 
city  gas  is  not  available,  air  may  be  carbureted,  that 
is,  saturated  with  the  inflammable  vapor,  by  jiassing 
it  through  the  liquid.  There  are  many  difficulties 
in  perfectly  accomplishing  the  carbureting  of  air  or 
gas  :  — 

1.  The  hydrocarbon  vaporizes  more  readily  in 
warm  weather  than  in  cold,  so  that  the  degree  of 
saturation  depends  in  part  upon  the  temperature  of 
the  weather. 

2.  The  liquids  used  for  carbureting  air  are  not 
homogeneous,  but  are  a  mixture  of  liquids  of  various 
volatility;  after  charging  the  carburetor,  the  lighter 
will  pass  off  first  and  leave  a  heavier  and  less  vola- 
tile residuum. 


3.  The  amount  of  vapor  taken  up  will  depend  upon 
the  speed  with  which  the  air  passes  through  the  car- 
buretor ;  so  that,  when  the  number  of  Imrners  is  va- 
ried, a  certain  change  follows  in  the  quality  of  the 
gas. 

4.  The  material  is  very  inflammable,  and  leaks  of 
the  liquid  or  the  vapor  are  dangerous,  requiiing  .spe- 
cial provisions  for  safety  and  the  attention  to  char- 
ging by  daylight. 

5.  The  chief  difliculty  arises  from  the  fact  that 
the  volatilization  of  the  hydrocarbon  is  afl'ected  by 
the  intense  cold  produced  by  the  evaporation  of  the 
liquid. 

The  working  up  of  the  coal-tar  oils  preceded  the 
discovery  of  petroleum  in  commercial  quantities. 

The  primary  idea  was  to  force  the  gas  through 
the  liquid. 

Carburetors  of  gas  may  be  defined  as  those  in 
which  material  rich  in  carbon  is  added  to  the  usual 
charge  of  coal  in  the  retort. 

Those  in  M-hich  a  liquid  hydrocarbon  is  evapo- 
rated by  the  heat  of  the  burner,  and  mingles  with  the 
usual  carliurcti'd  hydrogen  gas. 

Those  in  which  the  gas  is  exposed  at  atmospheric 
temperature  to  the  liquid  hydrocarbon,  .so  as  to 
exhale  from  the  latter  a  vapor  which  passes  with 
the  usual  gas  to  the  burner. 

Lowe,  in  England  (English  patent  6,276,  June  9, 
1832),  was  for  enriching  the  commercial  carbureted 
hydrogen  by  filling  the  meter  with  coal-tar  naphtha 
instead  of  water,  the  meter- wheel  being  driven  by 
the  force  of  the  gas  from  the  main.  The  uniform 
hight  of  the  li(iuid  in  the  meter  was  secured  by  a 
fountain  arrangement  such  as  is  used  in  lamps,  ink- 
stands, mucilage-cups,  and  bird-glasses.  He  sub- 
sequently applied  (No.  8,883  of  March  16,  1841) 
power  to  turn  the  meter-wheel.  He  also  jiroposed 
to  pass  the  gas  through  sponge,  or  other  animal  or 
vegetable  stuff  or  fiber,  the  said  matter  being  from 
time  to  time  saturated  with  naphtha.  Also  to  ex- 
pose the  result  to  a  caustic  alkali,  to  remove  the 
sulphur,  and  to  an  acid,  to  absorb  the  ammonia. 

He  also  arranged  a  number  of  troughs  one  over 
another  in  a  box  ;  these  discharged  into  each  other 
by  overflow  tubes  ;  air  is  admitted  below,  sweeps 
over  the  surfaces  of  the  liquid  in  the  successive 
troughs,  and  passes  out  at  the  top. 

Also  a  box  having  vertical  partitions,  with 
sponges,  fragments  of  pumice-stone,  or  coke  impreg- 
nated with  naphtha,  in  the  compartments,  through 
which  the  gas  passes  in  succession,  up  and  down, 
and  so  on  tliroughout  the  series. 

Selligue,  1834,  carbureted  hydrogen  gas  produced 
by  the  decomposition  of  water,  and  afterwards  en- 
riched the  products  of  destructive  distill.ation  of 
wood,  resins,  oils,  etc. 

This  idea  was  afterwards  followed  out  by  a  num- 
ber of  inventors. 

C.  B.  Mansfield,  who  obtained  an  English  patent 
(No.  11,960,  November  11,  1847),  gave  a  .stimulus 
to  the  business  by  the  production  of  a  suitable  liquid. 
He  did  as  much,  apiiarently,  as  could  lie  done  with 
coal-tar  benzole,  and  died  from  the  effects  of  an  ex- 
plosion of  the  saturated  air. 

Drake,  1853,  revolved  a  porous  material,  to  expose 
a  saturated  surface  to  a  blast  of  air. 

Adams  had  a  series  of  overflow  pans  somewhat  as 
in  the  cut  (Fig.  1104).  The  air  is  driven  by  the 
rotary  fan  in  the  chamber  below,  through  the  central 
vertical  pipe  to  the  upper  chamber,  from  whence 
it  passes  in  a  circuitous,  reverting,  downward 
course,  in  contact  with  the  hydrocarbon  liquid  in 
the  successive  trays,  and  thereby  becomes  impreg- 
nated with  vapor. 


CARBURETOR. 


465 


CARBURETOR. 


Fig.  1104. 


Carburetor. 

Lecarriere,  in  France,  in  Eebniary,  1853,  began  by 
carbureting  hydrogen  produced  by  the  decomposition 
of  water  in  the  presence  of  zinc  and  acid,  and  tlien 
passed  to  the  carbureting  of  air.  He  employed  a 
number  of  cylinders  in  a  box,  making  a  sinuous  course 
for  thegas,  which  entersat  the  middle,  passes  down  and 
out  through  small  holes  into  the  second  cylinder, 
and  so  on.     He  also  introduced  a  regulating-Hocit. 

J[archesson,  in  1853,  had  an  upper  sujiply-vesscl 
with  a  lower  chamber,  containing  a  conduit  of  spi- 
ral form,  divided  by  partitions  into  chambers  ]iro- 
vided  with  absorbents,  and  which  communicate  by 
holes.  A  variation  of  this  was  an  Archimedean 
screw  moved  by  the  gas,  which  was  enriched  by  the 
vaporized  liquid. 

Launay,  1856,  used  cotton  wicks  saturated  with 
oil  hy  capillarity,  and  exposing  a  large  surface  to  the 
passing  gas. 

Veique,  1857,  has  a  closed  cylindrical  chamber, 
with  inlet  and  outlet  pipes  for  the  ga.s,  and  a  revolv- 
ing helix  of  wires  or  a  helical  frame  with  wide-meshed 
cloth. 

Varmaique,  1858,  has  a  siphon  arrangement  for 
the  supply  of  an  upper  chamber,  which  discharges 
by  a  pipe  at  the  bottom  of  the  lower  chamber  ;  the 
gas  passes  through  the  chambers. 

Vesian,  1853,  introduced  the  float  operating 
the  valve  of  the  admission  pipe  for  the  liquid. 

Jlartin,  1858,  added  a  lamp,  to  expedite  the 
vaporization.  ' 

David,  in  1859,  used  a  bulb  of  displacement,  to 
preserve  a  constant  level,  instead  of  an  automatic 
valve  of  admission  ;  and  this  was  so  arranged  as 
to  maintain  a  uniform  hight,  although  the  liquid 
varied  in  density  as  evaporation  proceeded. 

Ashcroft,  1857,  had  a  float  to  govern  tlie  in- 
gress of  air,  and  cause  it  to  pa-ss  through  a  uni- 
form depth  of  liquid. 

Levi  L.  Hill,  1859,  reissued  1863,  modified  the 
richness  by  inlet  of  air,  and  had  a  double  bellows 
for  equable  blast. 

F.  S.  Pease  had  a  separate  tube  to  condense 
an  excess  of  liquid. 

Lowback,  1860,  heated  the  air. 

Matters  remained  in  this  condition  until  the 
30 


discovery  of  petroleum  ;  the  first  notice  of  petroleum 
benzine  was  in  a  Boston  jiaper,  September,  1860. 

John  A.  Biissett,  by  patent  March  2,  1862,  devel- 
oped the  use  of  the  petroleum  liquid,  which  gives 
the  carburetor  its  practical  value,  the  gas-tar  proditcts 
being  exjiensive  and  difficult  to  manage. 

Levi  Stevens,  December  20,  1864,  passed  the  air 
through  a  shower  of  the  licjuid,  which  was  dropped 
into  the  vaporizer  in  measured  quantities. 

Irwin  introduced  a  feature  (April  11, 1865)  found- 
ed on  the  fact  that  the  hydrocarbon  vapor  confen-ed 
greater  gravit}'  upon  the  air,  so  that  the  weight  of 
the  carbureted  air  forced  itself  to  the  burner  and 
dispensed  with  a  blowing  apparatus.  He  also  used 
a  caloric  engine  to  produce  a  motive-power  to  gener- 
ate a  blast  of  air,  and  the  escaping  heated  air  was 
carbureted. 

Boynton,     1865,     dis-  Fig  HOS. 

pensed  with  moving  ma- 
chinery in  the  chamber, 
by  making  a  plain  me- 
tallic box  with  a  fibrous 
material  inside,  through 
which  air  was  forced. 
He  also  mixed  the  ben- 
zoles of  gas-tar  and  pe- 
troleum. 

Myer,  1865,  washed 
the  carbureted  air,  to  re- 
move extraneousmatters. 

Pease,  1865,  injected 
air  at  the  lower  portion 
of  the  carburetor,  caus- 
ing it  to  ascend  through 
fluid  in  contact  with  the 
lower  surfaces  of  a  series 
of  inclined  planes  with 

flanged  edges  and  ends,  passing  from  one  incline  to 
another  in  a  zigzag  upward  course  into  the  chamber, 
from  whence  it  is  withdrawn  lor  use. 

After  this  the  inventions  became  very  numerous, 
having  reference  mainly  to  detail  :  to  regulate  the 
admission  of  air,  the  egiess  of  carbureted  air,  the 
graduation  of  the  quantity  of  liquid  admitted,  a 
forced  circulation  in  the  carbureting  chamber  ;  to 
regulate  the  temperature  of  the  liquid,  the  air,  and 
the  result ;  means  for  drawing  ofl'  the  heavy  oil. 

As  means  of  forcing  the  air  ;  — 

Ba.ssett  and  McAvoy  use  the  weighted  gas-holder, 
the  inverted  cylinder  whose  lower  edge  is  immersed 
in  the  w'ater  of  an  annular  chamber. 

Prichard  forced  the  air  by  water  under  pressure, 
admitted  below  to  expel  the  air  from  the  chamber. 

Douglas's  has  a  rotary  fan. 

Levi  Stevens's  has  a  meter-wheel,  whose  shaft  has 

lig.  ire. 


Ptase's  Carburetor. 


Carburetor. 


CAR-CAB. 


466 


CAR-COUPl.lNG. 


its  bearing  below  the  center  of  the  partition  dividing 
the  meter  and  regulation  chambers,  and  gears  with 
a  wheel  on  the  regiilator-shaft,  whicli  has  a  bearing  at 
the  center  of  the  partition.  Both  chambers  are  par- 
tially tilled  with  carbureting  lii|uid.  Air  is  intro- 
duced to  the  top  of  the  meter-chamber.  As  the  air 
is  carbureted  it  is  conducted  to  the  regulating-appa- 
ratus. 

Car-cab.  {Railway.)  The  shelter  on  a  loco- 
motive for  the  protection  of  the  engineer  and  stoker. 

Car'cass.  1.  (Arcliitcdure.)  The  naked  .shell 
of  a  house,  sides  and  roof  without  floors,  joiner's 
work,  or  plastering. 

2.  {Sh)j)wri(j/Uiyitj.)  The  keel,  keelson,  stem  and 
stern  ]iosts,  and  ribs  of  a  ship. 

3.  [Onlimnce.)  An  incendiary  ]irojectile  filled 
with  a  composition  of  saltpeter,  sulpliur,  resin,  tur- 
jientine,  antimony,  and  tallow.  Jt  has  three  vents 
for  the  flame,  and  sometimes  pistol-barrels  arranged 
to  discharge  occasionally.  It  is  discharged  from  a 
mortar  or  howitzer,  and  is  intended  to  set  tire  to 
buildings,  ships,  or  wooden  defenses. 

Car'cass-roof'ing.  (Carpentry.)  That  which 
supports  the  covering  by  a  grated  frame  of  timber- 
work. 

Car'cass-sa'W.  A  kind  of  town-saw.  The  blade 
is  strengtlii-ned  hy  a  metallic  backing,  which  is  bent 
over,  and  closed  upon  it  with  a  hammer.  It  has 
eleven  teeth  to  the  inch. 

Car'cel-lamp.  A  lamp  of  French  origin,  in 
which  the  oil  is  raised  to  the  wick  by  clockwork. 
A  mechanical  lamp,  used  in  lighthouses,  where  the 
wick  is  overflowed  with  oil  as  a  measure  of  eipiality 
of  snjiply  and  of  safety  to  inevcnt  overheating  of  the 
wick  and  wick-tube.     See  Me('H.\N'IC.\l  L.\mp. 

Car-couch.  A  chair  which  may  be  converted 
into  a  lounge  for  night-traveling. 

A  bunk  or  lounge  in  a  sleeping-car,  made  up  of 
two  opposite  seats  with  an  inteiTeuing  bridge-piece, 
or  of  a  slielf  let  down  from  above. 

Car-coupling.  {Railnynj.)  A  device  for  con- 
necting the  cai-s  in  a  train. 

In  the  United  States  this  is  usually  a  form  of 
shackle,  but  in  Europe  the  connection  is  more  in- 
timate, the  cars  being  coupled  together  so  (irmly  as 
to  prevent  the  jar  .as  the  cars  collide  or  jerk  apart  in 
stopping  and  starting.  This  mode  of  coupling  is 
also  found  in  many  United  States  railways,  especially 
where  the  steam  or  air  brakes  throughout  the  train 
are  operated  by  the  engineer. 

The  English  car-coupling  (Fig.  1107,  A)  is  a  right 
and  left  screw-shackle,  a  on  the  median  line  mak- 
ing a  connection  sufficiently  rigid  to  somewhat 
compress  the  i».//bcs  b  b  on  each  side.  In  some  cases 
the  bufers  of  adjoining  cai's  are  connected  by  chains, 
and  their  rods  act  as  jiistons  in  tubes  provided  with 
siirings  ;  the  cars  are  thus  coupled  by  the  buffers. 
The  draw-bar  d  of  the  coupling  is  connected  to  an 
elliptic  spring  c,  which  diminishes  the  jerk  of  the 
cars  when  starting  the  train. 

Some  of  these  features  are  also  found  in  B,  which 
is  an  old  form  of  United  States  coupling  with  buf- 
fers, copied  from  the  English,  from  whence  we  early 
received  our  railway  engines  and  cai-s.  The  drift  is 
now  the  other  way  acio-s  the  Atlantic. 

C  C  are  respectively  plan  and  elevation  of  the 
Jliller  coupling,  which  connects  automatically  as 
the  respective  point-headed  hooks  come  in  collision. 
A  sufficient  amount  of  lateral  play  is  allowed  to  the 
hooks  <i  a  to  allow  the  wedge-shaped  surfaces  to 
slip  past  cacli  other,  and  .springs  6  i  at  the  rear  of 
each  keep  them  in  engagement  when  once  connected. 
Special  means  are  used  to  withdraw  the  hooks  fiom 
each  other  when  they   are  to    be   uncoupled.     The  | 


Fig.  1107. 


'^W 

criP~'i'|^^         I 

\\l    l.J 

rr — h,--^, .     /^ 

^    =-=^^1 

-1     iif  i»^ 

^'-'iz      '1"   ■  ^"^ 

Car- Couplings. 

lower  view,  C,  shows  the  mode  of  engagement  less 
clearly,  but  exhibits  also  the  spring  buffers  c,  above 
the  hooks,  which  act  as  fenders  to  the  cars,  and  deaden 
the  blow  as  the  cars  surge  against  each  other  in 
checking  the  speed  of  the  train.  The  coupling- 
hooks  themselves  have  also  sjjrings  d  for  the  same 
puqjose. 

In  Fig.  1108,  Disa  falling  latch-hook. 

E  has  a  gi'avitating  hook  n,  with  a  spring  which 
allows  it  to  yield  to  the  tlinist  of  the  entering  link  b 
in  the  act  of  coupling.  On  the  back  of  the  hook  a 
is  a  handle  c,  which  is  lifted  to  uncouple  the  link. 

F  has  a  vertically  sliding  bolt,  which  rises  auto- 
matically as  the  link  collides  with  its  lower  inclined 
portion  when  coupling,  and  then  falls  down  into  en- 
gagement. 

G  shows  a  pair  of  draw-heads  in  which  the  tum- 
bling-latch a  holds  up  the  pin  until  thnist  Iwck  by 
the  entering  link.  The  ]>in  b,  when  fixed  for  auto- 
matic coupling,  rests  on  the  toe  of  the  latch,  as  in 
the  left-hand  draw-head  ;  the  link  pushes  back  the 
latch  and  allows  the  pin  to  drop  from  the  toe,  as  in 
the  right  draw-head. 

7/  Jf  are  two  draw-heads,  showing  the  respective 
positions  of  the  uncoupled  and  coupled  pins  a  a.  In 
the  former,  the  left  of  the  figure,  the  pin  n  rests  on 
a  sliding  latch,  which  will  give  way  before  the  thnist 
of  the  link  rl, —  a  result  already  accomplished  in  N', 
the  right-hand  figure. 

/  /'  are  two  matching  draw-heads,  corresponding 
in  essential  resjiects  with  the  one  just  described  ; 
sliding  pistons  holding  up  the  liiilc  and  retiring  be- 
fore the  thnist  of  the  entering  link. 


CAR-COUPLIXG. 


CARD. 


,J 

^     K- 

V, 

tffiflitft] 

a 

_^^-^,. 


Car-  Cou^ingt. 


J  has  a  double  feature.  A  plate  to  hold  the  pro- 
jecting link  a  in  coupling  position,  and  a  small  slid- 
ing-latch  b  above,  to  hold  the  coupling-pin  c,  which 
is  dropped,  when  the  draw-heads  come  into  actual  col- 
lision and  thrust  in  the  latch. 

A'  has  a  ball  a,  which  holds  up  the  pin,  and  rolls 
away  before  the  thrust  of  the  link  b,  allowing  the 
pin  to  drop. 

In  Fig.  1109  L  has  the  arrow-heafl  bolt  b,  which 
is  a  substitute  for  the  usual  link,  and  is  grasped  be- 
tween the  pair  of  jaws  a  n,  which  spring  apart  to  re- 
ceive it.  The  arrow-head  form  of  coupling  has  many 
variations,  which  principally  concern  the  modes  of 
retention. 

il  has  a  bar  with  two  slots  instead  of  t^vo  heads, 
the  bar  being  shown  separately  at  ttj.  As  the  end  of 
the  bar  m  enters  the  draw-head,  it  thnists  up  the 
graritating-latoh,  which  immediately  falls  into  the 
slot  of  the  bar.  To  uncouple  the  link,  the  latch  is 
lifted  by  a  lever  above. 


X  is  a  plan  view  of  a  coupling  in  which  each  draw- 
head  has  a  link  which  couples  over  a  horn  on  the 
corresponding  draw-head  of  the  other  car.  A  pin  in 
each  case  ]irevents  accidental  disengagement. 

0  is  an  elevation  of  a  pair  of  draw-heads,  each  of 
which  has  a  link  which  may  be  coupled  over  a  horn 
on  the  other. 

P  has  a  two-homed  tumbler,  one  of  which  carries 
a  link  a  which  may  be  the  means  of  coupling  to  a 
con-esponding  draw-head,  and  the  other  forms  a  latch 
for  a  link  d  proceeding  from  the  other  draw-hi-ad. 

Kesdalt.'s  English  patent,  April  17,  IS-tl,  de- 
scribes an  elastic  coupling  which  retains  its  hold 
while  the  pull  is  direct,  and  becomes  detached  when 
the  pull  is  oblique,  bv  reason  of  one  of  the  carriages 
leaving  the  track.  This  feature  has  formed  the  sub- 
ject of  many  United  States  patents. 

Card.  i.  [CoHmi  and  Wool  Mainifacture.)  ft. 
An  instrument  for  combing  wool,  flax,  or  cotton,  to 
disentangle  or  tear  apart  the  tussocks  and  lay  the 
fibers  parallel  in  order  for  spinning. 

The  work  is  analogous  in  some  of  its  effects  to 
that  of  hackling,  in  which  flax  for  the  distatf  is 
brought  into  a  condition  for  being  drawn  out  by 
the  hand,  in  the  old  modes  of  spinning.  With 
cards  and  in  the  carding-machine  shorter  fiber  is 
operated  upon  than  in  the  ca.se  of  hemp  or  long  flax, 
of  which  a  hank  is  taken  and  switched  down  upon 
the  teeth  of  the  hackle. 

A  <yird  is  a  wire  brush  in  which  the  teeth  are  in- 
serted obli(|uely  through  a  piece  of  leather,  or  of 
cotton,  linen,  or  india-rubber,  which  is  theu  nailed 
to  a  wooden  back. 

With  hand-cards,  they  were  operated  by  drawing 
them  jiast  each  other,  so  as  to  disentangle  the  bunches 
of  fiber  and  lav  the  filaments  straight.  A  similar 
effect  is  produced  in  the  eanling-niachine  (which 
see),  but  the  opposing  cards  are  ujiou   a  large  re- 


CARD. 


468 


CAKDBOARD. 


volving-cylinder,  and  a  number  of  circumjacent 
wire  rollers  and  flat  cards. 

The  leather  or  other  uuiterial  to  be  furni.shed  with 
tcctli  is  pierced  with  numerous  holes,  in  which  are  fi.xed 
bent  jiieces  of  hard  drawn  wire  called  dents  or  tecOi. 

Each  piece  is  tirst  bent  at  right  angles  at  a  and  b, 
and  afterwards  a  second  bend  at  c  d,  at  an  obtu.se 
augle,  wliich  must  be  invariable  for  the  same  set  of 

Fig.  1110. 


■iiifiMiii 
■iJiiiJii 


card.s.  Strict  uniformity  is  necessary  as  to  the  size, 
shape,  obliipiity,  and  length  of  the  teeth,  and  also 
in  the  angle  which  tliey  bear  to  the  cylindrical  sur- 
face around  which  they  are  ])laced. 

The  action  of  the  cards  is  as  follows  :  — 

If  the  two  cards  A  and  B  be  moved  in  opposite 
directions  with  a  tangled  tuft  of  cotton-wool  be- 
tween theui,  the  fibers  will  be  seized  by  all  the 
teeth,  one  card  ]iulUng  them  oue  way  and  the  other 
palling  them  the  otliei',  until,  by  rejieateil  ap- 
plications of  the  card-i,  the  libers  are  disentangled 
and  laid  in  jinrallel  lines,  each  card  taking  up  and 
retaining  a  portion  of  the  cotton.  All  the  cotton 
may  be  gathered  on  one  canl  by  reversing  the  posi- 
tion of  the  two  and  placing  them  as  when,  by  draw- 
ing the  upper  card  C  over  the  lower  one  D,  the 
teeth  of  the  lower  one  offer  no  resistance,  but  give 
up  their  cotton  to  the  upper  card. 

Just  as  l.iy  the  iiersistence  of  application  of  the 
hand-card  the  bunch  of  cotton  is  at  last  reduced  to 
order,  so  in  the  carding-niachine  the  operation  is 
repe.ited  between  a  central  carded  cylinder,  and 
several  carded  rollers  and  flat  cards,  so  arranged  as 
to  return  imjierfeetly  reduced  knots  again  and  again 
to  the  m.iin  cylinder.     See  C.vitDiNO-MAoniNE. 

Cards  are  distinguished  by  cjualitj',  the  form  of 
the  backing,  or  position  ;  as,  — 

Sheet-card  or  card-sheet. 

Fillet-card,  in  form  of  a  ribbon. 

Breaking-card.  Fin  ishing-card. 

Top-card;  top-flat. 

b.  A  slimr  of  fiber  from  a  carding-machine. 

Cardings  or  rolls  are  delivered  of  the  length  of 
the  card-roller,  the  clothing  on  which  is  in  longitu- 
dinal strips.     See  Rollf,i;-bowl  ;  C.\RDixr.. 

2.  (.Menage.)  A  currying-tool  formed  of  a  piece 
of  card-clothing  mounted  on  a  back  with  a  handle, 
and  used  as  a  substitute  for  a  curry-comb. 

3.  (IFcaving.)  One  of  the  perforated  pasteboards 
or  sheet-metal  plates  in  the  Jacquard  attachment  to 
looms  for  weaving  figured  fabrics.  Each  perforation 
represents  a  warp-thread  which  is  to  be  lifted,  and 
there  are  as  many  cards  as  there  are  wcft-theads  in 
a  single  occurrence  of  the  pattern.  The  cards  are 
presented  consecutively  by  a  revolving  perforated 
bar.     See  jAcyu.iiiP  Loo.M. 

4.  (Nautical.)  (Y mm  cardimil.)  The  dial  or  face 
of  the  mariner's  compass,  in  wliich  the  needle  and 
dial  rotate  together. 


"Reason  the  card,  but  passion  is  the  gale."  — 
Pope. 

It  is  marked  with  the  compass- points.  These 
points  or  rhumbs  are  32  in  number  ;  the  angle  com- 
[irehended  between  two  points  is  11°  15'. 

5.  A  jiasteboard.  A  thick  paper  sheet  made  up 
of  several  layers. 

6.  A  pasteboard  cut  to  a  size  and  marked  for  a 
game.  The  playing-cards  are  in  four  suits  of  thir- 
teen each. 

Cards  are  colored  by  stenciling,  an  art  older  in 
Europe  than  that  of  printing  by  ridief-blocks.  The 
counnon  cards  of  oue  color,  red  or  black,  are  called 
j>ips:  the  court  cards,  of  many  colors,  are  tiles.  The  art 
of  stenciling  as  a  mode  of  laying  out  ornamental  de- 
signs f'(n'  carving,  frescoing,  and  repetitive  orna- 
mentation is  very  ancient. 

Chatto,  in  his  "  Origin  and  History  of  Playing- 
Cards,"  London,  1S48,  says  that  the  earliest  play- 
ing-cards which  he  has  had  an  opportunity  of  exam- 
ining were  evidently  stenciled,  and  of  the  date 
of  1440.  Stenciling  cards  was  ipiite  a  business  at 
Nuremberg,  1 433  -  77,  as  appears  by  the  town  books. 
Chatto  regards  cards  as  an  Eastern  invention,  and 
supposes  that  they  became  known  in  Europe  as  a 


popidar 


'  between  1360  and  1390.     Covelluzzo, 


an  Italian  chronicler  of  the  fifteenth  century,  says 
they  were  brought  to  Vitevbo  in  1379.  Charles  VI. 
used  them  1393,  and  thereafter  laws  and  commercial 
notices  and  restrictions  give  evidence  that  they  were 
very  conmion. 

"There  is  a  great  deal  of  time  lost  in  playing 
cards,"  said  a  moralizing  gentleman.  "  Yes,"  .said 
a  lady  devotee,  "in  shufHiug  and  cutting.  Hut 
then,  how  is  it  to  be  avoided  ?  "  Lady  Spencer  may 
have  been  one  of  the  parties  conversing,  and  Waik 
Isambard  Brunei,  the  philosopher,  another.  This 
talented  mechanician,  at  all  events,  did  invent  a 
machine  for  shuttling  and  cutting  playing-cards 
without  the  aid  of  the  fingers,  and  did  so  at  a  play- 
ful request  of  Lady  Spencer. 

Mr.  Bruuel's  talent  was  mo.st  versatile.  He  con- 
structed the  Thames  Tunnel  ;  the  block-making 
machinery  of  the  Portsmouth  (England)  Dockyard  ; 
a  theater  in  New  York  ;  a  canal  in  New  York 
State  ;  the  harlior  defenses  of  New  York  ;  veneer- 
saws  ;  shoe-making  machinery  ;  nail-making  ma- 
chines ;  paper-ruling  machines  ;  machines  for  twist- 
ing, measuring,  and  forming  sewing-cotton  into 
hanks  ;  a  hydraulic  packing-press  ;  improvements 
in  suspension  bridges,  building  arches  without 
centering,  steamboats,  gas-engines,  etc.  His  son, 
Isambard  Kingdom  Brunei,  was  the  engineer  of  the 
Great  'Western  Railway,  of  England,  and  the  de- 
signer of  the  Great  Eastern  .steam-ship. 

Cards  are  interesting  in  the  history  of  the  arts  as 
being  among  the  earliest  subjects  of  the  jirinting 
process.     See  Piuntino. 

'With  the  games  this  work  has  nothing  to  do, 
and  perhaps,  but  for  M.  I.  Brunei,  the  subject 
would  not  have  been  referred  to  here. 

A  good  article  on  the  subject  of  cards  and  dice 
may  be  consulted  in  Harper's  Magazine,  Vol.  XXVI., 
pp.  163-  176. 

Card'board.  Cardboard  is  produced  by  pasting 
a  number  of  sheets  of  paper  together.  Bristol 
board  is  all  white  paper,  and  is  made  of  two  or 
more  sheets  according  to  the  thickness  required. 
Other  qnalities  are  made  by  inclosing  common  thick 
paper  between  sheets  of  white  or  colored  papers  of 
the  required  qiiality. 

A  surface  of  paste  is  given  between  the  contacting 
.surfaces  of  the  outside  jiaper  and  the  filling,  and  a 
pack  of  pasted  boards  are  subjected  to  a  heavy  press- 


CARDBOARD-PRESS. 


469 


CARDIXG-MACHINE. 


ure,  which  squeezes  out  the  water.  The  card- 
boards are  then  hung  up  in  pairs  to  dry,  and  iu  24 
hours  are  ready  for  the  press,  which  renders  tlieni 
perfectly  smooth  and  polislied. 

The  cardboards  are  made  up  into  a  pack  alter- 
nately with  polished  coi>pcr  plates,  and  the  pack  is 
passed  between  a  pair  of  rolls  under  heavy  pressure. 
This  removes  all  ine(iualities,  wrinkles,  ami  pro- 
tuberances, the  result  being  a  highly  polished  glazed 
surface. 

Card'boaxd-press.  A  press  having  a  pair  of 
rolls  adapted  to  be  closed  together  with  great  force, 
aud  used  to  smooth  and  polish  sheets  of  card  passed 
there-through. 

Card-cfoth'ing.  The  garniture  of  a  carding- 
marhiue.  * 

Card-cut'ter.  A  machine  for  reducing  card- 
board to  pieces  of  uniform  and  proper  size  for  cards. 

Fig.  1111. 


Card-Cutler. 

In  that  shown,  the  paper  is  held  by  the  adjustable 
gage-clamp  a,  and  is  cut  by  the  knife  b,  which  is 
elevated  by  the  spring  c  and  connections,  and  de- 
pressed by  hand. 

Card  Grind'ing-ma-chine'.  A  machine  hav- 
ing a  rotary  emery-wlieel  D  revolving  in  a  central 
position  relatively  to  the  flats  and  card  cylinders, 
which  are  arranged  around  it.  The  grinding  emery- 
wheel  has  longitudinal  reciprocation  on  its  slotted 

Fig   1112. 


Card-  Grinder. 

shaft  by  an  inclosed  screw  therein,  and  giinds 
siundtaneously  two  or  more  top  flats  and  two  or 
more  workers,  strippers,  or  Ikkcr-in  cylinders. 
Each  top  flat  reciprocates  in  a  guide  tangential  to 
the  wheel  by  a  connecting-rod  £  to  a  crank-pin. 
The  bearings  /  for  the  ends  of  the  flats  and  of  the 
cylinders,  as  at  r,  are  adjustable  radially  to  the 
gi-inding-shaft.     The  cylinders  are  rotated  on  their 


a.\es  by  bands  from  pulley  B  on  the  lower  shaft, 
reaching  to  the  jjulleys  on  the  cylinder-shafts,  ;ui 
at  /. 

Card'ing.  A  roll  of  wool  as  it  comes  from  the 
cardiug-macldne.  The  clojfiiig-ajlimlcr  has  longi- 
tudinal bands  of  cards,  the  wool  on  which  is  re- 
moved by  the  doffiiuj-kiiifc  in  the  form  of  sejiai-ate 
slivers,  the  length  of  the  doffing-cylinder.  These 
slivers  fall  into  a  roller-bowl,  which  gives  them  a 
slight  rolling  and  compacts  them  into  cnrdings. 
These  have  but  little  strength,  as  their  fibers  are 
only  held  together  by  being  interlaced.  They  next 
receive  a  slight  twist  iu  the  si nbbivrj-machinc. 

Card'ing-ma-chme'.  {Fiber.)  A  machine  con- 
sisting of  a  congeries  of  toothed  cylinders  for  draw- 
ing out  and  placing  in  parallel  line  the  fibers  of 
wool,  cotton,  or  other  staple. 

The  hand-card,  which  preceded  the  carding-ma- 
chine,  consisted  of  two  brushes  furnished  with  short, 
slanting,  wire  teeth,  which  all  pointed  in  one  direc- 
tion. The  wires  were  passial  through  leather,  and 
the  leather  was  nailed  to  a  board.  The  brushes 
were  grasjied,  one  in  each  haiul,  and  drawn  jiast 
each  other,  so  laying  straight  the  fiber  which  was 
placed  between  them.  The  action  is  explained  under 
CauL)  (which  see). 

In  174S,  Lewis  Paul  patented  two  diflerent  ma- 
chines for  carding.  In  one  of  them  the  cards  are 
arranged  on  a  flat  surface,  and  in  the  other  they  are 
arranged  on  the  periphery  of  a  drum.  From  what 
cause  we  know  not,  the  invention  seemed  to  have 
no  repute  or  success  at  the  time,  but  came  out  again 
twelve  years  afterward  as  the  invention  of  Har- 
grcaves,  under  the  auspices  of  Robert  Peel,  of  Bamber 
I5ridge,  the  gi'andfather  of  the  statesman,  Sir  Robert 
Peel.  Hargreaves  fi.ved  one  of  the  cards  iu  a  block 
of  wood,  aud  the  other  was  shuig  fiom  liooks  fi,\ed 
in  a  beam.  The  hooks  remained  in  tlie  kitchen  at 
"  Peel  Fold  "  in  1S50,  but  the  cards  were  destroyed 
by  a  mob  who  came  from  Blackburn, — a  part  of  the 
same  wretched  story  of  ignorant  men  opposing  the 
introduction  of  machinery. 

The  same  Robert  Pee!,  or  his  son  of  the  same 
name  and  the  father  of  the  statesman,  employed 
Hargreaves  in  1762  to  elect  the  cylinder  cardiug- 
machines  in  a  mill  at  Blackburn. 

Though  the  canlijig-macliiue  was  well  and  effi- 
ciently constructed  in  the  time  of  -Vrkwiight,  it 
was  not  till  after  several  attempts  by  diflerent  men, 
Paul,  Hargieaves,  and  .-Vrkwright,  worked  in  such 
a  manner  that  it  is  difficult  now  to  determine  what 
share  each  had  in  tlie  matter.  It  was  not  til!  twenty 
years  after  Paul's  invention  that  tlie  cylinder  cai'd- 
ing-machine  came  into  extensive  use  ;  and  even  then 
it  performed  intermittingly,  and  did  not  yield  a  con- 
tinuous sliver. 

The  cards  were  aiTanged  on  the  surface  of  the 
drum,  parallel  to  its  axis,  a  space  being  left  between 
each.  The  cotton-wool  was  put  on  by  hand,  and 
when  t!ie  cards  were  full  the  machine  was  stopped, 
the  carilings  taken  olf  separately  by  a  movable 
comb,  the  spaces  between  the  cards  regulating  the 
substance  of  each  carding.  The  cardings  were  tlien 
joined  end  to  end,  to  make  a  continuous  sliver.  A 
more  systematic  and  ei|ualj!e  mode  of  feeding  was 
adopted  when  a  weighed  quantity  of  cotton  was 
made  to  cover  a  certain  area  of  the  travelling  feed- 
apron,  which  moved  at  an  even  rate  towards  the 
1  throat  of  the  machine. 

!      Arkwright  invented  the  plan,  yet  in  use  in  some 
cases,  of  rolling  up  the  feeder  witji  the  cotton  spread 
j  upon  it,  and  allowing  it  gradually  to  unroll  to  feed 
1  the  cylinder. 
I      Another  improvement  was  to  obtain  a  continuous 


CARDING-MACHINE. 


470 


CARDING-MACHINE. 


sliver  from  tlie  cyliiuler.  This  was  accoiniilislKnl  by 
tUeilufkr,  but  the  next  point  was  to  ^et  it  from  t\tt:diif- 
er.  Alter  many  ex|ieriinents,  it  appears  that  Ark- 
wright  liit  upon  the  phin  wliiuli  is  in  use  to  tlie  pres- 
ent time,  the  crank  and  comb.  It  is  lair  to  say, 
liowever,  that  the  invention  is  also  clainu'd  lor  Har- 
greaves.  There  seems  to  have  been  a  rivalry  of 
feeling  between  tlie  two  men,  who  were  each  highly 
meritorious,  and  we  are  nuich  indebted  to  both.  It 
is  stated  that  Hargreaves  oljtained  a  sketch  of  it 
from  one  of  Arkwright's  men.  Not  likely  ;  Har- 
greaves seems  to  have  been  made  of  better  stuff. 

The  comb  is  a  plate  of  metal  toothed  at  the  edge, 
and,  reciprocating  perpendicularly,  detached  the  Heeee 
from  the  teeth  by  slight  reiterated  strokes. 

The  action  of  the  machine  is  substantially  similar 
to-  that  of  the  hand-cards,  so  fai'  as  the  functional 
character  is  concerned  ;  but  it  enables  a  number  of 
cards  to  act  upon  a  continuous  lap  and  deliver  con- 
tinuous slivers. 

The  machine  has  a  Imrizontal  cylinder,  whose  en- 
tire circuud'erence  is  covered  with  nairow  tillet-cards 
wound  s|iirally  around  it,  a  blank  spai'e  intervening 
between  each  fillet,  or  is  covered  with  strips  length- 
wise of  the  cylinder.  The  cylinder  r.-volves  beneath 
a  concave  shell,  who.se  face  is  also  lined  with  cards, 
and  the  teeth  of  each  act  coincidently  upon  the 
bunches  of  fiber  to  draw  them  apart  and  laj'  the  in- 
dividual fibers  parallel,  as  explained  under  Card. 

Tlie  first  cardiiig-inachines  built  in  America  were 
made  for  Mr.  Orr,  of  East  Bridgewater,  Mass.,  in 
1786. 

The  cardiug-machiue  consists  of  a  number  of  roll- 
ers and  drums,  and  one  large  cylinder  all  clothed 

Fig.  1113. 


Carding-Machine. 

with  cards,  which  are  so  arranged  as  to  feed,  card, 
dolt',  and  deliver.  A  portion  of  the  circumference  of 
the  large  cylinder  A  is  inclosed  by  smaller  toothed 
rollers  I)  E  F  G  ;  then  succeed  wooden  slats  lying 
_  lengthwise  of  the  cylinder,  and  supported  by  the 
'  siile  at  such  distance  as  to  allow  the  wire  teeth  to 
come  into  the  reijuired  pro.ximity.  These  slats  are 
called  card-tops,  top-cank,  or  Inp-flnls.  Beyond  the 
flats  is  a  toothed  drum  L,  called  a  doffcr,  from  whence 
the  fleece  is  removed  by  the  dojfiiig. knife  ;  the  wide 
ribbon  is  then  gathered  i^i  a  thimble,"  consolidated 
by  iron  rollers,  ami  delivered  into  a  can. 
The  operation  is  as  follows  :  — 
The  lap-cylinder  is  placed  in  the  bearings  /,  and 
rests  on  the  roller  A";  the  end  /i  of  the  lap  is  brought 
to  the  rollers  by  which  it  is  presented  to  the  toothed 
drum  D,  which  draws  the  cotton  into  the  machine, 
and  is  called  the  licker-in.  Tlie  filaments  thus  torn 
from  the  end  of  tlie  la|i  are  immediately  .seized  by  the 
large  cylinder  A,  which  revolves  at  a  much  liigher 
speed,  and  are  teased  out  by  the  teeth  of  the  second 
roller  A',  which  moves  more  slowly  than  D,and  jiicks 
the  knots  oil'  the  cylinder.  These  knots  are  carried 
round  by  H  and  are  caught  by  B,  which  presents 


them  again  to  E  along  with  fresh  material  from  the 
lap.  This  is  the  first  round  whicli  the  knots  take, 
but  several  more  are  in  store  for  them  if  they  are 
obdurate  or  if  they  escape  the  fii'st  attack. 

The  tufts  or  knots  which  pass  the  first  pair  of 
rollers  D  E  are  arrested  by  the  fourth  roller  G,  which 
is  placed  closer  to  the  cylinder  A,  and  moves  with 
the  same  speed  as  E.  The  knots  caught  by  6  are 
teased  out  by  F,  and  returned  to  the  cylinder  A,  and 
may  be  again  caught  by  G,  if  tlicy  exist. 

Passing  the  combination  of  rollers,  the  libers  are 
next  brought  into  contact  with  the  cards  of  the  lop 
flats,  which  arrest  knots  and  hold  tlieni  till  the  en- 
tanglement is  removed,  or  till  the  Hat  is  taken  out 
and  cleaned,  which  is  occasionally  done. 

After  all  these  obstacles  Imve  been  passed,  the  fila- 
ments lie  in  ]iarallel  rows  among  the  teeth  of  the 
cylinder  card,  and  are  removed  thereiVoni  by  the 
duffer  L,  which  is  covered  with  a  s|iiral  fillet  of 
cards,  revolving  at  a  much  slower  rate  than  the 
cylinder  and  in  a  different  direction.  The  fine 
fleece  thus  stripiied  from  the  cylinder  by  the  doffer 
is  removed  from  the  latter  by  a  vertically  reciprocat- 
ing comb,  called  the  doffcr-kuifc,  wdiich  has  a  rapid 
vertical  motion  tangeutially  to  the  points  of  the 
teeth.  A  fine  fleece  the  whole  length  of  the  cylin- 
der is  thus  obtained,  and  is  gathered  up  into  a  rib- 
bon, and  passed  in  at  the  funnel,  whence  it  passes 
to  tliree  consecutive  pairs  of  condensing  rollers,  which, 
revolving  at  a  relatively  greater  vi'Iocity  as  the  sliver 
proceeds,  slightly  draw  it,  and  tend  to  parallelize 
the  fibers.  It  thence  jiassesas  a  light,  downy,  cohe- 
rent sliver  into  the  can,  in  which  it  is  transported 
to  the  throstle,  doubler,  or  bobbin  and  fiy  frame,  as 
the  case  may  be. 

For  fine  .spinning,  the  operation  is  repeated,  the 
first  machine  being  called  a  breaker-card  and  the 
second  a  Ji'iii.shiiir/-eard. 

For  the  prc]iaration  of  fine  yarns,  the  cards  have 
closer  set  wires  than  is  necessary  for  ordinary  pr 
coarse  work. 

The  carding-machine  as  just  described  is  par- 
ticularly adapted  for  cotton,  but  does  not  differ  ma- 
terially from  the  wool-carding  machine. 

There  are  some  adjuncts  to  the  latter,  however, 
which  have  no  place  in  the  cotton-caiding  machines. 
Among    these 

are  the  devices  FiS-  mi- 

foroilingwool, 
which  is  neces- 
sary to  keep 
the  fibers  loose 
and  prevent 
theirbecoming 
felted. 

The  ifool- 
oiling  machin- 
eri/  for  card- 
ing -machines 
has  a  dripping 
oil-tank  which 
has  a  trans- 
verse and  ro- 
tary motion 
above  the  feed- 
apron  of  the 
machine,  so  as 
to  dro])  oil  up- 
on the  wool  as 
it  proceeds  to- 
wards the  card. 

The  transverse  motion  is  given  by  a  crank  and 
]iitinan,  and  the  reciiu'ocating  rotary  liy  a  toothed 
wheel  acting  against  the  edge  of  the  trough. 


Wool-Oiting  Attactiment. 


CARDO. 


471 


CAR-HEATER. 


The  wool  carding-niachine  has  a  large  cylinder 
surmounted  hy  smaller  ones  called  urchins,  which 
work  in  pairs,  and  are  called  workers  and  cleaners. 
These  act  in  succession  to  remove  knots  and  tangles 
from  the  main  drum,  and  return  tlxe  liber  to  the 
latter  again  to  undergo  the  action  of  the  next  set,  if 
still  obdurate. 

In  the  feeder  shown  in  Fig.  1115,  the  material 
thrown  into  the  box  A  is  carried  forward  and  upward 
by  the  aprons  B  C  F  to  the  feed-rolls  H.     (?  is  a 

Fig.  1115. 


Carding- MaeAine  Feeder, 

picker-roll,  which  serves  to  prevent  the  fan  D  from 
becoming  fouled,  and  also  to  prevent  flocks  of  wool 
from  passing  unopened  between  the  plate  /  and 
apron  F.  The  fan  D  blows  the  wool  into  the  pas- 
sage F,  whence  it  passes  to  the  carding-machine. 

The  various  roUei's  in  a  carding-machine  are 
known  by  names  which  indicate  their  functions,  ■ — 
or  perhaps  we  may  say  appearance,  in  one  case. 

Feeding-rollers.  Urchins. 

Distributing-rollers.  Clearers. 

Workers.  Doffers. 

Strippers.  Fly-rollers. 

The  material  which  went  in  as  a  lap  comes  out 
as  a  fleece  or  as  slivers. 

Car'do.  A  pivot  and  socket  ;  an  apparatus  by 
means  of  which  the  doors  of  the  ancients  were  fixed 
in  their  pkces,  and  made  to  revolve  in  opening  and 
shutting. 

Car-door  Lock.  For  railway-cars  ;  one  with 
a  latcli  opcnf  J  liv  a  kfv  from  eitlier  side. 

Card-press.  {Prinling.)  A  small  press  adapted 
for  yirinting  cards,  etc.  A  preferred  form  has  an 
inclined  bed,  for  convenience  of  feeding  ;  the  im- 
pression is  given  by  a  cam,  and  is  regulated  by 
means  of  platen  screws.  The  press  has  adjustable 
feed-guides,  a  large  distributing-cylinder,  two  ink- 
ing-roUers,  a  card  rack  and  receiver,  and  is  capable 
of  making  from  1.000  to  2.000  impressions  per  hour. 

Card-set'ting  Ma-chine'.  A  machine  for  set- 
ting tile  bent  wire  teeth  (dcul.t)  in  the  bands  or  fillets 
.of  leather,  or  alternate  layere  of  cotton,  linen,  and 
india-rubber,  which  fonn  the  backing  of  the  wire 
brush  of  the  carding-macliine. 

For  the  card-setting  machine  the  leather  is  first 
prepared  by  a  planing-machine,  which  cuts  it  into 
fillets,  which  are  then  stretched  and  pared  to  an 
even  thickness.  This  is  wound  upon  a  roller  and 
fed  to  the  machine,  where  it  is  held  by  a  clamp 
while  the  wires  are  inserted.  These  are  contained 
in  a  drum  at  the  side.  Two  jirickers  advance  and 
make  holes  through  the  leather  ;  a  ])air  of  sliding 
pinchers  seize  the  wire,  and  wind  off  from  the  drum 
a  length  sufficient  for  a  tooth  ;  a  steel  tongue  holds 
this  piece  by  the  middle  while  it  is  cut  off.  Steel 
lingers  bend  it,  and  cari-y  it  forward  to  the  holes 


made  by  the  prickers.  Pinchers  on  the  opposite 
side  of  the  leather  seize  the  wires,  and  a  bar  rises 
up  and  bends  the  two  limbs  so  as  to  form  a  knee  in 
each.  A  pusher  at  the  back  then  sinks  the  bight 
of  the  wire  into  the  leather,  which  is  then  shifted 
by  the  guide-rollers,  and  the  process  is  repeated. 
The  cards  are  finished  and  made  true  by  grinding. 
(SeeC.YKD-Gitl.NDiNU  M.iCHlNK.)  These  wire  brushes 
are  termed  cards,  and  such  fillets  form  the  clothing 
of  the  drums,  cylinders,  or  strips  to  which  they  are 
fastened. 

Ca-reen'ing.  (Xautical.)  The  operation  of  ex- 
posing a  part  of  a  shi]>'s  bottom  by  a  purchase  ap- 
plied to  the  masts  to  tilt  them  laterally  from  the 
jjerpendicular.  It  was  careening  that  upset  the 
"  Koyal  George  "  in  1782  at  Spithead  :  — 

....  "They 
Had  made  the  vessel  heel, 
And  laid  her  on  her  side.*' 

Ca'ret.  {Printing.)  A  mark  ("A")  indicating 
an  insertion  ;  interlinear  or  marginal. 

Car'go-jack.  (Xautical.)  An  implement  like 
a  lifting-jack,  but  sometimes  used  upon  its  side  for 
stowing  heavy  cargo. 

Car'go-port  iXautieal.)  An  opening  in  the 
side  of  \cs5el.',  having  two  or  more  decks,  through 
which  the  lading  is  received  and  delivered.  It  is 
closed  by  a  shutter ;  and  made  water-tight  before 
proceeding  to  sea. 

Car-heat'er.  An  arrangement  for  wanning  a 
railway-car.  A  stove  or  a  system  of  ))ipes  from  one 
heater,  which  communicates  in  turn  with  each  of  the 
cars  in  the  train. 

In  Fig.  1116  is  shown  the  end  of  a  car  in  which 
is  a  stove  D  inclosed  in  an  air-heating  chamber.  A 
is  a  hood  with  a  swinging  valve  1',  the  latter  being 
placed  in  such  position  as  to  direct  the  air  downward 
by  pipe  £  in  whichever  way  the  car  may  be  moving. 

Fig.  1115. 


Car-Hrraler. 

The  air,  on  its  way  down,  is  wa,shed  in  the  cistern  C, 
and,  after  heating  in  the  chamber  around  the  stove, 
is  conducted  by  pipes  beneath  the  Hoor,  and  escapes 
at  registers  E  into  the  saloon.  The  outward  current 
is  induced  by  an  adjustable  cowl  /  /  A",  which  is  set 
with  its  flaring  mouth  towards  the  rear  of  the  car  for 
the  time  lieing. 

Fig.  1117  shows  an  arrangement  in  which  the  cars 
of  the  train  are  heated  by  steam  from  the  locomotive, 
or  by  heated  air  ;  pipe-couplings  lietween  the  cars 
being  the  means  of  connecting  the  system  of  pipes 
and  radiatoi-s  of  the  respective  cars. 

When  the  cars  are  in  motion,  the  steam-pipe  is 


CARILLOX. 


472 


CARPENTER'S   GAGE. 


Fig.  Ill- 


D  D  D  D  q 


Cnr-Hmltr 


closed,  or  nearly  so,  anil  the  fan  set  in  operation  to 
force  air  througli  the  furnace-pipe  anil  register  into 
tlie  (lirt'erent  cars.  Tlie  air  may  be  moistened  by  the 
admission  of  a  small  amount  of  steam.  In  case  of  a 
iletention  of  the  cars,  the  air-pi[ie  near  tlie  fan  is 
closed  by  a  valve,  the  otlier  air-valves  are  closed, 
and,  the  steam-valve  being  opened,  steam  is  forced 
through  tlie  coil  in  the  heater  and  into  the  radiators. 

Anotlier  form  for  lieating  street-cars  is  a  stove 
beneath  the  bid  and  registers  in  tlie  floor,  or  hot-air 
distriliuliiig-pipes  througliont  the  car. 

Car'il-lou.  {Muxic.)  A  chime  of  bells,  originally 
consisting  of  four,  and  played  by  keys.      See  t'HIMK. 

One  form  of  carillon  machinery  has  barrels  with 
pins,  which  first  eflect  the  elevation  of  the  hammer 
and  then  deliver  the  blow  ;  but,  by  an  improvement, 
the  work  of  the  [lins  is  confined  to  releasing  detents 
and  causing  the  hammer  to  .strike  the  bell,  simulta- 
neously throwing  forwai-d  a  spring  finger  in  the  path 
of  peculiar  cam-wheels,  continuously  revolving, 
which  thereby  immediately  elevate  the  hammer 
again   into  tile  striking  position. 

Car-in'di-ca'tor.  A  registering 
device  operated  by  a  revolving  wheel 
or  axle  of  the  car,  to  indicate  the  dis- 
tance run.  In  one  case,  the  indicator 
is  operated  partly  by  clock-work  and 
partly  by  the  revolving  wheel  or  a.\le 
of  the  street-railway  car  to  which  it 
is  applied.  It  determines  at  the  end 
of  a  trip  whether  the  car  has  been  run- 
ning regularly,  and,  if  not,  at  what 
jpoints  on  the  road  improper  stoppages  have  been 
made,  or  where  the  speed  of  the  car  has  been  in- 
creased or  retarded. 

Car'i-ole.    (Fchiclc.)    a.  A  small,  open  carriage. 

6.   \  covered  cart. 

c.   A  kind  of  calash. 

Car-jack.  (Haihoaij.)  A  powerful  form  of 
screw-jack  by  which  a  car  or  locomotive  is  lifteil, 
to  replace  it  on  the  track,  to  run  a  truck  beneath, 
or  for  other  purpose  in  the  shop  or  on  the  road. 

The  hydraulic-jack  is  the  more  efficient  imple- 
ment, and  is  now  made  in  very  compact,  portable, 
ami  ]iowerfnl  form.     See  Hyduaulic-.jack. 

Car-lamp.  One  for  lighting  the  inside  of  a  rail- 
way-car at  night  or  in  tunnels.  Candles  are 
frequently  employed  in  the  place  of  oil,  to  avoid  the 
danger  of  adding  tire  to  the  other  disasters  in  case 
of  the  overturning  of  the  car. 

In  street  cars  the  lamps  are  frequently  made  to 
illuminate  a  sign,  which  indicates  to  jiedestrians  the 
de.stination  of  the  car  ;  or  a  colored  glass  may  indi- 
cate to  habitual  patrons  the  same  thing. 

Car-lan'tern.  One  adapted  to  be  carried  on  the 
arm,  to  leave  liolh  hands  free.      See  Lanteun. 

A  signal-lam))  indicating  destination,  raised  above 
the  roof  of  tlie  car. 

Car'let.  A  three-square,  single-cut  file,  or  Jlorit, 
used  by  conib-maUers.     See  Comb. 

Car'ling.  (Sliipbaildhui.)  One  of  the  longitu- 
dinal beams  wliich  are   framed  into  the   transveise 


deck-beams  and  aid  in  trussing  tlie  frame  of  the 
ship. 

The  coamiii'js  of  a  hatchway  are  bolted  to  the  top 
of  the  ciirliwjs,  and  the  hcad-kihjcs  to  the  top  of 
the  hetrm:^. 

Car'ling-knee.  (Shipbuildiiuj.)  A  knee  in  a 
ship  lying  across  from  the  sides  to  the  hatclnvay 
beneath  the  deck. 

Car-lounge.  A  car-seat  or  sleeping-chair,  .so 
contrived  as  to  assume  a  reclining  iiosition  when 
desired.  The  illustration  shows  tlie  lounge  of  one 
passenger  and  the  foot-rest  of  the  person  immediately 


Fig  Ills 


Car-Lnitnge. 

behind  him.  The  body  of  the  seat  is  hinged  at  ii  to 
the  frame,  and  the  more  or  less  reclining  position  is 
obtained  by  means  of  the  knuckle-joint  JH  E'.  The 
foot-rest  is  an  exteirsion  piece,  which  is  ]irqjected 
when  needed  ;  the  motions  of  the  back  and  leg-rest 
are  coincident. 

Ca-roohe'.  {Vehicle.)  A  kind  of  two-wheeled 
pleasure-carriage. 

Car'ol.  (Buildinr/.)  A  seat  fitted  within  the 
opi'uiug  for  ii  window;  a  htaj-slall.     Caroll ;  carrol. 

Car'pen-ter's  Chis'el.  Chisels  for  wood- 
workcLs'  use  are  made  of  moderately  hard  steel, 
have  one  plane  and  one  beveled  edge,  and  are  di- 
vided into  Jiriiicr  au<X  framiiuj  or  moitise  chisels. 

Tlie  former  have  a  tang  inserted  into  the  handle, 
the  lower  end  of  which  rests  against  a  flange  on  the 
stem,  while  in  .some  of  the  latter  tile  hanilh'  is  insert- 
ed into  a  socket  at  the  upper  part  of  the  stem. 

Joini'rs  and  parinr/  chisels  are  names  of  grades, 
rathi-r  than  nf  kinds.      See  ClII.SEL. 

Car'pen-ter's  Clamp.  A  frame  in  which  work 
such  as  doors,  sashes,  shutters,  etc.,  is  forced  up 
into  ]>lace,  and  held  while  being  nailed  or  ]>inned. 

A  kind  of  vise  for  grasping  seveial  parts  and  hold- 
ing thiMM  while  the  t;lne  .sets,  or  for  other  purposes. 

Car'pen-ter's  Gage.  A  scribiug-tool  for  depth 
or  width,  accoiding  to  construction  and  uses.  It 
commonly  lias  a  point  projecting  from  the  shank  B, 
and  a  movable  head  or  fence  A,  which  is  adjusted 
for  distance  from  the  point,  and  secured  by  a  set- 


CARPENTER'S  LEVEL. 


473 


CARPENTRY. 


Fig.  U19. 


Carpentfr^s  Gagf. 

screw.  In  the  e.\am|ile,  iv\'olviiig  rollers  with 
sharp  edges  are  used  instead  of  marking  points,  and 
the  roller  L  is  adjustable  towards  and  from  the 
roller  E  for  making  two  parallel  scribes  at  a  deter- 
minate distance  from  the  fence  A. 

Car'pen-ter's  Lev'eL  An  implement  for  de- 
termining horizontality  and  verticality. 

It  has  a  base  jiiece,  standard,  and  plumb-line,  and 

Fig  1120. 


Carpenter's  Levels. 

is  used  by  builders  and  road-makers  in  testing  sur- 
faces, to  ascertain  whether  they  are  level. 

The  feet  may  be  so  adjusted,  to  suit  the  required 
grade  or  pitch,  that  the  level  becomes  a  means  of 
determining  a  slope. 

Car'pen-ter's  Plane.  Carpenter's  planes  are 
of  various  descriptions,  adapted  to  the  different 
kinds  of  work  they  are  intended  to  perform,  —  as, 
the  jack-plane,  for  rough-dressing  a  surface  ;  the 
sraoothing-plane,  for  finishing  it  off;  and  grooving 
and  molding  planes,  ;,ome  of  which  have  special 
names,  for  making  grooves  or  elevations  of  various 
forms.     See  Pl.^ne. 

Car'pen-ter's  Plow.  A  plane  for  making  a 
groove  in  the  edge  of  a  board,  to  be  occupied  by  the 
matching  tongue  of  another  board,  or  by  the  edge 
of  a  panel. 

Car'pen-ter's  Rule.  Ordinarily,  a  two-foot 
rule,  jointed  in  the  middle  and  divided  to  eighths 
or  sixteentlis  of  an  inch. 

Fig.  1121. 


C<irpenteT''s  RvU. 


That  shown  in  the  figure  has  a  pointed  swinging 
arm,  and  also  a  curved  scale  and  pointed  index,  so 
that  the  instrument  may  serve  the  inirposes  of  a 
level,  square,  and  bevel,  any  angle  of  inclination 
being  noted  by  the  pointer  upon  said  scale. 

Car'pen-ter's  Square.  An  L-shaped  steel  rule 
having  twr  arms  meeting  at  a  right  angle,  and 
gi-aduated  to  feet,  inches,  and  fractious.  It  is  used 
by  carpenters  and  other  mechanics  for  laying  off 
perpeniUeulars  to  a  line  or  suiface,  and  setting  oil'  the 
distances  thereonat  the  same  time.    See  Try-sqi'Akk. 

Car'pen-ter's  Tools.  In  the  reign  of  Henry 
II.  of  England,   the  whole  stock  of   a   carpenter's 

Fig.  1122. 


Fig.  1123. 


Roman  Tools. 

tools  was  valued  at  one  shilling,  and  consisted  of  a 
broadaxe,  an  adze,  a  Sijuare,  and  a  spoke-shave. 
The  number  has  largely  increased 
since.  See  specific  inde.\.  Wood- 
working. 

Fig.  1122  shows  a  variety  of 
old  Roman  implements  of  this 
kind,  as  represented  on  existing   -~ 
monuments. 

Ill,  compasses  and  calipers. 

2  2,  plumb-bobs. 

3  3  5,  templet  and  squares. 

4  4,  single  and  jointed  rules. 
6  6,  mallets. 
7,  adze. 

8  8,  scjiber  and  soldering-tool. 

9  9,  chisels. 

10,  hatchet. 

Car'pen-ter's  'Vise.  A  de- 
vice with  a  stationary  jaw  at- 
tached to  the  bench,  and  a  mov- 
able jaw  operated  by  a  screw, 
used  for  clamjiing  a  board  or 
timber  while  being  operated  on 
by  the  plane  or  chisel. 

Car'pen-try. 


Carpenter^s  Vise. 
See  under  the  follo\ving  heads : — 


Abat-jour. 

Abat-voix. 

Abutment. 

Accouplement. 

Ajambe. 

Ambe. 

Angle-bar. 

Angle-tier. 

Ante-venno. 

Apron. 

Apron-piece. 

Arched-beam  roof. 


Architrave. 

Arris. 

Arris-fillet. 

Arris-gutter. 

Ashlering. 

Astragal. 

Attic. 

Awning. 

Badigeon. 

Balk. 

Baluster. 

Barge-board. 


CARPENTRY. 


474 


CARPENTRY. 


Barge-couple. 

Base. 

Batten. 

Bay. 

Bead. 

Bead  and  butt  work. 

BKxd  and  quirk. 

Bt-ad,   butt,  and  square 

work. 
Beakiug-joint. 
Beam. 
Bearer. 
Bench-vise. 
Bent. 
Bevel. 
Binder. 
Binding-joist. 
Binding-rafter. 
Bird's-mouth. 
Blind. 
Blocking. 
Bolectiou. 
Bolster. 
Box -frame. 
Bo.\-girder. 
Boxing. 
Brace. 
Bracket. 
Breast-summer. 
Bridge-board. 
Bridging-joist. 
Bridging-piece. 
Brob. 
Brog. 

Brow-post. 
Built-beam. 
Built-rib. 
Butment-cheeks. 
Button. 
Cage. 
Caisson. 
Camber-beam. 
Camp- ceiling. 
Cantilever. 
Carcass. 
Carcass-roofing. 
Carpenter's  clamp. 
Carpenter's  square. 
Carj)enter's  tools. 
Carriage. 
Cariiage-piece. 
Cartouch. 
Case-bay. 
Casemate. 
Casement. 
Cavetto. 
Ceiling. 
Ceiling-joist. 
Chain-timber. 
Chalk-line. 
Chantlate. 
Chevron-molding. 
Clamp. 
Clamp-screw. 
Clapboard. 
Cleading. 
Clear-stuff. 
Coak. 

Cocket-centering. 
Cocking. 
Cockle-staire. 
Coffer. 
Collar-beam. 
Compass-window. 


Corbel. 

Cornice.  ' 

Couples. 

Coved-ceiling. 

Cradle. 

Crenelated  molding. 

Cribbing. 

Cripple-timbers. 

Cross-beam. 

Crown-post. 

Culver-tail. 

Curb-beam. 

Curb-plate. 

Curb-roof. 

Curtail-step. 

Current. 

Cushion-rafter. 

Dado. 

Dais. 

Deadening. 

Deal. 

Dental  cut. 

Diagonal. 

Dimension-lumber. 

Dished-out. 

Dog-leg  stairs. 

Dome. 

Door. 

Door-case. 

Door-step. 

Door-strip. 

Dorman-tree. 

Dormer. 

Dovetail. 

Dragon-beam. 

Draw-bore. 

Dwarf-rafter. 

Eave. 

Eave-board. 

Eave-trough. 

Estrade. 

False  rail. 

False  roof. 

Faying  out. 

Feather-edged. 

Femerell. 

Fender-beam. 

Filling-in  pieces. 

Fishing. 

Flap. 

Flight. 

Flitch. 

Floor. 

Floor-clamp. 

Fox-tail  wedging. 

Frame. 

Franking. 

French-roof. 

French-window. 

Fret -work. 

Fuor. 

Furring. 

Gable. 

Gage. 

Gain. 

Gambrel-roof. 

Garret. 

Geometric  staircase. 

Girder. 

Grafting. 

Ground-plate. 

Grounds. 

Ground-sill. 

Gutter. 


Half  timbered. 

Halving. 

Hammer  beam-roof. 

Hand-rail. 

Hatchet. 

Heading-courge. 

Heading-joint. 

Heel-post. 

Hening-bone. 

Higli  roof. 

Hip. 

Hip-knob. 

Hip-rafter. 

Hip-roof. 

Hoarding. 

Hollow  newel. 

Housing. 

Impages. 

Inter- ties. 

Interligneum. 

Jack-timber. 

Jalousie. 

Jamb. 

Jib-door. 

Joggle-post. 

Joist. 

Jut-window. 

Key. 

King-poet. 

King-truss. 

Knee. 

Ladder. 

Lagging. 

Laminated-rib. 

Landing. 

Lath. 

Lathing-clamp. 

Lattice. 

Leaf. 

Lean-to. 

Ledge. 

Ledger. 

Level. 

Line-winder. 

Lining. 

Lintel. 

Listing. 

Lufl'er  (Louvre). 

Lumber. 

Main-couple. 

Mallet. 

Mansard-roof. 

Match- boarding. 

Mitered  border. 

Jlolding. 

Mopboard. 

Mortise. 

M-roof 

Mud-sill. 

Jluntin. 

Needle-beam. 

Newel. 

Nogging. 

Norma. 

Nosing. 

Noteh-l)oard. 

Notcliing. 

Pale. 

Panel. 

Partition. 

Pitch. 

Pitching-piece. 

Plane. 

Plugging. 


Plumb. 

Plummet. 

Pole-plate. 

Post. 

Prick -post. 

Principal. 

Pugging. 

Punch. 

Puncheon. 

Purlin. 

Quartere. 

Queen-post. 

Quirk. 

Rabbet. 

Rafter. 

Raising-plate. 

Ramp. 

Reason-piece. 

Reglet. 

Relish. 

Reveal. 

Riser. 

Roll  and  fillet. 

Roof. 

Rule. 

Run. 

Sarking. 

Sa.sh. 

Sash-frame. 

Scatlold. 

Scaffold-bracket. 

Scantling. 

Scarf. 

Scraper. 

Scribe. 

Severv. 

Shake'r. 

Shutter. 

Shutting-post. 

Shear-legs. 

Side-plane. 

Shingle. 

Shook. 

Shooting-boaid. 

Shore. 

Side-plane. 

Sill. 

Sinking. 

Skirting. 

Skvlight. 

Slab. 

Sleeper. 

Soffit. 

Sound  boarding. 

Span-roof. 

Splice. 

Spring-beam. 

Staging. 

Staircase. 

Stair. 

Standard. 

Sticking. 

Stile. 

Stirrup. 

Stock. 

StoiT-post. 

Story-rod. 

Straining-beam. 

Straining-sill. 

Strap. 

Striking-plate. 

String-board. 

Stringer. 

Strut. 


CARPET. 


475 


CAKPET. 


Stub-tenon. 

Summer. 

Sunk  coak . 

Sunk-panel  ceiling. 

SurbiLse. 

Swing-beam. 

Svphering. 

TabUng. 

Templet. 

Tenon. 

Tension-rod. 

Tie. 

Tie-beam. 

Tilting-fillet. 

Tongue. 

Too5.  Carpenter's  and 
joiners  (see  WooD- 
wouKiSG  Tools) 

Torsal. 

Trap-door. 

Trellis. 


TrenaU. 

Trestle. 

Trimmer. 

Truncated  roof. 

Truss. 

Trussed  roof. 

Turnpike-staircase. 

Tusk. 

Upright. 

Venetians. 

Veranda. 

Wainscot. 

Wall-plate. 

Wane. 

Wash-board. 

Weather-boarding  clamp. 

Weather-boarding  gage. 

Weather-strip. 

Well-staircase. 

Wind-beam. 

Window. 


Car'pet.     A  cloth  or  rug  to  cover  a  floor. 

The  use  of  rugs  is  of  great  antiquity  in  Egypt,  In- 
dia, and  China ;  later,  thoseof  Pei-sia  and  Turlieyhave 
been  the  more  celebrated.  They  were  anciently 
spread  upon  the  ground  or  floor,  in  the  teuts  or  in 
apartments,  and  in  the  Orient  are  still  small,  used  for 
sitting  or  reclining  upon,  or  beneatli  the  couches ;  as 
the  Sardinian  carpets,  mentioned  byaGrecian  poet, — 
"Beneatli  the  ivory  feet  of  purple-cushioned  couches. " 

"  Phoenicia  seod^  U8  dates  across  the  billows, 
Ami  Carthage,  carpets  rich,  and  well-stuffed  pillows." 
Hermippus,  quoted  by  Atheuseus  [a.  d.  220). 

At  the  supper  of  Iphicrates,  purple  carpets  were 
spread  on  the  floor  ;  and  at  the  magnificent  banquet 
of  Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  an  account  of  which  is 
given  by  CallLxenus  of  Rhodes,  we  learn  that  under- 
neath 200  golden  couches  "  were  strewed  purple  car- 
pets of  the  finest  wool,  with  the  carpet  pattern  on 
both  sides  :  and  there  were  handsomely  embroidered 
rugs,  very  beautifully  elaborated  with  figures.  Be- 
sides this,"  he  adds,  "thin  Persian  cloths  covered 
all  the  center  space  where  the  guests  walked,  having 
the  most  accurate  representations  of  animals  em- 
broidered on  them." 

Tlie  Babylonians  were  very  skillful  in  weaving 
cloths  of  divers  colors  ;  we  read  of  "  a  goodly  Baby- 
lonish garment"  as  long  ago  as  the  time  of  Joshua, 
B.  c.  11.51,  as  among  the  spoils  of  Ai.  The  Baby- 
lonish carpets  had  representations  of  human  figures 
and  composite  animals,  such  as  winged  bulls  with 
human  heads,  griffins  and  dragons.  These  were 
numbered  among  the  lu.xuries  of  Heliogabalus.  On 
the  tomb  of  Cyrus  was  spread  a  purjile  Babylonian 
carpet,  and  another  covered  the  bed  wliereon  liis 
body  was  placed.  These  carpets  were  exported  in 
considerable  quantities  to  Greece  and  Rome.  Re- 
searches in  Pompeii  show  that  they  were  used  in 
that  city  in  the  time  of  Imperial  Rome. 

Sir  J.  Gardner  Wilkinson  gives  an  account  of  one 
carpet  rug  of  Egyptian  manufacture.  "  It  is  made 
like  many  cloths  of  the  present  day,  with  woolen 
threads,  on  linen  strings.  In  the  center  is  the  fig- 
ure of  a  boy  in  white,  with  a  goose  above,  the  hiero- 
glyphic of  a  '  child,'  upon  a  gieen  ground,  aronnd 
which  is  a  border  composed  of  red  and  blue  lines." 
He  also  mentions  some  fine  specimens  of  worked 
worsted  upon  linen,  now  in  the  Turin  JInseum,  in 
wliich  the  linen  threads  of  the  weft  have  been  picked 
out  and  colored  worsted  sewed  on  the  wai-p.  These 
are  specimens  of  tapestry-weaving,  and  resemble  the 
present  work  of  Persia  and  Turkey.  The  tapestry 
consists  of  woolen  threads  sewed  on  the  strings  of 


the  warp  by  means  of  small  shuttle-needles.  The 
Persian  carpet  is  formed  by  knotting  into  the  warp 
tuft  after  tuft  of  woolen  yam,  over  each  row  of  which 
a  woof-sihot  is  passed,  the  fingers  being  here  em- 
ployed instead  of  the  shuttle-needles,  as  the  fabric 
is  of  a  coarser  description.  Such  carpets  are  formed 
in  looms  of  very  simple  construction;  the  warp- 
threads  are  aiTanged  in  parallel  order,  whether  up- 
right or  horizontal,  and  the  fabric  and  pattern  are 
produced  by  colored  threads,  hand-wrought  upon 
the  warp.  This  may  be  designated  the  hand-\vrought 
or  needlework  method,  which  only  makes  one  stitch 
or  loop  at  a  time,  in  contradistinction  to  the  machine- 
wrought  process,  the  result  of  mechanical  appliances, 
whereby  a  thousand  stitches  are  effected  at  once. 
Herein  lies  the  essential  difference  between  the  an- 
cient and  modem,  the  simple  and  complex,  carpet- 
manufacture. 

In  Persia  there  are  entire  tribes  and  families 
whose  only  occupation  is  that  of  car]let-wea^^ng. 
These  disfiose  of  their  productions  at  the  bazars  to 
native  merchants,  who  remove  them  to  Smyrna  or 
Constantinople,  where  they  meet  with  European 
purchasers.  The  trade  in  real  Persian  carpets  is, 
however,  very  limited,  owing  to  their  small  size. 
They  are  seldom  larger  than  hearth-rugs,  long  and 
narrow.  Felted  carpets,  or  nurmuds,  are  also  made 
iu  Pei-sia,  but  are  not  considered  worth  exporting. 
One  specimen  of  carpet  flora  Persia  had  tufts  of 
worsted  inserted  in  a  i'elt  back. 

Cai-pets  are  manufactured  in  many  of  the  provinces 
of  Asiatic  Turkey.  "  In  none  of  these  places,  how- 
ever,  does  any  large  manufactory  exist ;  the  carpets 
are  the  work  of  families  and  households.  They  are 
woven  iu  one  piece,  and  there  is  this  notable  pecu- 
liarity in  their  manufacture,  that  the  same  pattern 
is  never  again  exactly  reproduced  ;  no  two  carjiets 
are  quite  alike.  The  jiatterns  are  very  remarkable, 
and  their  origin  is  unknown  even  to  Jlussulmans. 
The  Turkey  carpet  pattern  represents  inlaid  jeweled 
work,  which  accords  with  Eastern  tales  of  jewels 
and  diamonds. 

In  Biitish  India  the  carpet  manufacture  is  carried 
on  extensively.  At  Benares  and  Moorshcdabad 
are  produced  velvet  cai-jjets  with  gold  embroidery. 
A  very  elaborate  carpet  sent  from  Cashmere  to  the 
London  exhibition  by  Maharajah  Goolah  Singh  was 
composed  entirely  of  silk,  and  excited  great  ad- 
miration. In  every  square  foot  of  this  carpet,  we 
are  informed,  there  were  at  least  10,000  ties  or 
knots.  Silk  embroidered  hookah  carpets,  cotton 
carpets,  or  safnmjccSf  printed  cotton  car}>ets,  printed 
floorcloth,  woolen  carpets,  are  made  in  difl'erent  dis- 
tricts of  British  India.  Of  late  years,  linen  waqj 
has  been  introduced  instead  of  cotton,  and  the 
fabric  is  thereby  much  improved.  The  designs  of 
the  Indian  carpets  have  more  regularity  than  those 
of  Turkey,  and  the  colors  are  mostly  warm  nega- 
tives, enlivened  with  brilliant  hues  interspei-sed. 

Cai-pets  were  introduced  into  England  at  the  time 
of  the  Crusades. 

In  the  rimes  of  Edward  VI.  and  Elizabeth  of 
England  the  floors  of  palaces  were  strewn  daily  with 
rushes.  This  frequent  change  of  rushes  was  con- 
sidered to  betoken  an  effeminacy  which  augured  but 
poorly  for  the  stability  of  the  dynasty  and  the  ruling 
families. 

The  walls  were  hung  with  tapestry  and  cloths 
long  before  the  floors  were  carpeted.  In  Hampton 
Court  Palace,  built  by  Cardinal  Wolsej',  the  beau- 
tiful floors  are  yet  bare  and  the  walls  covered  with 
tafiestiy. 

In  the  Middle  Ages  carpets  were  used  before  the 
high  altar  and  in  certain  parts  of  the  chapter. 


CARPET. 


476 


CARPET-CLEANING  MACHINE. 


Bedside  caiyets  are  noticed  in  1301,  and  carpets 
for  the  royal  thrones  in  tlie  fifteenth  century. 

Turkey  carpets  before  the  communion-table  were 
used  in  the  reigns  of  Edward  VI.,  Elizabeth,  and 
the  Stuarts. 

The  manufacture  of  carpets  was  introduced  into 
France  from  Persia,  in  the  reign  of  Henry  IV.,  about 
1606  ;  a  manufactory  being  established  at  Chaillot, 
near  Paris. 

Workmen  from  France  introduced  carpet-making 
into  England  about  1750.  A  carpet-factory  was 
established  at  A.\niiuster,  1755,  the  year  of  the 
Lisbon  earthquake. 

There  are  sevei'al  characteristic  processes  in  the 
manufacture  of  carpets. 

1.  The  web  is  formed  of  awarp  andweftof  flax,  and 
the  wool  or  wor.sted  is  inserted  in  tufts  which  are 
twisted  around  each  of  the  warp-threads,  the  color 
of  the  tuft  lieing  determiueil  by  its  position  in  the 
pattern.  The  tufts  are  locked  in  position  by  a  shoot 
of  the  weft,  the  crossing  of  the  warp,  and  the  beat- 
ing of  the  batten  or  lathe.  The  Persian,  Turkey, 
and  Axmhiskr  carpets  are  thus  formed. 

2.  The  web  is  Ibrmed  of  a  warp  and  weft,  as  stated 
above,  and  the  colored  worsted  yarns  are  laid  along 
with  the  lineu  warp,  and  drawn  into  loops  which 
project  above  the  surface.  Each  yarn  passes  through 
an  eyelet  which  depends  from  a  cord,  whereby  it  is 
drawn  up  to  form  a  loop  at  the  point  where  its  color 
is  required.  This  is  the  Body-Brussels  carpet. 
They  are  usually  27  inches  wide,  with  two  threads 
of  lii>en  for  the  shoot,  one  above  and  the  other  be- 
low the  worsted. 

When  the  loops  thus  made  are  cut 
to  form  a  nap,  the  carpet  is  known  as 
a,  pile  or  IVilloii  carpet. 

3.  Tapestry  Brussels  differs  from  reg- 
ular or  body  Brussels  in  being  woven  in 
a  common  loom  and  printed  in  the  warp. 

4.  Tapestry  velvet  or  patent  velvet 
differs  only  from  tapestry  in  being  cut 
like  Wilton. 

5.  The  carpet  is  formed  by  an  amplifi- 
cation of  theordinaryw'eaving-iirocesses; 
two  or  tliree  webs  being  woven  at  the 
same  time,  the  warps  being  interchange- 
able and  being  brought  to  the  surface  ac- 
cording to  the  color  required,  and  form- 
ing two-ply  carpet  or  three-ply  carpet, 
respectively.  Tlie  carpet  is  woven  by  a 
figure-work  or  ordinary  loom,  with  some 
peculiarities,  such  as  the  exposure  of  the 
weft  (Ingrain),  the  warp  (ycnclian),  or 
a  peculiar  weft  (Chenille). 

6.  The  carpet  is  formed  of  a  body  of 
fibers  felted  together  with  a  fabric  with- 
out spinning  or  weaving.  The  product 
is  generally  printed,  and  forms  drugget. 

7.  The  carpet  is  woven  in  plain  colors  and  after- 
wards |u-inted. 

8.  The  carjiet  is  dyed  in  party-colors,  nicely  ad- 
justed so  as  to  fall  into  their  right  places  when 
woven  into  a  fabric. 

9.  A  pile  is  cemented  to  a  backing-fabric.  See 
C'EMENTED-D.\CK   CARPET. 

For  the  varieties  of  carpets  see  the  following  :  — 


Scotch  carpet. 
Tapestry  carpet. 
Three-ply  cai-pet. 
Triple-ingrain  carpet. 
Turkey  carpet. 


Two-ply  carpet. 
Velvet-pile  carpet. 
Venetian  caipet. 
Wilton  carpet. 


Car^pet-bag  Frame.  The  iron  frame  which 
distends  the  cloth  covering  of  a  tiaveling-bag  or 
satchel.     The  two  jaws  are  pivoted  to  the  hinge-rod 


Fig.  1124. 


Carpet-Eag  Frame, 


and  shut  beneath  the  cap-piece  of  the  frame,  which 
is  I-shaped  in  cross-section.  The  varieties  and 
sha]ies  are  numerous. 

Car'pet-beat'er.     A  machine  in  which  carjiets 
are    beaten   and   brushed.     The  breadth   of  carpet 


Fig.  1125 


Axminster  carpet. 
Brussels  carpet. 
Cemented-back  carpet. 
Chenille  carpet. 
Danjask  carpet. 
Drugget. 
Felt  carpet. 


Ingi'ain  carpet. 
Kidderminster  carpet. 
Persian  cai'pet. 
Pile  carpet. 
Printed  carpet. 
Rag  carpet. 
Rug. 


Cfirpft-Etnttr. 


is  wound  on  the  roller  B,  passed  over  an  inclined 
bed  formed  of  a  steam-coil  G  G,  and  subjected  to 
the  action  of  the  beaters  H  H,  which  arc  tripped  by 
the  tappets  n  n  on  the  wheel  F.  The  carpet  is 
stretched  on  the  rollers  c  c,  thence  passes  under  a, 
is  exposed  to  a  revolving  brush-cylinder/,  and  is  re- 
wound on  the  roller  B'. 

Car'pet-clean'ing  Ma-chine'.  X  brushing- 
niachine  lor  carpets,  which  is  unrolled  from  the  bea!u 
i',  and  re-i'oUed  on  the  beam  at  the  other  side  of 
the  machine,  passing  on  its  way  the  various  clean- 
ing-devices. These  are  the  cords  B,  which  whip  it 
on  the  outside  ;  the  canes  j,  which  whiii  it  on  the 
inside  ;  a  succession  of  revolving  brushes,  which 
sweep  it,  and  a  revolving  fan,  whicli  blows  away  the 
dust.     ^Fig.  1126.) 


CAKPET-FASTEyEE. 


477 


CAEPET-SWEEPER. 


Fig.  1126. 


Ill  Fig.  1129  the  paper  i.s  contained  on  two  rolls 
D  D',  and  the  webs  are  fed  beneath  tlie  roller  B, 


Otrp^t-Ctenning  Mnchinf 


Car'pet-fast'en-er.     A  screw-knob  and  screw- 
socket  inserted    in    the 
Fig.  1127.  floor  with  the  carpet  be- 

tween them. 

Car'pet-lin'ing.  A 
material  for  placing  be- 
neath a  carpet,  to  increase 
its  elasticity  and  decrease 
the  wear.  It  usually 
consists  of  a  thickness  of 
felt  between  two  layers 
of  paper,  but  there  are 
CnriKi-Fwitmer.  many  kinds.    In  the  ma- 

chine represented,  the 
fibrous  material  from  the  roller  b  is  formed  into  a 
fleecy  mass  by  the  carding-cylinder  C,  and  collects 

Fii-  1128. 


,^>^Sf<^^$^SS?^S^" 


Cnrpet-Litiin^  Mackijie 

with  an  intervening  thickness  of  felt  shown  as  com- 
ing over  the  roUer  B'.  From  the  smoothing-plate 
the  fabric  passes  through  a  series  of  sewing-machines, 
by  which  it  is  quilted  previously  to  passing  between 
the  measuring-rolls,  and  is  pressed  and  delivered  by 
rollers  C  C. 

Car'pet-loom.  One  for  weaving  carpets.  See 
PlLE-F.iBUl'-;  llnrssELs-CAKPExLooM;  Jacquap.d, 
etc. 

Car'pet-rag  Loop'er.  A  stabbing-tool  with  a 
large  eye,  to  carry  one  end  of  a  carpet-strip  through 
the  end  of  the  strip  preceding,  wjien  one  is  looped 
over  the  other,  to  save  the  trouble  of  sewing. 

Car'pet-stretch  er.  A  toggle-jointed  frame  to 
stretch  carpets  on  Hoors  preliminary  to  tacking  down. 

Fig.  1130. 


Carpet-Lining  Machine. 


the  gauze  as  a  bat  on  the  gauze-covered  cylinder  d ; 
a  dotfer  takes  it  from  this  cylinder  ;  it  is  caught  be- 
tween the  tliicknessesandpressed  beneath  the  roller  o. 
The  lower  sheet  of  pa]ier  is  the  wider,  and  is  gummed 
on  one  surface  by  the  gum-roller  R  ;  the  edges  of 


Carpet-Stretcher. 

The  serrated  bar  at  one  end  of  the  jointed  staff  en- 
gages the  carpet,  and  the  point  at  the  other  end 
extends  through  to  the  floor.  A  rtitchet- 
bar  is  pivoted  to  one  leg,  and,  passing 
through  a  stajile  upon  the  other,  engages 
one  side  thereof,  to  keep  the  legs  spread. 

Fig  1131. 


Car'pet- 

s-weep'er.  A 

mech  anical 


Carpet- Sweeper^ 


broom  for  sweeping  carpets  and  collecting  the  dust 
and  dirt  in  trays.     The  brush-shaft  is  rotated  by  a 
the  wide  strip  are  bent  over  the  nanow  one  and  '  corrugated  pulley  driven  by  contact  with  the  rubber 
stuck  fast.     The  fabric  is  delivered  into  the  box  s.     j  peripliery  of  one  of  the  sustaiuiug  wheels. 


CARQUAISE. 


478 


CARRIAGE. 


Car-quaise'.  (Glass. )  The  annealing  arch  of 
till'  iihiti'-glass  manufacture,  h^ted  by  a  tirciilace 
called  a  lisin: 

Car-reg'is-ter.  (Railway. )  A  device  for  keep- 
ing account  of  all  persons  entering  a  car,  so  as  to 
form  a  check  on  the  receipt  of  fare  by  the  conductor. 
It  lias  various  forms,  none  of  which  are  in  much 
favor. 

1.  A  turnstile  at  the  entering  side  of  a  platform, 
the  revolutions  being  transmitted  by  a  train  of  gear- 
ing to  an  indicator. 

2.  A  similar  train  actuated  by  the  opening  of  the 
door. 

3.  A  train  actuated  by  the  pressure  of  the  foot  on 
a  step  at  the  mounting  and  entering  side  of  the 
platform. 

Car-re-plac'er.  (Railway.)  An  instrument  or 
means  for  restoring  to  the  rails  a  car  which  has  run 
oH'  the  track. 

This  operation  is  frequently  accomplished  by  the 
jack-screw,  aided  by  such  things  as  handspikes  and 
timbers  which  may  be  convenient.  A  full  assort- 
ment belongs  to  the  appendages  of  a  "wrecking"  car, 
whose  use  is  to  remove  obstructions  on  the  track, 
replace  cars,  and  lift  the  debris  of  an  accident  on  to 
the  platform-cars,  which  bear  them  to  the  shop  for 
repairs  or  for  use  as  material. 

A  number  of  devices  liave  been  patented  for  the 
purpose  of  enabling  a  car  to  ascend  to  its  i)osition  on 
the  rails  when  drawn  or  driven  by  the  locomotive. 
The  general  feature  in  which  these  agree  consists  of 


Fig.  1132. 


Car-Bfplncer. 

two  inclined  jilanes,  one  forming  a  bridge  with  a 
plate  D,  to  let  the  outer  wheel  cross  the  rail  and 
drop  into  place  ;  the  grooved  plate  A  forming  a 
bridge  up  to  the  other  rail.  C  is  a  bar  to  lead  the 
wheel  towards  the  bridge-piece. 

Car'riage.  1.  A  wheeled  vehicle  especially  for 
the  conveyance  of  passengers.  The  vehicles  of  the 
nomads  of  Asia  were  cai'ts  and  wagons,  two  and  four 
wheeled,  in  ancient  times.  (See  Cart  ;  Wagon.) 
The  war-vehicle  of  the  ancients  is  considered  under 
Chakiot  (which  see). 

The  wagons  sent  by  Joseph  from  Eg)-pt  to  Canaan, 
to  fetch  his  father,  were  no  doubt  plausira ;  that  is, 
carts  drawn  by  yokes  of  oxen.  Horses  were  not 
used  for  draft,  except  in  chariots,  and  the  vehicles 
of  Egypt  were  two-wheeled.  This  form  of  carriage 
is  known  to  have  been  in  use  as  long  ago  as  2000 
B.  c,  and  its  origin  is  lost  in  the  obscurity  of  the 
remote  pa.st.  The  Greek  tradition  that  wheeled 
vehicles  were  invented  by  Erectorius,  the  fourth  king 
of  Athens,  about  HOG  v..  c,  is  due  to  the  vanity  of  a 
nation  who  considered  themselves  ne  plus  ultra,  in 
willful  Ibrgetfulness  of  their  great  instructor,  Egypt, 


from  whose  fugitives  they  received  so  much.  Wit- 
ness Cecrops  ami  Danaus,  and  the  fact  that  Tliales, 
I'ythagoras,  Ari-stotle,  Plato,  Solon,  Herodotu.s, 
and  others  of  their  sages,  were  indebted  to  the  land 
of  the  Nil(!  for  their  eminence  in  science  and  arts. 
It  is  also  (piite  evident  that  they  improved  upon 
their  instructors  in  both. 

The  natives  of  China  and  India  used  carts  from 
an  early  date,  which  cannot  now  be  determined  ; 
the  modern  Indian  cart  is  a  good  deal  like  its  prede- 
cessor. So  clumsy  are  they  that  the  paiamiuin  is 
likely  to  maintain  its  hold  for  a  while  yet. 

The  wandering  Scythians  from  time  immemorial 
covered  thi'ir  wagons  with  felt  and  with  leather. 
(See  Caiit  ;  Wago.n.)  Athenajus,  in  the  Dripnosn- 
p/ii.vfa,  refers  to  "  Polemo,  in  his  treatise  on  the 
wicker-carriage  mentioned  by  Xenophon." 

The  haniaxa  ('ama  axon,  of  two  axles)  was  a  four- 
wheeled  covered  wagon  of  Persia  and  Greece,  similar 
to  the  carjicntuni  of  the  Romans.  The  Jjody  of 
Alexander  was  transported  in  a  lumuixa. 

The  Romans  had  vehicles  with  one  wheel,  adapted 
to  be  drawn  by  slaves,  and  also  had  two  and  four 
wheeled  vehicles.  They  also  had  carriages  adapted 
for  two,  three,  and  four  horses. 

The  use  of  pleasure-carriages  in  the  city  of  Rome 
was  forbidden  during  the  republic. 

Carts  disposed  as  a  circumvallation  were  the 
ordinary  field  and  camp  fortifications  of  many 
nations  of  antiquity,  —  the  Scythians,  Cimbri,  Hel- 
vetii,  Goths,  Gauls,  Britons,  etc.  The  name  is  from 
the  Celtic,  appearing  with  its  Latin  termination 
as  carrits  or  carra. 

Such  a  fortification  was  known  to  the  Romans  as 
a  carmgii. 

The  Roman  arccna,  of  which  mention  is  made  in 
the  Twelve  Tables,  was  a  covered  carriage  used  by 
the  sick  and  infirm. 

The  car/iciil.um,  seen  on  antique  coins,  was  a  two- 
wheeled  car  with  an  arched  covering. 

The  carruac,  mentioned  by  Pliny,  had  four  wheels, 
and  was  gorgeously  trimmed.     No  springs. 

When  Home  IVll,  carriages  and  that  peculiar  form 
of  luxury  fell  into  disuse,  and  eventually  into  dis- 
repute. 

Smith's  "Dictionary  of  Greek  and  Roman  An- 
tiquities" will  enable  the  student  to  pursue  the 
matter.  See  in  that  work,  in  addition  to  the  above, 
Pikntiim,Rheda,t'isiifm,  C'orinii.i,  Esscdwn,  Carrus, 
Plauslrum,  Sarmcum,  Pclorritam. 

Down  to  the  sixteenth  century,  kings,  popes, 
ministers,  and  magistrates  made  their  progresses  and 
journeys  on  the  backs  of  animals.  During  the 
fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries  covered  cai-riages 
were  used  by  women  of  rank,  but  it  was  considered 
disgraceful  effeniinacy  for  men  to  use  them.  In 
1545  we  read  of  a  certain  duke  who  was  permitted, 
as  a  favor  on  account  of  his  sickness,  to  ride  to  the 
baths  in  a  covered  carriage. 

In  1550,  three  coaches  were  used  by  three  of  the 
dignitaries  of  the  city. 

During  the  .sixteenth  century  carriages  were  intro- 
duced into  Spain,  Portugal,  England,  and  other 
countries. 

The  practice  gradually  became  more  general,  and 
in  1613  we  find  that  ambassadors  appeared  in 
coaches  at  a  public  soleiiinity  at  Erfurth. 

The  carriage  of  Henry  IV.  of  France  had  no 
springs  or  suspension-straps.  The  roads  were  neither 
graded  nor  graveled,  and  were  almost  impassable  in 
bad  weather.  Horseliack  and  pack-horses  were  the 
order  of  the  day  for  passengers  and  freight.  The 
magnificent  Roman  paved  roads  were  forgotten. 

The  modern  coach  is  claimed  by  the  Hungarians, 


CARRIAGE. 


479 


CARRIAGE-BRAKE. 


who  say  that  it  Ueriveil  its  name  from  kolscc,  anil 
that  tlieir  king,  Matthias  Cerviniis,  was  the  first  wlio 
rodu  in  one.  An  edict  of  Philip  the  Fair,  1294,  re- 
eel's  to  their  use,  and  forbids  them  to  the  wives  of 
citizens.  They  were  for  a  while  restricted  to  the 
sick,  to  royalty,  and  to  ambassadors. 

A  number  of  instances  are  cited  in  English  history 
where  they  were  used,  but  the  roads  were  so  e.xecra- 
ble  that  the  hack  and  pack-horse  were  used  in  Eng- 
land until  about  1700.  The  making  of  roads  pre 
ceded  the  extensive  use  of  carnages,  and  rendered  it 
possible.  The  Romans  knew  how  imjioitant  an  agent 
in  civilization  were  the  roads,  and  the  memorials  of 
their  genius  yet  remain  in  Europe.  Facility  of  traus- 
]>ortation  is  necessary  to  progress,  and  the  early  na- 
tions were  either  maritime  or  dependent  upon  some 
gi'eat  river  which  was  the  artery  of  the  empire.  Wit- 
ness the  Mediterranean,  the  Nile,  Euphrates,  and 
Tigris  ;  these  waters  washed  all  the  lands  of  historic 
interest  from  Noah  to  Constantine.  We  must  except 
"  far  Cathay,"  —  China. 

Stowe  dates  the  making  of  coaches  in  England 
from  1555,  and  credits  Walter  Kippiii  with  tlie 
making  of  the  same.  The  canopies  of  these  coaclies 
were  supported  by  pillars  on  the  bodies,  surrounded 
by  curtains  of  cloth  or  leather,  which  were  folded 
up  when  so  desire<l.  They  were  heavy,  clumsy,  and 
destitute  of  springs.  They  were  driven  by  a  pos- 
tilion, and  where  four  hors'S  were  used,  the  man 
who  rode  the  near  wheel-hoi-se  drove  the  leadei-s 
with  reins.  The  driver's  seat  was  added  at  a  later 
period.  Glass  windows  were  added  in  1631  in  the 
carriage  of  Mary  of  Spain,  the  queen  of  the  Emperor 
Ferdinand  III.  If  the  carriage  of  Henry  IV.  of 
France  had  been  furnished  with  windows  in  1610, 
Eavaillac  would  have  been  obliged  to  choose  another 
mode  of  assassinating  him.  The  carriage  of  Louis 
XIV.  of  France,  1643,  was  suspended  from  springs. 
Tlie  first  state  coach  in  England  was  that  of  Eliza- 
beth.    See  Coach. 

Stage  wagons  were  introduced  into  England  in 
1564,  and  coaches  for  hire  plied  in  London  in  1625. 
Stage  coaches  were  introduced  into  England  by 
Jethro  TuU,  about  1750,  and  were  employed  to  carry 
the  mail  in  1784.  Before  this  time  it  was  carried 
on  horseback.     See  Coach. 

See  Vehicles  for  list  of  devices  for  land  locomo- 
tion, which  are  treated  under  their  respective  heads. 

For  water  locomotion,  see  Vessel.s. 

Vehicles  are  now  proposed  to  be  made  of  india- 
nibber,  all  but  the  axles  and  tires. 

The  wood  in  England  differs  from  our  own. 
While  both  countries  possess  oak,  beech,  ash,  and 
elm,  the  two  latter  differ  considerably  from  our  tim- 
ber having  the  same  names,  and  the  English  forests 
are  destitute  of  many  varieties  which  are  useful  to 
us  in  making  the  wheels,  hounds,  bodies,  tongues, 
panels,  etc.  of  carriages.  Such  are  hickory,  black 
and  white  walnut,  cherry,  maple,  yellow  jmplar, 
locust,  gum,  etc. 

In  England,  ash  is  used  for  tbe  skeleton  of  the 
body  of  superior  caniagps,  and  beech  for  inferior  ; 
elm  is  used  for  strong  planking  an<l  hubs  ;  oak-  for 
spokes  ;  mahogany  or  cedar  for  panels  ;  pine  ar\d  fir 
for  floor  and  roofing  ;  fustic,  lanceivood,  birch,  syca- 
more, ehcstimt,  and  plane-wood  are  also  used. 

In  Australia  the  naves  are  made  of  blue  gum,  the 
spokes  of  the  iron-bark  tree. 

•2.  (Carpentry.)  The  timber  frame  supporting 
the  steps  of  a  wooden  stair.  A  rough-string ;  a  car- 
riage-piece, 

3.  The  pendants  from  which  a  sword  is  suspended 
from  the  belt.     Sling  ;  sword-sling. 

4.  (Prvxting.)    a.  The  frame  on  roUei-s  by  which 


the  bed,  cariying  the  fomi,  with  the  tympan  and 
frislet,  is  run  in  and  out  from  under  the  platen. 

b.  The  frame  which  carries  the  inking-roUers. 

5.  {Machiiiery. )  A  portion  of  a  machine  which 
moves  and  canies  an  object ;  as,  — 

a.  The  log-carriage  of  a  sawing-machine. 

The  bit-carriage  of  a  boring-machine,  which  car- 
ries the  bit  and  is  advanced  to  the  work. 

b.  The  carriage  of  a  mule-spinuer,  which  travels 
towards  and  from  the  creel  on  which  the  bobbins 
are  skewered. 

c.  Of  a  horizontal  shaft :  the  bearings  in  which 
it  turns. 

Car'riage-bolt  A  screw-bolt,  usually  with  a 
chamfered  head,  square  neck,  and  threaded  shank, 
for  use  in  carri.-ige-making.     See  Bolt,  Fig.  707. 

Car'riage-brake.  A  retarding  arrangement  for 
carriages  when  descending  a  hill,  to  prevent  hor.ses 

Fig  1133. 


Carhagr-Jackt. 


CARRIAGE-BRIDGE. 


480 


CARRIAGE-SPRING. 


fi'om  starting  too  readily  or  moving  too  fast.  It 
usually  consists  of  a  foot-lever  conneL'ting  by  rods 
to  the  brake-bar,  which  applies  the  shoes  to  the 
wheels. 

Car'riage-bridge.  A  roller-bridge  to  be  moved 
up  a  glaeis  and  I'orm  a  bridge  from  counterscarp  to 
scarp,  for  tlie  passage  of  the  attacking  column. 

It  has  beams  and  uprights.  Tlie  latter  act  as 
posts,  to  rest  on  the  bottom  of  the  ditch,  and  are 
shiftable  to  adapt  them  to  the  depth  of  the  ditch  or 
fosse. 

Car'riage-coup'ling.  1.  The  coupling  of  a  car- 
riage unites  the  fore  and  hind  carriages.  It  is  called 
the  perch  or  reach  in  carriages  that  jiossess  it,  but  in 
many  modern  carriages  is  dispensed  with,  tlie  bed 
resting  on  the  fore  aud  hind  carriages,  forming  the 
the  only  coupling. 

In  w.agons,  the  coupling  is  a  pole,  whose  forward 
end  is  held  by  the  king-bolt  in  the  fore-carriage  ; 
the  hind  end  passes  through  an  opening  between  the 
hind  axle  and  bolster,  and  the  hounds  of  the  hind 
axle  are  fastened  to  the  pole  by  a  pin. 

2.  A  means  of  uniting  the  bed  to  the  fore-carnage. 
It  usually  consists  of  a  king-bolt,  which  forms  the 
pintle  on  which  the  fore-carriage  turns,  and  the  fifth 
wheel,  which  is  bolted  to  keep  the  portions  from 
bouncing  apart. 

Car'riage-guard.  A  plate  on  the  bed  of  a  car- 
riage wliere  the  fore-wheel  rubs  in  turning  short. 

Car'riage-jack.  A  lever-jack,  made  in  various 
ways,' designed  to  lift  an  axle,  so  as  to  raise  a  whecd 
above  the  giouud,  in  order  that  it  may  be  removed 
from  the  spindle  for  gi'easing  or  repair.  The  illus- 
trations are  .self-explaining.     (Fig.  1133.) 

Car'riage-lock.  (Fehicle.)  A  fastening  for  a 
carriage-wheel,  to  restrain  its  rotation  or  impede  its 
freedom  of  movement  in  descending  a  hill.    A  brake. 


Fig.  1134. 


CaTTtnge-Lubricator. 


Car'riage-lu'bri-ca'tor.  A  means  for  lubricat- 
ing a  lannige-w  liirl  liox  and  spindle  witliout  remov- 
ing the  wheel  from  the  axle  ;  a  self-feeding  device, 
which  will  supply  the  wheel  for  a  considerable 
time. 

Fig.  113-1  shows  five  difl'erent  forms  of  the  device. 
The  u)iper  one  on  the  leit  has  a  mo\'able  screw-stop- 
per ;  alongside  of  it  is  one  which  has  a  reservoir  and 
cotton  wick  to  supply  oil  ;  another  has  a  spiing  lid 
to  the  oil-snpjily  hole  ;  the  lower  two  are  reached 
by  unscrewing  the  stopper-lids  of  the  reservoirs. 

Car'riage-piece.  (Carpcutnj.)  One  of  the  slant- 
ing pieces  on  which  the  steps  of  a  wooden  staircase 
are  iin|)osed.  A  rough-string.  The  upjier  end  rests 
against  the  ajiron-picec  or  pitchimj-iiicce,  which  i.i 
secured  to  the  joists  of  the  landing. 

Car'riage- 
shack'le.   The  I'ig.  1136. 

bar    C,     which 
connects  tli 
axle-clip  to  tlio 
thill    or  shaft ; 
d  is  the  ]iintle. 

Car'riage-spring.  An  elastic  device  iutevposed 
between  the  bed  of  a  carriage  and  its  running-gears, 
to  lessen  the  jar  incident  to  inei[ualities  in  the  road, 

Fig.  1136. 


Carriage-  Shackle. 


Cnrnnse^Sprin^K 


and  the  saltatory  and  rolling  motion  of  the  bed 
itself.     Several  examples  are  .shown,  of  which  — 

a  has  semi-elliptical  springs  hung  upon  the  ends 
of  C-springs  attached  to  the  axles. 


CAKEIAGE-STEP. 


481 


CAll-SEAT. 


b  has  the  usual  elliptical  springs  between  tlie 
bolster  and  axle. 

c  has  elastic  wooden  springs  which  connect  the 
axles  and  also  support  the  lied. 

d  has  semi-elliptical  springs  wliicli  also  couple  the 
axles. 
e  has  a  bolster  hung  upon  C-springs. 
/  has  a  system  of  curved  springs  with  three  points 
of  connection  to  the  bed  and  two  to  the  axles. 

Car'riage-step.  A  steji,  usually  on  a  jointed 
dependent  frame,  to  afford  means  for  mounting  into 
a  carriage. 

A  carriage-step  to  be  let  down  and  raised  by  the 
opening  and  closing  of  the  carriage-door  was  patented 
in  England  by  Thomason  in  1799. 

Car'riage-top.  1.  Tlie  cover  of  a  carriage. 
Permanent  in  coaches  ;  double  calash  in  barouches 
and  landaus  ;  calash  in  some  gigs,  buggies,  phaetons, 
etc.  ;  curtained  in  ambulances  and  spring- wagons. 

2.  A  shifting-rail  on  the  back  and  ends  of  a 
buggy-seat,  to  make  a  high-back,  or,  by  removal, 
a  low-back  buggy. 

Car'riage-wiieel.    This  has  usually  a  hub  or 

nave,    spokes. 
Fig.  1137.  fellies,        and 

tire.  A  box 
fitted  in  the 
hub  nins  in 
contact  with 
the  spindle  or 
arm  of  the 
axle,  and  the 
wheel  is  held 
on  the  spindle 
by  alinoh-pin, 
nut,  or  other 
device. 

Carriage - 
wheels  are  va- 
riously con- 
structed. In 
the  usual  form 
the  radial 
spokes  are 
planted  in  the 
hub  and  dis- 
tend the  rim. 
In  the  stispcn- 
s/o?i-wheel,  so 
called,  thecast- 
iron  hub  and 
wrought- iron 
rim  are  con- 
nected by  lods 
tightened  by 
nuts. 

The  illustra- 
tion gives  sev- 
eral forms  of 
the  suspension-wheel.  The  upper  figure  has  curved 
.steel  spokes,  which  provide  in  the  wheels  the  spring 
01-  elasticity  necessary  for  the  vehicle. 

The  other  figures  show  modes  of  securing  the 
rims  to  the  hubs  by  curved,  crossed,  or  broad-based 
spokes.  The  run  of  improvement  now  is  in  the  hubs 
and  the  modes  of  securing  the  spokes  therein.  See 
Hub  ;  Spoke  ;  Felly. 

Car'rick-bend.  {Xautical.)  A  knot  formed 
on  a  bight  by  putting  the  end  of  a  ro|ie  over  its 
standing  part,  so  as  to  form  a  cross  ;  reeve  the  end 
of  the  other  rope  through  the  bight,  up  and  over  the 
cross  and  down  through  the  biglit  again,  on  the 
opposite  side  from  the  other  end.  See  Bend. 
Car'rick-bitts.      {Shipbuilding.)    The   vertical 


Suspension  Carria^r-  \Mirfh. 


Fig   1138, 


posts  or  cheeks  wliich   support   the   barrel  of  the 
windlass. 

Car'rier.  (Turning.)  1.  A  rfnwr  in  a  lathe,  to 
imptd  tlie  object  which  is  supported  on  the  front 
and  Idck  spindles,  otherwise  called  the  live  and 
dead  spindles.  It  is  attached  by  a  set-screw  to  the 
shaft  to  be  turned,  or  to  a  mandrel  on  which  a 
round  object  is  driven  for  the  purpose  of  being 
turned.  The  carrier  is  driven  around  by  a  projec- 
tion on  the  ccnler-L-hnck  or  facc-plotc.     A  lathe-dog. 

2.  A  distributing-roller  in  a  carding-machine. 

3.  A  roller  between  the  drum  and  the  feeding- 
rollers  of  a  scribbling-m!\c]nne  for  spinning  wool. 

4.  A  s]iool  or  bobbin-holder  in  a  braiding-ma- 
chine which  follows  in  tlie  curved  path  which 
intersects  the  paths  of  other  bobbins,  and  thus 
lays   up    the   threads   into   a   braid.     See    Piii.iiD- 

ING-M.ACHIXE. 

Car'ron-ade'.  A  short,  light  species  of  camion 
intended  lor  firing  soliil  shot  at  short  ranges,  with 
comparatively  small  charges. 

It  has  no  trunnions,  but  is  secured  to  its  carriage 
by  a  bolt  passing  through  a  lug  or  "  navel "  cast  on 
its  under  side.  This  loini  of  gun  was  formerly 
much  used  ou  shipboard,  but  is  now  nearly  obso- 
lete. 

So  named  from  the  foundry  on  the  river  Carron, 
Stirlingshire,  Scotland,  where  they  were  first  cast  in 
1779. 

Car'ry-aU.  {Vehicle.)  A  light,  four-wlieeled 
family  vehicle  drawn  bj'  one  horse.  ' 

Car-seat.  A  seat  in  a  railway-car.  The  back  is 
usually  reversible,  so  as 
to  adapt  it  for  passengers 
in  either  direction  of  mo- 
tion of  the  car,  the  pref- 
erence being  to  "  face  the 
horses,"  as  it  is  called. 
The  facility  for  reversing 
is,  moreover,  useful  in 
throwing  two  seats  into  a 
"section  "  for  a  party. 

Car-seats  are  also  made 
reclining,  for  night  travel ; 
such  are  termed  "sleep- 
ing-chaii's. " 

The  occupant  of  the 
chair  can  adjust  the  back 
to  any  desired  angle  by 
means  of  a  hand-lever  c, 
which,  on  being  released, 
allows  the  pawl  C  to  drop 
into  the  nearest  notch  ill  the  plate  D,  and  hold  the 
seat     stationa- 

rily  in  the  de-  Fig.  1139. 

sired  position. 

For  this  pur- 
pose,  back, 
seat,  and  aim 
are  pivoted  to- 
gether, the  sta- 
tionary point 
on  which  they 
oscillate  being 
at  the  apex  of 
the  A  -  shaped 
support.  As 
the  seat  slides 
to  the  rear,  the 
back  reclines, 
and  the  leg- 
board  is  pro- 
jected in  front. 

Other       car-  Reclining  Car-Seat. 


Reversible  Car-Seat. 


CAR-SEAT  ARM-LOCK. 


482 


CAR-SPRING. 


seats  are  capable,  by  addition  of  parts,  of  being 
tmnsfomied  into  couches. 

Car-seat  Arm-lock.  (Railway.)  A  lock  at- 
tached to  the  bar  of  a  seat-back,  to  prevent  its  being 
reversed  by  unauthorized  |)prsans.  The  Ijolt  is  with- 
dmwn  by  a  key. 

Car-spit'toon.    A  sjiittoon  inserted  in  the  Door 


Car-Spittoon. 

of  a  car  and  discharging  beneath.  It  has  a  valve, 
operated  by  a  trigger  under  the  control  of  the  foot. 

Car-spring.  A  resilient  or  yielding  structure  or 
material,  interposed  between  the  car  and  the  axle  to 
prevent  the  jar  of  the  wheel  being  connnunicated  to 
the  car  ;  or  to  moderate  the  etl'ect  of  the  rolling  or 
pitching  motion  of  the  car. 

Car-springs  are  of  various  forms  and  materials, 
and  are  variously  placed.  In  railway  passenger-cars 
ther^  are  several  sets,  usually  of  diflercnt  kinds,  at 
different  places  between  the  point  of  jar  and  the 
car-bed.  A  good  instance  may  be  seen  in  Caii- 
TRUCK,  where  the  various  parts  are  exhibited,  and 
the  transference  of  the  jar  from  one  point  to  another 
is  explained.     See  C.\r.-TiircK. 

Car-springs  may  be  classed  as  :  — 

Elliptical.  Spiral. 

Pneumatic.  Helical. 

Torsional.  Circular  plate  ;  plane,  cor- 

Kubber.  rugated,  and  segmental. 

Rubber  and  steel.  Square  plate. 

Rubber,  steel,  and  air.  Bow. 

In  the  series  of  illustrations  the  parts  and  struc- 
ture are  so  evident  that  a  short  description  only 
will  be  given. 

Fig.  lUI. 


Hf''^^T>ydi7?-^'?H-^'??'?'^^ 


Car-Springs. 


Fig.  1141,  a  is  a  double  elliptic  spring,  the  bear- 
ings of  whose  end-leaves  are  so  shaped,  that,  as  the 
spring  bends  beneath  its  load,  additional  leaves  re- 
cei\'e  a  bearing  upon  the  ovoiil  bars. 

b  is  an  elliptic  spring  whose  pri!icipal  leaves  are 
made  of  a  cnntiinious  plate  wound  round  and  round. 
Auxiliary  plates  above  and  beneatli  extend  the  aiea 
of  bearing  of  the  boxes  or  bars. 

c  is  an  elliptic  spring  made  of  a  single  plate 
wo\ind  arouiul  a  mandrel  of  the  shape  indicated.  It 
is  designed  to  be  used  vith  upper  and  lower  bars  as 
at  h,  or  in  a  box,  as  at  d. 

d  shows  an  elliptic  spring  in  a  box,  and  a  follower 
above,  upon  whicli  the  weight  is  imposed.  The 
position  of  the  spring,  in  the  box,  is  maintained  by 
bolts,  and  the  upward  motion  of  the  follower  is  re- 
strained by  two  long  bolts  as  shown.  These  keep 
the  Ibllowers  from  bouncing  out  of  the  box. 

e  shows  a  series  of  plates  which  assume  the  ellip- 
tical form  e'  when  the  weight  bears  upon  them 
heavily.  The  box  above  the  spring  has  a  sei  ies  of 
steps  beneath,  adapted  to  the  lengths  of  the  leaves 
of  the  spring,  so  tliat  as  the  weight  increases  addi- 
tional leaves  obtain  bearings  in  the  box.     The  ob- 


Car-Springs. 

ject  is  to  give  elasticity  with  light  loads  and  strength 
for  heavy  loads,  by  bringing  additional  jilates  into 
work  as  the  load  increases.  This  feature  of  cumu- 
lative parts  is  foimd  in  several  other  forms  of  springs, 
which  will  be  noticed  in  turn. 

/  is  one  form  of  pneumatic  spring,  in  which  the 
weight  is  imposed  upon  a  box  whose  central  plunger 
bears  upon  the  surface  of  the  water  in  the  lower 
box.  A  body  of  air  is  imprisoned  in  the  annular 
portion  of  the  lower  box,  and  is  compressed  by  the 
pressure  on  the  water,  the  latter  serving  merely  as 
an  interposed  material  to  transfer  the  jn'essnve,  as  in 
the  air-compressing  machines  (Figs.  71  and  72,  p. 
32).  The  central  rod  has  a  disk  on  its  lower  enil, 
which  is  tightened  by  a  screw  against  the  lower  end 
of  the  plunger,  to  compact  the  packing. 

In  Fig.  1142,  (J  is  a  torsional  spring,  in  which 
the  weiglit  of  the  truck-frame  a  is  tlirown  upon 
spring-rods,  which  are  placed  transversely  beneath 


CAR-SPRING. 


483 


CAR-SPRING. 


the  truck.  The  ends  of  these  voils  aie  shown  at 
c  c,  and  firmly  attached  to  them  are  aims  b  b,  whose 
ends  rest  on  bearing-blocks  above  the  axles.  As 
the  truck-lrarae  sinks  with  its  sui>erincunibent  load, 
a  toi'sional  pressure  is  brought  upon  the  rods  and 
by  theiu  transferred  to  the  a.xle-lx)xes. 

A  is  a  pneumatic  sjiring  in  which  the  air  is  con- 
tained in  au  india-rubber  bag  in  the  box,  forming 
an  air-cushion  beneath  the  follower. 

i  is  a  hollow  india-rubber  ball  in  a  box  with  a 
l>olished  Ulterior. 

j  has  a  number  of  disks  of  india-rabber  or  cork  in 
the  box,  beneath  the  follower. 

k  has  a  combination  of  steel  elliptic  springs,  with 
auxiliary  rubber  blocks  at  the  ends. 

I  has  concavo-convex  plates  fitted  upon  a  spindle, 
with  interposed  vulcanized  india-rubber  disks.  The 
plates  are  cruciform  in  plan. 

In  Fig.  Ili3,  m  is  a  compound  qning,  having  a 
cylinder  of  vulcanized  rubber,  with  au  interior  coil 


Fig  1143. 


tration,   the  .spring  is  shown  as  extended,  in  which 

position   the   follower   is  not   in   contact   with  the 

rubber  cylinder,  so  that  the  latter  conies  in  as  aux- 

j  iliary  to  the  spiral  screws  when  they  have  attained 

'  a  certain  point  of  depression. 

r  is  a  combination  of  spiral  and  rubber  springs, 
with  telescopic  tubes  which  form  walls. 

s  is  a  concentric  arrangement  of  several  spiral 
springs  coiled  iu  diveree  directions  alternately. 

t  shows  a  closer  coil  of  the  .same  general  construc- 
tion, but  ditl'erent  proportions. 

u  is  a  congeries  of  spiral  springs,  one  in  the  cen- 
ter, six  iu  a  hexagonal  arrangement  around  the  cen- 
tva\  one.  Each  set  has  a  pair  of  spirals  concentrically 
aiTanged,  diversely  coiled,  and  inclosed  in  its  cylin- 
drical sheath. 

V  consists  of  a  steel  plate  folded  and  then  bent  in- 
to a  spii'al  forr^  around  a  inandi-el. 

«;  is  a  volute  or  helical  spring,  in  which,  differing 
from  the  spiral,  the  plate  is  wound  on  itself,  and 
does  not  preserve  the  same  diameter.  The  inner 
fold  of  the  volute,  being  projected  iu  the  line  oi  its 
axis,  is  made  to  sustain  the  load. 

X  is  another  helical  spring,  shown  in  elevation. 


Car-  Sprinos, 

to  keep  it  from  binding  against  the  spindle,  and  an 
exterior  spiral  coil  to  keep  it  from  spreading  too  far. 
The  illustration  shows  it  in  its  compressed  condition. 

n  is  a  spring  of  combined  steel,  rubber,  and  air. 
The  air  is  inclosed  in  the  rubber  tube,  and  the 
latter  yields  with  the  spiral  envelope  to  the  imposed 
weight. 

0  has  an  india-nibber  cylinder  inclosing  a  spiral 
steel  spring,  and  having  a  bolt,  to  limit  the  extent 
of  upward  movement  of  the  cover.  The  flanged  rim 
of  the  cover  affords  a  bell-mouth,  into  which  the 
rublier  expands. 

p  has  the  spiral  steel  spring  contained  in  an  annu- 
lar case. 

q  has  a  pair  of  concentric  spiral  springs  on  the  re- 
spective sides  of  a  dividing-cylinder.     In  the  ilius- 


Ca'-Sj.rin? 


In  Fig.  11 44,  ;/ ;/'  are  respectively  a  sectional  view- 
in  isometrical  projection  and  in  simple  elevation  of  a 
ear-spring  formed  of  a  number  of  circular  ]dates,  of 
whicli  those  in  each  series  are  of  graduated  dianie- 


CAR-STAKE. 


484 


CART. 


ters.  Tn  1/  the  spring 
is  a  pair  ol'  such  series  ; 
in  y'  two  pairs  of  such 
are  allied. 

s  has  annular  dish- 
shaped  disks  arranged 
in  pairs  and  united  by 
means  of  a  rod  passing 
through  them. 

a  has  plates  formed 
of  segments  of  s\ihere3, 
and  alternating  with 
flat  [ilates  in  groups  ; 
the  whole  i>laeed  in  a 


Fig.  1140. 


box  in  which  it  is  subjected  to  the  pressure  of  a  fol- 
lower. 

In  b,  the  spring  is  composed  of  a  ])ile  of  circular 
plates  corrugated  radially  and  arranged  round  a  stem. 
In  c,  the  spring-plates  are  of  grailually  ijicrcasing 
lengths  uiiward  and  downward  from  the  middle 
diaphragm,  and  are  inclosed  in  a  case  whose  top  and 
bottom  ]ilates  are  movable  and  have  bearings  on  the 
ends  of  the  longer  and  outer  spring-plates.  Rubber 
springs  are  interposed  between  the  movable  plates 
of  the  case  and  the  spring-plates. 

d  has  several  pairs  of  concavo-convex  radially  cor- 
rugati'd  plates  ;  between  the  two  |>latcs  of  a  pair  is 
an  interposed  disk  of  vulcanized  rubber,  d'  is  a 
.sectional  view  of  the  same. 

e  shows  a  box  having  several  metallic  plates,  com- 
pressed from  opposite  directions  and  shortening  be- 
tween bearings  as  they  are  bent.  This  has  the  effect 
of  making  them  less  pliable  as  they  recede  before 
the  weight. 

/  has  S(inare  or  rectangular  plates  curved  diago- 
nally and  lastcned  together  at  the  corners,  thus  form- 
ing alternate  paiis,  which  bear  upon  each  other  at 
the  corners  and  diagonally  through  the  centers  ;  the 
bearing-points  of  the  plates  are  changed  by  being 
lengthened  and  shortened  when  the  spring  vi- 
brates. 

(I  has  square,  rhombic,  oval,  or  ch'cular  plates,  bent 
bow-shaped,  and  interjiosed  between  the  bolsters. 

h  has  a  plate  or  jjlates  so  disposed  between  the 
bearing-surfaces  that  with  a  light  load  it  rests  upon 
its  tnds  and  has  its  weight  at  the  mid-length.  When 
the  weight  increases,  the  load  is  transferred  to  points 
on  the  upper  block  nearer  to  the  ends  of  the  spring, 
and  the  rest  of  the  latter  is  transferred  to  points 
nearer  the  mid-length,  so  as  to  shorten  the  portion 
of  spring  involved  in  the  support. 

Numerous  modifications  and  applications  of  the 
foregoing  examples  might  be  shown.  The  troulde 
is,  not  that  matter  fails  for  more  copious  illustra- 
tion, but  that  there  is  not  room. 

Car-stake.  {Railway.)  A 
standard  set  up  in  iron  loops 
or  sockets  on  the  side  of  a 
platfomi-car,  to  hold  a  loose 
load,  such  as  lumber  or  the 
like. 

Car  -  start'er.  {Railway.) 
A  de\-ice  to  assist  in  starting  a 
street-car  from  the  dead-stop., 
These  are  of  two  kinds  :  — 

1.    Those  in  which  the  mo- 
mentum of  the   car  when  the 
motion  is  arrested  is  made  to 
,  accumulate  a  starting  force. 
In  Fig.  1146  the  pressure  on 
the  brake-treadle   G   causes  a 
frictional  contact  between  the 
driving-wheels  B  and  the  fric- 
Car-Siake.  tion  -  wheels   D   on   the   same 


Tig.  1145. 


Lur-S)laner. 

axle,  which  retards  the  motion  of  the  drivers  and 
condenses  the  spiral  spring.  When  the  iiressure  of 
the  foot  is  withdrawn,  the  strength  of  the  s])iing  is 
permitted  to  actuate  tlie  ratcliet  on  the  wheel  H  and 
assist  in  giving  the  initial  impulse,  after  which  the 
parts  assume  their  normal  position,  leaving  the  driv- 
ing-wheels free.  There  are  numerous  modifications 
of  the  general  idea. 

2.  A  device  in  which  the  power  of  the  team  is 
temjiorarily  applied  to  give  a  direct  inii)ulse  upon 
the  wheel,  so  as  to  start  the  latter  rolling,  and  then 
transfer  the  power  to  the  car  as  usual. 

In  Fig.  1147  this  form  of  car-starter  is  shown. 
The  draft-pole  is  connected  to  a  lever  and  pawl,  and 
the    latter  engages  a    ratchet-wheel    as    the    axle. 


Fig.  1147. 


Car-Stnner. 

After  .say  a  sixth  of  a  revolution  of  the  wheel,  the 
pawl  is  disengaged  and  the  usual  draft  condition  of 
the  car  is  resumed. 

Car-stove.   {Railway.)   One  specifically  adapted 


for  railway  cars,  having 
certain  means  for  secur- 
ing in  ])lace,  prevention 
of  scattering  of  fire  in 
ease  of  upsetting,  or  ar- 
rangements for  the  in- 
duction of  outside  air, 
and  transmission  of  the 
warmed  air  to  the  inte- 
rior of  the  car. 

Stoves  are  fastened  by 
sockets  in  the  floor,  an- 
chor-bolts, and  guys. 

Fig.  11 48  shows  a  stove 
which  has  an  air-induc- 
tion pii>e  surrounding  the 
flue-pi]ie  of  the  stove. 
Hoods  above  the  car-top 
catch  the  air,  which  pass- 
es down  and  occupies  the 
air-jacket  around  the 
stove,  and  from  whence 
it  is  discharged  into  the 
car  through  registers. 

Cart.  Carts  and  wag- 
ons were  used  by  the 
Scythians  in  the  time  of 
Herodotus  (450  B.  o.), 
and  arc  mentioned  a  cen- 
tury later  by  Hippocra- 


Fig.  1148. 

a 


CAKT. 


485 


CART. 


Fig.  1149.  tes.      The    latter    de- 

scribes them  as  either 
four  or  sLx  wheeled. 

"  Their  wagons  are 
the  only  houses  they 
possess."  —  Heuodo- 
Tus,  IV.  46. 

These  vehicles  are 
drawn  by  oxen,  as  rep- 
resented in  the  cut  at 
a  b  c.  The  bodies  of 
these  carts  are  perma- 
nent or  detachable ;  in 
the  latter  case  consti- 
tuting a  tent -frame 
with  a  felt  corering, 
which  was  readily 
placed  on  or  otf  the 
i-unning-gear  of  the 
vehicle.  These  are  yet 
in  use  among  some  of 
the  Tartar  tribes,  while 
'  othere  use  caits  like 
the  gypsy  habitations, 
unfortunately  so  com- 
mon in  England  and 
the  United  States.     See  Wagox. 

Hesiod's  cart  had  low  wheels,  and  was  ten  spans, 
about  7i  feet,  in  width. 

"  In  default  of  camels,  merchandise  is  generally 
transported  through  the  deserts  of  Tartarj'  by  means 
of  little  two-wheeled  carts.  A  few  spare  of  rough 
timbei-s  are  all  the  material  employed  in  their  con- 
struction ;  and  they  are  so  light  that  a  child  can 
raise  them  with  ea.se.  The  oxen  which  draw  them 
have  a  small  ring  of  iron  passed  through  their  nos- 
trils, to  which  a  cord  is  attached  that  links  the  ox 
to  the  cart  which  precedes  him  ;  thus  all  the  carts 
are  held  together,  and  form  an  uninterrupted  tie." 
—  Hue's  Travels  in  Tarlary,  1844-46. 

As  Strabo  (19  B.  c.)  .says  :  "The  rest  of  the  coun- 
tries of  Asia  are  principally  inhabited  by  Scenites 
{inhabitants  of  tents  ;  Scythians)  and  nomads  (ha- 
maxeeci,  diccllers  in  wagons),  who  dwell  at  a  gieat 
distance." 

Sometimes  a  wave  breaks  over  the  boundarj',  and 
the  West  sees  an  irruption  of  Huns,  Turcs,  or  Tartars  ; 

Fig.  1150. 


Sci'lhian  Carts. 


Chilian  Cart.  ■ 

sometimes  the  head  of  the  horde  becomes  a  conquer 
or,  as  when  Gengliis  the  Khan   con- 
quered   China,     Persia,    and    Central 
Asia,  A.   D.   1206  ;  or  Timour  (Tamer 
lane)  conquered  Persia,  founded  a  dy 
nasty  in  India  1402-  1749,  and  broke  f 
the  power  of  the  Turcs  in  A.sia  Minor. 
The  Chilian  cart  rf  is  a  good  illus- 
tration   of    the    |irimitive    vehicle    on 
wheels.      Its  wheel  consists   of  disks 
sawn  or  chopped  from  a  log  and  bored 
for  the  axle.     The  tongue  or  pole  is 
secured  to  the  axle  .ind  forms  the  frame 
of  the  bed,  somewhat  like  a  city  dray. 


Enlargements  on  the  centers  of  the  wheels  outside 
form  hubs,  to  prevent  the  wobbling  of  .the  wheels  on 
the  spindles.  The  hub  and  spindles,  being  of  wood, 
and  having  a  pleutiful  lack  of  grease,  make  music, 
—  such  as  it  is. 

The  French  Engineer  Perronet,  who  executed  so 
many  heavy  public  improvements  during  the  last 
century  (b.  1708  ;  d.  1794),  seems  to  have  been  ca- 
pable of  great  projects,  original  devices,  fanciful  or- 
namentation, graceful  designs,  and  ert'ective  details. 

His  ingenuity  was  manifested  in  the  centering  of 
his  arches,  cotier-danis,  hydraulic  and  hoisting  uia- 

lig.  1151. 


Pfrronet's  Carts. 

chines,  and  in  many  other  departments  which  we 
have  had  occasion  to  refer  to  in  their  proper  places. 

For  remoriug  the  earth  excavated  in  constructing 
the  foundations  of  his  numerous  bridges,  he  used 
carts  in  pairs,  coupled  together. 

Each  cart  had  a  bed  capable  of  holding  half  a  cu- 
bic yard  of  earth,  and  so  suspended  from  the  axle 
that  a  part  of  the  contents  was  below  the  same,  near- 
ly balancing  the  load,  so  that  the  earth  was  easily 
dumped.  In  the  rear  of  the  forward  cart-frame  was 
a  shackle,  by  which  another  cart  was  attached. 
Each  cart  could,  therefore,  be  separately  loaded  and 
drawn  into  the  regular  track  along  which  it  was  con- 
veyed. 

The  shafts  and  frame  were  of  timber,  and  the  axle 
of  iron.  The  wheels  were  large,  and  were  jilaced  far 
apart,  to  avoid  upsetting.  The  rear  carts  had  poles, 
the  forward  ones  shafts. 

The  modem  cart  in  England  is  adapted  for  many 
uses.  With  wide-spreading  rarcs  it  is  much  used 
on  the  farms,  especially  in  some  parts  of  the  country. 
The  carts  of  the  various  trades,  a-s  coal-merchants, 
butchers,  market-men,  and  other.s,  cannot  be  more 
than  referred  to  here.     The  cart  Fig.  1152  is  a  low 

Fig.  1152. 


CARTHOUN. 


486 


CAnTKlDr.E. 


boily  adapted  for  freight  or  ex|iiess  boxes,  night-soil, 
or  city  dmyage.  The  hind  axle  is  bent,  and  the 
fore-end  of  the  cart  rests  on  a  fore-carriage,  consti- 
tuting it  a  wagon,  or  very  nearly  so. 

Dumpitig-carts  for  removing  earth  have  a  bed 
liinged  to  the  axle,  and  adapted  to  tilt  up  and  dis- 
charge the  load  when  so  desired. 

Manure-carts  are  made  in  Britain  specially  adapted 
for  distributing  liipiid  or  partiallj'  liipiid  manure 
either  broadcast  or  in  drills.  They  are  titted  with 
pumps  so  as  to  be  loaded  from  the  tanks,  -and  the 
distribution  is  made  by  perforated  jjipes  or  travel- 
ing-buckets. 

Manure  dumping-carts  are  also  used,  the  barrel- 
shaped  reservoir  turning  on  its  axis  to  discharge  its 
contents. 

A  manure-cart  is  also  sold  in  England,  having  a 
rotating  spiked  roller  which  distributes  tin;  barn- 
yard manure  from  a  cait  or  wagon  as  the  vehicle 
jiasses  ovei-  the  gi'ound. 

Car'thoun.  [Ordnance.)  The  old  cannon-royal, 
carrying  a  ti6-)]0und  ball.  It  was  12  feet  long,  and 
had  a  calilier  of  Si  inches. 

Cart-lad'der.  ( Vehicle.)  A  rack  thrown  out 
at  the  head  or  tail  of  a  cart,  to  increase  its  carrying 
capacity.     Called  raves  in  some  places. 

Car'ton.     Pasteboard  for  paper-bo.xes. 

Car'ton-pi-erre'.  1.  A  species  of  papier-mache, 
imitating  stone  or  bronze  sculpture.  It  is  composed 
of  paper-pulp  mixed  with  whiting  and  glue.  This 
is  pressed  into  plaster  ])iece-molds,  backed  with 
paper,  and  when  suffii-iently  set,  removcil  to  a  dry- 
ing-room to  liar<leu.  It  is  used  for  picture-frames, 
statuettes,  and  architectural  ornaments. 

2.    Very  hard  pasteboard. 

Car-toon'.  A  sketch  in  chalk  made  on  rough 
paper,  to  be  transferred  by  pricking  tlirougli  on  to  a 
f.  eihly  plastered  wall  to  be  painted  in  fresco.  Among 
the  most  celebrated  are  those  of  Ratfaelle. 

Car-touch'.  1.  {ArdaUctarc.)  A  modillion  or 
console  supporting  the  eave  of  a  house. 

2.  (Firc-cu-nu.)  a.  A  cartridge  ;  a  roll  of  paper 
containing  a  charge. 

b.  A  case  filled  with  shot  to  be  fired  from  a  can- 
non.     (Obsolete.) 

Car-touch'-box.  A  portable  case  in  which 
cartridges  are  carried.     A  cartridge-box.     See  Ac- 

COrTKP.Ml'NTS. 

Car'tridge.  A  "round"  of  ammunition,  in- 
cluding the  ball  with  the  sabot,  if  any,  and  its  pro- 
jecting charge,  enveloped  in  a  single  case. 

This  is  a  modern  institution,  it  having  been 
originally  customary  to  employ  loose  powder  and 
ball. 

Then  followed  a  cartridge  containing  a  measured 
quantity  of  powder,  the  bullets  being  carried  sepa- 
rately in  a  bag.  The  end  of  the  paper  cylinder  was 
bitten  off  and  the  paper  used  as  a  wad.  Gustavus 
Adolphus  (killed  at  Lutzen,  1632)  is  said  to  have 
been  the  fiist  to  have  made  up  the  cartridge  with  a 
measured  quantity  of  powder  and  a  ball  fastened 
thereto. 

Sir  James  Turner,  in  the  time  of  Charles  11.  of 
England,  speaks  of  cartridges  employed  by  horse- 
men, carried  in  a  "patron"  which  answered  to  the 
modern  cartridge-box.  After  this  time  it  appears 
that  cartridges  were  carried  in  cases  suspended  from 
bandoliers,  equivalent  to  the  more  modern  bayonet 
scabbard-belt. 

Soon  afterwai'd  the  great  improvement  —  the 
cartridge-box  —  was  adopted,  which  still,  under 
various  modifications,    continues  in   use.     See   Ac- 

COUTEUM  ENTS. 

Plain,  round  ball,  and  buck   and  ball  cartridges 


are  now  practically  ob.solete.  These  were  formed  of 
a  jiajier  cylinder,  which  was  partially  filled  with 
powder  and  choked  near  its  mid-length  by  twine, 
the  powder  occupying  one  eml  and  the  ball  the 
other.  Other  substances  than  paper,  as  animal  in- 
testines prepared  in  a  peculiar  way,  wei'e  sometimes 
employed.  Colt  covered  his  cartridges  ^^■ith  tin- 
foil, and  afterwards  a  paper  saturated  with  nitrate 
of  potassa  was  intro- 
duced. This  might  F'S-  1154 
be  placed  in  the  gun 
as  it  was,  the  cov- 
ering facilitating, 
rather  than  retard- 
ing, the  ignition  of 
the  powder.  In 
Fig.  1153,  a  is  a 
luck  and  ball  car- 
tridge, h  one  liaving 
buckshot  only,  c  the 
Prussian  needle-gun 
cartridge  (see  Fir.E- 
ARM).  In  this  the 
bullet  B  has  a  sabot 

A,  sejiarating  itfrom 
the  powder  D,  and 
having  at  its  ba.se  a 
cavity  C,  for  the  re- 
ception of  fulminate. 
The  case  of  this  car- 
tridge is  made  of 
paper. 

d,  Snider's,  for 
the  muzzle-loading 
Enfield  rifle  con- 
verted into  breech- 
loading  (.see  Fire- 
arm), is  made  up  of 
a  sheet-brass  cylin- 
der A,  into  which 
is  insei'ted  the  bullet 

B,  having  at  its  base 
a  recess  E,  which 
contains  a  plug  of 
clay.  P>ack  of  this 
is  the  powder-cham- 
ber, having  at  its 
base  a  sabot  G,  into 
a  cavity  of  whicli 
fulminate  is  insert- 
ed and  exjiloded 
through  the  action 
of  the  firing-plunger 
on  a  cap  C. 

It  may  be  remarked  that  the  American  process  of 
drawing  out  the  blanks  for  metallic  cartridge-cases 
into  tubes  is  now  generally  adopted  into  the  Euro- 
pean services. 

This  .style  of  cartridges  is  divided  into  two  classes 


Metallic  i  'nrlridge-  Casef 


CARTRIDGE. 


487 


CAHTRIDr.E-FILLEK. 


—  ri?n  fire  and  center  fire,  —  the  first  liaving  tlie 
fulminate  anangeil  witliin  a  cavity  around  the  in- 
terior of  the  flange,  and  the  latter  having  it  arranged 
at  the  center  of  the  head  or  base  of  the  cartridge. 
Each  kind  require.^  the  lianimer  or  firing-pin  of  tlie 
gun  to  be  specially  arrangeii,  in  older  to  strike  the 
cartridge  at  the  proper  jioint,  though  cartridges 
liave  been  devised  in  the  United  States  to  be  both 
rim  and  center  fire,  and  guns  have  also  been  made 
to  fire  either  or  both  kinds  of  cartridges. 

The  idea  of  using  sheet  metal   for  this  purpose 
seems  to  have  originated  with  tlie  French. 

In  1826,  Cazalat  patenteil  a  cartridge  of  this  kind 
(ij.  Fig.  1154),  having  a  receptacle  with  a  covering 
patch  of  water-proof  paper  for  fulminate  at  its  base. 
A  hole  in  the  bottom  of  the  cup  admitted  fire  to  the 
charge.  This  appears  to  have  been  in  advance  of 
the  age,  being  drawn 
from  a  single  piece  of 
copper,  and  being  center- 
fire,  b  and  c  rejireseut 
two  forms  of  the  Lefau- 
cheux  cartridge, —  one  of 
the  earliest  of  tliis  kind. 
In  b,  the  caji  is  secured 
to  an  anvil-block  ;  in  c, 
a  plunger,  struck  by  the 
hammer,  explodes  a  ful- 
minate placed  in  a  cham- 
ber at  the  base. 

d,  e,  show  modifica- 
tions of  this,  the  anvil 
and  cap  principle,  in 
which  the  pin  is  dis- 
pensed witli. 

/.  One  of  the  earliest- 
known  cartridges  is 
that  of  Roberts,  of  Paris, 
1834,  in  wliich  an  an- 
uulus  was  formed  at  the 
base  to  contain  fulmi- 
nate. 

g  is  the  Flobert  car- 
tridge, in  which  is  a 
ball  with  a  charge  of 
fulminate  at  the  base, 
whicli  does  tlie  duty  at 
once  of"priniing  and  pro- 
pelling, adapted  for  tar- 
get-practice at  short 
ranges. 

A,  i.  Smith  and  Wes- 
son patents  1854,  1860. 
In  the  first  of  these  the 
fulminate  was  contained 
in  a  capsule  at  tlie  base, 
and  in  the  latter  in  an 
annulus  within  the 
flange  surrounding  the 
base  of  the  cartridge, 
and  seeui-ed  in  place  by 
a  pasteboard  disk, 
other  forms  of   metallic  car- 


<mwi> 


JMelaVic  CartmJses. 


j,  j,  j,  show  some 
tridge  as  now  commonly  used 

k  is  the  Berdan  cartridge  ;  this  has  an  exterior 
central  recess,  a  bottom  to  receive  the  cap,  which  is 
exploded  upon  an  anvil  turned  up  on  an  interior  me- 
tallic lining.  The  case  is  adapted  to  fit  a  chamber 
larger  in  diameter  than  the  bore  of  the  barrel. 

The  mode  now  generally  adopted  for  forming 
metallic  cartridges  is  to  punch  the  blank  out  from 
a  sheet  of  bra.ss,  and  to  dmw  it  between  successive 
rolls  and  punches  until  it  assumes  the  reijuired 
shape.     The  shape  which  the  cartridge-case  assumes 


during  the  different  stages  of  the  process  is  shown 
in  the  figures  I  to  r. 

Cannon-cartridges  for  6  and  1 2  pounder  smooth- 
bored  field-guns,  the  former  of  which  may  now  be 
considered  obsolete,  have  the  powder-charge,  con- 
tained in  a  woolen  or  silken  bag,  and  the  jirojectile 
united  together  by  twine.  For  larger  smooth-bored 
and  all  rilled  gnns,  the  powder  is  put  up  in  a  sepa- 
rate bag,  still,  however,  retaining  the  name  of  car- 
tridge. 

Car'tridge-bag.  (Ordnance.)  A  flannel  bag 
holding  a  charge  of  ponder  for  a  cannon. 

Car'tridge-belt.  A  belt  for  the  waist  or  to  go 
over  the  shoulder, 

havingpockets  for  Fig-  H56. 

fixed  ammunition. 

Car'tridge- 
box.  Gustavus 
Adolphus  (killed 
at  Lutzen,  1632) 
reduced  the 
weight  of  the 
musket  from  fif- 
teen pounds  to  ten . 
He  also  intro- 
duced the  paper 
cartridge,      which  Carlridge.-Bdt. 

at  first  only  con- 
tained the  powder,  the  bullets  being  kept  in  a  bag. 

Cartridge-boxes  at  first  were  very  small,  but  the 
Germans  soon  enlarged  them  so  as  to  contain  forty 
rounds.  Nevertheless,  for  a  long  time  after,  prim- 
iiigwas  done  with 
a  powder-horn, 
until  at  length 
the  plan  of  using 
some  of  the  pow- 
der of  the  car- 
tridge was  hit 
upon. 

Cartridge-boxes 
are  made  to  con- 
tain such  number 
of  rounds  as  may 
suit  the  service. 
Some  are  spe- 
cially adapted  to 
certain   kinds  of  Cartridge-Box. 

ammunition,     as 

the  Spencer,  for  instance.  (See  Accouterments.) 
Some  are  designed  to  give  each  cartridge  a  pocket, 
to  prevent  their  jumbling  about.  One  of  them  is 
circular,  having  radial  pockets  ;  another  has  flaps 
and  loops,  like  a  homceopathic  dispensary. 

Car'tridge  Fill'er.  A  device  for  cha  rging  cartridge- 
Fig.  1158. 


Cartridge-FiUfr. 


CARTRIDGE-PAPER. 


488 


CAR-TRUCK. 


cases  with  tlie  pvoiicr  (inantity  of  jiowder.  In  that 
shown,  tile  two  lilling-tuhes  a  a  are  partially  rotated 
by  the  lever  i,  so  as  to  bring  each  of  them  alternately 
under  the  funnel  c,  and  over  the  discharge-aiierture 
d;  while  one  is  being  tilled,  theother  is  discharging  its 
contents  into  a  cartridge-ease  through  the  pijie  c. 

Car'tridge-pa'per.  A  strong  pajjer  of  which 
cartridges  are  made.  It  is  of  various  sizes  and  thick- 
nesses, according  to  the  kind  of  cartridge  to  be  made, 
ranging  from  a  quality  similar  to  bank-not"  paper, 
employed  for  small-ana  cartridges,  to  that  used  for 
cannon  cartridges,  which  is  about  the  thickness  of 
thin  ]iasteboard,  but  rougher  and  more  flexible. 
The  latter  is,  however,  nowseldom  or  never  used.  The 
dill'erent  qualities  are  in  the  United  States  service 
numbered  from  1  to  6,  the  latter  being  the  coarsest 
and  thickest. 

Car'tridge-prim'iug  Ma-chine'.  A  machine 
by  which  the  fuhiunate  is  placed  lu  the  copper-cap- 
sule of  the  metallic  cartridge.  The  fulminate  is  dif- 
ferently disposed  for  center-tire  and  for  rim-ftre  car- 
tridges ;  in  the  latter  the  cartridge-case  is  rotated  on 
its  longitudinal  a.vis,  to  dispose  by  the  centrifugal 
action  the  fuhninate  at  and  about  the  flange. 

Car'tridge-re-tract'or.  That  part  of  a  breech- 
loading  fire-arm  which  catches  the  empty  cartridge- 
capsule  by  its  flange,  and  draws  it  rearwardly  from 
the  bore  of  the  gun. 


Car'tridge-wire.  1.  (Blnslivg.)  The  priming, 
wire  whereby  the  cartridge  is  connected  to  the  con- 
ducting-wire  of  the  voltaic  batteiy. 

2.  {Onliiuiice.)  The  needle  whereby  the  cartridge- 
envelope  is  pierced,  in  order  that  the  priming  may 
connect  with  the  powder  of  the  cartridge. 

Car-truck.  {JUiilwcaj,)  A  wheeled  carriage  be- 
neath a  laihvay  car.  The  iirst  railway  cars  had 
wheels  on  a.xles,  arranged  similarly  to  those  of  a  wag- 
on. It  was  afterwards  found  more  convenient  and 
efficient  to  shrink  the  wheels  on  to  the  axle,  so  that 
they  nnght  revolve  together  ;  but  even  then  the  ped- 
estals of  the  axle-boxes  were  attached  to  the  bed  of 
the  cai',  as  is  yet  the  case  generally  in  Europe. 

The  American  practice  has  long  been  to  support 
the  car  on  two  four-wheeled  trucks,  and  latterly 
six-wheeled  trucks  have  been  used  under  a  superior 
class  of  passenger-cars.  The  capacity,  duty,  and  en- 
durance of  car-wheels  is  alluded  to  under  Cau- 
wiiEix  ;  but  it  may  be  here  stated  that  the  addition 
of  the  two  wheels  to  the  truck  increases  by  one  half 
the  number  of  parts  involved  in  the  duty  of  support- 
ing the  load. 

There  are  numy  kinds  of  trucks,  but  they  agree 
in  tlie  feature  of  swiveling  beneath  the  car-bed  as 
the  car  rounds  a  curve,  and  in  having  a  certain 
freedom  of  motion  which  is  not  as  necessarily  trans- 
mitted to  the  car  as  it  would  be,  on  a  truck  of  a  giv- 


Fig.  1159. 

PT- -■tiiimi  it 


en  finality,  were  the  axle-bo.xcs  on  pedestals  attached 
to  tlie  car-bed  directly. 

In  the  illustration,  a  a  are  the  longitudinal  tim- 
bers of  the  frame  of  a  passenger-car  truck,  such  as 
may  be  found  on  some  of  the  best  of  our  railways,  b  is 
one  of  the  transverse  timbers  of  the  frame.  Within 
this  frame  is  suspended  the  stvingvu/-l>ohler  c,  having 
at  its  mid-length  the  ccntcr-msfing  d,  which  forms 
the  bushing  for  the  king-bolt,  and  also  what  may  be 
called  tlie  "  lifth  wheel,"  on  which  the  car-end  o.scil- 
latesas  it  swerves,  rolls,  and  pitches.  The  car-frame 
a  b,  wdiile  supporting  the  car-end  through  the  medium 
of  the  swinging-bolster  as  d?scribed,  is  itself  sup- 
ported through  the  medium  of  the  gum-springs  c  e, 


a  pair  on  ea(  h  .sjde  of  the  truck  upon  the  equalizing 
bar/,  whose  ends  rest  upon  the  iqiper  boxes  of  the 
axlc-lieariiig.  This  is  the  account  in  short,  but  there 
are  several  other  parts  involved,  as  ^vill  appear  by 
tracing  the  sequence  of  the  impositions  from  the  car 
to  the  rail. 

The  car-end  rests  ujion  the  ccnlcr-casliiig  d,  which 
is  in  a  position  mid-length  of  the  swingivg-bohler  c  ; 
this  rests  ujion  the  upper  members  of  the  cllipl.ii; 
.9/iC('»(7.<  7  r7,which  are  founded  upon  the  suspcnsion- 
har  /(,whicli  connects  the  two  points  of  imposition  of 
the  siuings  g  f/,making  each  a  brace  for  the  other. 
The  suspension-bar /i  is  suspended  by  yokes  i  i,  from 
hangers  k  k,  which  are  bolted  to  the  transversc-tivi- 


CAR-TRUCK. 


489 


CAR-TRUCK. 


bers  b  b  o{  the  tiuck-/r««ic,  of  which  they  form  a 
part.  The  Iwu/itudinal  timbers  a  a  of  the  frame, 
on  each  side  of  the  truck,  rest  upon  the  gum-spriiigs 
ec,  and  tliese  upon  the  cqualizing-bar  f,  whose  ends 
are  upon  the  upper  boxes  m  m  of  the  axle,  outside 
of  tlie  wheel  p.  For  the  detail  of  this  portiou  see 
Axle-box. 

The  upper  illustration  of  Fig.  1159  is  a  side  ele- 
vation, and  the  lower  one  is  a  section,  the  respective 
halves  of  the  view  being  taken  on  diti'erent  section- 
lines,  r  is  a  tension-bar  or  lie  to  strengthen  the 
frame ;  s  s  are  safclij-stirrupSy  to  catch  the  suspen- 
sion-bar a,  if  anything  should  give  way  ;  (  is  a  brace- 
rod  lietween  the  two  pcdc^U'ls  u  u,  in  which  the 
axle-box  works  up  and  down  as  the  gum-springs  con- 
tract or  expand,  w  w  are  the  brakc-slwcs,  on  tlie 
end  of  the  brake-bars  x  x,  which  are  moved  by  a  rod 
and  lever  arrangement.     (See  Car-buake.)     y  y  slk 


.1160 


P 


]  axle-boxes  ascend  and  descend,  as  the  springs  give 
way  and  recflver  themselves.  Within  the  side  trusses 
are  bolted  the  ends  of  the  transverse  frame's  ABB'. 
P  is  the  center-casting,  which  rests  on  a  post  /,  and 
this  upon  the  elliptic  springs  in  the  frame  A  B,  as 
I  shown  in  the  upper  portion  of  Fig.  lltiO,  and  on  an 
enlarged  scale  in  the  lower  left-lianj  comer  of  the 
same  ftgure.  The  springs  rest  on  the  bar  L,  and  the 
weight  is  transferred  by  hangers  M  .1/  to  the  main 
frame  and  trusses,  which,  as  has  been  said,  rest  on 
I  the  axle-boxes.  The  mechanism  for  operating  the 
brake-shoes  need  not  be  particularly  described. 

Fig.  1161  repi-esents  a  vertical  longitudinal  sec- 
tion and  side  elevation  of  a  .six-wheeled  truck. 
This  has  a  rigid  frame,  maintaining  tlie  wheels  in 
the  same  line  at  all  times,  but  allowing  them  to 
run  over  curves  in  the  track  by  having  the  flange 
removed  from  the  middle  wheel  of  each  trio.  The 
truck  is  so  supported  that  the  weight  is 
equally  distributed  upon  all  the  wheebs,  by 
resting  it  upon  a  sujiport  over,  Viut  not 
upon,  the  middle  axle,  said  support  being 
sustained  by  .springs  placed  on  each  side  of 
and  equidistant  from  the  middle  axle,  and 
the  whole  weight  being  transferred  to  the 
a.vles  through  a  rigid  frame. 

The  weight  of  the  car-end,  in  this  case 
as  in  the  previous  examples,  is  taken  upon 
the  central  beam,  and  is  then  transferred  to 
swinging-bolsters  H  H,  which  rest  on  gum- 
springs,    and   these   upon   transver.se    bai-s, 
wliich  are  suspended  by  stirrups  from  the 
main  frame,  which,  in  the  example  belbre  us,  is  an 
iron    truss-frame.     The    truss-frame    is    suspended 
from  elliptic  springs,    which  rest  eventually  upon 
the  axle-boxes.    ,V  is  a  side-bearing  block,  to  restrain 
undue  lateral  oscillation  of  the  car. 

Fig.  1162  shows  a  portion  of  an  eight-wheeled 
truck  which  is  composed  of  two  independent  four- 
wheeled  trucks  connected  together  by  means  of  a 

Pig.  1161. 


1 


-V 

Car-Tnick. 


diagonal-brace  rods  for  the  pedestals,  z  z 
are  the  rcUcving-sprin/js  which  throw  the 
shoes  away  from  the  wheel  when  the  ten-  (a 
sion  on  the  brake-mechanism  is  with-  1  ^[ 
drawn,  v  v  are  the  safcti/siiri-ups,  to 
catch  the  brake-bars  if  the  swing-bars 
j  j  should  give  way. 

Thus  it  wUl  be  seen  that  two  sets  of 
springs  intervene  between  the  car  and  the 
rail ;  the  car-end  rests  upon  a  swinging- 
bolster  which  has  elliptical  springs 
beneath  it,  and  these  are  suspended  from  a  frame 
which  itself  rests  upon  gum-springs  on  the  eijualiz- 
ing-bar  which  rests  on  the  axle-boxes. 

There  are  many  modifications  of  the  general  form 
shown  in  Fig.  1159,  but  the  feature  of  a  spring-sup- 
ported bolster  "swinging"      '■' 


Car-  Truck. 


platform  A,  which  is  supported  upon  and  connected 

by  pivots  to  laterally  swinging  bolsters  D  on  each 

sub-truck  (one  only  shown).     The  end  of  the  coach 

is  supported  on    the    middle    transverse  swinging- 

i  bolster  K  of  the  fran.e  A,  and  the  swinging-bolsters 

within  a   frame-.spring  J  in  the  middle  of  the  sub-trucks  abut  upon  rubber 

supported  on  the  n-heel-axles  is  generally  maintained,  i  blocks  at  their  ends,  and  rest  upon  rubber  blocks 

In  Fig.  1160  is  shown  one  modification,  in  which  i  whose  supports  are  swung  from  the  sub-truck  frames 

the  sides  of  the  frame  are  iron  tnisses,  each  composed    b  b'  c,  and  by  them  transferred  to  the  elliptic  side- 

of  a  plate  F  F,  tie  II  H,  and  braces  G  G,  having    springs/,  wliich  rest  upon  saddles  over  the  axle-boxes. 

guides  D  D,  which  act  as  i)edestals  in  which  the  i  ^^^  are  truss-rods  which  strengthen  the  main  frame. 


CAK-TRUCK. 


490 


CAK-VENTILATOR. 


With  lighter  cars,  such  as  those  of  street  railways, 
this  coniliination  of  great  strength  and  elasticity  is 
not  required. 

In  Fig.   1103  is  shown  a  car  whose  bed  is  sup- 


po:  ted,  on  each  side,  at  four  points, 
by  means  of  four  pedestals,  as  many 
rod.s,  and  two  semi-elli|ptie  springs. 

Car-truck   Frame.     The  strong 
wooden  frame  which  lests  >ipon  the 
wheels    by  interaiediate  springs  and 
parts,  ami  which  V>y  other  intcrniedi- 
I    pTVll  I  f  I      ate  springs  supports  the  swinging-bol- 
p^  ster  upon  which  the  car  directly  rests. 

Car-truss.  That  combination  of 
sills,  plates,  braces,  and  tie-iods  which 
forms  the  skeleton  of  the  car,  and 
upon  which,  as  a  frame,  the  Hoor, 
sides,  roof,  etc.,  are  fastened. 

Cart-sad'dle.  The  saddle  upon 
which  rests  the  chain  which  goes  over 
the  horse's  back,  and  whereby  the 
shafts  of  a  cart  are  supporti'd. 

Car'vel  -built.  {Shipbuildinij.) 
a.  A  mode  of  building  in  which  the 
timbers  are  cut  out  of  the  solid, 
as  in  ships  and  the  larger  description 
of  boats,  such  as  launches,  long-boats, 
and  barges.  (See  Boat.)  The  jilanks 
make  Hush  seams  instead  of  lapping, 
as  in  the  cliuchcr-lmiH.  The  seams 
are  calked.  The  frame  of  a  carvel- 
built  boat  generally  consists  of  a  Hoor  and  two  fut- 
tocks. 

6.  A  mode  of  joining  the  plates  of  iron  vessels,  in 
which  the  edges  of  the  plates  are  brought  Hush  to- 


Fiff.  lies. 


Car-Truck. 


gethcr  and  ri\'eted  to  a  lap  or  u-cU  in  the  rear.  In 
clinchcr-luiU  iron  vessels  the  plates  overlap,  and  are 
secured  together  by  one  longitudinal  row  of  rivets. 

Car'vel-joint  A  flush  joint ;  said  of  ship's 
timbers  or  plates,  in  contradistinction  to  cliiiclier. 
See  Cakvel-iuiilt. 

Car-ven'ti-la'tor.  (Railwat/. )  A  device  for 
bringing  livsli  air  into  a  car  and  removing  noxious 
air  therefrom.  ¥ig.  1165  is  one  form, 
in  which  a  cowl  or  hood  1)  on  the  roof 
catches  the  air,  which  is  filtered  through 
a  gauze  screen  and  led  down  through 
the  roof  of  the  car.  Crescent-shaped 
openings  c  deflect  the  air  into  the  car, 

Fig.  1164. 


and  other  openings  lead  up  the  foul  air,  which  is 
discharged  througli  the  vertical  pipes  E.  The  mouths 
of  the  dampers  />  D  are  presented  fore  and  aft  re- 
spectively, and  one  of  the  dampers  a  is  moved,  to 
close  the  pipe,  according  to  the  direction  in  which 
the  car  is  inoving. 

The  device  shown  in  Fig.  1166  is  designed  to  open 
or  close  simultaneously  all  the  alternating  shutters 

Fig.  1165. 


Cur-  Ventilator. 


on  one  .side  of  the  turret  of   "monitor  cars."     All 
the   shutters  maybe  closed  at  once,  yet  it  is  the 


CARVEU. 


491 


CARVING. 


Hg.  1166. 


Car-  Ventilator. 

practice  to  have  one  half  of  the  .shutters  open  while 
the  carriage  is  moving  in  one  direction,  and  to  re- 
verse the  position  of  the  shutters  —  i.  e.  open  those 
which  are  closed  and  close  the  open  ones  —  when  the 
carnage  moves  in  the  opposite  direction. 

The  Biechanism  for  operating  the  shutters  consists 
of  the  slide-bar  H  and  its  operative  lever  /,  and  a 
series  of  slotted  and  bent  levers  F,  and  their  con- 
necting links.  The  slide-bar  H  runs  the  length  of 
the  car-turret.  In  the  upper  figure,  which  is  a 
horizontal  section,  the  rear  shutter  B  is  shown 
open,  and  A  closed.  In  the  loner  figure,  which  is 
in  elevation,  the  lever  is  clearly  shown  by  which 
the  ser'ies  of  ventilating-shutters  are  operated. 

In  Fig.  1167  is  shown  an  adjunct,  consisting  of  a 
means  of  removing  the  dust  from  the  air  entering 
the  induction -openings  D. 

The  paddles  a  on  the  rotating  shaft  dip  into  a 
water-bath  at  the  bottom  of  the    ventilator  when 

Pig.  1167. 


-Y^ntilator. 


actuated  by  the  draft  on  the  fans.  The  dust  in 
the  entering  air  is  collected  in  the  water.  The  air 
passes  through  a  screen  E  before  admittance  to  the 
car.     See  Air-filteu. 

Carv'er.  A  large,  pointed  knife  for  cutting  up 
meat  and  ]ioultry.     See  C.A.RViNG-KyiFF.. 

Carv'ing.    The  art  of  cutting  wood,  etc.,  to  orna- 


mental forms  by  means  of  chisels,  gravers,  scorpers, 
etc.  With  metals.  It  becomes  chasing:  with  plas- 
tic material,  molding. 

It  is  a  very  ancient  art,  having  been  em)iloyed  in 
Assyria,  Babylon,  Persepolis,  Kgypt,  and  Greece 
upon  chariots,  furniture,  weapons,  and  many  other 
objects. 

It  was  about  1491  B.  c.  that  Kezaleel,  of  the  tribe 
of  Judah,  was  specially  selected  for  his  skill  as  a 
workman  in  gold,  silver,  bnvss,  gem  cutting  and  set- 
ting, and  carving  in  wood,  and  was  conmnssioned 
to  execute  the  work  upon  the  Tabernacle  and  its  fur- 
niture. Aholiab,  of  the  tribe  of  Dan,  was  his  fir.^t 
assistant,  and  he  had  other  coadjutors  not  mentioned 
by  name.  The  Egyptians,  among  whom  Jloses, 
Bezaleel,  and  others,  had  been  educated,  were  justly 
renowned  for  their  skill  and  taste  in  carving,  as  is 
abundantly  shown  by  their  chairs,  biers,  couches, 
arms,  chariots,  musical  instruments,  and  other  arti- 
cles cited  under  their  respective  heads  in  this  work. 
To  mention  one  specially,  their  chairs  left  little  to 
be  desired  or  attempted  either  in  comfort,  beauty, 
or  upholstering.     See  Chair. 

The  ornamentation  of  the  Temple  of  Solomon,  and 
its  furniture,  about  1C05  B.  C,  called  for  the  .skill 
of  a  worknjan  who  was  of  a  riii.xed  Tyrian  and  Ls- 
raelitish  descent.  His  skill  in  carving  and  casting 
was  derived  from  his  father,  who  followed  the  busi- 
ness of  a  pattern-maker  and  bronze-founder  in 
Tyre. 

The  ornamentation  of  the  day  consisted  of  copies 
of  natural  objects,  foi-mally  associated,  resemliling 
that  which,  frozen  into  conventional  forms,  gave  a 
severe  grace  to  the  Grecian  arcliitecture.  The  capi- 
tals of  the  bronze  columns  erected  by  Hiram  Abift' 
were  ornamented  by  "  nets  of  checker  work,  and 
wreaths  of  chain  works,"  lilies  and  pomegranates  be- 
ing strung  upon  the  pillars  and  their  capitals. 

"Hiram  made  the  lavere,  and  the  shovels,  ajid 
the  basins.  The  two  pillare,  and  the  bowls  of  the 
chapiters  on  the  top  of  the  two  pillars,  and  the  two 
networks  to  cover  the  two  bowls  of  the  two  chapi- 
ters, —  and  four  hundred  pomegranates  for  the  two 
networks,  even  two  rows  of  pomegranates  for  one 
network,  —  and  the  ten  bases,  and  ten  lavers  on 
the  bases  ;  and  one  sea,  and  twelve  o.xen  under  the 
sea  ;  —  all  these  vessels  were  of  bright  brass  " 
(bronze),  and  were  cast  in  the  plain  of  Jordan,  "  in 
the  clay  ground  between  Succoth  and  Zere- 
dathah." 

These  utensils,  together  with  the  gi'eat  sea 
of  bronze  which  held  2,000  baths,  required 
great  skill  in  carving  and  casting,  and  are 
deemed  very  lemarkable  for  the  time  at  which 
they  were  executed.  The  surprise  expressed 
arises  from  our  own  vanity  and  depreciation 
of  the  skill  of  those  who  preceded  us  a  few 
thousands  of  years.  The  bath,  as  estimated 
by  Josephus,  was  equal  to  Sj  gallons  (S.B6'J6)  ; 
according  to  the  Eabbinical  writers,  4i  gallons 
nearly  (4. 4286)  ;  Smith  estimates  it  at  7i  gal- 
lons. Taking  the  lowest  estimate,  the  brazen 
(bronze)  sea  of  the  tvmple  court  held  over  9,000 
gallons.  The  Chaldees  broke  it  in  j>ieces  to 
remove  it  to  Babylon,  aliout  590  B.  c.  Tliey 
estimated  it  only  as  so  much  metal ;  they 
"carried  the  brass  [bronze]  of  tliem  to  Babylon." 
This  was  a  large  vessel,  and  may  well  be  believed 
of  the  time  when  works  of  art  were  estimated  by 
their  colossal  jHoportions.  The  stones  of  Egypt  and 
Baalbec  are  yet  unrivalled  in  modern  times.  See 
Stone-cvtting. 

The  dooi'S  of  Solomon's  Temple  were  of  olive-ti-ee 
wood,   and  on  them  were  carved   "cherubim  and 


CARVING-CHISKL. 


49:2 


CARVING-MACHINE. 


palm-ti'ces  and  open  flowers."  The  carving  was 
overlaid  with  gold.  Otlier  doors  were  of  fir,  simi- 
larly carved  and  plated. 

The  doors  of  the  temple  of  the  Indian  idol  Soni- 
naiith  were  of  sandal-wood  elaborately  'carved. 
They  were  taken  by  JIalinioud  of  Ghizni,  A.  D. 
1024,  and  were  made  the  entrance-doors  to  his  tomb 
in  Afghanistan.  They  were  retaken  hy  the  British  in 
1842,  and  the  Governor-General,  alter  a  piean  in 
their  praise  worthy  of  a  fakir,  ordered  tlieni  to  be 
restored  "with  all  honor"  to  the  obscene  idol, 
"avenging  the  insult  of  800  years."  Good  sense 
step]ied  in  and  countermanded  the  absurd  order. 
See  Uuoit. 

Carv'iiig-chis'el.  A  chisel  having  an  oblique 
edge  and  a  basil  im  both  sides.      A  skew  chisel. 

Carv'iug-knife.  A  large-sized  knife  used  for 
cutting  meat  at  table.  It  is  usually  handsomely 
mounted.  The  carving-knives  of  two  centuries  since 
were  a  part  of  the  state  service  of  the  refectory. 

Fig.  1168. 


Grace-Knives. 

Those  represented  had  the  grace  before  meat  and 
that  after  meat,  with  the  music  of  the  intonation. 

Achilles  carved  for  his  visitors,  and  each  was  ex- 
pected to  eat  his  mess  without  grumbling.  Joseph 
sent  to  Benjamin  a  larger  mess  than  to  either  of  the 
other  brothers. 

As  to  behavior  at  table,  we  learn  from  Plutarch 
and  others  that  paring  the  nails  at  table  was  the 
height  of  vulgarity  ;  speaking  loud,  spitting  and 
coughing,  were  unregarded  triHes.  As  the  guests 
had  no  forks,  they  wiped  their  greasy  fingers  on,  soft 
bre.ad,  which  they  then  threw  to  the  dogs.  "The 
dogs  eat  of  the  crumbs."  Napkins  came  into 
faslrion  later. 

In  after  ages  each  man  grasped  the  joint  and 
carved  for  himself.  (See  Cask-knife.)  Table-forks 
are  a  much  later  thought ;  they  came  from  Italy  to 
England  in  the  time  of  the  Stuarts.     See  Foiiic. 

Bread,  meat,  and  beer  formed  the  usual  feed  of 
our  ancestors  in  England  down  to  and  during  the 
reign  of  Elizabeth,  and  the  peojile  busied  them- 
selves curiously  in  the  modes  of  carving,  inventing 
a  whole  category  of  technicals.  Juliana  Berncrs, 
lady  [irioress  of  the  nunnery  of  Sopewell  in  the 
fifteenth  cent\n-y,  the  reputed  author  of  the  "  Book 
of  St.  Albans,"  gives  the  following  as  the  terms  ap- 
plied to  carving  the  respective  animals  :  — 

"A  dere  was  broken,  a  gose  reryd,  chekyn 
frusshed,  a  cony  unlaced,  a  crane  dysplayed,  a  cur- 
lewe  unioynted,  a  ipiayle  wyngged,  a  swanue  lyfte, 
a  lambe  sholdered,  a  heron  dysmembryd,  a  peacock 
dysfygured,  a  sanion  chynyd,  a  hadoke  sjTidyd,  a 
sole  loynyd,  and  a  breme  splayed." 

Carv'ing-ma-chine'.  One  for  carving  wood,  or 
roughing  it  out  preparatory  to  the  chisels,  gouges, 
and  scorpers  of  tlie  carver. 

As  early  as  ISOO,  a  Mr.  Watt,  of  London,  built  a 
machine  that  carved  medallions  and  figures  in  ivory 
and  ebony,  producing  some  very  handsome  work 
with  great  rapidity  ;  in  1814  and  1815,  Mr.  John 
Isaac  Hawkins,  of  the  same  city,  produced  a  similar 
machine  for  the  same   purposes  ;    in    1828,    a   Mr. 


Cheverton  built  a  machine  for  similar  ])urposes,  the 
operations  of  which  attracted  considerable  attention 
throughout  Euro]ie. 

BitAiTHW.\rrE's  carving  process  (English),  Novem- 
ber, 1840.  This  process  is  not  dependent  upon  cut- 
ting-tools, but  the  wood  is  burned  away,  or  rather 
converted  into  charcoal.  The  wood  is  steeped  in 
water  for  about  two  hours,  and  the  cast-iron  die,  or 
mold  containing  the  device,  is  heated  to  redness  or 
sometimes  to  a  white  heat,  and  applied  against  the 
wood,  either  by  a  handle,  as  a  branding-iron,  by  a 
lever,  or  by  a  screw-press,  according  to  circumstances. 

The  molds  are  cast  from  plaster  casts  of  the  origi- 
nal models  or  carvings. 

The  saturation  of  the  wood  with  water  prevents 
its  ignition.  It  gives  off  volumes  of  smoke,  but  no 
(lame,  the  wood  being  charred.  After  a  short  time, 
the  iron  is  returned  to  the  furnace  to  be  reheated, 
the  blackened  wood  is  well  rubbed  with  a  liard  brush 
to  remove  the  charcoal-powder,  which,  being  a  bad 
conductor  of  heat,  saves  the  wood  from  material  dis- 
coloration. Before  the  reapplication  of  the  iron 
the  wood  is  again  soaked  in  water,  but  for  a  shorter 
time,  as  the  w'ood  now  absorbs  water  with  greater 
facility. 

The  rotation  of  burning,  brushing,  and  wetting  is 
repeated  10  or  20  times,  or  more,  until,  in  fact,  the 

Fig.  Ilfi9. 


Carving-'Mackine, 

wood  fills  every  cavity  in  the  mold,  the  process  be- 
ing matei-ially  influenced  by  the  character  and  con- 
dition of  the  wood  itself,  and  the  degrees  in  which 
the  moisture  and  heat  are  applied.  The  water  so  far 
checks  the  destruction  of  the  wood,  or  even  its' 
change  of  any  kind,  that  the  burned  surface,  simply 
cleansed  by  brushing,  is  often  employed,  as  it  may 
be  left  either  of  a  very  pale  or  deep  brown,  according 
to  the  tone  of  color  required,  so  as  to  match  old  carv- 
ings of  any  age  ;  or  a  little  scraping  removes  the  dis- 
colored surface. 

Perforated  carvings  are  burned  upon  thick  blocks 
of  wood  and  cut  oil'  with  a  circular  saw. 

In  the  machine  (Fig.  1169)  several  copies  are 
carved  at  once,  the  pattern  being  placed  midway  be- 
tween them.  The  model  and  the  wood  for  the  copies 
are  jilaced,  say,  8  or  10  inches  apart,  on  a  rectilinear 
slide,  free  to  move  in  one  direction  ujion  a  carriage, 
which  is  free  to  move  in  a  direction  at  right  angles  to 
the  former.  This  forms  what  is  called  the7?0(!</)!7-/a- 
bic,  as  by  a  combination  of  the  two  motions  any  diiec- 
tion  may  be  attained.    The  two  movementsof  tlictable 


CARVIN'G-TABI.E. 


493 


CAR-WHEEL. 


are  under  thf  control  of  the  two  hands  of  tlie  work- 
man wliile  he  controls  a  third  slide  with  his  foot.  Tlic 
third  slide,  which  is  vertical  to  the  other  two,  car- 
vies  in  the  center  a  tracer  of  globular  form,  and  also, 
at  8  or  10  inches  on  the  light  and  left  of  the  tracer, 
cutters  of  the  same  globular  form,  which  latter  are 
set  to  make  about  6,000  revolutions  per  minute. 
The  third  slide,  which,  together  with  the  tracer  and 
side-cutters,  forms  one  entire  mass,  descends  upon 
the  wood  with  a  moderate  pressure,  that  sends  the  side- 
cutters  into  the  two  blocks  of  wood  until  the  central 
tracer  rests  in  contact  with  the  model  ;  the  cutting 
then  ceases,  and  the  slide  is  raised  from  the  work  by 
the  treadle. 

In  this  manner,  by  a  multitude  of  vertical  in- 
cisions at  ditl'erent  parts,  the  whole  surface  of  the 
blocks  beneath  the  cutter  is  removed  to  a  depth  cor- 
responding to  the  exact  shape  of  the  model.  For 
e.xpedition,  a  horizont;il  motion  is  imparted  to  the 
bed-plate  moving  the  wood  against  tlie  cutters  ;  the 
depth  at  any  point  l)eing  determined  by  the  contact 
of  the  tracer  with  the  model.  The  necessary  con- 
ditions are,  that  the  tracer  and  cutters  be  alike  in 
foim  and  size,  and  that  the  distance  between  them, 
am}  also  the  distance  between  the  model  and  copies, 
whether  8  or  10  inches,  or  any  other  measure,  be 
preserved  throughout  the  one  process. 

The  above  case,  in  which  the  work  lies  horizon- 
tally, is  that  most  usually  recpiired  ;  but  when  the 
work  lias  to  be  carved  on  all  three  sides,  —  as,  for  e.x- 
ample,  in   brackets  or  consoles   projecting   from  a 
wall,  —  although  the  arrangement  of  the  central  tra- 
cer and  the  cutters  parallel  therewith,  partaking  of  a 
vertical  motion  in  common,  be  preserved,  the  model 
and  copies  are  all  three  adjusted  so  as  at  one  time 
all  to  lie  on  their  backs,  at  other  times  on  their 
light  and  left  sides,  with  the   progi'ess  of  the  work,  r 
Sometimes  this  change  is  effected  simultaneously  by  ' 
mounting  them  on  platfonns  that  are  situated  on  1 
fixed  parallel  and  erjuidistant  axes,  and  shifting  all  I 
three  at  one  movement,  by  a  simple  an-angeraent 
derived  from  the  oi-diuaiy  parallel  rule  with  radius- 
bara. 

In  case  of  figures  carved  in  the  round,  or  on  every 
side,  the  central  model  and  two  copies  are  built  above  ! 
one  wide  bar,  upon  three  circulating  pedestals  or  turn-  ! 
plates,  w  ith  graduations  or  detents,  by  which  the  three  ' 
objects  may  be  alike  twisted  round  to  face  any  point  | 
of  the  compa.ss  ;  and  as  the  wide  bar  upon   which 
the  three  circulating  pedestals  are  built  has  a  tilting 
motion  by  which  the  three  pedestals  may  be  all  alike 
placed  either  horizontally,  or  inclined  to  the  right 
or  left,  in  any  degree,   until  nearly  vertical,  it   is 
clear  that  these  two  directions  of  motion  constitute 
univer.sal  joints,  and  enable  any  and  every  similar 
part,  of  all  three  objects,  to  be  presented  to  the 
tracer  and  cuttei-s  respectively. 

The  machines  are  used  for  wood,  soft  stone, 
marble,  and  alabaster. 

The  Blauchard  machine  for  turning  irregular 
forms  has  been  used  for  turning  ]a.st.s,  spokes,  axe- 
handles,  gun-stocks,  busts,  etc.,  and  in  some  of  its 
applications  may  be  termed  a  caiTing-maehine.  It 
ditfei-s  from  those  just  described  in  the  circumstance 
that  the  object  to  be  turned  is  rotated,  constituting 
the  machine  a  true  lalhc,  while  the  revolving  cutter 
is  drawn  out  or  in  by  means  of  a  revolving  pattern. 
The  variations  of  detail  will  be  mentioned  under 
Lathe  (which  seel. 

Carv'ing-ta'ble.  A  table  heated  with  hot  water, 
in  which  are  dcpre.stions  fomiing  pans  to  hold  joints 
of  meat. 

Car-Dirheel.  One  adapted  for  the  uses  of  care,  or 
the  trucks  of  laihvav  cars. 


They  were  originally  like  those  in  ordinarj'  use, 
and  were  guided  bv  ttiinge.i  on  the  rails,  as  iu  the 
ca.se  of  the  Sheffield  Colliery  Railroad,  1767.  At  this 
time  the  rails  were  of  east-iron. 

In  1789,  car-wheels  were  made  with  flanges,  to 
run  on  the  cdtje-rait,  which  was  firat  made  of  cast- 
iron  and  used  at  Loughborough,  England. 

In  Stephenson  and  Losh's  patent,  1S16,  car-wheels 
were  made  with  wronght-iron  spokes,  the  hub  and 
rim  being  cast  on  to  thein.  A  wronght-iron  tire 
was  shrunk  on  to  the  rim,  and  secured  in  its  seat  by 
a  dovetailed  depression. 

In  Fig.  1170  are  shown  a  few  examples  of  the 
numerous  inventions  of  this  class. 

n  a'  represent  the  famous  Washburn  wheel  so 
familiar  to  us  all.     It  has  an  arch  at  the  central 


portion  adjacent  to  the  hub,  and  the  apex  of  the 
arch  is  connected  by  a  curved  web  with  the  rim, 
the  jnnction  of  the  web  and  rim  being  strengthened 
by  ribs  or  brackets,  a  is  a  side  elevation,  and  a'  a 
diametric  section. 

b  V  are  pei-spective  and  sectional  views  of  a  wheel 
whose  hub  is  connected  bv  spokes  with  the  rim. 
Such  was  Stephenson  and  Losh's,  already  men- 
tioned ;  indeed,  this  is  quite  an  antiquated  form. 

c  is  one  of  the  Woodbuiy  wheels,  which  has  a 
compressed  annular  elastic  packing  between  the 
cylindrical  faces  of  the  body  and  rim  :  the  jiacking 
being  firet  eoni]uessed  on  the  peripln'iy  of  the  body, 
and  the  rim  then  adjusted  upon  the  latter.  The 
body  is  sectional,  having  two  webs  bolted  together  ; 
one  belontrs  w  ith  the  hub,  and  the  other  is  fitted  in 
a  rabbet  thereon.     Each  portion  has  a  flanged  rim, 


CAK -WHEEL. 


494 


CAR-WHEEL  FURNACE. 


the  coniliinatiou  of  the  two  forming  an  anmilar  scat 
for  tile  tire.  Tlie  interposed  packing  is  intended  to 
absorb  the  jar. 

d  is  a  wlieel  cast  in  three  separate  pieces,  consist- 
ing of  a  rim  and  two  portions,  each  of  which  latter 
.  has  a  liub  and  a  web,  between  which  the  inner 
Hange  of  the  rim  is  gripped  and  bolted. 

The  wheel  c  has  side-plates  cast  in  one  piece 
with  the  hub  and  cross-pieces,  which  connect  the 
peripheries  of  the  side-plates.  The  encircling  tire 
is  secured  by  rivets. 

In  the  wheel  /,  the  tire  has  pins  upon  its  inner 
side,  which  enter  slots  in  the  rim  of  the  wheel,  to 
hold  the  tire  from  shifting.  The  flange-piece  has  a 
shoulder  projecting  on  the  inside,  that  tits  in  a  cir- 
cular groove  in  the  body  of  the  wheel,  to  which  it  is 
bolted. 

The  wheel  g  has  a  circular  recess  to  receive  a  collar 
on  the  axle,  over  which  is  bolted  a  covering  annular 
disk.  This  device  is  to  allow  the  revolution  of  one 
of  the  wheels  upon  the  a.Kle  in  curves  of  the  track. 

A  is  a  car-wheel  constructed  in  two  parts  :  first,  a 
rim  with  two  flanges  forming  an  inner  recess  ;  and, 
second,  a  hub  with  a  web,  and  flange  upon  the  web, 

Fig.  11:1^ 


Cnr-Whet}f. 

flaring  slightly  outward.  Slots  in  this  flange  (the 
circumference  of  which  is  slightly  larger  than  th.it 
of  tlie  inner  edge  of  the  rim)  permit  it  to  spring  past 
the  flange  of  the  rim  into  the  inner  recess.  This 
device  dispenses  with  the  tise  of  bolts, 
and  gives  elasticity  to  the  wheel. 

i  and  j  are  two  forms  of  wheel,  in 
each  of  which  the  cast  hub  and  rim 
are  connected  by  coriugated  wrought- 
metal  disks. 

k  is  the  Kaddin  wheel,  in  which  the 
entire  web  and  rim  are  cast  in  one 
piece,  and  the  inner  edge  of  the  web 
rests  upon  the  hub.  The  hub  is  farmed 
with  supporting  flanges  or  binding 
rings,  wliich  are  bolted  to  each  other 
through  enlarged  holes  in  the  web, 
witli  interposed  packing-rings  of  India- 
rulilier  to  lessen  tremor  and  jar. 

I  V  are  two  views  of  the  Watson 
wheel,  in  which  the  space  between  the 


hub  and  the  rim  is  occupied  by  a  skeleton  metallic 
li'ame,  whose  openings  aie  filled  with  panels  of  wood 
compres.sed  therein. 

In  the  wheel  m  (Fig.  1171),  wedges  of  wood  are 
driven  between  the  rim  and  the  tire.  The  i^urjiose 
of  these,  also,  is  to  absorb  jar. 

n  11'  are  views  of  a  compound  wheel  in  which  seg- 
ments of  wood  form  a  web  between  the  hub  and  the 
rim,  being  secured  and  strengthened  by  metallic 
plates. 

0  0'  are  views  of  a  wheel  in  which  the  hub  and 
rim  are  of  cast-iron  united  by  wrought-iron  spokes, 
each  alternate  spoke  leaning  at  an  angle  from  ojjpo- 
site  sides  of  the  central  circu>— t'n-ence  of  the  hub  to 
the  central  line  of  the  rim. 

(/  is  a  wheel  somewhat  similar  to  Ic,  in  which  the 
web  of  the  wheel  is  inclosed  between  binding-plates, 
and  has  a  [lacking- between  itself  and  the  plates,  aud 
also  on  its  inner  edge. 

Paper  also  enters  into  the  composition  of  some 
car-wheels.  The  paper  is  tightly  pressed  in  as  a 
packing  between  the  steel  tires  and  the  cast-iron 
hubs,  so  as  to  form  a  compact,  strong,  and  yet 
somewhat  resilient,  material,  which  deadens  sound 
and  diminishes  the  force  of  concussion. 

"There  are  in  daily  use,  on  the  37,000  miles  of 
railway  in  the  United  States,  not  less  than  1,250,000 
truck  and  car  wheels,  under  8,500  locomotives,  C,500 
passenger-cars,  2,700  baggage  and  express  cars,  and 
160,000  freight-cars. 

"The  available  statistics  show  that  passenger-cars 
make  an  annual  mileage  of  28,400  miles,  or  881'ifti 
miles  per  day  of  320  days  per  annum  ;  the  average 
load  borne  on  each  car-wheel  to  be  3J  tons.  AVith 
this  load  the  ai'erage  life  of  a  wheel  is  45,000  miles, 
or  If'iftT  years.  On  trains  running  at  express  speeds, 
the  average  life  does  not  exceed  10  months'  service, 
while  wheels  under  tender-trucks  have  a  life  of  18 
months.  Under  freight  service  in  the  State  of  New 
York,  with  an  annual  train-mileage  of  11,483,123 
miles,  transporting  75.5  tons  of  freight  per  train, 
the  annual  mileage  per  car  was  14,649  miles,  each 
wheel  bearing  an  average  load  of  1.47  tons,  which 
gives  3.08  years  as  the  life  of  a  freight-wheel,  cor- 
responding with  the  experience  of  one  of  the  princi- 
pal roads  in  the  State. 

"But,  assuming  the  average  life  of  car-wheels, 
under  all  kinds  of  service,  to  be  five  years,  the 
total  number  of  wheels  worn  out  annually  in  the 
United  States  will  not  be  less  than  250,000. 

"At  an  average  cost  of  eighteen  dollars  per  wheel, 
allowing  about  one  half  for  tlie  value  of  tlie 
old  wheel,  the  annual  loss  may  be  stated  at  two 
and  a  quarter  millions  of  dollars." — W.  G.  Ham- 
II^TON. 

Car-Tvheel  Fur'nace.  One  in  which  cast-iron 
car-wheels  are  heated,  and  then  cooled  slowly,  so  as 

Fig.  1172. 


Car-  Wheel  LaAt, 


CAR-WHEEL  LATHE. 


49c 


CASE. 


See 


to  anneal  them,  and  render  them  less  brittle. 

AXXF..\LTNG-FL-UNACE. 

Car-wheel  Lathe.  One  which  is  adapted  for 
tniniug  ort'  the  rims  of  two  driving-wheels  after  they 
have  been  pressed  on  to  the  axle  ;  or  for  turning  oil' 
the  wheels  separately,  a  b  are  the  face-plates,  8 
feet  6  inches  apart,  and  fomiing  head-stocks  separ- 
ately geared  and  independently  driven,  if  desired. 
c  d  are  the  tools  mounted  in  the  slide-rests  e  f, 
which  are  adjustalile  on  the  bed  g. 

Car-wiu'dow.  (Railway.)  Car- windows  are 
n§a;illy  arranged  to  lift,  and,  being  light,  have  no 
counterpoises. 

Ventilating  car-windows  are  made  to  open  at  the 
side  towards,  for  the  time  being,  the  rear  of  the  car, 

Fig.  1173. 


Car-Wintlow. 

SO  as  to  canse  an  induced  draft  from  the  interior  by 
the  rushing  pa.st  of  the  air  when  the  car  is  in  mo- 
tion. 

The  frame  of  the  window  projects  sufficiently  far 
from  the  body  of  tlie  car  to  admit  of  there  being  ap- 
plied to  it,  on  each  side,  a  valve  or  side  window  C, 
which  can  be  opened  or  closed  as  desired,  and  retained 
in  either  position  for  the  purpose  of  ventilating  the 
car. 

The  side  windows  C  ■vibrate  on  hinges  at  b,  and 
are  retained  in  position  by  the  spring  c,  either  open 
or  closed  against  the  front  window  B. 

Car--wrin'dow  Fast'en-ing.  A  spring-bolt  which 
holds  a  car-wiuilow  sash  at  any  required  elevation, 
according  to  provision  of  holes  in  the  casing  for  the 
reception  of  the  bolt. 

A  cam  or  snail-sliaped  piece  secured  to  the  face  of 
the  sash,  and  binding  by  tlie  weight  of  the  same 
against  the. beading,  to  hold  the  sa.•^h  at  any  eleva- 
tion. 

Car'y-at'i-des.  (Architcclurc.)  Female  figures 
placed  as  columns  to  support  an  entablature.  JIale 
figures  in  tliis  position  and  relation  are  called  Allan- 
tcs,  Tflinnonc%  or  Pcrsiajis. 

Cas'ca-bel.  [Ordnance.)  The  rear  portion  of  a 
gnu,  embracing  the  hwb,  base,  and  btuK-ring.  The 
cascabels  of  ships'  guns  have  breechiiwi-loops  in 
place  of  knobs,  intended  for  the  breechiny,  whose 
ends  pass  to  ring-bolts  on  eacli  side  of  the  port,  and 
whose  duty  is  to  limit  the  recoil. 

Cas-cade'.  A  pyrotechnic  device  to  imitate  sheets 
or  jets  of  water.     Cliinese  fire  is  used. 

Case.  1.  (Prinlinrj.)  Types  are  arranged  in  a 
case,  which  is  a  tray  with  compartments  for  the  let- 
ters. Two  pairs  of  cases  aie  allowed  to  a  comjiositor, 
and  constitute  a  frame ;  one  pair  contains  Roman 
letters,  and  the  other  italics. 

The  sizes  of  the  compartments  are  nnequally  pro- 
portioned, as  some  letters  occur  more  frequently  than 
others.  It  is  also  designed  to  place  those  compart- 
ments most  frequently  resorted  to  nearest  to  the  or- 
dinary position  of  the  hand,  so  that  expedition  may 
be  secured.  The  proportion  of  English  letters  in  a 
case  is  as  follows  :  — 


a,  8,500  e,  12,000 

b,  1,600  f,     2,500 

c,  3,000  g,    1,700 

d,  4,400  h,    0,400 


i,   8,000  m, 3,000 

i,       400  n,  8,000 

'k,      800  0,  8,000 

1,   4,000  p,  1,700 


q,      500 

t,   9,000 

w,  2,000 

z,       200 

r,   6,200 

u,  3,400 

X,       400 

See  FosT. 

s,   8,000 

V,  1,200 

y,   2,000 

The  lower  case,  as  arranged  for  an  ordinary  work 
in   Englisli,   has  54  boxes  of  different  sizes  ;  these 
contain  the  various  small  letters  (hence  styled  "low- 
er-case letters  "),  the  marks  of  punctuation,  the  fig- 
Fig.  1174 


Printer  at  Case. 

urcs,  and  spaces  and  "  quadrats  "  of  different  sizes. 
Tlie  upper  case  has  98  boxes  of  uniform  size.  These 
contain  the  capitals,  small  capitals,  and  various  char- 
acters which  are  in  frequent  use,  such  as  parentheses, 
stars,  and  other  signs  of  reference,  dashes,  dollar  and 
pound  marks,  and  so  on. 

In  the  upper  case  the  letters  are  arranged  in  al- 
phabetical order  in  the  lower  rows,  the  cajiitals  on 
the  left,  the  small  capitals  on  the  right.  In  the  lower 
case  the  letters  are  not  arranged  in  alphabetical  or- 
der, but  in  such  a  way  as  to  bring  those  most  fre- 

Fig.  1175 


. 

1^= 

"T~ 

s    1 

]  1 

^    .'-Dff, 

Lb 

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.;. 

■i    , 

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T 

< 

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4 

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H  ' 

H 

si 

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£ 

ir 

1 

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^  . 

: 

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J£. 

(E  1 

. 

- 

-1 

■'- 

* 

.. 

^ 

A 

R 

c 

V 

E    , 

F 

0 

A 

. 

= 

- 

£ 

■> 

H 

T 

K 

I 

sr 

X 

n 

It 

. 

K 

1 

-.1    ' 

, 

° 

r 

.h 

(J 

T    '. 

Y 

^v  i 

' 

« 

n 

r 

V 

» 

X  ; 

Y  , 

Ll 

J 

V    1 

J 

_1 

X 

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b 

b 

^^ 

= 

ill. 

ip" 

ti 

m 

l')«M 

FF 

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FFI 

^^ 

F 

;,  ,|7;|,i|s||j 

^* 

0 

■ 

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fl 

9    |. 

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Ill 

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J 

Upper  and  LoH-fr  Ca.^e. 

quently  used  directly  in  fiont  of  the  compositor. 
To  get  AJoTz  the  liand  of  the  compositor  must  pass 
over  a  space  of  nearly  three  feet,  while  to  get  a.  t  or  e 
it  traverses  only  three  or  four  inches.  If  the  letters 
were  arranged  in  alphabetical  order,  the  work  of 
composition  woulii  be  at  least  doubled. 

Besides  these  usual  sorts,  there  are  many  others  not 
unfrequently   employed,  such  as  accented  vowels, 


CASE-BAY. 


496 


CASHMERE. 


.superior  fijjure.*;  (l  -  '  etc.),  superior  letters  (* '  •  etc.), 
fiiictions,  and  many  otliers,  about  a  liunJred  in  all. 
These  are  usually  kcjit  in  a  sepai-ate  ease. 

2.  (Bookbindiuij.)  A  cover  made  ready  for  its  con- 
tents, —  the  hook. 

3.  (Masonrii.)  An  outside  facing  of  a  building,  of 
material  superior  to  that  of  the  backing. 

4.  (Joinerij.)  a.  An  inclosing  frame;  as,  the  .sash- 
casing  ;  a  hollow  bo.'c  on  the  sides  of  the  frame,  in 
whioli  the  weights  work. 

b.  The  frame  in  which  a  door  is  hung.  c.  Tlie  in- 
closure  of  a  stair. 

5.  (  Wcaciitp. )     Tlie  pulley-box  of  a  button-loom. 

6.  (Pijrotcc)iiiks.)  Tlie  paper  cylinder  or  capsule 
of  a  fireworl;. 

7.  (Milling.)  A  small  fissure  which  lets  water 
into  the  workings. 

Case-bay.  (Ccn-pculrij.)  Tlie  space  between  a 
pair  of  girders  or  two  principals  of  a  roof  or  ceiling. 

Case-hard'en-ing  I'ron.  A  process  of  cemen- 
tation whii'ii  converts  the  surface  of  iron  to  steel. 
It  diU'eis  maiidy  from  the  manufac:ture  of  true  steel 
in  the  ditl'ereut  lengths  of  time  employed,  and  in 
the  clepth  to  which  it  extends.  Case-hardening  is 
eH'ected  by  packing  the  article  to  be  hardened  in  a 
box  witli  charcoal,  ground  or  broken  bones,  par- 
ticles of  horns,  rawliide,  or  tanned  leather.  The 
closed  bo.-c  witli  its  contents  is  placed  in  an  envelop- 
ing Hre  in  a  furnace.  The  fuel  is  preferalily  char- 
coal. The  longer  the  heat  is  kept  up,  the  deeper 
will  be  the  action  of  the  ci'uieuting  materials.  This 
jiroccss  is  lengthy,  and  not  always  convenient. 
Freiiuently  all  the  mechanic  re^iuires  is  a  thin  coat- 
ing of  indurated  metal  on  the  outside  of  the  article, 
which  will  not  be  subject  to  ordinary  abrasion  or 
the  action  of  a  fde. 

A  simple  method  of  case-hardening  small  cast-iron 
work  is  to  make  a  mixture  of  equal  parts  of  pulver- 
ized prussiate  of  potash,  saltpetre,  and  sal-am- 
moniac. The  articles  must  be  heated  to  a  dull  red, 
then  rolled  in  tliis  powder,  and  afterwards  plunged 
into  a  bath  of  4  ounces  of  .sal-aunnoniac  and  2 
ounces  of  the  prussiate  of  potash  dissolved  in  a  gal- 
lon of  water. 

Sheelian  packs  a  layer  of  limestone  in  the  bottom 
of  the  box,  and  then  layers  of  a  composition  alter- 
nating with  and  inclosing  the  iron  to  be  steelified. 
The  com]l0^itiou  is,  —  charcoal  saturated  with  water, 
200  ;  chloride  sodium,  30  ;  sal  soda,  12  ;  pulv. 
rosin,  5  ;  black  ox.  manganese,  5  ;  mixed.  Lute  on 
the  top,  heat,  remove  while  hot,  and  plunge  into 
cold  water. 

Case-knife.  A  large  table-knife.  It  was  for- 
nu'rly  kejit  in  a  case  or  sheath,  and  the  name  is  a 
remembrance  of  the  good  (?)  old  times  when  every 
guest  carried  liis(i\vn  knife  to  the  feast,  helped  liim- 
self  from  the  joint,  was  innocent  of  forks  or  napkins, 
and  finished  by  using  it  for  ]iicking  his  teeth  or 
settling  accounts  with  his  neighbor  after  picking  a 
ipiarrel. 

"  Many  were  the  tables  [at  the  I^ondon  Lord 
Mayor's  feast,  1663],  but  none  in  the  hall  but  the 
Mayor's  and  the  Lords  of  the  Privy  Council  that 
had  napkins  or  knives."  —  Pf.I'Ys. 

■'The  food  of  the  Celtffi  consists  of  loaves  of  bread 
aiul  meat  floating  in  the  broth,  broiled  on  the  coals 
or  roasted  on  spits.  They  grasp  the  meat  in  both 
hands,  but  in  a  cleanly  manner,  and  gnaw  at  it  like 
lions  ;  if  any  part  is  too  tough  to  be  torn,  they  draw 
their  ca.se-knives,  with  which  each  is  pro\ided." 
—  PosinoNirs  ;  (juoted  in  the  "  Deipnosophists  " 
(,v.  D.  220). 

"Tlieir  platters  are  of  earthenware,  silver,  brass, 
wood,  or  basket-work." —  Ibid. 


Case-lock.     A  box-lock  screwed  on  to  the  face 

of  a  dofjr. 

Case'mate.  1.  {Fortification.)  A  vault  of  ma- 
son's woik  in  the  flank  of  a  bastion  or  elsewhere  in 
a  fortification. 

Cnsematc.<!  with  embrasures  are  dcfaisibh  cascmate-f. 
Barrack  and  store  aiscmatcs  are  bomb-proofs  for 
shelter  and  supplies. 

2.  (Joinery.)  A  small  hollow  molding  or  cove, 
equal  to  aliout  i  to  J  of  a  circle.     See  Mciluixg. 

Case'mate-gun.  A  gun  is  mounted  in  casemate 
when  it  is  placed  in  a  protected  chamber  and  files 

V\i.  117G 


CnsfmnU'  Cnrriaqe. 

through  an  embrasure.  The  construction  of  the  car- 
riage ililfers  somewhat  from  that  of  the  barbette. 

Case'mate-truck.  (]\liidc.)  A  truck  for  trans- 
porting guns,  etc.,  in  casemate  galleries  or  through 
]iosterns.  Tlie  bed  consists  of  two  longitudinal  rails 
forming  the  sides  of  the  body,  united  by  thivc  tran- 
soms. The  whole  rests  on  four  wheels  or  rollers  of 
cast-iron,  and  is  guided  by  means  of  a  tongue. 

Case'ment.  A  sash  or  glass  frame  opening  on 
hinges  and  revolving  upon  one  of  the  vertical  edges. 
A  Frnirh  \vindow. 

Case-pa'per.     The  outside  (juires  of  ii  ream. 

Caae-shot.  Ca.<ic-shol,  or  slirnpnd,  as  they  are 
frequently  termed,  from  the  name  of  the  English 
officer  by  whom  they  were  introduced,  about  ISOS, 
are  a  thin  species  of  shell  Idled  with  bullets,  and 
having  a  fuse  which  is  so  cut  or  arranged  as  to  burst 
the  case  about  sixty  yards  in  front  of  the  object  tired 
at,  so  as  to  scatter  the  bullets  ovur  a  considerable 
sjiare.  This,  under  favorable  circumstances,  is  a 
very  efficient  projectile,  and  would  be  still  more  so 
were  it  possible  to  cut  the  fuse  to  such  exactness  as 
to  always  explode  just  at  the  desired  point.  The 
shot  are  sometimes  placeil  in  a  tin  cylinder  with  a 
wooden  sabot,  and  used  without  a  fuse  at  ranges  of 
300  yarils.     This  is  distinctively  known  as  cnni.ster. 

Case-wind'ing  'Watch.  Thcurer,  of  Switzer- 
land (L'nitcd  States  ]iateiit,  February  6,  1S66),  has 
a  watch  .so  constructed  that  the  opening  of  the  cover 
winds  up  the  woiks.     It  cannot  be  overwound. 

Guizot,  April  12,  1870,  rotates  the  case  on  its  pin- 
tle, to  wind  the  watch. 

Case-Twork.  (Bookbindini/.)  A  book  glued  on 
the  bark  and  stuck  into  a  cover  previously  prepared. 

Cash'er-box.  (Glass-man ujai-t arc.)  A  table 
covered  with  coal  cinders,  on  which  the  globe  of  glass 
is  rested  while  the  blowing-tube  is  detached  and  a 
rod  attached  to  the  other  jiole  of  the  globe,  prepara- 
tory to  finshiiiy.      See  Crowx-GLAss. 

Cash'mere.  (Fabric.)  a.  A  fine  shawl  fabric 
formerly  made  only  in  the  valley  of  Cashmere,  but 
now  made  in  many  parts  of  the  Pnnjab.  The  best 
are  yet  made  in  Ca.shmere.  It  is  ni.ade  of  the  downy 
wool  of  the  Thibet  goat,  dyed  iu  vaiious  colors  before 
weaving. 

Several  accounts  have  been  given  of  the  process 
adopted  by  t)ie  natives  in  weaving  the  shawls.  It 
is  sometimes  woven  in  comparatively  narrow  strips, 
which  are  afterwards  joineil.  The  figures  are  put  in 
by  the  shuttle  in  those  of  -superior  (piality,  and  by 
the  needle  in  those  of  a  lower  description.  It  ap- 
pears that  the  waters  of  a  canal  flowing  from  the 


CASHMERETTE. 


497 


CASTANET. 


Lake  of  Cashmere  have  something  to  do  with  im- 
parting the  peculiar  softness  to  the  fabric. 

The  process  ft  extremely  slow  ;  one  account  states 
that  a  single  shawl  occupies  three  men  for  six  months. 
Another  account  states  that  the  plain  shawls  only  are 
worked  by  the  shuttle,  and  the  colors  are  all  inserted 
by  needles  through  the  shed  of  the  warp,  a  separate 
needle  being  used  for  each  color.  The  work  is  jia-ssed 
through  a  number  of  hands,  as  customary  in  that  old 
eountiT  ;  the  merchants  buj-ing  the  yarn  and  employ- 
ing weavers,  who  receive  from  3  to  2-1  cents  a  day. 
The  overseer  of  a  shop  receives  the  latter  handsome 
amount,  from  which  he  boajds  himself.  Eighty 
thousand  shawls  are  supposed  to  be  about  the  annual 
produce  of  the  kingdom. 

Cashmere  shawls  made  from  the  imported  wool  of 
the  goat  are  made  in  Paris,  Lyons,  and  NLsmes. 
The  Jacquard  loom  is  useil,  drawing  the  colored 
threads  to  the  surface  as  required.  The  colored 
threads  floating  at  the  back  of  the  shawl  in  the  in- 
tervals of  their  appearance  on  the  face  are  subsequent- 
ly cut  off,  and  the  cut  ends  reveal  the  imitation. 

A  French  loom  has  been  invented  for  the  purpose 
of  avoiding  this  difficulty  and  making  both  sides 
alike.  The  yarns  of  the  weft  are  not  only  equal  in 
number  to  the  colors  of  the  pattern,  but  separate 
bobbins  are  provided  for  each  repetition  of  a  color 
across  the  shawl.  Each  bobbin  or  pirn  stops  at  the 
end  of  the  figure,  and  returns  on  its  track  after  cross- 
ing the  track  of  the  adjoining  bobbin.  Thus  the 
weft  is  made  up  of  an  interlocked  series  of  threads, 
each  occupjing  a  short  portion  of  the  length  of  the 
weft,  according  to  the  limits  of  its  figure  in  the 
general  design. 

The  Hindoo  shawl,  so  called,  is  made  in  France, 
of  a  silk  chain,  and  cashmcre-doicn  filling. 

In  other  varieties,  the  weft  is  silk  and  down  ;  and 
at  Xismes,  spun  silk,  Thibet  down,  and  cotton  are 
all  worked  up  together. 

b.  A  woolen  and  cotton  figured  dress-goods,  named 
in  imitation  of  the  cashmere  fabric. 

Cash-me-rette'.  {Fabric.)  A  lady's  dress-goods, 
made  with  a  soft  and  glossy  surface  in  imitation  of 
cashmere. 

Cas'ing.  1.  {Mdnl-vmrking.)  The  middle  wall 
of  a  blast-furnace.  Beginning  from  the  inside,  we 
find,  the  lining,  stuffing,  casing,  and  mantle.  See 
Bl.\st-furnace. 

2.  (Shipbuilding.)  The  cylindrical  curb  around 
a  steamboat  funnel,  protecting  the  deck  from  the 
heat. 

3.  (Blasting.)  A  wooden  tunnel  for  powder  hose 
in  blasting.     Hose-trough  ;  augei. 

Cask.  1.  A  large  wooden  vessel  made  of  staves 
held  together  by  hoops,  and  having  heads  retained 
by  grooves  in  the  interior  perimeter  of  the  cask,  near 
the  chines. 

Casks  are  of  various  proporrions  and  shapes.  The 
larger  are  known  by  specific  names,  as  the  vats  and 
tuns  of  the  brewer  and  distiller  ;  smaller  are  the 
pipes,  butts,  puncheons,  and  hogsheads  for  wine, 
etc.  ;  smaller  still  is  the  barrel,  which  has  almost 
superseded  in  the  United  States  all  other  kinds  of 
casks  for  the  commercial  transportation  of  liquids, 
such  as  whiskey,  petroleum,  vinegar,  etc.  Least  are 
kegs  and  drums.  A  cask  knocked  down,  and  the 
staves  and  headings  bundled  and  hooped,  is  known 
as  a  shook. 

The  wood  for  casks  is  s&vm  into  lengths,  and 
these  into  narrower  pieces,  called  codlings.  These 
are  listed  or  hewed  to  give  them  a  taper  towards 
each  end.  They  are  then  cleft  into  staves  by  a 
frow  and  maul.  They  are  then  dressed  to  give  the 
convex   exterior,   concave   interior  surface.      Then 


joiiUed,  which  gives  the  shape  to  tlie  edges,  so  that, 
when  drawn  in  at  the  chines,  the  staves  shall  fit 
closely  against  each  other. 

A  splayed  cask  is  one  having  a  flaring  or  conical 
form. 

A  bulged  cask  is  one  swelling  at  the  middle. 

In  the  dry  climate  and  w  ith  the  linjited  timber  of 
Egj-pt,  casks  for  liquids  were  but  little  used,  but 
some  of  their  drj-  measures  were  made  of  staves  and 
hooped  wood  or  metal. 

"  The  chief  freight  [of  the  boats  on  the  Euphrates] 
is  wine,  stored  in  casks  made  of  the  wood  of  the 
palm-tree." —  Herodotus,  I.  194. 

2.  (Ih/eing.)  One  form  of  steam -apparatus  for 
steaming  cloths  which  have  been  printed  with  a  mix- 
ture of  dye-extracts  and  mordants,  in  order  to  fix 
the  colors.  It  is  a  hollow  cylinder,  within  which 
the  cloths  are  suspended  for  the  application  of  the 
steam  admitted  to  the  interior  of  the  drum. 

Cas'se-gra'ni-an  Tel'e-scope.  A  foi-m  of  the 
reflecting-telescope  in  which  the  great  speculum  is 
perforated  like  the  Gregorian,  but  the  rays  conver- 
ging from  the  surface  of  the  mirror  are  reflected  back 
by  a  small  convex  mirror  in  the  axis  of  the  telescope, 
and  come  to  a  focus  at  a  point  near  the  aperture  in 
the  specuhmi,  where  thej'  form  an  inverted  image, 
which  is  viewed  by  the  eye-piece  screwed  into  the 
tube  behind  the  speculum.     See  Telescope. 

Cas'si-mere.  (Fabric.)  A  single-width  men's 
woolen  goods,  twilled  and  oil-finished.  Kerseymere 
is  probably  a  corruption.  Kersey  is  a  local  name 
for  a  coar-se  worsted  cloth  of  Scotland  and  Ireland. 

Cas'si-nette.  (Fabric.)  A  cloth  made  of  a  cot- 
ton  warp  and  a  weft  of  fine  wool  or  wool  and  silk. 

Cast.     Warped.     Said  of  sprung  timber. 

Cas'ta-net.  A  clapping  instrument,  composed 
of  two  little  saucer-shaped  disks  held  in  the  hand 
and  beaten  with  the  middle  finger,  generally  as  an 
accompaniment  to  the  dancing  of  the  player. 

These  were  used  b)'  the  virgins  in  the  ancient 
hymns  to  Diana. 

"  They  make  a  noiBe  like  castanets.'^ 

Hebioppiis. 
*'  Strikes  with  nimble  hand 
The  well-gilt,  brazen-sounding  castanets." 

Song  to  Diana,  quoted  by  I)IC£archuS. 

The  Phaeacians,  in  Homer,  had  a  dance  in  which 
their  figures  were  accompanied  by  the  bystanders, 
who  made  a  clapping  noise  with  their  forefingers. 
—  ATHEN.j:rs. 

The  crotala,  or  wooden  clappers,  were  common  in 
Egyptian  musical  processions,  as  were  also  clapping 
of  hands,  cymbals,  tambourines,  and  tam-tams. 

The  little  cymbals  played  with  the  finger  and 
thumb  in  the  manner  of  castanets  are  shown  in  the 
paintings  of  Herculaneum,  and  are  used  in  the 
Almeh  dance  of  modem  Egypt. 

The  modem  bcnes,  which  give  so  much  vivacity 
to  the  negro  minstrelsy,  especially  the  factitious 
article  on  the  stage,  have  their  ancient  and  modem 
analogues  in  regions  and  times  far  remote.  Round- 
headed  pegs  are  seen  in  the  hands  of  some  of  the 
dancing  figures  in  the  paintings  of  Herculaneum, 
and  similar  instruments  of  wood  are  used  by  the 
Japanese.  In  ancient  Egj'pt  a  similar  effect,  with- 
out the  rapidity  of  execution,  was  attained  by  the 
maces,  which  were  hollow,  metallic,  and  sonoix)US, 
and  in  the  illustration,  from  which  the  accompany- 
ing cut  is  derived  (a  tomb  in  Thebes),  the  player  is 
beating  time  for  a  group  of  professional  dancers. 

The  castanets  are  used  in  many  of  the  national 
dances  of  the  countries  bordering  on  the  Mediterra- 
nean, and  the  use  extends  east  of  this  district  as  far 
as  China.    They  are  used  by  the  bayadeers  in  India, 


CASTANET. 


498 


CASTER-WHEEL. 


Kg.  1177. 


Egyptian  Rlaces  (frOTn  TUebes), 

and  the  professional  dancing-fjirls  of  .lava,  who  are 
painted  entirely  white,  and  wliose  performances  are 
rather  attitudinizing;  than  <lancing ;  undulatnry 
motions  of  the  body,  arms,  and  head  taking  the  place 
of  the  agility  of  the  legs  and  feet. 

The  tirst  suggestion  of  the  oastJinets  may  have 
been  the  practice  of  snap])ing  the  fingers  in  keeping 
time,  wooden  ])ins  being  afterwards  suljstituted  as 
being  more  effective,  the  players  striking  their  little 
maces  together  as  they  met  or  crossed  in  the  evolu- 
tions of  tlie  dance.  The  Castanet,  thus  originating, 
became  ol'  a  festive  and  votive  character,  while  the 
lieroic  cymbal  seems  to  have  originated  in  warlike 
dances  such  as  the  Pyrrhic,  Corybantian,  and  Per- 
sian, where  swords  and  shields  were  struck  and 
clashed  in  furious  imitation  of  the  scenes  of  war. 
See  Cymbal. 

The  mural  sculptures  of  Nineveh  show  large 
bodies  of  men  welcoming  the  king  by  advancing  in 
military  order,  clapjiiug  their  hands  in  time  to  the 
rhythm  of  the  ])iean.  The  attitude  of  the  men 
forming  the  platoon  reminds  one  of  the  modern 
Shakers. 

Dancing  was  originally  of  a  religious  character, 
and  has  been  introduced  into  the  religious  services 
of  all  nations  and  nearly  all  times.  In  many 
countries  it  is  practiced,  as  a  part  of  the  temple  ser- 
vices, by  ))rofessionals  only,  as  the  bayadeers  of 
India ;  or  by  fanatics,  as  the  dervishes  of  Moslem 
lands.  In  Oriental  countries,  as  also  in  ancient 
Kome,  it  is  considered  unbecoming  the  gravity  of 
men,  and  they  regaril  it  absurd  for  pei-sons  who  can 
afford  to  hire  dancers  to  give  themselves  so  much 
trouble. 

The  idea  of  dancing  as  a  festive  entertainment 
practiced  by  the  guests  seems  to  be  European, 
though  some  of  the  ]>ictures  of  ancient  Egypt  indi- 
cate that  the  guests  danced  at  their  assemblies. 

Miriam  and  her  troupe  of  females  danced  as  a 
votive  e.xercise  in  celebration  of  the  deliverance  at 
the  lied  Sea,  and  used  as  accompaniments  the 
musical  instruments  of  Egyjit. 

Without  occupying  space  by  citing  the  saltatorial 
and  posturing  exercises  of  the  nations  of  antii|uity, 
it  may  be  briefly  mentioned  that  in  the  early  cen- 
turies of  the  Christian  Church  the  dance  Wiis  com- 
bined with  the  hymn.  This  was,  no  doubt,  a  con- 
cession to  the  Pagan  habits  of  the  people.  Scaliger 
says  that  the  bishops  led  the  dance,  and  dancing  in 
churches  was  conunon  till  the  twelfth  century,  and 
in  some  Catholic  countries  till  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury. 

The  Mohammedan  religion  forbade  dancing  in 
mosques  1,000  years  before  it  was  discontinued  in 
churches.     The  Koran  promises  no  dancing  in  Para- 


dise, nor  any  other  active  employment. 
"  Kepose  yourself  for  a  nioiuent,"  said 
Derar  to  Caled  ;  "you  are  fatigued  with 
figliting  with  this  Christian  dog."  "  O 
Derar,"  said  the  indelatigahle  Saracen, 
"we  shall  rest  in  the  world  to  t:onie.  He 
that  labors  to-day  shall  rest  to-morrow." 
So  they  fought  ou  by  the  walls  of  Damas- 
cus. 

Cast'er.  1.  A  small  wheel  attached  to 
the  leg  of  a  table,  chair,  or  other  piece  of 
furniture,  in  order  to  facilitate  its  being 
moved  about  without  lifting. 

It  turns  on  a  vertical  pivot  as  well  as  on 
itsaxis.  It  is  not  easy  todeterniine  whether 
the  circular  objects  lieneath  the  feet  of  the 
chair  of  Ranicses  III.  are  ca.sters  or  mi-rely 
balls  in  the  grasp  of  the  claws  which  form 
the  chair-feet.  It  is  in  the  tomb  of  the 
kings  of  Thebes,  and  the  great  Se.so.stris  is  represented 
in  his  private  apartments.  The  chair  is  a  folding 
one,  the  X-legs  being  pivoted  on  a  horizontal  bar  at 
their  intersections. 

The  illustration   shows   several   kinds  :  a  piano- 
leg  caster,  having  a  ball  B  with  trunnions  ;   u  sew- 

Fig.  1173. 


Casters, 

ing-machine  caster,  in  which  the  wheel  7'  is  attached 
by  a  domed  bracket  C  to  the  leg  ;  a  table-leg  caster 
having  anti-friction  rollers  c  c  ;  a  caster  with  a  pair 
of  wheels  a  a. 

'i.  A  stand  to  hold  cruets. 

Cast'er-'wheel.  This  wheel  is  adapted  to  rotate 
on  its  axis  in  the  stock  in  which  it  is  journaled,  and 
the  stock  itself  rotates  on  a  vertical  axis,  according 
to  the  direction  of  propulsion  of  the  carriage  or  arti- 
cle to  which  it  is  attached.  The  caster-wheel  is 
used  as  a  support  to  the  front  parts  of  machines,  such 
as  harvestei-s,  gang-plows,  spading,  digging,  exca- 
vating, and  plowing  machines,  to  enable  them  to  be 
steered  or  to  turn  short  around  at  the  end  of  the 


CASTILIAN  FURNACE, 


499 


CASTING. 


Fig.  1179. 


Caster  M/ieti. 

row.  The  illustration  sliows  the  caster-wheel  X  at 
tile  forwai'il  end  nf  a  harvester. 

Cas-til'ian  Fur'nace.  {McfaUnrrii/.)  A  lead- 
snieltiiif;  fiiniace  invented  by  Goundry  (English), 
tnt  first  nsed  in  Spain.  Its  chief  peenliarity  is  the 
arrangement  for  rnnning  off  a  constant  stream  of 
slag  for  future  treatment,  the  slag  running  into  ca.st- 
iron  w.igons,  which  succeed  each  other  a.s  their  pretl- 
cces.sors  become  filled.  —  Uke,  Vol.  111.  pp.  689- 
692  (An),  ed.). 

Cast'ing.  Scattering  I'eferences  to  the  casting  of 
metals  are  found  in  the  Greek  writers.  The  paint- 
ings and  sculptures  of  the  Egyjitian  tombs  have 
failed  to  throw  any  light  upon  the  subject  of  the 
process.  A  multitude  of  cast  bronze  figures  are  in 
the  European  collections,  and  in  the  Abbott  Collec- 
tion of  the  N.  Y.  Historical  Society,  New  York  City. 
It  is  proljable  that  the  shaping  of  metal  by  the  ham- 
mer, chisel,  and  graver  preceded  that  of  casting  in- 
to molds  of  specific  form.  Pausanias  declares  that 
statues  beyond  the  reacli  of  the  smith's  art  were 
made  piecemeal  and  the  portions  fastened  together. 
He  sui)poses  the  statue  erected  by  Ulysses  to  Nep- 
tune to  have  been  thus  constructed.  He  ascribes  the 
art  to  Khoecusand  Tlieodorus,  of  Samos,  in  the  time 
of  Polycrates  (553  B.  c),  the  patron  of  Pythagoras 
and  Anacreon. 

Bronze  castings  of  Egyptian  and  Etruscan  work- 
manship, and  of  great  anticpiity,  are  found,  but  are  not 
identified  with  any  date.  The  bronze  statues  of  both 
nations,  in  all  probability,  antedate  the  foundation 
of  Rome,  753  E.  c. 

The  casting  of  the  bronze  vessels  and  ornaments 
for  the  service  of  the  Temple  at  .lerusalem  was  about 
1004  n.  0.,  and  took  place  in  the  clay  ground  be- 
tween Succoth  and  Zeredatha.  This  is  far  more  an- 
cient than  the  Grecian  annals,  and  the  calf-idol 
cast  by  Aaron  was  five  hundred  years  earlier  still.  It 
was  an  old  art  in  Egypt. 

With  the  exception  of  the  statues  of  cast-iron  re- 
ferred to  as  mentioned  by  Pausanias  (about  A.  D. 
120),  and  regarded  as  curiosities,  the  ancients  seem 
to  have  had  no  knowledge  of  the  uses  of  cast-ii'on. 
It  was  regarded  as  in  a  transition  stage,  and  was  des- 
tined to  lie  made  ujalleable  by  continuous  processes 
of  heating  and  hannnering.  Pau.sanias  .says  :  "The 
temple  of  the  Great  Mother  at  Sparta  is  said  to  have 
been  built  by  Theodoras  the  Samian,  who  first  dis- 
covered the  art  of  casting  iron  and  making  statues  of 
it."  "At  Delphi  is  dedicated  a  Hercules  and  Hy- 
dra, both  of  iron.  To  make  statues  of  iron  "is  most 
difficult  and  laborious,  but  the  work  of  Tisagoras, 
whoever  he  was,  is  really  admirable.  In  Pergamus 
are  the  heads  of  a  lion  and  a  boar,  both  of  iron." 
Tlieodorus  is  understood  to  have  lived  in  Samos  be- 
fore it  was  merged  into  the  Greek  Emiiire,  which 
took  place  when  it  was  conquered  by  Athens,  440 
B.  c.     A  work  on  iron  and  steel  written  in  1550  does 


not  mention  any  use  for  cast-iron  ;  castings  in  bronze 
1  brass  had  been  known  and  nsed  for  certainly 
centuries.  The  early  mode  of  making  cannon 
i'  fitting  iron  bars  together  and  hooping  them, 
ley  were  subse(|Uently  cast  of  bronze.  British 
,as  cast  by  Ralph  Page  and  Peter  Baude  in 
Sussex  in  the  year  1 543. 

In  1012,  lei3,  amf  1019,  pa- 
tents were  granted  in  England  for 
the  use  of  coal  in  iron-casting.  The 
first  two  were  unsuccessful,  and 
the  last  would  apjiearto  have  been 
successful, as'it  pro\oked  the  usual 
results, — a  mob  tore  down  the  es- 
tablishment. The  writer  does 
not  recollect  any  account  of  the 
tearing  down  of  a  shop  where  a  supposed  perpetual- 
motion  engine  was  domiciled. 

Eminanuel  Swedenborg,  in  his  "  Regnum  Subterra- 
neum "  (17341,  credits  the  English  woiknien  with 
the  first  successful  casting  of  iron  cannon  at  various 
foundries  in  Kent  and  Sussex.  Workmen  from  these 
parts  canied  the  art  to  Peiigord  in  France.  The 
only  use  for  iron  castings  at  that  time  was  for  oi'd- 
nancc. 

Members  of  the  Society  of  Friends  started  iron- 
works at  Coalbrookdale,  in  Sliiopshire,  England, 
early  in  the  eighteenth  century.  Their  religious 
principles  forbade  their  casting  cannon,  and  they 
devoted  their  metal  to  peaceful  usages  and  equiii- 
ments  ;  casting  fire-grates,  boilers,  and  numerous 
articles  of  medium  size.  Many  difficulties  .seem  to 
have  beset  the  workmen,  in  regard  to  the  making  of 
Hasks,  the  selection  of  a  suitable  loam  and  parting  ; 
and  the  eventual  success  is  connected  with  a  pleas- 
ing episode  in  the  history  of  mechanical  industry, 
which  is  substantially  as  follows  :  — 

About  1709,  Abraham  Darby,  of  Bristol,  had  a 
Welsh  boy  in  his  service  named  John  Thomas.  The 
master  had  been  endeavoiing  to  cast  iron  with  but 
indifferent  success,  and  the  boy  stated  that  he  saw 
through  the  difficulty.  They  stayed  after  the  work- 
men had  left,  and  cast  an  iron  pot  in  a  mold  of  fine 
sand  with  a  two-part  flask,  and  with  air-holes  for 
the  escape  of  steam,  etc.  From  1709  to  1828  a  busi- 
ness partneishiji  was  maintained  in  the  persons  of 
themselves  and  their  descendants,  and  the  jirocess  is 
stated  to  lia\e  been  kept  secret  at  Coalbrookdale  till 
about  1800.  From  the  terms  of  the  account,  it 
would  seem  to  have  been  hollow-ware  that  particu- 
larly bofhered  them  ;  and  no  one  who  is  accpiainted 
witii  the  art  of  casting  iron-ware  of  that  description 
will  wonder  at  the  difficulties  that  attended  the  first 
atteni]>t,  or  withhold  the  meed  of  praise  due  to  the 
success  of  the  man  and  his  boy. 

An  Abraham  Darby  erected  the  first  iron  bridge  in 
1777  ;  it  .spanned  the  Severn  near  Coalbrookdiile  with 
a  single  arch.  It  is  believed  (hat  at  these  works 
coke  and  coal  were  first  successfully  used  in  smelt- 
ing iron. 

Very  small  iron  castings  are  made  at  Berlin,  Ger- 
many, known  as  the  Berlin  iron  ornaments  and 
chains.  One  exhibited  in  London  was  4  feet  10 
inches  long,  had  ISO  link.s,  and  weighed  IJ  ounces. 
Professor  Ehrenberg,  the  renowned  niicroscopist, 
states  that  the;  iron  of  which  they  are  composed  is 
made  from  a  bog  iron-ore,  and  that  the  sand  is  a 
kind  of  tripoli,  also  containing  iron.  Both  are  com- 
posed of  the  remains  of  animalcules. 

The  origin  of  these  interesting  works  of  art  was 
during  the  struggle  between  Piiissia  and  France  un- 
der Napoleon  I.  The  generous  ladies  gave  up  their 
jewels  to  iiurchase  the  necessary  armaments,  and 
received  in  return  iron  ornaments  which  bore  the 


CASTING. 


500 


CASTING-TABLE. 


Castitlg-  Machine, 


inscription,  Ich  cjnb  Gold  um  Eiscn,  —  "I  gave  gold 
for  iron." 

Au  anvil  block  weighing  280,000  pounds,  to  be 
used  with  a  44,800-pound  double-action  forge-ham- 
mer was  cast  at  Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 

To  obtain  the  (jest  result  in  compact  metal-cast- 
ings, destitute  of  porosity  and  with  sharp  detinition 
on  the  angles  and  ornaments,  casting  under  jmssurc 
has  been  devised.  See  HoUingrake's  English  patent, 
1819. 

Fig.  1180.  In  one  case 

the  molds  are 
so  arranged 
that  the  tup 
part  serves  as 
the  follower  of 
a  press,  and  is 
operated  upon 
by  screws. 
The  top  tits 
closely  into 
the  niatri.K, 
and  is  pro- 
vided with  ill- 
gates  for  the 
metal,  which 
are  closed  by 
slides  when 
J.  the  mold  is 
full.  The 
pressure  is  ap- 
plied to  the 
metal  while  in  a  melted  state,  by  means  of  the 
screws,  with  sulficient  force  to  expel  the  air  and  gas 
from  and  solidify  the  metal. 

In  Smith's  process  of  compressive  casting,  the 
thing  to  be  copied,  say  a  page  of  type,  is  placed  face 
upwards  on  a  Hat  biass  plate,  anil  then  coated  all 
over  with  a  preparation  of  potter's  clay  worked  in 
with  a  brush.  When  the  whole  face  of  the  article 
to  he  molded  has  been  covered,  the  plate  carrying 
it  is  placed  on  the  bed  of  a  screw-press.  A  brass 
box  is  locked  round  it,  and  this  box  is  filled  up  for 
about  two  inches  with  pottery  clay,  sifted  in  and 
slightly  rammed  down.  The  whole  is  then  put 
under  the  tympan  of  the  press,  and  squeezed  hard 
by  two  men  operating  the  handles  of  the  screw. 
The  box  is  then  opened,  and  out  comes  a  flat  tile 
with  the  model  still  fixed  in  it.  The  model  is  with- 
drawn by  a  little  suction  apparatus  of  india-rubber, 
and  we  have  an  exact  facsimile  of  the  model,  ready, 
when  dried,  to  be  cast  from.  Nothing  can  exceed 
the  beauty  of  the  result  produced  by  the  casting  of 
the  metal  under  pressure  in  the  mold  thus  pre- 
pared. Screws  and  nuts  which  never  had  a  tool 
put  on  them  leave  nothing  to  be  desired  in  the  way 
of  accuracy  and  completeness. 

In  the  English  patent  (No.  3,197,  January  28, 
1809),  the  molds  for  casting  are  upright  and  made  to 
revolve  on  pivots  or  spindles  while  the  metal  is  poured 
in.  The  centrifugal  force  causes  the  metal  to  fill 
up  all  the  parts  of  the  mold. 

In  an  American  patent  of  1857,  the  car- wheels 
are  revolved  so  that  the  first  metal  poured  in  is  made 
to  form  the  tread  of  the  wheel,  and  a  second  portion 
to  form  the  body  of  the  wheel. 

In  Bessemer's  patent  the  metal  is  poured  into 
a  revolving  cylinder  whose  rapid  rotation  causes 
it  to  collect  on  the  in-side  of  the  same,  when  it  is 
allowed  to  cool.  It  is  then  split  open  and  rolled 
flat. 

Castings  of  great  delicacy  are  produced  by  using 
models  of  wax.  These  are  imbedded  in  molds  made 
III  fine  ground  earth,  which  are  then  heated  red-hot. 


The  mold  is  baked,  the  wax  disappears,  and  the 
metal,  when  ])Ourcd  in,  exactly  takes  its  place. 
The  wax  model  is  often  made  in  a  gelatine  mold, 
which,  being  very  elastic,  will  slip  off  the  original 
object  which  is  to  lie  copied  into  metal. 

With  large  hollow  castings,  such  as  the  cylinders 
of  the  larger  class  of  low-pressure  steam-engines, 
both  the  core  and  the  cope  are  built  up. 

For  specific  index  of  terms,  processes,  and  ap- 
pliances in  casting,  see  Founding. 

Cast'ing-box.  {Founding. )  A  flask  containing 
the  mold.      See  Fl.\.sk. 

Cast'ing  Clay-Tvare.  {Pottery.)  Delicate  ob- 
jects, which  cannot  be  readily  molded  by  pressing 
the  clay  into  the  mold,  are  cast  by  the  following  pro- 
cess. 

The  plaster  mold  being  closed,  the  slip  or  creamy 
clay  is  poured  in,  and  the  jiortion  nearest  to  the 
mold  becomes  hardened  by  the  absorption  of  the  wa- 
ter by  the  mold.  The  fluid  portion  is  then  poured 
out,  and  the  mold  iiaitially  dried.  A  second  filling 
of  slip  yields  another  coating,  and  the  process  is  re- 
peated as  often  as  may  be  necessary  to  give  the 
required  thickness  to  the  casting. 

Cast'ing-la'dle.  (Founditig.)  An  iron  vessel 
with  liHiidles  for  conveying  molten  metal  from  the 
cupola  and  pouring  it  into  the  mold. 

Cast'ing-press.  One  in  which  metal  is  cast  un- 
der iircssure,  as  in  the  car-wheel  press  (Fig.  1100, 
Casting). 

Cast'ing-slab.  {Glass-manufacture.)  The  flat 
piece  on  which  the  metal  is  poured  in  making  plate- 
glass.     The  easting-table. 

Cast'ing-ta'ble.  (Glass-manufacture.)  The  ta- 
ble in  a  plate-glass  factory  upon  which  the  molten 
glass  is  poured  from  the  cuvette,  and  rolled  to  a  thick- 
ness by  a  roller  which  rests  upon  the  marginal  ledges 
of  the  table,  whose  hight  determines  the  thickness 
of  the  plate.     See  Plate-glass. 

The  table  T  is  of  cast-iron,  perfectly  level  and 
smooth,  and  placed  or  mounted  so  that  the  ])late 
may  be  delivered  into  the  mouth  of  an  annealing- 
oven  at  the  same  elevation. 

The  cuvette  C  containing  the  molten  glass  is  con- 


Fig.  1181. 


Casling-  Table. 

veyed  by  a  traversing  crane  from  the  oven,  where 
its  contents  have  been  settling  for  several  hours,  and, 
being  tf  ought  over  the  table,  iS  tipped  by  means  of 
the  tongs,  so  as  to  spill  its  contents  upon  the  table. 
The  roller  R  is  then  set  in  motion,  so  as  to  flatten 
out  the  mass  of  glass.  At  the  sides  of  the  table  are 
ledges,  which  elevate  the  roller  to  a  given  distance 
above  the  table,  and  thus  determine  the  thickness 
of  the  glass.  The  standing  position  of  the  roller  is 
at  the  far  end  of  the  table,  as  represented  ;  and  as  it 


CAST-IRON. 


501 


CATADIOPTKIC  LIGHT. 


Castrating-  Clamp. 


passes  forward,  it  compresses  the  glass  in  a  wave 
before  it,  driving  any  surplus  over  the  end  of  the 
table,  where  it  falls  into  water.  A  w;isher  JF  is 
passed  immediately  in  front  of  the  glass,  to  clear  the 
table  of  all  impurities.  The  roller  then  rests  in  the 
grooves  n  n. 

The  plate  is  then  shifted  into  the  oven,  where  it 
remains  five  days  to  anneal. 

Cast-i'ron.     1.   A  compound  of  iron  and  carbon. 

2.  Iron  run  from  the  smelting-fumace.     Pig-iron. 

3.  Iron  melted  and  run  into  molds.  See  Cast- 
ing. 

Cas'tor.  {Fabric.)  A  heavy  milled  cloth  for 
overcoats. 

Cas-trat'ing  -  clamp.  Used  in  confining  the 
chords  and  vessels  in  the  operating  of  orchotomy  by 
excision  of  the  parts,  as 
in  the  case  of  the  horse. 
"  It  is  a  custom  jiecu- 
liar  to  all  the  Scythian 
and  Sarmatian  tribes  to 
ca.'itrate  their  horses,  in 
order  to  render  them 
more  tractable."  — 
Strabo,  VII.  V.  1. 

The  metallic  toumi- 
quet-clamp  is  furnished 
with  set  screws  and  a 
peculiar  pair  of  lips  or 
guides. 

•  The   practice  of  cas- 
tiating  calves  and  pigs  was  usual  in  Greece. 
Athenseus,  in  the  "  Deipnosopliists, "  says  :  — 
"And  how  much  better  a  paunch  of  a  castrated 
animal  is,  Hipparchus  tells  us  :  — 

"  '  But  above  all  I  do  delight  in  dishes 

Of  paunches  and  of  tripe  from  gelded  beai^ts, 
And  love  a  fragrant  pig  within  the  oven.' 

"Sopater  says  in  his  '  Hippolytus  '  :  — 

'* '  But  like  a  beauteous  paunch  of  gelded  pig. 
Holding  within  a  sharp  and  biting  gravy.'  " 

Cast-steel.  Blister  steel  which  h:is  been  broken 
up,  fused  in  a  crucible,  cast  into  ingots,  and  rolled. 
The  blocks  of  steel  are  melted  in  crucibles  of  re- 
fractory clay,  and  the  molten  metal  is  poured  into 
ingot-molds  of  cast-iron.  These  are  opened,  to 
let  out  the  red-hot  ingot,  which  is  then  passed  to  the 
rolls.     See  Crucible  ;  Ixgot-mold. 

The  process  of  making  cast-steel  was  invented  by 
Benjamin  Huntsman,  of  Attercliff,  near  Sheffield, 
England,  in  1770. 

Cast-steel  Fur'nace.  The  furnace  has  a  strong 
wind-draft,  and  is  lined  with  a  very  refractory  com- 
Ke  118.3  position-  Each  furnace  is  adapted  to  contain 
'  two  crucibles,  each  of  which  is  about  2  feet 
high,  and  holds  a  charge  of  30  pounds  of  blis- 
ter-steel. The  crucibles  stand  on  short  cyl- 
inders of  clay,  and  have  a  lid  of  the  same 
material,  which  is  luted  to  the  top  of  the 
crucible,  a  lit- 
tle glass  being 
sprinkled  on  the 
joint  for  that  pur- 
pose. The  fuel  is 
coke,  and  the  time 
occupied  in  melt- 
ing is  fotfr  houi-s. 
Tile  heat  gener- 
ated in  the  cast- 
steel  furnace  is 
said  to  be  greater 
than  in  any  other  manufacture.  For  some  pur- 
poses the  ingots  are  made  much  larger  than  the 
weight  stated,  even  as  high  as  200  pounds.     For  the 


heavy  forgings,  such  as  the  Krupp  guns,  some  hun- 
dreds of  crucibles  are  used.  Four  or  five  tons  of  coke 
ars  used  in  melting  one  ton  of  steel.  Wootz  is  a 
cast-steel  made  from  magnetic  ore,  in  crucibles. 

The  crucibles  are  xrithdrawn  by  tongs  and  grasped 
by  other  tongs,  Ufted,  tipped,  and  emptied  into  the 
vu/ot-mold.  The  pouring  is  called  teaming.  The 
mold  is  opened  while  the  ingot  is  yet  red-hot,  and  the 
steel  is  passed  to  the  rolling-mill.  The  ingot-mold 
separates  longitudinally,  and  the  parts  are  held  to- 
gether by  collar-clamps  and  wedges.  See  Cementa- 
tion FURXACE. 

Cat.  {XaiUical.)  The  tackle  by  which  the  anchor 
is  raised  to  the  cai-Jicad.  The  block  is  the  cat- 
bloct:  ;  the  rope,  the  cat-fall. 

Cat'a-di-op'tric  Iiight.   A  mode  of  Ulumination 
^or  lighthouses  in  which  reflection  and  refraction  ai^ 
unitedly  employed.     Suggested  by  Allan  Stevenson 
in    1834.      From   their 
subjecting  the  whole  of 
the  available  light    to 
the  corrective  action  of 
the    instrument,    they 
have  been  caUed  liolo- 
photal  lights. 

The  accompanying 
figures  illustrate  in  brief 
the  main  mechanical 
features  of  this  appara- 
tus. 

A  is  a  central  section, 
in   which    the   anterior  I""     i (\ 
cone   of  rays   is    made  \ 
parallel  by  the  lens  at  \>^ 


Cast-Stftl  Furnace. 


and  the  remaining 
zone  by  the  paraboloid 
surfaces  p  p.  The  pos- 
terior hemisphere  of 
rays  is  received  on  the 
hemispherical  mirror  m 
n  0,  and  by  it  is  sent 
back  to  the  focus  /, 
whence,  passing  on- 
ward, it  is  in  part  re- 
flected by  the  lens  e 
aud  partly  by  the  parab- 
oloid surfaces  p  p,  and 
finally  emerges  horizon- 
tally in  unison  with  the 
light  from  the  anterior 
hemisphere,  s  repre- 
sents one  of  the  struts 
for  supporting  the  re- 
flecting-plates  p  p. 

B  is  another  form  of 
the  apparatus,  consist- 
ing of  a  hemispherical 
mirror  m  and  a  lens  c, 
having  totally  reflect- 
ing zones  c  z  between 
them,  instead  of  the 
paraboloid  surfaces  /;  p  of  the  other  figure. 

C  is  another  form,  in  which  the  hemispherical 
metallic  reflector  is  replaced  by  a  polyzonal  hemi- 
sphere, of  which  each  concentric  zone  a  has  a  cata- 
dioptric  action,  like  that  which  is  exerted  upon  rays 
falling  at  right  angles  on  the  longest  side  of  a  right- 
angled  triangular  prism.  A  ray  proceeding  from 
the  focus  falls  on  the  concave  or  first  surface,  enters 
without  refraction,  is  totally  reflected  at  the  second 
surface  in  a  direction  tangential  to  the  sphere  at  the 
apex  of  each  zone,  and,  passing  on,  is  again  reflected 
at  the  third  surface,  and  finally  emerges  from  the 
opposite  end  of  the  inner  or  concave  surface  without 


Catarlioptric  Light. 


CATADROME. 


502 


CATARACT. 


refraction  ;  wlienco,  passing  on  through  the  center 
of  tl«f  liemi.s|ilii>rc,  it  becomes  a  iiortion  of  the  an- 
terior cone  of  rays,  and,  being  rel'racteil  throngli  tlie 
lens  e  or  reHeeted  by  tlie  eatailioiitrie  rings  c  c,  tinal- 
ly  emerges  in  tlie  paths  shown  by  tile  arnnoft,  and 
adds  its  [lower  to  tlie  effect  of  the  pencils  of  rays. 

Cat'a-drome.  A  machine  for  hoisting  lieavy 
weiglits, 

Cat'a-graph.     The  first  draft  of  a  picture. 

Cat'a-lan-furnace.  A  blast-fnrnaee  for  redu- 
cing iron  ores,  extensively  used  in  the  North  of 
Spain,   particularly  in    the   province   of  Catalonia, 

Fig.  11S5. 


Catalan-Furnace. 

from  whence  it  derives  its  name,  and  whence  it  was 
probably  introduced  into  Southwestern  Kurope. 

It  consists  of  a  four-sided  cavity  or  hearth,  which 
is  always  placed  within  a  Ituilding  and  separated 
from  the  main  wall  thereof  by  a  thinner  interior  wall, 
which  in  part  constitutes  one  side  of  the  fuinace. 

The  blast-pipe  coines  through  tile  wall,  and  enters 
the  fire  through  a  tuyere  which  slants  downward. 
The  bottom  is  formed  of  a  refractory  stone,  which  is 
renewable. 

The  furnace  has  no  chimneys. 

The  blast  is  produced  by  means  of  a  fall  of  water, 
usually  from  22  to  27  feet  high,  through  a  rectan- 
gular tube,  into  a  reetangular  cistern  below,  to 
whose  upper  part  the  blast-pipe  is  connected,  the 
water  escaping  through  a  pipe  b(dow. 

This  apparatus  is  e.Nterior  to  the  building,  and  is 
said  to  afford  a  eontiriuous  blast  of  great  regularity  ; 
the  air,  when  it  passes  into  the  furnace,  is,  however, 
saturateil  with  moisture. 

This  apparatus  is  called  a  trompc.  A  longitudinal 
vertical  Si'ction  of  the  furnace,  and  of  the  lower  jiart 
of  the  trompe,  by  which  the  blast  is  regulated,  is 
sh  nvn  in  Fig.  1185. 

Cat  a-lys'o-type.  (Photor/raphy.)  A  calotype 
process  in  whiidi  tlie  paper  is  first  prepared  with  a 
syrup  of  iodide  of  iron,  instead  of  the  iodide  of 
potassium.  The  name  was  given  to  the  process  to  in- 
dicate the  supposed  fact  that  the  gradual  .self-devel- 
opment of  the  picture  is  the  result  of  a  catalytic  ac- 
tion.   The  trne  eheniic^al  reaction  is  now  understood. 

Cat'a-ma-ran'.  (NaiUical.)  a.  It  is  formed  of 
logs  usually  three  in  number,  the  middle  one  the 
largest,  and  all  secured  by  three  lashings.  The  logsare 
slanted  for  cutwaters,  and  the  raft  —  for  such  it  is  — 
is  sometimes  from  20  to  25  feet  long  and  2i  to  3i 
feet  wide.  They  land  and  jiush  oil'  through  surfs,  on 
the  Mai^ras  coast,  which  would  swamp  even  the  coun- 
try boats.  In  moderate  weather  they  carry  matting 
sails  by  means  of  an  outrigger. 

They  may  be  seen  on  the  west  coast  of  South 
America  many  miles  out  at  sea,  carrying  Indians  em- 
ployed in  fishing. 

b.  The  incendiary  rafts  prepared  by  Sir  Sidney 
Smith  for  destroying  the  French  flotilla  at  Bologne, 
1804,  were  called  catamarans.     The  flotilla  was  con- 


structeil  for  the  invasion  of  England  by  Bonaparte  ; 

the  floating  carcasses  were  a  failure  ;  but  for  his  own 

Flu  IISG. 


Catamaran 

reasons  the  general  broke  up  his  eanip  and  trans- 
ported his  troops  to  the  lihine.  The  cajiitulation 
of  L'lm  and  the  battle  of  Austerlitz  .soon  followed. 

Cat'a-me'ni-al-sack.  A  receptacle  for  the  cata- 
menia. 

Cat'a-pult.  An  ancient  engine  for  hurling  stones 
or  darts.  It  is  usually  represented  as  a  cross-bow 
on  a  large  scale. 

Cat'a-ract.  {Stcam-cwjbie.)  A  regulator  in- 
vented by  .Smeaton  for  single-acting  steam-engines. 

The  plug-tree  in  its  ascent  draws  upon  a  cord,  and 
lifts  a  piston  in  a  vertical  pump-bairel  whose  foot  is 
submerged  in  water  ;  a  valve  at  the  foot  of  the 
barrel  admits  the  water  thereto.  The  np-stroke 
having  ceased,  the  piston  rests  upon  the  watei',  and 
a  discharge-valve  ojiens.  The  rate  of  discharge  is 
regulated  by  the  load  on  the  piston  or  the  size  of 
the  aperture.  When  the  plunger  passes  a  certain 
point,  it  makes  the  changes  which  readmit  the 
steam,  the  plug-rod  having  no  effect  in  so  doing,  as 
its  connection  is  flexible.  By  the  means  of  this 
device,  called  a  critarrict,  the  time  of  admitting 
steam  is  regulated  by  the  flow  of  a  certain  quantity 
of  water  through  an  opening,  and  is  entirely  inde- 
pendent of  the  engineer,  of  the  pressure  of  the  steam 
and  other  contingencies,  provided  that  .sufficient 
pressure  is  maintained  to  run  the  engine  at  all. 

If  the  boiler  steam  be  at  an  unusual  ten.sion,  the 
stroke  may  be  made  faster,  but  the  interval  between 
strokes  depends  upon  the  hydraulic  device  described. 
See  CoiiNisH  Steam-engine. 

A  modification  of  this  is  introduced  into  marine 
engines  for  softening  the  fall  of  the  expansion- 
valves.  A  brass  cylinder  is  filled  with  water  or  oil, 
and  fittetl  with  a  solid  piston  connected  by  a  cross- 
head  with  the  valve-spindle.  The  fall  of  the  valve 
is  checked  and  regulated  by  the  escape  of  the  water 
or  oil  through  a  small  hole  bored  for  that  purpose 
in  the  side  of  the  cylinder,  the  piston  of  the  cataract 
descending  according  as  the  liquid  is  forced  out  from 
before  it  by  the  pressure  due  to  the  weight  of  the 
expansion-valve.     See  Cut-off. 


CATARACT-KNIFE. 


503 


CATENARY. 


Cat'a-ract-knife.  (Surgical.)  A  small  keen- 
edged  knife  used  in  Ihe  operation  of  removing  cata- 
racts l>y  extracting  the  crystalline  lens  entirely. 

When  the  opaque  body  is  removed  and  light  ad- 
mitted for  the  tii-st  time  to  the  organ,  the  retina  re- 
ceives a  new  sensation,  but  much  time  elajises  before 
the  jiersou  is  able  to  appreciate  form  or  distance  ; 
this  is  a  matter  of  practice  and  experience. 

Cheselden  the  oculist  gives  an  interesting  account 
of  a  person  blind  from  birth  and  brought  to  light  at 
a  mature  age.  An  account  is  given  in  Mark  viii. 
22  -  26,  of  a  blind  person  upon  whom  a  miracle  wiis 
performed  by  which  he  became  for  the  Hi-st  time 
sen.sible  of  light.  Being  asked  "  if  he  saw  aught," 
he  replied,  "  I  see  men  as  trees,  walking";  that  is, 
he  saw  something  nio\'ing,  but  had  no  ]ierception  of 
relative  form  or  distance,  whether  the  object  was  a 
man  or  a  tree,  near  or  distant.  A  second  and  more 
wonderful  miracle  (v.  2.'i)  gave  the  eyes  their 
functional  power,  the  nerves  and  brain  the  true  per- 
ception of  the  image  on  the  retina.  This  was  be- 
yond the  skill  of  the  oculist. 

A  successful  operation  for  cataract  was  performed, 
in  the  25th  Nivose  (January  1 4),  1799,  in  the  Hospice 
des  Villards,  Paris.on  a  man  aged  twenty-four,  born 
blind.  The  operator  was  Citizen  Fortenze,  accord- 
ing to  the  affected  stvle  of  the  day. 

Cat'a-ract-nee'dle.  {Suiyical.)  A  pointed  in- 
strument used  for  dejiressing  the  crystalline  lens  in 
the  operation  of  couching. 

Ca-tarrh'al-syr'inge.  A  nasal  irrigator  or 
douche  as  a  remeily  for  or  alleviator  of  catarrh. 

Cat-beam.  (Sliipbuilding.)  The  longest  beam 
in  a  sliip.     The  beak-head  beam. 

Cat-block.     {Nautical.)     A   two   or   three  fold 

block,   iron-bound,   with  a    large   iron 

Fig.  US',     liook  attached  to  it,  employed  to  draw 

the  anchor  up  to  the  cat-liead.     On  the 

fonvard  side  of  the  shell  of  this  block 
are  two  small  eye-bolts,  for  the  purjiose 
of  fitting  a  small  rojie,  called  the  back- 
rope  bridle,  used  in  hooking  the  cat. 

Catch.     A  spring  bolt    for    hinged 
doors  or  lids. 

Catch-bar.    (KniUinti-machinc.)    A 
bar  em))loyed  to  depress  the  jacks. 

Catch-ba'sin.  A  cistern  at  the 
point  of  discharge  into  a  sewer,  to  catch 
Cal-Block.  heavy  and  bulky  matters  which  would 
not  readily  pass  through  the  sewers,  but 
which  are  removed  from  time  to  time.  The  catch- 
basin  in  the  example  has  .several  receptacles,  which 
combine  to  fill  the  space,  and  are  separately  remov- 
able, to  assist  in  the  discharge.  The  central  cylinder 
is  shown  in  the  position  of  being  raised. 

Catch-bolt.  A  cupboard  or  door  bolt  which 
yields  to  the  pressure  in  closing  and  then  springs 
into  the  keeper  in  the  jamb.  Usually  retracted  by 
a  small  knob. 

atoh-fesd'er. 
irrigating  ditch. 

Catch'ing-hook.     A  crochet-hook. 
A  cruok  or  animal-catching  hook. 
Catch-mo'tion.     (}faclnncry.)     A  motion  in  a 
lathe  by  which  speed  is  changed. 

Catch-Twa'ter  Drain.  A  drain  to  intercept  wa- 
ters from  high  lands,  to  prevent  their  accumulation 
upon  lower  levels. 

Water  thus  intercepted  and  canied  off  may  have 
an  elTective  and  rapid  fall  to  the  outlet,  whereas,  if  it 
were  allowed  to  find  a  lower  level,  it  might  require 
the  aid  of  machinery  to  lift  it  to  get  lid  of  it. 

This  plan  of  intercepting  water  also  lessens  the 
extent  of  an  inundation. 


Fig.  113S. 


(Hydraulic  EngiTiecring.)    An 


C<itrh-Basin. 

In  the  illustration,  E F Gis  the caich-wntcr drain. 
IT  T  J  is  a  parallel  main  drain.  A' a  main  drain, 
into  which  the  smaller  ones  empty.     A  B  the  river. 

Fig.  1189. 


Catch-Water  Drain. 

Catch-work.  (Rydraiilic  Engineering.)  A  wa- 
ter-way for  flooiling  artificial  meadows. 

Cat'e-lec'trode.  The  negative  pole  of  a  voltaic 
battery. 

Cat'e-na-ry.  The  curve  assumed  by  a  cord,  wire, 
or  chain,  hanging  freely  between  two  jioints  of  sus- 
pension. 

Galileo  suggested  that  it  was  the  jiroper  figure  for 
an  arch  of  equilibrium.  In  this  the  great  Florentine, 
as  usual,  was  correct. 


CAT-FALL. 


504 


CATOPTRIC   LIGHT. 


It  is  now  universally  adopted  in  suspension-bridges. 
Each  wire  assumes  its  own  catenarj'  curve,  and  the 
cable  is  formed  of  bunches  of  aggregated  strands. 

Formerly  they  were  made  to  form  arcs  of  circles. 

Cat-fall.  {Nautical.)  The  tackle  by  which  the 
anchor  (by  its  ring)  is  suspended  from  the  cat-head 
in  hauling  up. 

Cat'gut.  Twisted  intestines  of  animals.  Those 
of  the  poor  Italian  sheep  are  preferred  to  those  of 
better-fed  animals  of  other  countries. 

The  guts,  taken  warm  from  the  animal,  are  cleaned, 
freed  from  adherent  fat,  and  rinsed  in  pure  water. 
They  are  then  soaked  for  two  days,  scraped  with  a 
copper  plate  having  a  semicircular  notch,  beginning 
at  the  smaller  end.  This  removes  the  mucous  and 
peritoneal  membranes.  The  guts  are  then  soaked, 
again  scraped,  washed,  steeped  in  weak  lye  (two 
ounces  to  the  gallon),  passed  through  a  polished  hole 
in  a  piece  of  brass,  to  equalize  the  surface,  twisted, 
dried,  and  sorted.  They  may  then  be  dyed  or  sul- 
phured, and  rubbed  with  olive-oil. 

Catgut  is  used  for  violin  and  harp  strings,  as 
whip-cord,  bow-striugs,  clock-cords,  lathe-cords, 
etc. 

Other  guts  are  used  for  coarse  purposes.  Horse 
guts  are  split  into  four,  cleaned,  twisted,  etc.,  for 
lathe-bands. 

Strong  catgut  is  made  of  a  number  of  strips  of  gut 
twisted  together.  By  another  process  the  clean  gut 
is  blown,  dried  in  the  open  air  or  under  sheds,  and 
then  compressc'd,  moistened,  sulphured,  and  twisted. 

Cath'a-rine-wrheel.  {Fijrotechnics.)  A  form  of 
firework  having  a  spiral  tube  which  rotates  as  the 
fire  issues  from  the  aperture.     A  pin-wheel. 

Cat-harp'ing.  (NatUkal.)  Ona  of  the  ropes 
by  which  the  shiouds  are  drawn  towards  the  mast 
below  the  tops,  to  allow  the  yards  to  swing  clear 
when  close-hauled. 

Iron  crami)s  are  now  usually  employed,  still, 
however,  retaining  the  name. 

Cat-head.  (Ship/zuifdiiuj.)  a.  An  inclined  timber 
proji'cting  from  the  bow  of  a  ship,  forming  a  crane- 
arm  from  which  the  hoiver  anchor  is  suspended  when 
I'aised  from  the  water. 

The  tackle  used  in  hauling-up  is  called  the  cat- 
.  fall,  and  is  hooked  to  the  ring  of  the  anchor. 

In  preparing  to  let-ijo,  the  anchor  is  suspended 
from  the  cal-hen.d  by  means  of  a  rope  called  the  cat- 
head stopper.     See  A.NOHOR-TRiPi'Ei'i. 

The  inner  end  of  the  cat-head  is  made  fast  to  a 
beam  or  frame,  aiul  is  termed  the  ait's  tail. 

The  sheaves  for  the  cat-full  run  in  mortises  in  or 
near  the  outer  end  of  the  cat-head. 

b.  (Mininff.)     A  miner's  name  for  a  small  cap.stan. 

Cat-head  Stop'per.  (Nautical.)  The  rope  or 
chain  by  wliich  the  ring  of  an  anchor  is  secured  to 
the  cat-head.  A  device  for  casting  it  loose  and 
thereby  freeing  the  anchor  is  an  Anchor-tripper 
(which  see). 

Cath'e-ter.  A  tube  which  is  introduced  through 
the  urethra,  to  evacuate  the  contents  of  the  bladder. 

They  are  specifically  adapted  (a,  b)  for  male  and 
female  patients. 

Some  are  adapted  for  the  introduction  of  caustic, 
constituting  a  porte-caustic. 

Catheters  are  also  employed  to  enter  the  canal 
which  connects  a  cavity  in  the  ear  with  the  back 
part  of  the  mouth,  and  called  the  Eustt(chian  tube, 
after  its  discoverer,  a  learned  Italian  physician  who 
died  at  Rome,  1574. 

A  double  catheter  (<■)  is  one  whose  outer  tub(^  has 
a  long  eye  and  an  inner  tube  of  smaller  size,  whii'li 
discharges  about  the  middle  of  the  length  of  the 
eye  of  the  larger  one.     If  water  be  injected  through 


Fig.  1190. 


^ 


Catheters, 

the  inner  tube,  it  enters  the  cavity  of  the  uterus  or 
bladder,  as  the  case  may  be,  and  passes  out  through 
the  outer  canal. 

d  is  Sims's  sigmoid  catheter  of  hard  rubber. 

Male  and  female  catheters  are  described  particu- 
larly by  Celsus,  first  century  A.  P.,  and  have  been 
disinterred  at  Pompeii.  One  is  of  the  modern 
sigmoid  form  ;  and  one  is  shorter,  and  has  a  single 
curve. 

Cath'e-ter-gage.  A  plate  with  perforations  of 
a  graduated  size,  forming  measures  for  diametric 
sizes  of  catheters. 

Cath'e-tom^e-ter.  From  Greek  words  meaning 
a  measurer  of  vertical  bight.  A  telescopic  level- 
ing-ajiparatus  which  slides  up  and  down  a  perpen- 
dicular, graduated,  metallic  standard.  As  the 
colunm  of  lii]uid  rises  or  falls  in  the  tube,  the 
telescope  partakes  of  the  motion,  and  the  differences 
of  bight  are  shown  on  the  graduated  standard. 

Cath'ode.  That  pole  of  the  battery  by  which  the 
electricity  passes  out  of  the  substance  undergoing 
decomposition.  The  negative  or  —  (minus)  pole. 
(Professor  Faraday's  term.) 

Cat-hole.  {Shipbuildimi . )  One  of  the  holes 
above  the  gun-room  ports,  for  passing  out  a  hawser. 

Cat-hook.  (Nautical.)  A  large  hook  on  the 
cat-block,  for  attaching  to  the  ring  of  the  anchor  in 
catting. 

Ca-top'ter.     A  reflecting  optical  instrument. 

Ca-top'tric  Cis'tu-la.  A  box  with  several  sides, 
lined  with  looking-glasses,  so  as  to  multiply  images 
of  any  object  |ilace(l  in  the  box. 

Ca-top'tric  Di'al.  A  dial  which  shows  the  hour 
by  means  of  a  piece  of  looking-glass,  adjusted  to  re- 
flect the  solar  rays  ujiward  to  the  ceiling  of  a  room 
on  which  the  hour-lines  are  delineated.  A  reflecting- 
dint. 

Ca-top'tric  Light.  A  mirror,  or  series  of  con- 
cave mirrors,  preferably  parabolic,  by  which  the 
rays  from  one  or  more  lamps  are  reflected  in  a  paral- 
lel beam,  so  as  to  render  the  light  visible  at  a  great 
distance. 

This  was  the  arrangement  universally  employed  in 
lighthouses  previous  to  the  invention  of  the  Fresnel 
lens.     See  Dioptric  Lioiit  ;  Lighthouse. 

Catoptric  liiihts  are  susceptible  of  nine  separate  dis- 
tinctions, which  are  called  fixed,  revolving  white, 
revolving  reel  and  white,  revolving  red  with  two  whites, 
revolving  white  with  two  reds,  flashing,  intermittent, 
double  fi.rcd  lights,  and  double  revolving  white  lights. 

The  illustration  shows  a  revolving  apparatus  on 
the  catoptric  principle.  The  upper  figure  is  a  side 
elevation  ;  the  lower  figure  a  horizontal  section. 


CATOPTRIC  LIGHT. 


505 


CATTLE-STALL. 


n  11  shows  the  reflector-frame  or  chandelier  ;  o  o 
the  reflectors  with  their  oil-fountains  p  p.  The 
whole  is  attached  to  the  revolving  axis  or  shaft  q. 
The  copper  tubes  r  r  convey  the  smoke  from  the 
lamps  ;  s  s  are  cross-bars  which  support  the  shaft  at 
1 1 ;  M  M  is  a  copper  pan,  for  receiving  any  moisture 
which  may  accidentally  enter  at  the  central  ventila- 
tor in  the  roof  of  the  light-room  ;  Z  is  a  cast-iron 
bracket,  supporting  the  cup  in  wliich  the  pivot  of 

Fig.  1191. 


Catoptric  Light. 

the  shaft  .urns  ;  m  m  are  beveled  wheels,  which  con- 
vey motion  from  the  machine  to  the  shaft.  The  ma- 
chinery does  not  require  any  particular  notice,  bein" 
that  of  common  clock-work,  moved  by  the  descent 
of  a  weiglit. 

The  horizontal  sectional  view  shows  a  plan  of  one 
tier  of  reflectors  arranged  in  the  manner  employed 
m  a  fi.xed  catoptric  liglit ;  n  n  .shows  the  chandelier, 
q  the  fixed  shaft  in  the  center  which  supports  the 
whole  0  0  the  reflectors,  and  p  p  the  fountains  of 
then-  lamps.  In  this  figure  (in  order  to  prevent  con- 
fusion) only  one  tier  of  reflectors  is  shown  ;  the  other 
tiers  are  so  arranged  that  their  axes  divide   into 


equal  angles  the  arcs  intercepted  between  the  axes 
of  the  adjoining  reflectors  on  the  first  tier,  thereby 
producing  the  nearest  approach  to  an  equal  distri- 
bution of  the  light  which  is  attainable  by  this  ar- 
rangement. 

Cat-rake.     A  name  for  a  ratclwt-drill. 

Cat's'paw.  (Nautical.)  A  hitch  in  a  rope  for 
the  attachment  of  a  tackle. 

Cat-ship.  A  ship  on  the  Norwegian  model,  hav- 
ing a  narrow  stern,  projecting  quarters,  and  a  deep 
waist. 

Cat-tackle.  (Nautical.)  A  tackle  to  raise  the 
anchor  to  the  cat-head. 

Cat'tle-feed'er.  An  arrangement  in  a  cattle- 
stable  for  supplying  the  feed  in  regulated  quantities 
to  the  rack  or  manger. 

Cat'tle-guard.  (Railway  Enginceriiig.)  A  ditch 
alongside  a  public  road,  and  crossing  beneath  the 
railroad  way,  to  prevent  the  straying  of  cattle  on 
to  the  track. 

Cat'tle-lead'er.  A  nose-ring  or  gripper  for  the 
septum  of  the  nose,  whereby  dangerous  cattle  may 
be  fastened  or  led. 

Cat'tle-mark'ing  Shears.  A  kind  of  scissors 
adapted  for  making  marks  on  cattle  by  cutting  off 
the  hairs  in  such  lines  as  to  form  letters  or  figures 
constituting  initials  or  private  marks  of  the  propri- 
etors. 

Also,  scissors  adapted  for  cutting  slits  or  notches 
in  the  ears  of  cattle,  sheep,  or  hogs,  as  a  means  of 
identification,  familiarly  known  as  car-marks.  The 
shears  has  sometimes  a  punch  attached  for  making 
holes  in  the  eai-s,  for  the  same  purpose.  Time  was 
when  they  marked  men  so. 

In  all  pasturing  countries  some  means  are  neces- 
sary for  the  identification  of  cattle  running  at  large. 
On  the  tombs  of  ancient  Egypt  we  see  the  cattle  be- 
ing branded.  This  is  yet  the  practice  in  Texas,  South 
America,  and  elsewhere.  The  swans  in  the  Thames 
are  marked  by  nicks  on  their  bills.  Sir  John  Perrot 
(in  15S4)  ordered  the  Irisli  to  mark  all  their  cattle 
with  pitch  or  ear-marks,  on  pain  of  forfeiture. 

Cat'tle-pump.  A  pump  which  is  operated  by 
the  cattle  coming  to  drink,  either  by  their  weight 
upon  a  platform  or  by  pressing  against  a  bar  which 

Fig.  1192. 


gives  way  before  them,  they 
following  it  around  in  a  cir- 
cular track  and  operating  the 
piston. 

The  illustration   is  one  of 
the  former  kind.    The  weight 


of  the  cattle  on  platform  0  ^ 
moves  tlie  lever  E,  and  raises  ^ 
the  bottom-boardof  the  pump-  Cmtle-Pump. 

chamber  B,  discharging  water 

at  the  sjiout  (/.     When  the  animal  leaves  the  plat- 
form, the  weight  /helps  the  descent  of  the  bottom- 
board,  and  tlie  water  passes  upward  through  valve  u. 
Cat'tle-stall.    A  means  for  fastening  cattle  at 


CATTLE-TIE. 


506 


CEILING. 


their  mangers  or  racks,  other  than  by  halter  or  tie. 
It  usually  consists  oF  a  pair  of  parallel  vertical 
stanchions,  at  such  distance  apart  as  to  admit  the 
neck  of  the  animal.  One  stanchion  is  movable,  to 
allow  the  head  of  the  animal  to  pass,  and  is  then 
rejilaced  and  held  by  a  latch  or  pin. 

The  improvements  in  cattle-stalls  refer  to  the 
floors,  divisions,  mangers,  racks,  troughs,  feeding 
devices,  ties  ;  also  to  devices  to  prevent  crib-biting, 
for  slinging  sick  or  refractory  animals,  preventing 
kicking. 

The  feeders  are  made  in  rarious  ways  :  Opening 
automatically  at  regulated  periods  ;  closing,  to  pre- 
vent access  in  the  intervals  of  feeding  ;  arrange- 
ments for  deposition  in  the  manger  of  regulated 
quantities  of  feed  at  certain  times. 

Cat'tle-tie.  A  i'astening  for  securing  cattle  at 
the  rack  or  manger.  The  varieties  are  numeious. 
Some  refer  to  means  for  releasing  all  the  animals 
sinmltaneously  in  case  of  fire. 

Different  kinds  of  fastenings  for  the  rope,  halter, 
or  collar-strap,  by  which  tlic  animal  is  secured ; 
such  are  loops,  snap-hooks,  euphroes. 

Means  for  taking  up  the  slack  of  the  halter-rope, 
to  prevent  the  animal  becoming  tangled  in  it  and 
being  thrown  ;  such  are  falling  weights  and  s|)rings. 
Means  for  fastening  the  hitcliing  end  of  the  rope 
to  the  manger,  stall,  post,  or  stanchion  ;  such  are 
hooks,  rings,  clamping-cams,  latches,  etc. 

Other  similar  devices  may  be  found  under  Hitch- 
ing ;  Halteh  ;  Tether. 
Cat'ty.    The  bill-hook  or  machete  of  Ceylon. 
Cauf.     1.   A  chest  with  holes  to  keep  fish  alive 
in  the  water. 

2.  A  large  basket,  used  for  raising  coals  from  the 
bottom  of  a  mine.     A  corvc. 

Cauk'iug.  (Joinery.)  A  dovetail,  tenon,  and 
mortise-joint  by  which  cross- 
Fig  1193  timbers  are  secured  together. 
It  is  used  for  fitting  down  tie- 
beams  or  other  timbers  upon 
wall-plates. 

Caul.  A  heated  board  used 
in  laying  down  large  veneere. 
Its  heat  keeps  up  the  flnidity 
of  the  glue  until  all  that  is 
superfluous  has  been  pressed 
out  at  the  edges. 

Caunt'er-lode.  (Mining.) 
'  A  lode  which  inclines  at  a 
consiilerable  angle  to  the  other 
contiguous  veins. 
Cause'-wray.  (Civil  Engi- 
neering.) A  road  across  a  mareh  or  water,  supported 
by  an  embankment  or  by  a  retaining  wall.  In  con- 
tradistinction to  a  viaduct,  which  is  supported  by 
trestle-work,  or  by  arches  or  trusses  resting  on  piers. 
See  Embakkment. 

Caus'sou.     A  nose-band   or  twitch  for  breaking 
lior.ses.     See  CAVE.SSON  ;  BARNACLES. 
Cau'ter.    A  seariiig-iron. 

Burning  with  a  red-hot  iron  was  practiced  by  the 
Libyans,  in  the  time  of  Herodotus  (450  n.  c),  as  a 
cure  for  salt-rheum.  The  practice  is  still  in  vogue 
there.  Cautery,  we  learn  from  Denham,  is  "  the 
sovereign  Aiab  remedy  for  almost  every  disorder." 
We  read  of  it  in  Hippocrates.  Layard  noticed  the 
use  in  Mesopotamia ;  Burton  among  the  Egyp- 
tians. 

The  cautery  was  a  favorite  surgical  instrument  with 
ancient  chirurgeons.  One  of  iron,  shajjed  like  a 
spade,  was  found  by  Dr.  Savenko,  of  St.  Petersburg, 
1819,  in  the  house  of  a  Roman  surgeon  in  the  Via 
Consularis,  Pompeii. 


Caukins. 


The  cauter  is  used  by  fairiers  iu  veterinary  oi)era- 
tions. 

Cau'thee.  (Fabric.)  A  coarse  East  India  cot- 
ton cloth. 

Cau'ting-i'ron.     A  searing-iron.     See  Cautf.r. 

Cava-lier'.  (Fortification.)  An  elevated  work 
on  the  terrepleiu  of  a  bastion  serving  to  command 
the  work  or  some  other  ]iosition,  and  also  .serving  as 
a  traverse  to  protect  the  neighboring  curtains  from 
enfilade  fire. 

Cava-lot'.     A  cannon  carrj'ing  a  ball  of  1  pound. 

Cave.     The  ash-pit  of  a  glass  furnace. 

Caves-son.  A  nose-band  for  breaking-in  horses. 
Otherwise  spelt  eansson,  eareton.  It  resembles  the 
twitch  or  barnncles,  being  a  grip  by  which  the  noso 
is  wrung  and  twisted,  to  subdue  the  refractoiy  spiiit 
of  the  animal. 

Ca-vefto.  (Architecture.)  A  form  of  hollow 
molding  whose  ]irofile  is  the  quadrant  of  a  circle. 
See  Mo  LI)  INC. ;  Scotia. 

A  raiiipanl  cavetto  is  perpendicular. 

Cav'il.  1.  (Nautical.)  A  large  cleat.  See 
Kevel. 

2.  A  small  stone  axe  with  a  flat  face  and  a  pointed 
peen.      Resembles  iijcd(linr/-a.xe. 

Cav'in.  (Fortification.)  A  hollow  way  from  a 
])rotected  approach  to  a  defended  work. 

Cav'ing-rake.  A  rake  lor  separating  the  chaff 
(Eug.  cavinys)  from  grain,  when  spread  ou  the  bani- 
Hoor. 

Cax'on.  (MetiiUuryy.)  A  chest  of  ores,  cal- 
cinerl,  ground,  and  washed,  ready  for  the  refining, 
furnace.  From  the  Spanish  caxon,  cajun,  a  huge 
chest. 

Ca'zo.  (ilctalhirgy.)  A  vessel  with  a  copper 
bottom  in  which  ores  of  silver  are  treated  in  the  liot 
process. 

Cec'o-graph.  The  French  writing-apparatus  for 
the  blind.     A  chirngun. 

Ceil'ing.  1.  (Architecture.)  The  upper  surface 
of  a  room. 

Plane  ceilings  are  flat. 

Domed,  cylindric,  or  groined  are  terms  which  ex- 
plain themselves. 

Cored  ceiling  has  a  hollow  of  about  a  quarter-cir- 
cle running  round  the  room,  situated  above  the  cor- 
nice and  dying  into  the  Hat  central  portion. 

Coffer-work  ceiling  is  aichcd,  and  has  oraamental 
panels  separated  by  belts. 

Gothic  ceilings  have  groined  work  with  spandrel 
framing  and  paneling  ;  the  framing  of  tlie  roof  is 
exposed. 

Sunk-panel  ceiling  has  recessed  compartments, 
with  roses  in  tlie  middle  and  bolectioji-moldings 
around  them. 

Camp  ceiling  has  the  marginal  portion  slanting, 
following  the  slope  of  the  rafters,  while  the  middle 
portion  is  flat. 

Fig.  1194. 


Fire-Proof  Ceilixs. 


CEILING-JOIST. 


507 


CEMENT. 


Fire-proof  ceilings  are  of  incombustible  materials 
B  supported  on  iron  joists  A,  as  in  Fig.  1194. 

2.  (Shipbuilding.)  That  portion  of  the  inside 
skin  of  a  vessel  between  the  deck-beams  and  the 
limbcr-strakes  on  each  side  of  the  keelson.  Also  called 
the  foot- waling.  The  strakes  of  the  ceiling  immedi- 
ately below  the  shclf-picces  which  support  the  deck- 
beams  are  called  clamps.  The  outside  planking  is 
distinctively  called  the  skin. 

Ceil'ing-j oist.  (Building.)  One  of  the  joists 
spiked  to  a  binder,  and  serving  as  a  point  of  attach- 
ment for  the  plastering  laths  of  the  ceiling. 

Cel'a-ture.  The  art  of  engraving,  chasing,  or 
embossing  metals. 

Cell.  1.  (Architecture.)  a.  The  space  between 
two  libs  of  a  vault. 

b.  The  space  inclosed  within  the  walls  of  an  an- 
cient temple. 

2.  (Electricity.)  A  single  jar,  bath,  or  division 
of  a  compound  vessel,  containing  a  couple  of  plates, 
—  say  copper  and  zinc,  —  united  to  their  oppnsites 
or  to  each  other,  usually  by  a  wire.  See  G.^lvaxic 
Battery. 

3.  An  underground  room  for  storage. 

4.  A  small  room  for  a  piisoner. 

5.  A  structure  in  a  wrought-iron  beam  or  girder  ; 

a  tube  consisting 
Fig.  1195.  of  four  wrought- 

iron  plates  rivet- 
ed to  angle-iron 
at  the  corners. 
See  Angle-iron. 
Cell-door 
IiOCk.  A  prison- 
door  lock,  to 
whose  bolt  no 
access  is  possible 
from  the  inside, 
and  which  may 
fit,  as  in  the  e.x- 
ainple,inarahbet 
inthedoor-jainb. 
The  secondary 
bolt  is  supported 
in  the  inclosing 
shell  by  brackets, 
and  is  connected 
to  the  main  work- 
ing parts  of  the 
lock  by  brace- 
bare,  so  that  the 
key  gives  it  a 
movement  par- 
allel witli  that 
of  the  common 
bolt.  The  in- 
closing ca.se  has 
a  hinged,  right-angled  cover,  the  inner  fastening  of 
which  is  covered  by  the  door  when  closed. 

Celt.  The  stone  hammer  or  a.\e  of  a  bygone  age. 
Aftenvards  made  of  bronze.  SccHa.mmer;  Hatchet. 
Ce-ment'.  1.  A  uniting  composition  which  is 
plastic  when  applied,  but  hardens  in  place.  The  in- 
gredients and  character  vary  with  the  place,  purpose, 
materials  to  be  united,  and  the  exposure. 

Alabaster,  a.  Plaster-of-paris,  1  ;  yellow  resin, 
2  ;  mix  and  apply  hot,  warming  the  faces  of  the 
fracture  or  joint. 

b.  Suljjhur  or  shellac,  melted  with  plaster-of- 
paris.     Simple  plaster-of-paris. 

Architectural.      Paper  pulp,    sifted  whiting, 
and  size.     This  is  a  sort  of  papier-mache,  and  must 
be  varni.shed  or  painted  if  e.xjiosed  to  the  weather. 
Akmenian.     See  Jeweler's,  d. 


Cai-DooT  Lock. 


Boi'TLE.  Eosin,  4  ;  tallow  or  suet,  1  ;  melt  to- 
gether and  stir  in  the  required  coloring-matter,  — 
whiting,  ochre,  or  ivory-black.      Use  hot. 

Che.mical.     See  Glass. 

Chinese,  a.  Shellac,  1  ;  alcohol,  2  ;  digest  in 
a  corkeil  bottle  in  warm  water. 

b.  Borax,  1  ;  water,  12  ;  shellac,  3  ;  evaporate 
to  the  required  consistence. 

Copper.  (To  lay  upon  the  rivets  and  lapping 
edges  of  copper-sheets. )  Powdered  quicklime,  bid- 
lock's  blood. 

Cutler's.  (For  Hxing knives  in  handles.)  Black 
rosin,  4  ;  beeswax,  1  ;  brick-dust,  1. 

Dextrine.     Torrelied  starch. 

Dia.mond.     See  Jeweler's,  d. 

Earthenware,  a.  (Coarse.)  Yellow  rosin  and 
brick-dust  melted  together. 

b.  (Finer  ;  for  certain  purposes.)     Brimstone. 

e.  Grated  olieese,  2  ;  quicklime,  1  ;  white  of  egg 
sufficient  to  form  a  paste. 

cl.  White  of  egg  and  quicklime. 

e.  Dried  and  ground  milk-curds  triturated  with 
ten  per  cent  of  powdered  (luicklime.  Keep  fiom  the 
air,  mix  wjth  water  for  use,  and  apply  immediately. 

El.\stic.  Caoutchouc  dissolved  in  chlorofomi, 
with  or  without  powdered  guin -mastic. 

Electric  Appap-.^tus.  Beeswax,  1  lb.  ;  rosin,  5 
lbs.  ;  red  oclire,  1  lb.  ;  jilaster-of-paris,  2  oz. 

Fire-proof.  Fine  river-sand,  20  ;  litharge,  2  ; 
quicklime,  1  ;  linseed-oil  to  form  a  paste.  Applied 
to  walls,  it  becomes  stony-hard. 

Gas-fitting.     Rosin  and  brick-dust. 

Glass,  a.  Dis.solve  gum-mastic,  1  ounce,  in  al- 
cohol ;  soak  1  ounce  of  isinglass  in  water  ;  add  alco- 
hol to  dissolve  it  to  a  strong  glue,  and  aild  J  ounce 
of  s;il-amnioniac.  Put  the  two  solutions  into  a  pip- 
kin ;  heat,  and  stir.  Put  in  a  stopiieied  vial, 
and  warm  in  a  water-bath  when  about  to  use  it. 

b.  (For  chemical  glasses. )  Flour,  1  ounce  ;  pulv. 
glass,  1  ounce  ;  pulv.  chalk,  1  ounce  ;  fine  brick- 
dust,  J  ounce  ;  scraped  lint ;  white  of  egg.  Spread  on 
a  linen  cloth,  and  ajiply  to  the  crack  of  the  glass. 

c.  (For  a  temporary  stopping  or  lute.)  Yellow 
wax,  4  ;  turpentine,  2  ;  Venetian-red,  1. 

d.  White  of  egg  and  (piicklime.  It  does  not  long 
resist  moisture  unless  exposed  to  the  heat. 

c.  (For  lens-grinders,  etc.)  Jlelt  together,  pitch, 
5  ;  wood-ashes,  1  ;  hard  tallow,  1. 

Or,  Black  rosin,  4 ;  beeswax,  1 ;  heated  whiting,  16. 

Or,  Shellac,  melted. 

Or,  Rosin  and  plaster-of-pnris. 

/.   To  unite  lenses,  Canada  balsam. 

g.  (To  attach  metallic  letters  to  plate-glass  win- 
dows.) Copal  varnish,  16;  drying-oil,  6;  turpen- 
tine (Venice),  3  ;  oil  of  turpentine,  3  ;  liquified  glue, 
5  ;  melt,  and  add  quicklime,  in  ]iowder,  10. 

h.  (For  necks  of  bottles.)  Linseed-meal  in  boiled 
oil.      Paraffine. 

Glue.  a.  A  strong  glue,  sold  as  a  cement,  may 
be  made  by  infusing  glue  and  isinglass  in  alcohol, 
heat  gently,  and  add  powdered  chalk. 

b.  Urcs  glue  (dissolved),  8;  linseed-oil,  boUed 
to  varnish  with  litharge,  4. 

c.  Dissolved  glue,  4  ;  Venice  turpentine,  1. 

d.  (Waterproof.)  Dissolve  isinglass,  2  ounces,  in 
a  pint  of  milk,  and  boil  to  a  consistence. 

e.  Glue  swelled  in  cold  water  and  digested  in 
linseed-oil  is  tenacious,  and  acquires  the  quality  of 
resisting  moisture.     Red  lead  may  be  added. 

/.  Mnrine  glue  :  shellac  and  caoutchouc  dissolved 
in  separate  portions  of  naphtha,  and  mi.xed. 

g.   Spalding's  liquid  glue  ;  glue  and  acetic  acid. 

Granite.  Gum-dammar,  marble-dust,  felspar. 
The  mineral  ingredients  are  reduced  to  an  impalpa- 


CEMENT. 


308 


CEMENT. 


ble  powder,  and  the  mass  is  incorporated  by  gradual 
heating.  It  is  applied  warm  to  the  warmed  faces 
of  the  fractured  portions.  The  black  felspar  is  pref- 
erably used,  to  jirevcnt  the  detection  of  tlie  joint. 

Hard.  a.  Dried  and  pulverized  clay,  8  ;  clean 
iron-filings,  4  ;  pero.vyde  of  manganese,  2  ;  sea-salt, 
1  ;  borax,  1.  Triturate,  reduce  to  paste  with  water, 
use  immediately  ;  heat  after  using. 

b.  Peroxyde  manganese,  zinc- white,  silicate  of 
soda,  to  form  a  paste. 

Hyduaulio.  a.  The  ancient  hydraulic  cement 
is  the  pozzuolana,  a  volcanic  earth  obtained  near 
Baiae,  in  Italy.      See  PuzzuoLANA. 

b.  Hydraulic  mortar  or  cement  is  made  from  ar- 
gillaceouslimestones,  the  presence  of  the  alumina  con- 
ferring the  power  of  hardmiing  under  water.  Hy- 
draulic limes  were  known  to  and  understood  by  the 
Romans.  Attention  was  directed  to  the  subject  by 
Smeaton,  when  he  experimented  for  a  cement  capa- 
ble of  hardening  under  water,  in  order  to  form  his 
foundation  courses  for  the  Eddystone  lighthouse. 

c.  The  French  cement  made  at  Mendon,  near 
Paris,  is  made  of  chalk  4  parts,  clay  1  part,  ground 
in  water,  settled,  molded,  dried,  and  calcined. 

d.  The  Portland  cement  of  England  is  made  of 
chalk  and  clay  from  the  valley  of  the  Medway.  The 
septaria  and  lias  rocks  also  yield  an  hydraulic  cement. 

Artificial  pozzuolana  is  also  made  from  lime  and 
clay. 

e.  Gad's  patent  { English)  ;  dried  clay  in  powder, 
3  ;  oxide  of  iron,  1.  Make  into  a  paste  with  boiled 
oil.      Will  harden  under  water. 

/.  Mix  clay,  broken  pottery,  flint  and  bottle  glass, 
into  a  frit ;  grind,  sift,  and  mix  with  one  third  its 
weight  of  quicklime  ;  keep  from  the  air.  In  using, 
mix  into  a  mortar,  and  apply  like  pozzuolana. 

Ikon.  a.  (For  .steam-boilers,  cracked  ovens,  etc. ) 
Litharge,  2  ;  fine  sand,  1  ;  slaked  lime,  1.  Mix, 
and  keep  dry. 

h.  Iron-borings,  powdered  earthenware,  pipe-clay, 
salt,  water. 

c.  Steam  aiul  water  tight  joints,  in  permanent 
cast-iron  works,  are  made  by  an  iron  cement  com- 
pounded as  follows  :  Cast-iron  filings  or  borings, 
112  ;  sal-ammoniac,  1  ;  sulphur,  1,  wliitening,  4. 

Small  quantities  are  mixed  with  a  little  water 
just  before  using. 

For  minute  cracks  the  cement  is  laid  on  e.xternally 
as  a  thin  seam.  For  larger  fi.ssures  it  is  driven  in 
witli  a  calking-iron.  The  edges  of  the  metal  and 
the  cement  are  involved  in  one  common  mass  of  rust, 
which  is  impermeable  to  steam  or  water. 

d.  Clean  iiou-filings,  16  ;  sal-ammoniac,  3  ;  flour 
of  sulphur,  2.     Mix,  and  keep  stoppered. 

In  use,  take  1  ]iart  of  the  mixture,  12  parts  of 
new  filings,  add  a  few  drops  of  sulphuric  acid,  and 
fill  the  crack  or  the  joint  whicli  requires  it. 

e.  Mix  boilecl  linseed-oil,  litharge,  red  and  white 
lead.  Apply  on  each  side  of  a  piece  of  flannel  or 
paper,  and  lay  the  same  between  two  pieces  before 
they  are  bolted  together. 

/.  (For  fire-joints  and  Hues.)  Iron-filings,  sal-am- 
moniac, and  borax. 

Jeweleks'.  (For  uniting  the  pieces  of  a  broken 
gem.)  a.  Warm  the  parts,  and  place  gum-mastic 
between  them.  It  will  melt  by  the  heat,  and  will 
be  scarcely  observable. 

b.  (For  temporarily  holding  a  glass,  set,  or  a  piece 
of  metal,  while  being  shaped  or  chased.)  Kosin,  4  ; 
wax,  i  ;  whiting,  4.     Mix  and  heat. 

c.  Take  pitch,  rosin,  a  small  (j\iantity  of  tallow,  and 
thicken  with  brick-dust.    Stir  in  a  pipkin  over  a  fire. 

d.  (Armenian  cement  for  uniting  metals.)  Dissolve 
gum-mastic    in    alcohol    and    isinglass    (previously 


softened  in  water)  in  brandy,  adding  a  little  gum- 
galbanum,  or  gum-ammoniac,  previously  rubbed 
fine.  Mix  under  heat  ;  keep  in  stoppered  vial, 
which  is  placed  in  hot  water  when  the  cement  is  to 
be  used.     This  is  diamond  ccnuiil. 

The  Armenian  artificers  set  the  jewel  in  a  metallic 
setting  whose  lower  surface  corresponds  to  the  shape 
of  the  article  on  which  it  is  to  be  placed.  The  two 
are  then  united  Ijy  the  cement. 

Leather.  (For  leather  and  cloth.)  a.  Gutta- 
percha, 3  ;  caoutchouc,  1  ;  digested  in  bi-sulphuret 
of  carbon,  8. 

b.  Gutta-percha,  16  ;  caoutchouc,  4  ;  pitch,  2  ; 
shellac,  1  ;  linseed-oil,  2. 

Marble.  Plaster-of-paris  steeped  in  a  saturated 
solution  of  alum  and  re-calcined.  Mix  with  water, 
and  apply  as  plaster-of-paris.  This  cement  or  stucco 
is  susceptible  of  a  high  polish,  and  may  be  colored 
to  imitate  marbles. 

See  also  Stojjie  ;  Granite  ;  infra. 

Mastk!  (Bottger's).  Sand,  limestone  in  powder, 
litharge,  combined,  100  parts  ;  boiled  linseed-oil,  7 
parts.  Mix.  Similar  to  Loriat's  French  mastic, 
invented  1750. 

Mortar,  a.  Sharp,  clean  sand,  3 ;  freshly 
slacked  lime,  1.  See  Beton  ;  Stone,  artificial  ; 
Mortar. 

b.  Parker's  cement,  known  as  Roman,  patented  in 
England  in  1796,  is  made  by  adding  a  quantity  of 
calcined  and  powdered  argillaceous  stone  to  the 
usual  constituents  of  mortar,  namely,  sharp  sand, 
lime,  and  water. 

Cements  from  sulphate  of  lime  ;  — 

c.  Keciic's  ccmeiU  is  made  from  plaster-of-paris 
mixed  with  a  saturated  solution  of  alum,  dried, 
baked,  powdered,  and  sifted. 

d.  Parian  cement,  same  as  above,  with  the  sub- 
stitution of  borax  for  alum. 

c.  Martiiis  cement,  same  as  above,  with  the  ad- 
dition of  pearl-ash  to  the  alum. 

/.  Stucco  is  a  combination  of  plaster-of-paris  with 
gelatine  solution. 

(/.  ScaijUola  is  made  of  plaster-of-paris  powdered, 
mixed  into  a  paste  with  alum,  isinglass,  and  coloring 
matter,  and  is  incorporated  with  fi-agmeuts  of  marble. 

Opticians'.     See  Glass. 

Paper,     a.  Rice  digested  in  water,  applied  hot. 

b.  Flour  paste.  A  little  powdered  alum  is  said 
to  improve  its  quality,  and  a  little  corrosive-sub- 
limate or  creosote  to  prevent  its  becoming  moldy. 

c.  Mucilage  of  gum-arabic,  thickened  with  starch. 
Used  by  French  makers  of  artificial  flowers  and 
ornamental  boxes.  Also  by  naturalists  in  mounting 
specimens. 

d.  Sealing-wax. 

e.  (For  postage  stamps.)     Dextrine  and  size. 
Photographer's.     Dextrine,  paste,  and  glue. 
Plumbers'.     Kosin   and    brick-dust  melted    to- 
gether. 

Roman.     See  Mortar,  fc;  supra. 

Seal-Engravers'.  Rosin  and  briik-dust.  Melted 
together,  and  used  to  temporarily  fasten  an  object  to 
a  chuck  while  engraving  or  chasing. 

Slate.  (For  tlu' joints  of  slate-work  on  roofs  or 
in  tanks.)  Boiled  linseed-oil,  white  lead,  chalk,  in- 
timately compounded,  and  used  in  a  fluid  condition. 

Stone.  Fine  sand,  20  ;  litharge,  2  ;  quick-lime, 
1  ;  linseed-oil  to  form  a  paste. 

See  also  cements,  alabaster,  glass,  earthen,  gran- 
ite, diamond,  Armenian,  Chinese,  etc.,  supra. 

Stove.  (For  cracks  in  stoves  and  other  iron-ware.) 
Finely  pulverized  binoxide  of  manganese,  mixed 
with  a  strong  solution  of  silicate  of  soda,  to  form  a 
thick  paste.     Fill  the  crack,  and  heat  slowly. 


CEMENTATION. 


509 


CEMENT-MILL. 


Another :  Dry  clay,  4  ;  borax,  in  solution,  1. 

Turner's.  (For  chucking  articles. )  Rosin  and 
brick-dust,  melted  together. 

Waterproof,  a.  (For  covering  of  bungs,  etc.l 
India-rubber  (digested),  beeswax,  tallow,  and  quick- 
lime. 

b.  ( For  joining  rubbergoods.)  Caoutchouc  in  naph- 
tha or  turpentine. 

Wood.  1.  a.  (For  attaching  a  piece  of  wood  to  a 
chuck  for  turning,  and  for  other  purposes.)  Rosin, 
1  pound  ;  pitch,  4  ounces  ;  brick-dust  or  red  ochre, 
to  give  consistence  ;  add  tallow  in  winter. 

b.  Shellac,  1  ;  alcohol,  2.  Digest  in  a  corked 
bottle,  in  warm  water. 

2.  (Mining.)  The  gravel  cemented  by  clay,  which 
lies  next  to  the  bed-rock  of  the  ancient  stream,  but 
is  now  buried  beneath  a  mass  of  lava  and  gravel-drift, 
sometimes  many  hundreds  of  feet  in  depth.  This 
auriferous  stratum  is  reached  by  timbering,  draining, 
and  hoisting,  as  in  other  undergi-ound  operations, 
or  the  overlying  deposits  by  hi/draidic  mining, 
which  consists  in  washing  away  the  superincumbent 
mass.  This  system  is  principally  practiced  in  Sierra 
Nevada  and  Placer  Counties,  California.  The  ce- 
ment of  these  "deep  placers"  is  crushed  by  stamps, 
and  the  free  gold  collected  by  sluices  or  other  means. 
See  Professor  Raymond's  ' '  Mines,  Mills,  and  Fur- 
naces." 

3.  {Metallurgy/. )  a.  The  brown  deposit  in  the 
precipitation  tank,  wher^n  the  soluble  chloride  of 
gold,  obtained  by  the  chlorination  process,  is  depos- 
ited by  the  addition  of  sulphate  of  iron  to  the  solu- 
tion. 

i.  The  material  in  which  the  metal  is  imbedded 
in  the  Cementing. furn.\ce  (which  see). 

Cem'en-ta'tion.  (Metallurgy.)  Tlie  process  of 
infusing  a  solid  body  with  the  constituents  of  an- 
other body  in  which  it  is  buried,  by  the  application 
of  heat ;  as  the  conversion  of  iron  into  steel  by  add- 
ing to  it  a  certain  proportion  of  carbon.     See  Ce- 

MENTINO-FURN.^rF.. 

Ce-ment'ed-back    Car'pet.     In   forming  ce- 
mented-back  carpet  a  number  of  warp-threads  a  a 
are  arranged  in  a  frame, 
rig.  1196  and  are   brought  into 

a  convoluted  form  by 
means  of  metallic 
plates  b  b,  which  are 
laid  strictly  parallel. 
The  under  side  of  the 
warps  thus  doubled  or 
folded  are  then  dressed 
to  raise  a  nap,  and  this 
surface  is  then  smeared  with  cement  and  backed  by 
a  canvas  or  coarse  cloth.  When  dry,  the  metal- 
lic strips  b  b  are  removed  by  cutting  the  loops, 
and  leaving  a  pile  surface,  as  in  the  Wilton  car- 
pets. 

Another  mode  is  to  wind  the  colored  yarns  around 
wires,  which  are  then  laid  parallel ;  one  surface  treated 
with  cement  and  backed  with  canvas  ;  the  other  cut 
like  a  Wilton  carpet  when  the  backing  is  dry. 

Another  mode  is  to  fill  a  square  box  with  parallel 
yarns  laid  according  to  a  design,  so  that  a  transverse 
section  across  the  yarn  will  show  the  pattern.  The 
ends  of  the  box  being  open,  a  piston  is  introduced 
at  one  to  expel  the  yarns  at  the  other.  At  the  dis- 
charge-end, the  surface,  being  cut  fair,  is  cemented, 
and  a  cloth  applied  to  it.  A  quantity  of  the  yarn, 
equal  to  the  length  of  the  pile,  is  then  cut  off,  and  ad- 
heres to  the  backing.  The  surface  is  again  cemented, 
the  yarn  protruded,  the  backing  applied,  the  pile 
cut  off,  and  so  on. 

Ce-ment'ing-fur'nace.     A   furnace    in    which 


Ctmented-Back  Carpet. 


an  article  is  packed  in  the  powder  of  another  sub- 
stance, and  therewith  subjected  to  a  continued  heat 
below  the  fusiug-point.  The  article  is  changed  by 
a  chemical  reaction  with  the  powder. 

Bar-irou,  packed    in   charcoal   and   heated    in   a 
cementing-furnace,     becomes 
steel,  the  iron  absorbing  some  Kg.  1197. 

of  the  carbon. 

Cast-iron,  packed  in  pow- 
dered hematite  and  similarly 
heated,  becomes  malleable  ; 
the  oxygen  of  the  hematite 
absorbing  some  of  the  carbon 
of  the  iron. 

The  troughs  C  are  so  sup-       Ccmenting-Furnacc. 
ported  beneath  the  arch  M  of 

the  furnace,  that  the  fire  has  free  access  to  their 
whole  exterior  surfaces.  The  bar-iron  is  ihibedded 
in  charcoal  in  the  troughs  C,  being  arranged  in  tiers 
with  interposed  layers  of  charcoal,  no  two  bars  being 
in  contact.  The  tops  of  the  troughs  are  covered  in 
with  fire-tiles,  or  the  upper  layer  with  refractory 
sand,  and  the  heat  is  increased  for  several  days,  and 
then  maintained  for  a  jieriod  depending  upon  the 
kind  of  steel  required.  The  finer  varieties  of  steel 
are  produced  by  a  prolonged  process,  and  the  bars  are 
sometimes  exposed  again  and  again  to  the  process  of 
cementation. 

In  Fig.  1198  is  an  oven  for  converting  iron  into 
steel.  The  con- 
verting-chamber Fig.  1198. 
A  is  surrounded 
at  bottom  and  on 
the  sides  by  the 
fire-spaces  M  S. 
The  furnaces  and 
grates  extend 
along  each  side 
of  the  base  of  the 
converting-cham- 
ber, and  from  end 
to  end  of  the 
oven,  leaving  an 
opeuing  at  each 
end  for  the  ad- 
mission of  fuel. 
A  longitudinal 
line  of  fire-brick 
prevents  the 
draft  from 
p;issing  from  one 
furnace  to  the 
other.  Above 
the  boshes  the 
walls  are  made 
to  incline  in- 
wards, in  order  to  confine  the  heat  more  closely  to 
the  sides  of  the  converting-chamber.  At  the  top 
the  spaces  communicate  with  the  interior  of  the 
converting-chamber  by  means  of  holes,  which  are 
made  smaller  towards  the  center  of  the  chamber  than 
at  the  ends. 

Ce-ment'-miU.  A  mill  for  grinding  the  septaria 
or  stony  concretions  from  wliich  cement  is  derived. 

The  machinery  is  driven  by  a  steam-engine,  shown 
to  the  left  in  the  illustration,  and  the  motion  is  com- 
municated by  a  horizontal  through-shaft  to  all  the 
machinery  in  the  mill.  The  operations  exhibited 
are  threefold.  The  cement-stone  is  crushed  between 
a  pair  of  rollers  on  horizontal  shafts  beneath  the 
hopper  to  the  right  hand.  Falling  to  the  floor,  it 
is  elevated  to  the  upper  story  and  dumped  into  a 
hopper,  from  whence  it  passes  into  the  eye  of  the  run- 
ner mill-stone  and  is  finely  pulverized.     The  stones 


Cementijig-Furnace. 


CEMENT-SPREADER. 


510 


CENTER-FIRE  CARTRIDGE. 


Imve  a  face  dressing  like  those  for  grinding  grain, 
the  obliijue  channels  being  laid  over  in  sections. 
From  the  mill  the  jiowder  passes  to  a  pair  of  sieves, 
wb  ch  receive  a  rapid  horizontal  reciprocation  by  a 

Kig,  1199. 


Cemml-Mill. 

rod  and  crank  attached  to  the  small  spur-wheel, 
which  is  turned  by  the  large  spur-wheel  on  the  spin- 
dle beneath  the  beil-stone. 

To  the  right  is  shown  a  mortar-mill,  which  con- 
sists of  an  edge-wheel  traveling  in  a  circular  bed, 
like  that  of  a  Chilian  ore-mill.  This  .stone  has  an 
axlewhicli  projects  radially  from  a  vertical  post  which 
is  rotated  liy  spnr-geariiig  from  the  main  horizontal 
shaft  of  tile  Uiill.  A  scraper  on  the  stone  cleans 
the  face  of  the  edge-stone. 

Ce-ment'-3pread'er.  A  machine  for  coating  and 
saturating  IVlt  or  paper  with  li(iuid  cement,  for  roof- 
ing purposes.     The  cloth  or  paper  H  passes  under 

fig.  1200. 


Cement-  S/irear/er. 

roller  /ami  over  the  roller  G  in. to  the  liquid-cement 
hopper  /?,  and  passes  out  between  the  roller  and  the 
adjustable  gate  C,  which  gages  the  quantity  of  ce- 
ment which  passes  out  with  the  cloth. 

Cen'dres  de  Tour'nay.  A  hydraulic  cement  of 
aluminous  quicklime  and  coal-ashes. 

The  ash  'S  and  liuie  from  the  bottom  of  the  kiln 
are  sifted,  to  remove  lumps.  The  dust  is  slacked  a 
bushel  at  a  time  till  the  mortar-box  is  tilled.  The  mor- 
tar is  then  well  incorporated  by  a  pestle  suspended 
at  the  end  of  an  elastic  pole.  It  is  then  partially 
dried,  again  beaten,  and  tliis  is  repeated  from  six  to 
ten  times,  no  more  water  being  added.  It  adheres 
very  lir.nly  to  bricks  or  stone,  and  hardens  under 
watiM-. 

Cen'ser.  A  brazier  or  pan  for  burning  aromatic 
woods  and  spices. 

Cen'ter.    i^Lalhc.)  One  of  the  points  on  the  lathe- 


(NatUical.)    A   board   placed 

Fig.  1.201. 


spindles  on  which  the  work  is  placed.  The/ro)i(  or 
live  center  is  on  the  spimlle  of  the  liead-slock.  The 
buek  or  dead  center  is  on  the  tail-stock. 

The  centers  of  a  planar  are  on  stocks  temporarily 
attached  to  the  bed  of  the  planer,  so  that  the  object 
may  lie  turned  on  its  axis  in  the  course  of  the  work 
thereon. 

Cen'ter-bit.  A  wood-boring  tool  which  has  a 
central  pivot  ami  two  wings  ;  one  of  these  is  a 
scrilier  and  the  other  a  router.     See  Bit. 

Cen'ter-board. 
amidsliip  in  a  well 
which  extends  longi- 
tudinally and  ver- 
tically through  the 
keel,  and  is  adapted 
to  be  lowered  to 
give  a  deeper  draft, 
in  order  to  avoid 
lee-way  and  to  give 
the  vessel  greater 
stability  under  press 
of  canvas.  It  is  the 
old  Dutch  lee-board 
in  a  central  position. 
A  slidincj-l'ceJ. 

Cen'ter-chis'el. 
A  chisel  used  to  make 
a  dent  at  the  exact 
center,  to  form  a 
starting-point  for 
the  drill,  in  drilling 
holes  in  metal.  A 
pointed  cold-chisel. 

Cen'ter-chuck. 


CentcT- Board. 


( Turning. )  A  chuck  which 
can  be  screwed  on  the  mandrel  of  a  lathe,  and  has  a 
hai-dened  steed  cone  or  center  fixed  in  it  ;  also  a  pro- 
jecting ariu  or  d?iver. 

Cen'ter  Dis-charge'-wheel.     A   form   of  tur- 
bine, in  which  the  water  is  admitted  from  a  chute  A? 

Fig.  1202 


Center  Discltarge-Wlieel. 

to  the  perijihery  of  the  buckets  a  a,  passes  towards 
the  center  of  the  wheel,  and  thence  downward  around 
the  axis  D. 

Cen'ter-drill.  A  small  drill  used  for  making  a 
short  hole  in  the  ends  of  a  shaft  about  to  be  turned, 
for  the  entrnnce  of  the  Inthe-centers. 

Cen'ter-fire  Car'tridge.  One  in  which  the  ful- 
minate occuiiies  an  axial  ]iosition,  in.stead  of  being 
around  the  perijdiery  of  the  Hanged  capsule. 

In  the  illustration  the  fulminate  is  in  a  cap,  and 


CENTER-GAGE. 


511 


CENTERING. 


Fig.  1203. 


Center-Fire  Cartridge. 

is  struck  by  a  firing-pin  g,  when  the 
hammer  descends  mion  the  end  of  the 
bolt  D.     See  Cautridoe. 

Cen'ter-gage.  A  giige  for  showing 
the  angle  to  wliieh  alathe-centershould 
be  turned,  and  also  for  aceurately  grind- 
ing and  setting  sci'ew-cutting  tools. 

The  annexed  cut  shows  the  tool,  and 
ilhistrates  its  uses. 

At  A  is  shown  the  manner  of  gaging 
the  angle  to  W'hieh  a  lathe-center  should 
be  turned.  At  B,  the  angle  to  which 
a  screw-thread  cnttiug-tool  should  be 
ground,  and  at  C,  the  cori-ectness  of 
the  angle  of  a  screw-thread  already  cut. 

In  the  lower  figure,  the  shaft  with  a 
screw-thread  is  sup]posed  to  be  held  on 
the  center  of  a  lathe.  By  applying 
the  gage  as  shown  at  D  or  £,  the 
thread-tool  can  be  set  at  right  angles 
to  the  shaft,  and  then  fastened  in  place 
by  the  screw  in  the  tool-iiost,  thereby 
avoiding  imperfect  or  leaning  threads. 

In  the  right-hand  figure,  the  man- 
ner of  setting  the  tool  for  cutting  in- 
Bide  threads  is  illustrated.     The  an- 
gles used  in  this  gage  are  sixty  degrees.     The  tour 
divisions  upon  the  gage  of  14,  20,  24,  and  32  parts 

Fig.  1204. 


timber.  The  centering  is,  in  fact,  a  pattern,  in 
wood,  of  the  intrados  of  the  finished  arch,  and  is, 
in  large  structures,  such  as  first-class  stone  bridges, 
an  expensive  erection  of  itself,  recjuiring  a  large 
amount  of  scientific  knowledge  and  practical  skill  to 
thoroughly  fulfill  the  required  conditions. 

The  essential  features  of  a  ccntcrin;/  are  the  ribs 
which  span  the  space  between  the  piers  ;  the  bolsters, 
or  boarding,  which  lie  transversely  and  support  the 
voussoirs ;  the  kcyn,  or  sirilcinii-plates,  beneath  the 
ribs,  which  are  struck  to  lower  the  centering  ;  and 

Fig.  1205. 


^S 


^vV 


l/v" 


_<ffy7Fyjr^^- 


.-^^ 


^wm. 


\A,'\A/^W,\\ 


^.WAVW^V 


/f 


\A\ 


to  the  inch  are  useful  in  measuring  the  number  of 
threads  to  the  inch  of  taps  and  screws. 

The  following  jiarts  to  the  inch  can  be  determined 
bv  them  :  namely,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  8,  10,  14,  16,  20, 
24,  and  32. 

Cen'ter-ing.  (Masonry.)  A  temporary 
support,  serving  at  the  same  time  as  a  g\ude 
to  the  workmen,  placed  under  an  arch  dur- 
ing the  progress  of  its  construction.  Its 
duty  is  to  suppiu't  the  arch  imtil  it  has 
been  finally  closed  by  the  insertion  of  the 
key-stone,  and  is  able  to  maintain  itself  in 
position  without  extraneous  help. 

Tlie  object  is  to  alford  the  largest  possi- 
ble amount  of  support  to  all  the  parts  ;  to 
arrange  the  timbers  so  that  each  piart  shall 
be  e(]ually  supported  in  proportion  to  its 
actual  pressure,  and  to  economize  —  or  at 
least  such  should  be  the  engineer's  aim  — 


Bridge-CenttTS. 

a  sufficient  amount  of  framing  to  hold  the  ribs  and 
bolsters  securely. 

A  cocket-centering  is  one  in  which  head-room  is 
left  beneath  the  arch  above  the  sprlmjing-lbte,  upon 
which  the  temporary  supports  of  the  centering  may 
have  to  rest. 

The  most  elementary  form  may  be  seen  in  the 
common  sewer  or  culvert,  where  a  simple  structure 
answers  the  purpose  ;  but  in  large  structures,  which 
may  have  to  support  a  pressure  of  many  hundreds 
of  tons,  careful  calculations  are  reiiuired,  involving 
a  knowledge  of  the  strength  of  materials  and  reso- 
lution of  thrust.  Engineering  .skill  is  also  necessary 
in  securing  proper  foundations  under  the  widely 
varying  circumstances  of  the  soil  and  substrata. 

Fig.  1205,  a  is  a  center  used  at  Westmin.ster 
Bridge,  an  inifirovement  on  Perrouet's  system.  Two 
timbers  resting  on  the  abutments  incline  and  meet 
at  ihe  top,  forming  a  large  triangle  ;  this  is  crossed 
and  braced  in  different  directions,  constituting  seven 
compartments,  and  affording  considerable  strength. 


1208. 


Center  Coid-itream  Bridge, 


CENTERING-MACHINE. 


512 


CENTER-LATHE. 


Centers  of  130  ffct  sjian  have  been  formed  Ijy  the 
arrangennMit  rciiresented  in  Fig.  1205,  b,  composed 
of  vertical  and  horizontal  timbers  with  diagonal 
braces  ;  tlie  upper  portion  is  contrived  to  rest  upon 
wedges,  and  can  be  lowered  without  disturbing  the 
rest ;  by  striking  the  inclined  supports  at  bottom, 
their  position  can  be  altered  when  desired.  These 
centers  have  the  advantage  of  simjilicity,  and  can 
be  easily  put  together  and  taken  down. 

Snieaton's  center  for  Coldstream  Bridge  resembled 
a  roof-truss  in  its  general  arrangement,  consisting 
of  a  Irame  with  a  tie-beam  united  by  a  system  of 
braces  ;  on  each  side  were  stmts  supporting  the  ribs, 
on  which  was  laid  the  planking  for  turning  the  arch. 

The  centers  devised  by  Kennie  for  the  arches  of 
Waterloo  Bridge  have  been  often  cited  as  admirably 
arranged  structures  of  their  kind.  Inclined  "piles," 
which  carried  the  weight  of  the  ribs  of  the  cen- 
ter, had  their  bearings  on  the  offsets  of  the  stone 
piers,  which  afforded  an  excellent  abutment.  The 
ribs  were  laid  upon  whole  timbers  capping  the 
piles,  and  under  each  set  of  ribs  wedges  were  in- 
troduced, which  were  made  to  extend  across  the 
whole  width  ;  when  it  was  rcLjuired  to  ease  the  cen- 
ter, the  wedges  were  driven  along  each  other,  and 
slid  down  the  inclined  plane  into  larger  spaces  than 
they  had  formerly  occupied.  The  whole  center 
could  by  this  means  be  made  to  descend  very  gently, 

Fig.  1207. 


Fig.  1208. 


Center  Waterloo  BrUge. 

and  be  retained  at  any  required  position  during  the 
progress  of  the  work. 

An  elevation  of  the  framing  is  shown  in  Fig. 
1207.  This  i:enter  is  said  to  have  had  remarkable 
strength,  and  when  struck,  the  arch  settled  but  a 
very  few  inches. 

Cen'ter-ing-ma-chine'.  .\  form  of  machine- 
drill  for  centering  shafts,  bolts,  etc.  The  purposes 
are  various,  but  especially  to  make  such  a  depression 
at  the  exact  center  that  the  object  may  be  placed  in 
a  lathe  for  turning.  Two  illustrations  are  shown. 
In  the  upper  one  the  end  of  the  shaft  a  rests  in  the 
crutch,  and  is  held  between  the  three  sliding-dogs 
of  the  chuck  b,  so  that  the  exact  center  of  end-face 
is  presented  to  the  drill,  which  is  rotated  by  a  band 
on  pulley  c,  and  advanced  to  its  work  by  the  tail- 
screw  d.  The  lever  e  is  the  means  of  rotating  that 
portion  of  the  chuck  which  carries  the  rack  or  snail 
by  which  the  dogs  are  radially  adjusted,  so  as  to 
grasp  or  release  the  shaft. 


Center'ing-Marhnie 

The  lower  figure  has  the  dogs  h  on  the  face  of  the 
chuck  g,  and  these 
are  made  to  embrace 
the  shaft,  bolt,  or 
rod  near  the  end,  so 
as  to  hold  it  for  the 
advance  of  the  drill, 
which,  in  this  case, 
is  moved  to  its  work 
by  the  lever-handle 
k,  but  rotated  by 
the  band  on  the  pul- 
ley. 

Cen'ter-ing- 
tool.  One  having 
a  trumpet  mouth, 
into  which  the  end 
of  a  shaft  may  be 
pushed  while  the 
tool  occupying  the 
axis  may  be  driven 
forward,  to  drill 
or  punc-  a  hole 
in  the  exact  axial 
center  of  the  rod. 
The  shaft  A  is  at' 
tached  to  the  latl; 
spindle,  and  around  it  is  a  sleeve  supporting  a  center' 
ing-cup,  which  is  driven  forward  by  a  spiral  spring. 


Centering-  Toot. 


lon- 


Cen'ter-line.     {Sliipbuildhiff.)    A  central, 
gitudinal,  vertical  section  of  the  hull. 

Cen'ter-lathe.  1.  A  lathe  in  which  the  work  is 
sujiported  upon  centers  at  each  end  ;  one  on  the  end 
of  the  mandrel  in  the  head-stock,  and  the  other,  the 
back-center,  on  the  axis  in  the  tail-stock.  The  lat- 
ter is  adjustable. 

2.  A  lathe  in  which  the  work  is  held  by  centers 
projecting  from  two  posts,  and  is  driven  by  a  band 


CEN'TER-PIN\ 


513 


CEXTER-VALVE. 


which  passes  two  or  three  times  around  it.  The 
band  is  fastened  at  its  respective  ends  to  a  treadle 
beneath  the  lathe  and  a  spring-bar  above  it.  A 
poh-lalhe. 

Cen'ter-pin.  The  pivot  on  which  the  compass- 
needle  oscUlates.  See  Mariner's  Compass  ;  Dip- 
compass. 

Cen'ter-punch.  A  punch  for  raalsing  an  inden- 
tation, a>  a  mark  for  the  center  of  a  hole  to  be 
drilled,  a  cin'.e  to  be  struck,  or  as  a  center  of 
revolution  in  the  lathe. 

Cen'ter-rail.  (Eailuoay  Engineering. )  A  third, 
or  middle,  rail  placed  between  the  ordinary  rails  of 
a  track,  and  used  on  inclined  planes  in  connection 
with  wheels  on  the  locomotive  in  ascending  or  de- 
scending the  grade. 

The  first  of  these  was  Blexkixsop'.s  patent  of 
1811.  The  middle  rail  was  a  rack,  and  was  engaged 
by  a  cogged  wheel  on  the  locomotive  by  which  the 
ascent  was  secured. 

No  particular  provision  wa.s  made  for  descent.  The 
device  was  primarily  intended  as  an  aid  to  traction, 
as  it  was  supposed  at  that  time  the  bite  of  the  driv- 
ers on  the  rail  would  be  insufficient. 

SxowDEX  (English),  in  1824,  had  a  center-rack 
and  what  he  called  a  median  ical  Iwrse.  A  bevel  cog- 
wheel on  the  locomotive  acted  upon  gearing  on  the 
horse,  and  the  latter  had  a  wheel  engaging  the  center- 
rack,  so  the  horse  was  advanced  and  drew  the  train. 
Eastox  (English  patent,  1825)  specifies  a  central 
rack  placed  between  the  two  rails,  and  a  spur  gear 
on  the  locomotive.  In  addition  to  this,  the  smooth 
sides  of  the  rail  foiTa  guides,  lateral  wheels  running 
in  a  horizontal  plane  beneath  the  engine  or  carriage, 

bearing     upon    the 
Fig.  1210.  sides  of  the  rail  and 

preventing  the 
swerving  of  the  ve- 
hicle from  the  line 
or  rails.  No  positive 
motion  was  impart- 
ed by  the  engine  to 
the  said  guide- 
wheels. 

Kollman's  Eng- 
lish patent  of  1836 
has  a  central  guide- 
rail. 

A  centnX  friction- 
T'lil  was  patented  bv  Tigxoles  and  Ericsson  in 
Englanil,  18-30. 

This  friction-rail  consists  of  a  flat  piece  of  iron 
fixed  in  a  vertical  position  in  chairs  a,  occupying  a 
median  position  between  the  tracks.  On  each  side 
of  the  friction-rail  is  a  horizontal  friction-roller,  as 
shown  at  c  rf  ;  the  roller  c  being  made  considerablj' 
longer  than  d,  and  fixed  upon  its  vertical  shaft  c, 
while  d  is  permitted  to  turn  freely  on  its  vertical 
shaft  /.  On  the  dri\Hng-axis  g  is  fitted  a  bevel- 
wheel  A,  which  turns  another  bevel-wheel  ?,  fixed 
npon  the  vertical  shaft  e  of  the  dri\"ing-roller  c.  The 
bearings  of  this  driving-roller  and  its  shaft  are  firmly 
fixed  to  the  under  side  of  the  locomotive-carriage  by 
a  block  to  which  the  bearings  of  the  friction-roller 
d  are  hinged,  that  the  latter  may  at  pleasure  be 
pressed  against  the  fricrion-rail  a  by  the  lever  m. 
This  lever  is  brought  within  reach  of  the  engineer. 
The  driving-wheels  n  o  may  be  released  from  the 
power  of  the  engine  by  disengaging  the  clutches 
p  q,  so  as  to  throw  the  whole  force  of  the  engine 
ujion  the  gripping  rollers  c  d  when  ascending  a 
grade. 

KoLL>[.\x's    Locomotive   Guide,   English  patent, 
1836,  had  a  pair  of  rollers  acting  upon  the  sides  of  a  | 
33 


Vignoits  and  Ericsson's  Central  RaU. 


center-rail  whose  upiier  flanges  prevented  the  rising 
of  the  guide-rollers  to  such  an  extent  as  to  become 
disengagetl. 

Sellef.s's  United  States  patent,  1835,  embraced  a 
central  rail,  clamped  between  two  horizontally  ro- 
tating rollers  driven  by  the  power  of  the  locomotive. 

A  device  similar  to  that  described  in  Vignoles 
and  Ericsson's  English  patent,  1830,  was  adopted 
by  Fell  in  the  Mount  Washington  KaUway,  whose 
steep  gradients  could  not  be  ascended  by  the  or- 
dinary means. 

Mr.  Fell  adopted  the  same  means  in  ascending 
the  inclined  planes  on  Mont  Cenis. 

Another  form  of  center-rail  railway  has  but  a 
single  rail  in  the  middle  of  the  track,  and  a  pair  of 
smooth  tramways,  one  on  each  side,  traversed  by 
ordinary  wheels. 

Cen'ter-sa^.  A  machine  for  splitting  round 
timber  into  bolts,  instead  of  riving  it,  for  axe  and 
pick  handles,  heavj'  spokes,  etc.  It  has  a  sliding 
carriage,  furnished  with  center  head-blocks,  upon 
which  the  log  is  placed  ;  and  is  provided  with  a 
dial-plate  and  stops,  by  which  the  log  can  be  spaced 


Fig  1211. 


Center  Sawing-Machine. 

into  stufl'  the  desired  size.  The  centers  can  be  ad- 
justed up  or  down,  to  suit  the  work.  Is  capable  of 
splitting  timber  up  to  20  inches  in  diameter,  3^  feet 
long  ;  cuts  invariably  toward  the  center,  and  is  cal- 
culated for  a  .-iaw  22  inches  or  less  in  diameter. 

Cen'ter-sec'ond.  A  tenn  applied  to  a  watch 
or  clock  in  which  the  sccOTfrf-hand  is  mounted  on 
the  central  arbor  and  completes  its  revolution  in 
one  minute.  It  is  more  easily  read  than  the  ordinary 
second-hand  traversing  in  its  own  small  dial. 

The  beat  of  the  second-hand  may  be  seconds,  or 
fractions  of  a  second.  In  the  original  form  it  beat 
«ith  the  balance,  a  third  of  a  second  at  a  beat. 

The  largest  center-second  clock  known  to  the 
writer  is  the  turret-clock  for  the  Bombay  Harbor 
Board,  which  indicates  hours,  minutes,  and  seconds 
upon  a  dial  8J  feet  in  diameter.  The  center-second 
hand  measures  6^  feet  in  length,  and  its  end  has  a 
motion  of  5  inches  per  second,  acc|uiring  a  momen- 
tum which  has  been  overcome  by  a  series  of  sixty 
levers,  so  arranged  that  the  second-hand  rests  in 
one  of  them  at  each  beat ;  the  ]>oint  of  the  hand 
being  so  contrived  that  when  it  rests  upon  a  lever  it 
is  detained  there,  and  can  get  neither  backwards 
nor  forwards  until  the  clock-work  removes  the  lever 
out  of  the  way.  This  prevents  the  swaying  back 
and  forth  of  the  hand,  and  gives  it  a  dead  motion. 

Cen'ter-valve.  A  device  in  gas-works  whose 
duty  is  to  distribute  the  coal-ga.s  to  the  purifiers. 
In  the  exara]ile  annexed,  the  seat  of  the  valves  is  a 
ca.sting  A,  having  four  pairs  of  mouths  d  c.  The 
valve  itself  has  a  port  which  may,  by  rotation,  be 
made  to  connect  with  and  distribute  the  coal-gas  to 
any  one  of  the  four  sets  of  purifiers. 


CENTER-WHEEL. 


514 


CENTRIFUGAL  PUMP. 


Fig.  1212. 


^  ^ 

$      e 

A 

m 

H 

% 

r 

Center-  Valve. 

Cen'ter-wheeL  The  "  third  wheel "  of  a  watch, 
in  sonii'  I<in>ls  ot"  iiiovniii-nts. 

Cen'ti-grade  Ther-mom'e-ter.  The  thermom- 
eter of  Celsius.  The  zei'o  is  at  tlie  freezing-iioiiit  of 
water,  and  the  boiling-point  is  at  100".     See  TuEli- 

MOMETEl!. 

Cen-tarif' u-gal  Drill.  A  ilriU  havinga  fly-wheel 
upon  the  stock,  to  maintain  and  steady  the  motion 
against  the  effect  of  temporary  impediments.  In 
some  cases  there  is  a  click  movement,  so  that  tlie 
Hy-wheel  may  constantly  maintain  the  same  direc- 
tion nf  motion,  notwithstanding  the  vibratory  char- 
acter of  the  primary  motion. 

Ceu-trif  u-gal  Pil'ter.  The  centrifugal  sugar- 
filter  was  patented  in  the  United  States  by  Huril  in 
1844,  and  in  England  by  Finzel  in  1849. 

Its  cylinder  has  a  porous  or  foraniinous  per- 
.iphery,   and   is   very  rapidly   rotated  on  its   ver- 


Fig.  1213. 


Centrifiigal  Filler. 

tical  axis,  so  as  to  drive  off  by  centrifugal  force 
the  liquid  with  which  the  substance  contained  in 
the  cylinder  is  saturated.  In  the  illustration  an- 
nexed, the  syrup  is  introduced  by  pipe  J  into  the 


distributor  E,  which  disperses  it  to  all  parts  of  the 
chamber  G,  widch  is  Idled  with  bone-black  and  is 
rotated  rapidly  on  its  shaft  A  hy  a.  bevel-pinion 
driven  by  the  bevel-wheel  B.  C  is  the  wheel  of  tlie 
tram-lever,  on  which  the  shaft  is  stepped.  The 
liquid  driven  out  of  the  cylinder  G  is  collected  in 
the  envelope-chamber,  and  discharged  by  the  pipe 
/.  Sugar  is  freed  of  molasses  in  the  same  kind  of 
machine.     See  Cf.n riiiKUGAL  Machine. 

Cen-trif  u-gal  Gun.  A  I'oiin  of  machine-cannon 
in  which  balls  are  driven  tangentially  from  a  cham- 
bered disk  rotating  at  gi'eat  sjieed. 

Cen-trif'u-gal  Ma-chine'.  A  machine  fordrying 
yarn,  cloth,  clothes,  sugar,  i-tc,  by  centrifugal  action. 
The  fiber  or  other  material  is  placed  in  a  hollow 
cylinder  with  a  reticidated  jicriphery  of  wire  gauze, 
and,  being  rotated  at  a  rate  of  from"  1,000  to  "'2,000 


Fig.  1214. 


Centrifugal  Macliine. 

revolutions  per  minute,  the  water  flies  off  by  the 
centrifugal  action,  and  is  collected  by  the  enclosing 
cylinder,  down  which  it  trickles  to  a  discharge-pipe. 
It  is  also  found  useful  in  removing  the  must  from 
the  grape  after  crushing. 

The  illustration  shows  a  machine  with  an  inner 
cylinder  in,  and  an  outer  one,  both  revolving  in 
concert  and  driving  outwardly  to  the  chamber  A  the 
molasses  in  the  sugar,  which  surrounds  the  cone  B. 

Cen-trif'u-gal  Pump.  A  rotary  pump  in  which 
the  fluid  is  driven  outwardly  from  the  center  at 
which  it  is  received,  and  diverted  into  an  upward  di- 
rection. 

Le  Demour's  centrifugal  pump  (Fig.  121.5)  is  sup- 
posed to  have  been 


tliefirstofitskind. 
It  is  but  a  clumsy 
contrivance, 
viewed  in  the  light 
of  the  more  recent 
inventions,  which 
are  generally 
forms  derived 
from  the  turbine. 
They  do  for 
water  what  some 
forms  of  fan-blow- 
ers do  for  air,  and 
are  also  much  like 
many  rotary  en- 
gines in  the  con- 
struction of  the 
parts,  oidy  the 
vanes  of  the  ro- 
tary steam-en- 
gines are  pressed 
by  steam,  while 
those  of  the  cen- 


Fig.  1215. 


Centrifugal  Pump. 


trifugal  pump  move  against  the  water,  and  drive  it. 
See  also  KoTAKV  Puill'. 


CENTRIFUGAL   PUMP. 


51c 


CENTRIFUGAL   PUMP. 


In  the  Koiul  en  Leitcrbolle,  Haarlem,  Holland, 
April  19,  1S41,  occurs  a  suggestion  of  P.  H.  Van 
der  Weyde,  for  the  use  of  a  turbine-shaped  wheel  as 
a  centrifugal  puuip,  the  process  being  invei'ted   so 


Cenlri/tt^al  Pump: 


"that,  in  place  of  obtaining  power  by  means  of 
descending  water,  we  may  raise  water  by  ajiplying  a 
given  power."  The  centrifugal  pump  known  as  the 
"  Gwvnne  "  pump  was  used  by  Andrews  and  Brother 
in  Xew  York  in  1844. 


In  Fig.  1216  are  shown  several  fonus  of  the  cen- 
trifugal pump,  differing  more  in  detail  and  propor- 
tion than  in  principle. 

A  shows  Gwynne's  centrifugal  pump,  which 
has  six  equidistant  pallet.s  inclined  backwardly  to- 
ward their  outer  e.vtaemities.  Three  of  these  ex- 
tend from  the  axis,  and  the  remainder  only  from  the 
margin  of  the  auimlar  induction-space  aVonnd  the 
axis.  The  wheel  rotates  in  a  sliell  in  the  <lirection 
of  the  anon-,  and  delivers  the  water  upward  into  the 
eduction-pijie  L. 

Girard's  turbine  elevator  resembles  five  distinct 
turbines  on  a  vertical  axis,  one  above  another,  each 
taking  the  water  from  the  one  below  it,  and  deliwr- 
ing  it  iu  turn  to  the  one  above  it. 

L'  C' shows  the  Coignard  centrifugal  pump,  as  ^ll^wu 
at  the  French  Exposition,  1S62.  A  vertical  .section 
across  the  axis  of  one  of  these  pumps  is  showii  at  £ 
(Fig.  1216)  and  another  section,  also  vertical, 
through  tlie  axi.s,  at  C  (same  tigure).  Here  there  are 
two  revolviug-driuns,  g  a,  g  a,  botli  attach>'d  to  the 
same  axis  </.  They  i-evolve  in  water-tight  lio.xcs, 
but  tlie  eiitraiiis-  of  the  water  takes  place  from  the 
sjiaee  o,  between  the  drum.s ;  tlie  openin<;s  for  ad- 
mission being  at  /.  The  discharge  takes  place 
througli  an  annular  lateral  sjiace  «««<•,  into  an  an- 
uukr  cavity  m  m,  which  conducts  it  to  the  rising 
tube  •«.  The  tube  of  aspiration  is  /,  which  commu- 
nicates with  the  space  between  the  drums  o.  The 
form  given  to  the  pallet.s  in  this  machine  is  spiral ; 
they  are  only  tivo  in  number  in  each  drum.  As  in 
the  othci-  pumps,  the  form  of  the  heliee.s  is  pi-ofes- 
seilly  sucli  as  to  make  the  section  of  passage  inversely 
proportional  to  the  velocity  of  tlie  waterat  diliei-ent 
distances  from  the  center. 

Andrews's  centrifugal  pump  \D,  Fig.  1216)  re- 
sembles a  helix  or  snail's  sliell,  which  forms  the 
base  of  a  double  cone  placed  with  its  axis  in  a  hori- 
zontal position,  the  sjace  lietween  the  inner  mid 
outer  cones  being  the  chamlxT  of  the  puniii,  and 
occupied  by  a  kind  of  turbine-wheel  shown  in  the 
detaclied  view  E  (same  figure).  F  is  the  stationary 
boss  with  spiral  flanges  /,  which  give  tlie  water  a 
twist  just  iis  it  enteis  upon  the  action  of  the  wheel, 
which  has  .six  vane.s  as  seen  in  the  view  E.  o  is 
the  base  of  the  pumji,  ca-st  in  one  piece  with  the 
case  c,  to  whicli  is  attached  by  flanges  tlie  conduct- 
iug-case,  comjosed  of  two  parts  d  d',  forming  a 
spiral  discharge-passage  ij  and  e  ;  gi-adually  eidar- 
ging  to  the  outlet/  is  tlic  stultiug-box,  through  which 
passes  the  driving-shaft  <j ;  this  having  tin  iied  in  its 
surface  at  J,  a  series  of  grooves,  which  are  accuratelv 
fitted  in  a  Babliitt  metal-box  in  the  stand.ud  h,  coun- 
teracting any  tendency  to  end-thrust  or  viln-ation. 
i  is  the  bed-plate,  having  cast  upon  it  the  standard 
h,  and  brackets  to  which  the  pump  is  secured  by  the 
flanges  and  base.  When  renuired  to  be  run"  ver- 
tically, no  bed-plate  is  used,  but  the  iiuinji  is  secured 
by  the  base.     The  base  also  forms  a  flange,  to  wliieh 

Fig.  1217. 


Centri/u^fll  Pump. 


CENTRIPETAL  PRESS. 


516 


CHAFER. 


is  liolted  tlie  bend  q  of  the  suction-pipe,  which  has 
a  loot-vah'e  at  its  lower  end.  Motion  is  communi- 
cated by  a  belt  u])on  the  pulley  p. 

Fig.  1217  gives  an  exterior  view  of  a  centrifugal 
pump. 

Fig.  1218  shows  the  centrifugal  pump,  with  por- 
table engine  connected,  as  arranged  for  pumpiiig  out 

Fig.  121S 


a  pond,  or  pumping  from  a  river  with  a  shelving 

bank,   the  dotted  lines  showing  it   as  adapted  for 

pumping  out  of  a  cistern  or  well.     The  pump  is 

placed  upon  a  two-wheeled  carriage  tirudy  attached 

to  the  engine  when  working,  and  driven  by  a  band 

from  the  Hy-whccl  of  the  engine. 

Cen-trip'e-tal  Press.   A  mechanical  contrivance 

for   pressing   inwardly  on   a   radial 

line  from  all  directions  in  the  cbm- 

mon  plane. 

Cen-trip'e-tal  Pump.    A  pump 
which  the  water  is  gathered   liy 
revolving  blades  or  arms,  and  drawn 
the   axis   from  whence   the  dis- 
charge-tube rises. 

In  one  form  it  is  the  e.xact  con- 
verse of  the  Barker  mdl.     See  Ro- 
tary Pump. 
Cen'tro-Iin'e-ad.      An    instru- 


ment for  drawing  lines  towards  a  distant  center, 
as  towards  a  distant  vanishing  point. 

Ceph'a-lom'e-ter.  An  instnunent  for  measur- 
ing the  .-^ize  of  the  fetal  head  during  parturi- 
tion. 

Ceph'a-Io-tome.  An  instrament  for  cutting  into 
the  I'etal  lii-ad,  to  iissist  its  forcible  contraction  and 
facilitate  ileliN'ery. 

Ceph'a-lo-tribe.  An  instrament  of  the  nature 
of  an  expansive  forceps,  intended  to  compress  the 

Fig.  1219 


Litsk's  Cfphn/otrlhe. 

tetal  head  and  facilitate  delivery.  It  has  to  a  con- 
siderable extent  superseded  the  crochet  and  perfora- 
tor. 

The  instiument  depicted  has  blades  with  a 
ce)ihalic  curve,  which  gives  it  power  as  a  compressor, 
and  gi'asp  as  a  tiartor. 

Ce-ram'ics.  All  varieties  of  work  foniied  of 
clay,  in  whole  or  in  part,  and  baked,  are  included 
under  this  name.  See  Br.iCK  ;  Tile  ;  Exam- 
el.  See  also  specific  list  under  PurTEiiY  and 
Clay. 

It  is  distinguished  from  vitrics,  in  which  silex 
predominates,  the  result  being  glass. 

Ce'ra-to-tome.  A  knife  used  in  dividing  the 
cornea. 

Ce-rau'no-scope.  An  instrument  to  imitate 
lightning  and  thunder. 

Cere-cloth.  Waxed  cloth  ;  formerly  used  as  a 
shroud  in  embalming.     Hence  cerements.     See  E.M- 

nALMING. 

Cer'iph.  (Printing.)  The  fine  lines  of  a  type  or 
letter  at  the  top  and  bottom,  projecting  beyond  the 
heavy  strokes.  Tlie  terminal  cross-lines  of  a  letter. 
Also  called  hair-lines. 

Ce'ri-um.  A  heavy,  grayish-white  metal,  but 
litlir  known  or  used. 

Ce'ro-graph.    A  writing  on  wax. 


Cer'vlx-di-la'tor.  An  instrument  which  is  used 
foi'  dilating  the  cervix  uteri  when  contracted,  partic- 
ularly the  internal  os.     After  the  point  is  thrust  in, 


Fij.  1220. 


CervU-Ditator. 

the  handles  are  pressed  together,  which  expands  the 
blades. 

Cess-pipe.     A  pipe  for  carrying  off  waste  water, 
etc.,  from  a  .sink  or  cesspool. 

Cess-pool.     1.  A  privy-vault. 

2.  A  cistern  to  collect  sedimentary  matter  passing 
into  drains. 

The  washings  of  the  Fig.  1221. 

streets  contain  much 
gravelly  and  sandy 
debrii,  and  during 
rain-storms  other  ar- 
ticles are  carried 
through  the  open  or 
grated  entrance  g  to 
the  sewers.  Such 
things  are  collected 
in  the  cistern  or  cess- 
pool, and  the  water 
Hows  oil'  beneath  the 
trap-wall,  which  pre- 
vents the  upward 
passage  of  mephitic  air  and  gases. 
basin. 

Chaf'er.    A  small   portable  furnace 
chauffer. 


See  Catch- 

Chnffcr; 


CHAFERY. 


517 


CHAIN. 


Chaf' er-y.  A  forge  in  an  iron-mill,  wherein  the 
iron  is  wrought  into  bars. 

Chaff-cut'ter.  A  machine  for  chopping  or  cut- 
ting long  feed,  such  as  hay,  straw,  or  stalks,  into 
chatf,  in  which  condition  it  may  be  fed  in  a  box  or 
bag,  dusted  with  bran  or  meal.  An  economical  and 
compact  mode  of  feeding.     See  Str.\w-ci'ttee. 

Cheiff-halt'er.    A  lady's  bridle  with  double  reins. 

Chaf'ing-dish.    1.  A  pan  of  coals  to  heat  a  dish. 

2.    A  dish  heated  by  lamp  or  jet  beneath. 

Chafing-gear.  {Xautiatl.)  Parceling  or  serv- 
im  on  ropes,  to  keep  them  from  being  chafed  by 
running  rigging. 

Chain.  1.  A  device  consisting  of  several  asso- 
ciated links,  joined  endways  so  as  to  string  out  in 
line. 

The  varieties  of  chains  are  numerous,  and  their 
names  are  derived  from  their  (a)  material,  (6)  struc- 
ture, or  (c)  purpose,  as,  — 

a.  Gold,  steel,  galvanized  iron,  etc. 

b.  Twisted  link,  flat  link,  etc. 

c.  Top-chain,  curb-chain,  surveyor's  chain,  moor- 
ing-chaiu,  etc. 

Chains  in  olden  times  had  three  purposes. 

(1.)  They  were  worn  as  emblems  of  investiture  or 
badges  of  office,  as  in  the  cases  of  Joseph  and  Daniel, 
in  Egypt  and  Babylon.  The  idea  was  i)reserved  in 
Persia,  ami  blossoms  yearly  in  the  civic  ceremonies 
wherein  Loudon  rejoices  that  she  has  found  another 
mayor. 

(2.)  For  ornament.  Necklaces,  girdles,  and  ankle- 
chains  were  used  by  various  nations  of  antiquity. 
Jewels  were  worked  into  the  links  or  strung  upon 
cords.  To  the  chains  which  hung  from  the  neck, 
fancy  or  fashion  suspended  cowries,  mirrors,  "round 
tires  like  the  moon,"  trinkets,  amulets,  emblenn, 
and  scent-bottles.  The  Jlidianites,  who  invaded 
Palestine  in  the  time  of  Gideon,  ornamented  with 
chains  the  necks  of  their  camels.  The  modern  uses 
of  ornamental  chains  are  numerous  and  familiar. 

(3.)  For  conrtning  prisoners.  Before  and  after  the 
time  when  poor  Samson  was  blinded  and  then  bound 
with  fetters  of  brass,  when  David  lamented  Abner, 
and  the  fugitive  Jedekiah,  after  defending  his  capital 
for  two  years,  became  a  fugitive,  \v;is  captured, 
blinded,  bound  with  chains  of  brass,  and  carried  to 
Babylon,  chains,  fetters,  and  manacles  were  the  lot 
of  captives  and  criminals.  Peter  slept  "between 
two  soldiers  bound  with  two  chains,"  being,  no  doubt, 
handcuffed  to  his  guards  on  either  side.  Herod, 
of  course,  had  the  soldiers  killed,  which  was  the 
ordinaiy  punishment  of  a  Roman  guard  who  allowed 
his  prisoners  to  escape. 

The  Romans  used  chains  with  links  of  various 
patterns  ;  circular,  oval,  figure-S,  horse-shoe,  bars 
with  eyes,  etc.  These  were  principally  of  a  small 
size  and  ornamental  character.  Their  cable  was  of 
rope,  as  it  was  with  ns  until  a  few  decades  since. 
Xeixes  thrashed  the  Hellespont  with  chains,  and 
then  threw  chains  into  the  strait  as  a  reminder  ;  but 
the  bridge  he  built  was  of  rope,  supported  by  ships, 
and  sustaining  the  planks  on  which  the  host  crossed. 

Twisted  chains  are  mentioned  by  the  Greek 
authors. 

Iron  for  chains  is  cut  off  with  a  plain  chamferer  ; 
each  piece  is  then  bent,  introduced,  and  welded. 
In  common  chains  the  weld  is  made  at  the  small 
end,  called  the  crown. 

In  chain  cables  the  weld  is  at  the  side  of  the 
oval,  the  scarf  being  flatways  of  the  link.  The 
parts  and  consecutive  forms  are  shown  at  i,  j,  k 
(Fig.  1222V 

Curbed  or  twisted  chains  are  welded  in  the  ordi- 
nary manner  and  twisted  afterwards ;  each  link  as 


it  is  welded,  or  a  few  made  hot  at  a  time  and 
twisted. 

Chains  with  flat  links  are  made  in  the  fly-press. 
The  links  are  cut  out,  of  the  form  shown  at  h.  The 
holes  are  afterwards  punched  as  in  washers,  one  at  a 
time,  every  blank  being  so  held  that  its  circular  ex- 
tremity touches  the  stops  on  the  bed  or  die,  which 
insure  the  centrality  of  the  blank  and  punch.  The 
two  holes  are  thus  made  eriuidistant  in  all  the  links, 
and  are  afterwards  strung  together  by  inserting  wire 
rivets  through  the  holes. 

The  pins  or  rivets  for  the  links  are  cut  off'  from 
the  length  of  wire  in  the  fly-press,  by  a  pair  of 
cutters  like  wide  chisels  with  scjuare  edges,  assisted 
by  a  stop  to  keep  the  pins  of  one  length  ;  or  by  one 
straight  cutter  and  an  angular  cutter  hollowed  to 
about  60°,  or  by  two  cuttei-s,  each  hollowed  to  90°. 
In  the  three  cases,  the  wire  is  respectively  cut  from 
two,  three,  or  four  equidistant  parts  of  its  circum- 
ference. 

Sometimes  the  succession  of  the  links  of  the  chain 
is  one  and  two  links  alternatel}',  as  at  :k  ;  or  three  and 

Fig.  1222. 


(^  <^^ 


two,  or  four  and  three,  as  at  z,  up  to  eight  and  nine 
links,  which  is  sometimes  used.  The  wires  when 
inserted  are  slightly  riveted  at  the  ends. 

Cliains  intended  to  catch  on  pins  or  projections 
on  the  periphery  of  a  wheel  are  made  two  and  two, 
as  in  the  other  figure,  lea%'ing  an  opening  which 
slips  over  the  cog. 

Mr.  Oldham,  the  engineer  to  the  Bank  of  Eng- 
land, contrived  a  curved  link-chain  //,  adapted  to 
woik;  in  connection  with  a  cog-wheel  g,  with  epi- 
eycloidal  teeth. 

Chains  for  watches,  timepieces,  and  small  ma- 
chinery are  too  minute  to  be  made  as  the  ordinary 
flat-link  chain.  The  slip  of  steel  is  first  punched 
through  with  the  rivet-holes  for  a  number  of  links,  by 
means  of  a  punch  iu  which  two  steel  wires  are  in- 
serted ;  the  distance  between  the  intended  links  is 
obtained  (somewhat  as  in  file-cutting)  by  resting  the 


CHAIN. 


518 


CHAIN-CABLE. 


buixs  of  the  two  previous  holes  against  the  shai|) 
edge  of  the  bolster.  The  links  are  afterwards  eut 
out  by  a  punch  and  bolster  of  a  minute  size.  The 
l)unch  has  two  ])ins  inserted  at  the  distance  of  the 
rivet-holes  ;  the  slip  o!  steel  being  every  time  litteJ 
by  two  of  the  holes  to  these  pins,  all  the  links  are 
thereby  cut  centrally  around  these  rivet-holes. 

The  tools  are  carried  in  a  thick  block  havin;;  a 
perpendicular  sijuare  hole,  fitted  with  a  stout  sipiare 
bar  ;  the  latter  is  driven  with  a  hammer,  whirli  is 
sujiported  by  pivots  raised  by  a  spring  and  woiki'd 
by  a  pedal.  When  the  links  measure  IVoni  :J  to  4 
inch  in  length,  the  press  is  workeil  by  a  sciew. 

The  punches  are  fitted  to  the  side  of  the  square 
bar,  in  a  projecting  loop  or  mortise,  and  aie  secured 
by  a  wedge.  They  are  drilled  with  holes  for  pins, 
and  across  each  punch  there  is  a  deep  notch  to  ex- 
pose the  reveree  ends  of  the  pins,  in  order  that, 
when  b?oken,  they  may  be  driven  out  and  replaced. 
The  pins  are  taper-pointed,  that  they  may  raise 
burrs,  instead  of  cutting  the  metal  clean  out ;  and, 
being  t<i])er,  no  puUer-otf  is  reipiired,  and  the  bed- 
tools  are  fitted  in  chamfer-grooves  in  the  base  of  the 
instrument. 

A  pocket  chronometer-chain  14  inches  in  length, 
containing  in  eveiy  inch  of  its  length  22  rivets  and 
33  links,  in  3  rows,  has  770  pieces,  and  weighs  9i 
grains. 

A  chain  for  a  small  pocket- watch  measures  6  inches 
in  length,  has  42  rivets  and  ti3  links  in  every  inch, 
in  all  630  pieces  ;  and  the  wliole  chain  weighs  1  j 
grains. 

Chains  for  jewelry  are  cut  with  punches.  The 
e.\terior  and  interior  of  each  is  fre(juently  rectangu- 
lar ;  each  alternate  link  is  slit  with  a  fine  saw  for 
the  introduction  of  two  contiguo\is  links,  and  the 
slit  is  soldi-red  up. 

liujitinif-chriin  is  usually  of  the  open-linked  kind, 
with  oval  links.  It  is  described  by  stating  the 
diameter  of  the  rod  of  which  the  links  ai'e  made. 

The  outside  breadth  of  a  chain  is  about  3.i  times 
the  diameter  of  the  rod  of  which  it  is  made. 

a  a  (Fig.  1222)  is  an  open-linked  chain  with 
thimbles  for  the  engagement  of  the  pins  of  a  sprocket- 
wheel  in  water-elevators. 

b  h  are  the  links  of  a  chain  of  bent  loops  made 
without  cutting  or  welding. 

c  c  are  the  links  of  an  elastic  chain,  in  which 
blocks  of  india-rublwr  are  so  placed  as  to  be  com- 
pressed by  a  pull  on  the  chain. 

m  n  n  are  forms  of  Acraman's  chain,  1820,  in 
which  the  bar  is  ix)lled  with  protuberances  whicdi 
form  by  mutual  contact  an  actual  stay,  or  form 
sockets  for  stay-iiins. 

;>  ;)  are  links  of  Sowerb)''s  chiiin-cable,  1822, 
which  are  bent  inward  at  the  middle,  where  they 
are  stayed  by  a  block  s,  secured  by  a  riveted  jiin. 
The  projections  c  c  are  to  prevent  entanglement  of 
the  links. 

Hawks's  English  patent,  1828,  has  links  made  of 
iron  rolled  with  enlargements  which  correspond  to 
the  ends  of  the  links  where  the  greatest  amount  of 
friction  occurs. 

The  illustration  shows  — 

A  link-blank,  I,  the  edges  cut  off  with  a  scrcrf. 

The  link  Ixsnt,  u. 

Welded,  v.  Stayed,  w. 

2.  The  surveyor's  chain  (Gunter's)  has  100  links, 
each  of  which  is  7Y'(fti  inches  in  length  ;  the  whole 
measuring  4  rods,  equal  to  06  feet.  See  Surveyou's 
CH.\IS. 

3.  ( Weavinrj. )  The  imrp-threads  of  a  roeb.  Also 
known  as  the  chain,  fillinrj,  or  tioist ;  and  in  silk  as 
wganzinc. 


Chain-belt.    A  chain  forming  a  baud  or  belt  for 
the  conveyance  of  powej'. 

Fig  1223. 


A  chain  covered  with  piping  or  overlaid  with  strips 
to  form  a  round  belt. 

Chain-boat.  A  s\ibstantial  boat  used  in  harbors 
in  rri  iiveiiiig  cliain-caMes  and  anchors. 

Chain-bolt  1.  [Shiplu tiding.)  A  bolt  to  se- 
cure the  chains  of  the  dead-eyes  through  the  toe-link 
as  a  fastening  lor  the  shrouds. 

One  of  the  bolts  fastening  the  channel-plate  to  the 
shijj's  side. 

2.  One  liaving  an  attached  chain  by  which  it  may 
be  drawn  back,  falling  by  its  own  gravity  or  pushed 
into  place  by  a  spring.  Used  with  high  doors  of 
rooms  or  bodk -cases. 

Chain-bridge.  1.  A  form  of  feriy -bridge  in 
which  the  jiassage  is  made  by  chains  laid  across  the 
river  and  anchored  on  each  side,  and  moving  over 
chain-wheels  on  board,  driven  by  engines.  Such  a 
ferry-bridge  used  to  cross  the  Itchen  Kiver,  Hamp- 
shire, England.  The  chain  pier  of  Brighton  was 
erected  in  1822.  The  chains  nf  Hungerford  Bridge, 
London,  were  moved  to  Clifton,  near  Bristol,  and 
now  span  the  Avon.  The  span  is  720  feet  ;  hight 
above  water,  260  feet.      See  ]•  Kur.Y-BliinGE. 

2.  An  early  (for  Europe)  form  of  the  suspension- 
bridge  in  which  catenary  chains  supported  tlie  floor. 
The  first  was  erected  over  the  Tees,  in  England,  in 
1741.  Kods  with  eyes  and  connecting-links  were 
Used  by  Telford  on  the  Menai  Suspension  Bridge, 
1829  ;  steel  wires  laid  up  (not  twisted)  into  cables 
are  now  used.     See  Sl'sPENsiON-Er.lDOE  ;  Fnoxris- 

PIECK. 

Chain-bond.  The  tying  together  of  parts  of  a 
stone-wall  by  a  chain  or  iron  bar  built  in. 

Chain-ca'ble.  (Xnuliad.)  A  chain  adapted  to 
use  as  a  cable  in  holding  a  ship  to  its  moorings  or 
anchor. 

The  ancient  Greeks  used  rushes  ;  the  Carthagini- 
ans the  sparlium  or  broom  of  Spain  and  Libya  (Af- 
rica) ;  the  Egyptians,  papyrus. 

The  ancient  maritime  people,  the  Veneti,  used 
iron  chain-cable  for  their  shijis  in  the  time  of  Julius 
CiEsar. 

In  the  tenth  century  the  nations  of  the  Baltic 
used  Topes  of  twistcil  rawhide  thongs.  The  latter 
were  used  in  Britain  till  the  third  century,  and  are 
yet  used  in  Western  Scotland  for  boats  and  draft. 

Chain-cables  were  used  by  the  Britons.  (C.EsAK.) 
They  were  common  long  ago  in  small  sizes,  but  were 
only  lately  made  for  heavy  craft. 

They  have  shackles  at  every  15  fathoms,  some- 
times swivels  at  7i  fathoms. 

Chain-cables  were  made  in  England  by  machinery 
in  1792,  and  introduced  into  the  Biitish  merchant- 
service  by  Captain  Brown  of  the  "  Penelope,"  West 
India  merchantman,  400  tons  burden,  1811.  The 
cable  had  twisted  links. 

BiiiiXToN  |iatented  the  stay  in  the  middle  of  the 
link.      See  CllAIX. 

Tlie  chain-cable  was  introduced  into  the  British 
navy  in  1812. 

In  making  chain -cables,  the  bar  of  1,  H,  or  2  inch 
iron  is  heated,  and  the  scarf  is  made  by  a  cutting- 


CHAIN-COUPLING. 


519 


CHAIN-PUMP. 


machine  ;  an  oblique  cnt  on  the  end  of  the  roil,  f,av- 
ing  a  chamfer  or  lap  to  the  cut  surfaces,  brings  a 
larger  surface  of  the  iron  into  welding  contact.  Tlie 
link  is  formed  by  inserting  the  end  of  the  heated  bar 
within  a  loop  in  the  edge  of  an  oval  ilisk,  wliicli  may 
be  compared  to  a  chuck,  fi.xed  on  the  end  of  a  lathe- 
mandrel.  The  disk  is  rotated  by  steam-power,  and 
makes  exactly  one  revolution,  wlien  it  throws  itself 
out  of  gear. '  The  heated  end  of  the  iron  rod  thus 
receives  an  oval  loop,  wliich  is  detadied  from  the 
rod  by  a  chamfered  or  oblinue  cut,  making  the  sec- 
ond scarf  for  tlie  link  and  the  first  scarf  for  the  next 
link.  Tlic  link  is  now  concatenated,  closed  together, 
and  transferred  to  the  fire,  the  loose  end  lieing  car- 
ried by  a  traverse  chain.  When  properly  heated,  it 
is  transferred  to  the  an\'il,  welded  and  dressed  oft' 
between  top  and  bottom  tools,  after  wluch  the  cast- 
iron  transverse  stay  is  inserted  and  the  link  closed 
thereupon. 

Chain-cables  are  generally  made  in  lengths  of 
from  \ih  to  25  fathoms  ;  each  length  is  usually  pro- 
vided with  a  swivel.  The  lengths  are  joined  to- 
gether by  shiukles  (which  see). 

A  cable's-length  is  100  fathoms  of  6.08  feet  each, 
and  is  one  tenth  of  a  nautical  mile. 

Chain-cables  are  stowed  in  chain -lockers,  generally 
near  the  mainmast,  or  just  before  the  engine  and  boil- 


Fig.  1225 


Oiain-Hook. 

a  handling  eye  at  one  end  and  a  hook  at  the  other 
for  handling  the  chain-cable. 

2.  A  cable-stopper  which  clamps  the  link  of  a 
chain  between  two  other  links,  as  in  Fig.  1225. 

Chain -in  cli-uoni'e-ter.  A  form  of  level  in 
which  the  inclination  of  the  surveyor's  chain  is  in- 


Eig.  1226. 


1221. 


er  compartment.  The  locker-space  required  ^ 
may  be  found  by  the  following  rule  :  JIul-  * 
tiply  the  square  of  tlie  diameter  of  the  cable- iron  in 
inches  by  35.  The  product  is  the  space  required  in 
cubic  feet,  nearly. 

Four  kinds  of  apparatus  are  used  for  regtilating  or 
checking  the  motion  of  the  cable  as  it  runs  towards 
the  huwsc-holcs ;  and  for  holding  on  by  the  caljle 
after  the  anchor  has  taken  hold. 

These  are  Coxtf.olleus  ;  BiTTS ;  Stoppers  ; 
CoMPr.ESSor.s  (which  see). 

Chain-coup'llng.  (Railroad  Engiiicering.)  1.  A 
supplementary  coupling  between  cars,  as  a  safety-de- 
vice in  case  of  accidental  uncoupling  of  the  prime 
connector. 

2.  A  shackle  for  a  chain  whereby  lengths  are  united 
as  in  a  chain-cable,  or  a  shackle  or  clevis  to  unite  a 
chain  with  an  oliject. 

Chain-fast'en-ing.  A  sailor's  bend,  or  cable 
mooring.  The  up- 
per figure  shows 
the  douhlc  chahi- 
fastcning ;  the  low- 
er one  the  single 
chain -fastening. 

Chain-gear. 
A  form  of  log-gear- 
ing  in  which  an 
open  linked  chain 
catches  up  the  cogs 
or  sprockets  of  the 
wheel,  and  is  the 
means  of  motion 
thereof,  orconverse- 
ly.       See    Chaix- 

WH  F.F.I,. 

Chain  -  guard. 

(Horul.ui,!.)       A 

mechanism      in 

watches     provided 

with    a    fusee,    to 

prevent  the  watch 

being  overwound. 

Chain.  Guii'ter's.     The  surveyor's  chain,  having 

100  links,  each  7r.ro  inches  in  length  ;  total  length 

4  rods,  equal  to  66  feet.     See  Suiiveyou's  Ch.^ix. 

Chain-hook.    {Xautical.)    1.  An  iron  rod  with 


Citain-Fa-^tenfn^s. 


Otain-  Indtnotntler. 

dicated  on  a  scale  by  the  jxiinter  on  the  end  of  the 
level. 

Chain-knot.  1.  A  succession  of  loops  on  a 
cord,  each  loop  in  succession  locking  the  one  above 
it,  and  the  last  one  locked  by  passing  through  it  the 
end  of  the  cord. 

2.  A  kind  of  knot  tised  in  splicing.     See  Knot. 

3.  The  loop-stitch  of  some  sewing-macliines.  See 
Stitch. 

Chain-lift'er.  (N^atitical.)  A  cast-iron  gi'ooved 
rim,  with  projections,  situated  at  the  foot  of  the 
capstan-barrel,  and  forming  the  drum  around  which 
the  chain-cable  is  wound  in  weighing  anchor. 

Chain-lock'er  Pipe.  {Xdulical.)  The  iron- 
bound  opening  oi'  section  of  pipe  ]>as.sing  through 
the  deck,  and  through  which  the  chain-cable  passes 
to  or  from  the  locker  in  wliich  it  is  stowed. 

Chain  of  Locks.  (Hijdraultc  Enc/inecriug.)  A 
succession  of  lock-chambers,  the  lower  pair  of  gates 
of  each  of  which  (cxcejit  the  lowest)  forms  the 
upper  pair  of  gates  for  the  chamber  below.  See 
Canal-lock. 

Chain-pin.  (Sjirrei/ing.)  The  wire  pin,  having  a 
loop  at  one  end  ami  jiointed  at  the  other,  employed 
by  surveyors  for  marking  the  termination  of  each 
chain  in  measuring  distances. 

Chain-plate.    (Shijibidlding.)    One  of  the  plates 
of  iron  bolted  below  the  channels,  and  serving  for 
the  attachment  of  the  dead- 
eyes   to   which   the    shrouds 
and  back-stays  are  secured. 

Chain-pul'ley.    One 
having  ]iockets  or  depressions 
in  its  periphery,  in  which  lie 
the  links,  or  alternate  links,     , 
of  a  chain  wliich  passes  over    / 
it  and  gives  motion  thereto,    j  / 
or  conversely. 

Chain-piunp.  One  form 
of  the  chain-pump  consists  of 
an  endless  chain  passing 
around  a  wheel  above  and  de- 
scending into  thewaterbelow.  ni'm-Pi(i.'ey. 


Fig.  1227. 


CHAlN-rUMP. 


520 


CHAIN-PUMP. 


In  its  upward  course  it  passes  tlirough  a  vertical  tube 
whose  lower  end  is  submerged,  aud  at  wlios<'  uju'er 
end  the  svater  is  discharged.  Along  the  chain  are 
round  disks  or  buttons,  which  ht  in  the  bore  of  the 
tube,  and  form  jiistons  which  elevate  the  water  as 
the  chain  ascends  in  the  tube.  The  cellular  pumps 
are  of  this  kind,  aud  when  packed  pistons  are  used, 
they  are  termed  pateniosler  pumps,  from  the  resem- 
blance of  the  chain  and  buttons  to  tlie  rosary. 

The  chain-pump  is  a  common  irrigating-device  in 
China.  The  biirrel  is  turned  liy  men  by  means  of  a 
treadmill,  or  Uy  a  builalo,  which  rotates  a  large  hori- 

Fig  122S. 


Gimfse  Chmn-Plemp. 

zontal  wheel  connected  by  cogs  with  the  axis  of  the 
roller  over  which  the  chain  iims.  The  chute  is  in- 
clined, and  the  buckets  are  stjuare  Iwanls  attached 
at  intervals  along  the  chain.  Small  machines  are 
turned  by  hand  in  the  manner  of  a  grindstone,  a 
plan  so  familiar  in  our  ordinary  chain-yiumiis. 

The  chain-pump  is  sometimes  called  the  Spanish 
noria,  but  improper- 
Fig.  1229.  ly.  The  Spanish 
Koria  has  a  pair  of 
chains  or  ropes  be- 
tween wliich  buckets 
or  pots  are  st^curwl, 
dipjiing  water  at  the 
bottom  and  dischar- 
ging at  the  top.  Tliey 
have  no  pistons  or 
ascension  -  tube,  but 
are  like  one  veiy  com- 
mon form  of  the  noria 
of  Palestine.  The 
rope  of  tlie  lattei-, 
however,  owing  to 
the  poverty  of  the 
peoitle,  is  made  of 
withre  of  nijTtle 
branches. 

The  familiar  do- 
mestic chain -pump 
(a.  Fig.  12S0)aets  by 
continoous  rotation 
of  a  crank.  The 
disks  on  tlie  chain ! 
fit  as  nearly  as  may  be  in  the  .stock  which  tliey  1 
ascend,   aud  thus  lift  the   water   in   a   continuous  I 


Chain  of  Pots. 


stream.  In  practice,  these  disks  are  like  buttons, 
and  form  links  in  the  chain,  which  is  galvanized  to 
prevent  rusting.     The  tubing  is  made  of  some  light 


Cfinin-Piimps. 

wood  and  in  two  longitudinal  jiieces,  tlie  hollow 
being  cut  half  in  each  piece,  and  the  sections  nailed 
or  bound  together. 

The  axis  of  one  wheel  is  supported  on  the  curb, 
and  the  other  on  a  post  in  the  bottom  of  the  well, 
or  on  a  scantling  lowered  from  above. 

The  chain-)mnip  b  was  first  used  in  the  British 
navy  on  board  the  "Flora,"  in  1787.  As  now  used 
in  the  English  navy,  it  is  formed  of  a  long  chain 
which  carries  disks  at  intervals,  and  ]iasses  over 
sprocket-wheels  above  and  below  ;  the  chain  passes 
down  a  tube  called  the  back-casing,  dips  into  the 
limber  where  the  bilge-water  collects,  and  up  through 
another  tube  at  whose  summit  is  a  cistern.  The 
upper  sprocket  is  turned  by  a  crank,  iind  the  tube 
is  made  of  wood  lined  with  brass.  The  links  are  of 
iron,  and  each  )iiston  consists  of  two  circular  brass 
]dates  inclosing  disks  of  leather.  The  ujiper  de- 
livery is  into  a  iiuni])-dale,  which  conducts  the 
water  over  the  side  of  the  ship. 

The  chuiii-pumps  (rh(rpetc/s)  used  by  the  architect 
Perronet,  to  tlrain  tlie  cofler-danis  of  his  bridges  at 
Orleans  and  elsewhere,  were  worked  by  manual, 
horse,  and  water  power,  and  are  described  in  Cresy's 
Eneyclopanlia  of  t'i\'il  Engineering.  The  bucket- 
wheel  lie  used  at  the  bridge  of  Neuilly  is  described 
under  Ni>i;iA. 

The  tube  of  the  hand-worked  chapelet  c  was  ver- 
tical, ]'2  to  IS  feet  in  Icngtli,  6  inches  in  diameter. 
Four  men  worked  the  winelies,  and  were  relieved 
eveiy  two  hours.  Tliey  made  from  twenty  to  thirty 
turns  in  a  minute,  according  to  the  depth  ;  506 
cubic  feet  of  water  were  raised  |ier  hour,  ih  feet  of 
the  chain  being  wound  round  at  each  revolution. 


CHAINS. 


521 


CHAIX-WALES. 


Another  of  Perronet's  chain-pomps  {<ri,  used  at  the 
bridge  of  Orleans,  was  worked  by  horse-power, 
twelve  at  a  time  being  employed,  and  making  140 


Fig.  1231. 


Oiain-Pump, 

turns  per  hour.  The  pallets  acted  as  buckets,  and 
passed  at  the  rate  of  9,660  per  hour. 

The  &irae  master-wheel  drove  two  separate  chape- 
lets,  with  the  power  above  stated  ;  the  duty  referred 
to  being  accomplished  by  each. 

c  is  a  section,  and  /  an  elevation,  of  another  of 
Perronet's  chapelets  driven  by  a  water-wheel. 

Chains.  {Nautical.)  Iron  bai-s  bolted  to  the 
sides  of  the  vessel  and  holding  the  dead-eyes,  to 
which  the  lower  ends  of  the  shrouds  are  connected. 

Top-eh^uns  are  sling-chains  for  the  lower  j'ards. 

Chain-sa^.  1.  (Surgcn/.)  A  saw  whose  teeth 
are  jointed  links,  used  in  making  sections  in  deep 


Kg.  1232. 


Chain'Saw  Carrier 


seated  places  by  passing  the 
saw  around  the  bone  and  then 
back  again,  so  as  to  give  com- 
mand of  both  ends  to  the  oper- 
ator, who  draws  the  ends  back 
and  forth. 

2.  One  fonn  of  band-saw 
or  scroll-saw  is  also  made  of  sep- 
arate teeth  pivoted  or  hooked 
together. 

Chain-saw  Car'rier.  (Sitr. 
gcr;/.)  A  hing.-d  and  hooked 
instrument  wliereby  the  end  of 
the  chain-saw,  or  a  ligature,  by 
which  the  saw  may  be  drawn, 
is  passed  beneath  a  deep-seated 
bone,  and  so  far  up  on  the  other 
side  as  to  be  grasped  by  a  for- 
ceps. 


Chain-shot.  A  shot  formed  of  two  hemispheres 
or  spheres  connected  by  a  chain.  Invented  by  Ad- 
miral DeWitt,  1666.  Formerly  much  employed  for 
carrpng  away  rigging  in  naval  actions.  They  were 
sometimes  fired  from  a  cannon  with  two  slightly  di- 
verging barrels,  united  at  the  breech,  forming  a  sin- 
gle chamlwr,  and  discharged  through  a  single  vent. 

Chain-stitch.  1.  An  ornamental  stitch  resem- 
bling a  chain. 

2.  (In  sewing-machines.)  A  foop-stitch  in  con- 
tradistinction to  a  /oct-stitch.  It  consists  in  loop- 
ing the  upper  thread  into  itself,  on  the  under  side 
of  the  goods  ;  or  using  a  second  thread  to  engage 
the  loop  of  the  upper  thread. 

The  doubU-chuin  stitch  of  the  Grover  and  Baker 
machine  is  made  by  a  lower  thread  which  engages 
two  loops  of  the  upper  thread. 

One  form  of  the  Wilco.x  and  Gibbs  machine  makes 
a  double-loop  engagement  with  but  a  single  thread. 
See  Stitch. 

Chain-stop'per.  {Nautical.)  A  clamp  or  com- 
pressor to  keep  a  cable  from  veering  away  too  fast, 
or  to  lock  it. 

Chain-tim'ber.  1.  A  timber  of  large  dimensions 
placed  in  the  middle  of  the  hight  of  a  storj-,  for  im- 
parting strength. 

2.  A  lx>nd  riml>er  in  a  wall. 

Chain-tOTV'ing.  A  iilan  for  canal-boat  propul- 
sion. A  chain  or  wire  rope,  five  eighths  of  an  inch 
in  diameter,  is  laid  on  the  bottom  of  the  water- 
course, but  passes  longitudinally  over  the  deck  of 
the  boat  to  be  di-awn.  It  there  winds  u]ion  or  aroimd 
a  wheel,  or  clip-drum,  five  feet  in  diameter,  the 
revolutions  of  which  draw  the  boat  by  a  pull  upon 
the  chain,  this  being  lifted  at  the  bow  and  let  down 
at  the  stem  of  the  vessel  as  the  latter  ]'rogresses. 
The  free  movement  of  the  chain  is  provided  for  by 
making  the  two  ends  of  the  boat  quite  low,  sloping 
nearly  to  the  water,  while  the  center,  where  the 
drum  is  situated,  is  elevated  to  a  considerable  hight. 
The  motive -power  is  supplied  by  a  steam-engine 
moving  its  crank-shaft,  connected  with  the  axle  of 
the  drum  by  suitable  spur-gearing. 

The  chain  system  is  now  in  use  on  the  Danube, 
on  the  Charleroi  Canal,  in  Belgium,  the  Beveland 
Canal,  in  Holland,  and  the  Terneugtu  Canal,  con- 
necting Ghent  with  the  Scheldt.  It  is  about  to  be 
adopted  on  the  Khine,  to  facilitate  the  passage  of 
Bingen  Rapids,  and  on  the  I'pper  Elbe. 

The  chain-tottTng  system  was  first  tried  in  France 
in  1732  by  Marshal  Saxe,  in  traiisrorting  war-ma- 
terial. One  end  of  the  rojie  was  fastened  at  a  point 
in  advance,  and  the  other  passed  round  the  dmm  of 
a  horse-windlass  on  board  the  boat.  AVhen  the  fast 
end  of  the  rope  was  reached,  the  boat  was  moored 
until  the  rope  was  adjusted  for  another  pull.  Nearly 
a  century  after  this  —  in  1820  —  a  modification  of 
the  plan  was  put  in  regular  use  on  the  Rhone.  The 
boat  carried  a  steam-capstan  arranged  to  wind  alter- 
nately two  ropes.  Two  tenders  were  provided  to 
accompany  the  boat.  The  capstan,  winding  one 
rope  as  in  the  former  case,  drew  the  boat  forward 
and  at  the  same  time  unwound  the  other  rojje  upon 
one  of  the  steamers,  which,  moving  in  advance, 
fixed  it  for  being  wound  in  its  turn  as  soon  as  the 
end  of  the  other  was  reached. 

The  grand  jwints  to  Ije  reached  by  this  device  are 
to  avail  steam  as  a  motor  and  save  the  necessity  of 
tow-paths,  ilodifications  of  the  system  have  long 
been  in  use  on  our  western  rivers,  and  they  are 
navigated  successfully  by  a  \vire  rope  which  passes 
over  a  drum,  and  is  payed  out  over  the  stem,  as  just 
stated.     See  TowixG. 

Chaiu-vrales.    {Shipbuilditig.)   One  of  the  !«z/es 


CHAIN-WHEEL. 


522 


CHAIR. 


or  tliick  planks  boltcil  to  the  ship's  sides  and  serv- 
ing I'oi'  the  attachment  of  the  dmins  to  which  the 
sliroiuls  are  connected.      Channel. 

Chain-wheel.     The  siirockets  on  the  wheel  are 
adapted  to  receive  the  links  of  the  chain  successively. 

rig.  1233. 


chain,  or  conversely. 
Kig.  1234. 


Chain-WTieel. 

The  power  may  be  communicated  by  the  wlicel  to  the 
The  former  is  shown  in  the 
familiar  chain-pump,  and  the 
latter  in  machines  where 
tlie  operation  is  inverted  ; 
the  column  of  water  pressing 
npon  the  buttons  attached  to 
the  chain  and  causing  them 
to  descend  in  the  tube,  there- 
by rotating  the  wheel. 

De  Vauoauson's  chain-pul- 
ley was  notched  on  its  perime- 
ter and  worked  in  connection 
with  a  chain  having  toothed 
links. 

Another  form  (i)  is  an  open- 
linked  chain  acting  in  con- 
nection with  a  pin-wheel  or 
sprocket-wheel. 

Fig.  1234  shows  the  appli- 
cation of  a  chain  to  clriving 
seveial  wheels  in  different  di- 
recticms. 

Chain-work.    A  style  of 
textile  I'aln-ic  consisting  of  a 
snccession  of  loops,  and  including  hosiery  and  tani- 
bour-work. 

Chair.     1.   A  movable  seat  provided  with  a  back 
and  adaiiteil  for  one  person. 

The  names  of  chairs  depend  upon  structure,  ma- 
terial, and  purpose  :  — 

Bavber's-chaii'. 
Bath-chair. 


Chain-Wieel. 


Camp-chair. 

Dentist's-chair. 

Enema-chair. 

Folding-chair. 

Invalid-ohair. 

Locomotion-chair. 

Metallic-chair. 

Nursery-chair. 

Obstetrical-chair. 

Office-chair. 


Pew-chair. 

Photographic-chair. 

Railway-chair. 

Keclining-chair. 

IJevolving-ehair. 

Kocking-chair. 

Sedan-chair. 

Sleeping-chair. 

Surgeon's-chair. 

Tailor's- chair. 

Travelling-chair. 

Wive-chair. 


Several  of  wliich  are  considered  under  their  alplia- 
betical  heads. 

The  Egyptians  were  probably  among  the  first 
people  to  make  chairs.  The  originality  and  taste 
of  this  grand  nation  were  .stupendous  and  glorious. 
On  the  tombs  at  Thebes,  Alaba-stron,  and  elsewhere, 
but  especially  the  former,  are  Ibund  chairs  of  almost 
all  kinds  which  modern  ingenuity  has  revived. 
Thrones,  couches,  sociables,  folding,  reclining,  lazy- 
back  ;  leather-seated,  cane-seated,  split-bottom, 
made  of  ebony,  inlaid  with  metals  and  ivory,  with 
carved  backs,   sides,  and  legs  ;    with  claw-feet  and 


foot-pads,  and  upholstered  with  gorgeous  coverings 
resembling  tlie  rich  stull's  of  modern  lu.xury. 

Fig.  1235  shows  how  little  in  the  way  of  luxury 
was  left  to  be  desired  in  the  chair  line.  The  back 
consisted  of  a  frame,  receding  gradually  and  ter- 
minating at  its  sum- 
mit in  a  graceful  Fig.  1235. 
curve  supported  y.-j^j^^.-.j. 
from  without  by  /ii':l'i;*.jjii;^ 
perpcntlicular  bars. 
Over  the  chair  ' 
placed  a  handsome 
pillow  of  colored 
linen  or  wool,  paint- 
ed leather,  or  gold 
and  silver  tissue. 
The  upper  figure 
has  an  elaborately 
carved  frame,  the 
legs  of  which  are 
formed  of  crossed 
swords,  to  which  are 
tied  captive  figures 
of  different  nation- 
alities. The  lirutal 
mode  of  tying  was 
common  among  this 
people,  as  niay  be 
seen  by  looking  at 
the  drawings  in 
Chanipollion,  Rosel- 
line,  Lepsius,  and 
the  "Description 
de  I'Egypte."  The 
original  colors  of  the 
chair-frames  are 
blue  and  gold  and 
red  and  gold  resjiec- 
tively  ;  of  the  up- 
holstery, red  and 
gold  and  blue  and 
gold. 

Du  Chaillu  de- 
scribes the  easy- 
chair  of  Obindji,  a 
chieftain  of  the 
Ovenga  River,  in 
the  Gaboon  coun- 
try, Africa.  The 
(.)venga  is  the  name 
given   to   the   river 

Fcrnand  Vas,  above  Egyj„i„„  Fnuteuih  { frnm  ihe  Tomhsof 
Coombl,  and  was  the  Kings),  Tliebrs,'Aftka,\f^M  B  C. 
traversed     by      the 

enterprising  traveler  Paul  R.  Du  Chaillu,  who 
walked  in  the  land  of  the  Gorillas  a  distance  of  8,000 


FL'   1C3;. 


13^?^ 


Obtii'Jji  in  his  Easy-Chair  ;   Ga^ooriy  Africa.  A.  D.  18' 


CHAIR. 


523 


CHAIR-BACK  MACHIXE. 


miles  ;  shot,  stiitt'cd,  and  brought  home  2,000  birds, 
killed  1,000  quadrupeds,  bringing  home  80  skeletons 
and  200  stuffed  skins.  As  an  interesting  item  hav- 
ing no  relevance  to  the  subject  of  chairs,  it  may  be 
mentioned  that  he  took  over  fourteen  ounces  of  qui- 
nine in  curing  himself  of  fifty  attacks  of  African 
fever. 

The  Egyptians  were  an  Asiatic  race,  and  it  may 
be  a.ssumed,  both  from  the  probabilities  of  the  case 
and    from   the   frennency 
Fig  1237.  of   the  squatting  posture 

in  their  paintings  and 
bas-reliefs,  that  the  intro- 
duction of  the  chair  came 
in  the  progress  of  refine- 
ment. 

In  Fig.  1237,  a  repre- 
sents a  chair  now  in  the 
museum  of  Leyden.  The 
back  and  legs  are  of  wood, 
the  seat  ha-s  a  wooden 
frame  and  interlacing 
leathern  thongs.  The  seat 
is  only  13  iuches  high. 
In  some,  the  interlaced 
material  is  cord.  Beneath 
the  feet  are  blocks  or 
pads,  probably  to  prevent 
noise  in  moving  the  chair 
on  a  marble  Hoor. 

6  is  a  stool  made  on  the 
principle  of  our  camp- 
stools.  It  is  in  the  col- 
lection of  Mr.  Salt,  and 
probably  had  a  leather  or 
leopard-skin  cover.  The 
same  collection  has  an 
ebony  stool,  inlaid  with 
ivory.  The  cushion  is  of  leather,  and  is  ornamented. 
Many  other  illustrations  might  be  given,  did 
room  permit ;  but  we  must  be  content  with  referring 
the  reader  to  Wilkinson's  "  Customs  of  the  Ancient 
Egj'lJtians,"  and  to  the  magnificent  work  on  Egypt, 
on  which  the  labor  and  enthusiasm  of  the  French 
savaiis  was  so  liberally  bestowed  early  in  the  present 
century.  A  copy  is  in  the  Congressional  Library  in 
Washington,  and  other  copies  are  probably  to  be 
seen  in  some  of  the  libraries  in  the  large  cities.  It 
is  an  immense  and  voluminous  work. 

The  elaborate  chairs  referred  to  are  on  plate  89, 
Vol.  II.  of  the  plates,  "Description  de  I'Egj-pte." 

In  a  tomb  of  the  time  of  Thothmcs  III.,  the 
Pharaoh  of  the  Exodus,  1490  B.  c,  is  a  painting 
showing  a  couple   of  carpenters   at   work    making 

Fig.  1238. 


Egyptian  Chair  and  Sloot. 


Egt/ptinn  Chair-Maktrs  [from  Thtbts). 


chairs.  One  of  them  is  using  a  bow-drill  to  bore 
holes  in  the  seat  for  the  braces  of  the  back-]io,sts, 
and  the  other  is  engaged  finishing  a  leg,  scra)iing  it 
with  a  plate  or  shai'j)  instrument  in  a  delicate  man- 
ner, as  the  artist  is  careful  to  inform  us  by  showing 
three  fingers  of  the  man's  hand  in  a  raised  position. 
The  tenon  on  the  upper  end  of  the  chair-leg  is 


clearly  shown  in  the  one  he  is  holding,  and  also  in 
the  two  against  the  wall  and  that  leaning  against 
the  post.  The  artist  has  also  inti'oduced  two  adzes 
and  a  square.  The  blades  of  the  adzes  are  lashed 
to  the  helve,  as  was  usual  with  them.  None  of 
their  axes,  hatchets,  or  adzes  had  eyes,  but  the 
blades  were  secured  by  being  partially  inserted  into 
the  helve  or  stock,  and  fastened  by  pins  or  thongs, 
or  both.  In  most  cases  the  metal  was  bronze  ;  in 
some  it  is  shown  to  be  iron  or  steel,  being  colored 
blue  to  indicate  that  metal,  red  representing  bronze. 

The  Egyptian  chairs  and  stools  were  from  lOf  to 
28  inches  high,  —  quite  a  range,  Init  probably  some 
were  intended  for  the  children,  others  to  be  used 
with  footstools. 

A  four-legged  stool,  with  a  seat  revolving  on  a 
bronze  pivot,  is  ]ireserved  in  the  British  Museum. 
The  chair  is  inlaid  with  ivory,  and  the  seat  is  of  ma- 
roon-colored leather. 

"Cambyses,  in  consequence  of  the  venality  of  the 
judge,  slew  and  flayed  Sisamnes,  and,  cutting  his 
skin  into  strips,  stretched  them  across  the  seat  of 
the  throne  whereon  he  was  wont  to  sit  when  he 
heard  causes.  He  then  appointed  Otanes,  the  son 
of  Sisamnes,  to  be  judge  in  his  fatlier's  loom,  and 
bade  him  never  forget  in  what  way  his  seat  was 
cushioned."  —  Hekodotus,  V.  23. 

"The  heroes  of  Homer  sit  at  their  banquets,  and 
do  not  lie  down.  And  this  was  the  ease  at  the 
feasts  of  Alexander  the  King,  as  Dures  says.  For 
he  once,  when  giving  a  feast  to  his  captains,  to  the 
number  of  6,000,  made  them  sit  upon  silver  chairs 
and  conches,  having  covered  them  with  jiurple 
covers.  And  Hegesander  says  that  it  was  not  the 
custom  for  any  one  to  lie  down  at  a  bamjuet,  unless 
he  had  slain  a  boar  which  had  escaped  beyond  the 
line  of  nets." —  AxHEXiEUs. 

The  fashion  of  reclining  at  banquets  came  from 
Persia. 

"  And  what  can  for  tired  ".iinb.«  compare 
With  the  sotl  and  yielding  Thesfaiian  chair?  " 

Carrus,  quoted  by  .\thL>na?us  (a.  d  220.) 

Fig.  1239  shows  the  chair  of  that  "every  inch  a 
king"  who  was  "  Defender  of  the  Faith"  350  years 
ago,   and   "Head  of  the  Church"  aliout   thirteen 
years     afterward.      He 
did  not  suit  everybody  fig.  12.39. 

in  either  capacity.  He 
was  a  better  king  than 
some  better  men  have 
been. 

2.  {liailway.)  A 
foot-piece  or  base- 
plate for  a  railway- 
rail,  by  which  it  is 
secured  to  the  sleeper 
or  cross-tie.  The 
edge-rail,  as   at   first 

constructed, 

needed    such    a 

support   to  give 

it  staliilitv'  ;  the  ii 

T-rail     w'ith     a  H 

broad  foot-flange 

may    be    spiked 

directly  to  the  sleeper.     See  R.\iMV.iY-CHAin. 
3.   {Vehicle.)    A  kind  of  carriage.    Originally 
a  sedan  ;  now  a  small  carriage  for  a  single  person,  an 
invalid.      A  BntJi-chah: 

Chair-back  Ma-chine'.  These  machines  may 
be  band  or  jig-saws,  which  cut  out  the  curved  back- 
piece  which  is  placed  on  the  top  of  the  pillars  of  the 
chair-back.  Molding  or  rounding  machines  for  chair- 
backs  have  a  holder  for  the  stutf,  which  is  moved 


Henry  VIU.'s  Chair. 


Iij»3 


CHAIK-BOLT. 


524 


CHAMBER. 


against  a  rotary  cutter  of  peculiar  shape,  the  stuff 
traveling  in  a  prescribed  path,  so  as  to  receive  the 
conformatiou  desired. 

Scraping,  dressing,  and  polishing  machines  for 
chair-hacks  are  similar  in  their  mode  ol' presentation 
of  tile  stuff,  hut  differ  in  the  character  of  the  tool 
or  appliance  to  which  the  work  is  presented. 

Chair-bolt.  A  screw-holt  for  fastening  down 
rail-iliairs  to  the  sleepers. 

Chair-mak'er's  Saw.  1.  Adimiuutiveformof 
the  ordinary  frame-pit  saw,  in  which  the  blade  is 

Fig.  1240. 


Chaise.  A  vehicle  with  shafts  and  two  high 
wheels,  and  a  calasli  top.  The  body  is  su[)ported 
by  thorough-liraces,  and  the  elasticity  resides  in  the 
long  shafts  and  the  bed-sujiporting  bars  which  ex- 
tend upwardly  and  backwardly  therefrom.  It  is 
said  that  Augustus  Iniperatoi-  contiived  this  mode  of 
hanging  a  carriage-body,  and  so  was  the  im-entor  of 
the  cliaise.  It  is  all  the  spring  yet  known  to  sev- 
eral kinds  of  Italian  vehicles. 

Chaise-cart.  A  light  cart  with  springs,  used  in 
various  light  emidoynient,  where  goods  and  parcels 
are  to  be  e.\])editiously  conveyed. 

Chal'co-graph.  An  engraving  on  copper  or 
brass. 

Chal'ice.  A  cup.  The  drinking-vessel  which 
holds  the  wine  of  the  connnuniou  servii'e. 

Chalk-line.  A  cord  rubbeil  with  chalk  or  simi- 
lar material,  used  by  artificers  for  laying  down 
straight  lines  on  the  material  as  a  guide  for  a  cutting 
instrument. 

The  Japanese  use  a  wooden  cup  with  a  sponge 
saturated  with  india-iuk,  and  having  holes  back  and 
front  through  which  the  line  passes.     At  one  end  of 

Fig.  1241 


Chair-Stuff  Sawing-Machine. 

strained  by  buckles  and  wedges.  The  work  is  clamped 
to  the  bench  while  sawing. 

2.  A  scroll-saw  especially  adapted  for  getting  out 
chair-stuff,  such  as  backs  and  legs  which  have  curves 
which  cannot  be  readily  bent,  or  of  stuff  which  can- 
not be  readily  bent  to  shape. 

Chair-or'gan.  {i[usic.)  A  cAoiV-orgau  placed 
in  a  se]iarate  case  in  front  of  the  great  organ  and  at 
the  hack  of  the  performer. 

Chair-seat  Bor'ing-ma-chine'.  Machine  for 
the  systematic  and  rai)id  liuring  of  the  small  verti- 
cal holes  in  a  chair-seat  frame,  to  he  occupied  by 
the  strips  of  cane  or  rattan,  or  the  larger  holes  for 
the  pillars  and  spindles  of  the  back. 

Chair-seat  Ma-chine'.  These  include  the 
planing-macliines,  by  which  the  wooden  bottoms  of 
chairs  are  rounded  out.  The  depth  of  penetration 
is  governed  by  side  guides,  which  raise  and  lower  the 
bed  relatively  to  the  revolving  cutter,  or  the  latter 
relatively  to  the  bed  which  carries  the  chair-seat. 
Lenman's  machines  for  hollowing  chair-seats  have 
a  pattern  seat  over  which  a  governing  ball  is  moved, 
determining  the  depth  of  penetration  of  the  rotary 
cutter  beneath,  as  it  passes  over  the  chair-seat  stuff. 

Machines  are  also  constructed  for  cutting  grooves 
in  chair-seat  frames  for  upholstering  purposes,  or 
to  receive  the  chair-seat  which  is  pressed  into  the 
frame. 

Chair-spring.  A  spring  underneath  the  hinged 
seat  of  a  chair,  which  gives  it  a  certain  resilience, 
and  encourages  a  tilting  or  rocking  motion. 

Springs  are  sometnnes  placed  beneath  the  front 
legs  to  give  a  tilting  motion. 

Chair-web.    A  kind  of  saw.     A  scroll-saw. 


Clmlk  Line  Hauler. 

the  line  is  a  small  awl,  and  this  he  stirks  in  the 
work  at  one  end  of  the  proposed  line,  then  steps 
back  and  lets  the  line  pay  off  the  reel,  jiassing 
through  the  ink  in  the  cup.  He  then  snaps  the 
line,  and  walks  back  reeling  up  the  line. 

Somewhat  similar  is  our  chalk-line  holder,  in  which 
the  cord  passes  from  the  reel  C,  through  the 
block  of  chalk  H,  and  is  automatically  rewound  by 
the  sjiring  in  the  barrel  G  and  the  train  of  gearing 
EI). 

Chalk-line  Reel.  A  spindle  or  barrel  on  which 
a  clialk-line  is  wounil.      See  Chalk-LINE. 

Chal'lis.  (Fiibric.)  An  elegant  dress  article  of 
silk  warp  and  worsted  yarn  ;  introduced  in  1832. 
It  is  made  on  a  principle  similar  to  the  Norwich 
cmpe  ;  only  thinner  and  softer,  and  having  a  pliable 
and  clothy  dress  instead  of  a  glossy  surface. 

Cham'ber.  1.  The  place  where  a  charge  of  pow- 
der is  lodged  in  a  fire-arm,  cannon,  mine,  or  blast- 
hole.  Howitzers  and  mortars  have  sub-caliber  cham- 
bers. 

2.  {Hydraulic  Engineering.)  The  space  between 
the  gates  of  a  canal-lock. 

3.  (Vehicles.)  An  indentation  on  the  inner  sur- 
face of  an  axle-box,  to  hold  grease. 

4.  An  apartment  where  sublimed  objects  are  de- 
posited, as  sulidiur,  lamp-black,  arsenic,  zinc-white, 
mercury,  and  other  condensible  fumes. 

5.  (Dyeing. )  A  form  of  apparatus  for  steaming 
printed  cloths,  to  fix  the  colors.  (See  Steam-ccilors.) 
It  is  about  12  X  9  feet,  ami  9  feet  high,  the  interior 
furnished  with  frames  which  run  in  and  out  upon 
rollers  when  the  front  door  is  ojien.  Tlie  frames 
have  cro.ss-rods  provided  with  tenter-hooks  for  sus- 
pending the  cloths. 

6.  {Founding.)  fi.  The  portions  of  a  mold  which 
contain  the  exterior  form,  and  whiidr  are  closed  over 
the  core  in  casting  hollow-ware. 


CHAMBER-CLOSET. 


525 


CHANGEABLE  GAGE-TRUCK. 


Fig.  1342 


b.  An  inclosed  space,  as  the  fire-chamber  of  a  fur- 
nace. 

7.  A  short  piece  of  ordnance  for  making  a  noise 
at  celebrations. 

8.  The  part  of  a  pump  in  which  the  bucket  or 
plunger  works. 

9.  A  urinal  for  the 
bedroom. 

Cham'ber-clos'et 
A  commode  or  night- 
chair  for  invalids  and 
the  infirm.  The  seat 
has  a  funnel  which  en- 
ters the  urinal,  and 
india  -  rubber  packing 
prevents  the  escape  of 
effluvia.  See  Earth- 
closet. 

Cham'ber  -  gage. 
(Ordnance.)  One  used 
in  verifying  the  size  of 
a  howitzer  or  mortar- 
chamber. 

Cham-bray'.     {Fabric.)     A  kind  of  gingham  ; 
plain  colors,  linen  finish,  ladies'  dress-goods. 

Cham'fer.  A 
Fig.  1213. 


Chamber-Closet, 


slope 


^  11  ^ 


^^^^ 


bevel  or 
conferred  upon 
an  edge  which 
was  originally 
rectangiUar. 

a,  chamfered 
hole  to  receive  a 
screw-head. 

b,  a  chamfered 
pin. 

c,  a  chamfered 
rod,  ready  for 
welding  into  a 
link. 

rf,  harness- 
maker's  chanifer- 
ing-tool. 

Cham'fer- 
ing-bit  .\  bor- 
ing-tool with  a 
conical  cutter 
adapted  to  cham- 
fer the  edge  of  a 
hole  to  enable  it 
to  receive  the 
head  of  a  screw. 
See  Bit. 

Cham'fer-ing-tooL  (Sadd/eni.)  A  tool  (rf, 
Fig.  12i3)  for  paring  down  the  thickness  of  a  leath- 
ern strap  near  the  edge,  making  a  chamfer. 

It  is  called  thinnin'j  the  edge,  and  is  sometimes 
preliminary"  to  sewing,  and  at  other  times  to  fitting 
the  edge  into  its  place  in  the  harness. 

Cham 'fret.  1.  (CarpeiUnj.)  A  groove  or  fur- 
row. 

2.  A  bend  produced  by  cutting  off  the  edge  of  a 
right  angle.     See  Ch.^mff.r. 

Cbam'fret-ing.  {Building.)  The  splay  of  a 
window,  i-tc. 

Cbam'ois.  (Shammy;  chamois-leather.)  The 
name  indicates  that  this  leather  is  made  from  the 
skin  of  the  chamois  (Riipicnpra  tragus),  but  the 
skins  of  sheep,  goats,  deer,  calves,  and  the  split  hides 
of  other  animals,  are  used  for  the  making  of  this  kind 
of  leather  ;  the  superior  kinds  of  which  are  called 
chamois,  and  the  inferior,  xmsh-knthcr. 

The  skins  are  unhaived  in  a  lime-vat,  and  scraped 
on  a  beam  in   the  oi-dinar)'  way.      The  lime  is  re- 


Chatnt^TX. 


moved  in  a  bath  by  lactic  or  acetic  acid,  and  the 
skins  are  then  frizzed. 

This  process  consists  in  nibbing  the  skins  with 
pumice  or  the  blunt  end  of  a  round  knife,  un- 
til the  grain  is  removed,  the  skin  softened,  and  re- 
duced to  an  even  thickness  throughout. 

The  skins  are  then  pressed  to  expel  water,  fulled 
by  wooden  hammers,  sj>read,  treated  with  oil, — fish- 
oil  being  preferable,  —  rolled  up  and  again  fulled,  to 
distribute  the  oil  throughout  the  bundle.  They  are 
then  taken  out,  unfolded,  dried,  re-oiled,  and  again 
rolled  and  fulled.  These  processes  are  repeated  til! 
the  effect  is  fully  accomplished,  heat  being  applied 
during  the  latter  portion,  by  means  of  suspending 
the  skins  in  a  store-room. 

SupeiHuous  oil  is  removed  by  a  shoii:  steeping  in 
a  dilute  alkaline  lye  ;  the  skins  are  then  wrung, 
dried,  sujipled  by  stretching,  and  polished  by  roll- 
ing. 

Caiain-pign'on-raiL  (Railroad  Engi^ucring.) 
One  having  a  rounded  upper  surface. 

Chan'ceL  That  j)art  of  the  choir,  or  eastern  part 
of  a  church,  between  the  altar  or  communion-table 
and  the  mil  that  incloses  it. 

Chan-de-lier'.  A  frame  with  branches  to  hold 
candle-sockets.  The  word  now  includes  a  frame 
with  gas  branches,  though  the  latter  is  technically 
a  gasalicr. 

A  chandelier  in  the  palace  of  the  Khalif  of  Cor- 
dova, A.  D.  1100,  contained  1,0S4  lamps.  Coi-dova 
was  then  the  intellectual  center  of  Europe,  and  the 
royal  dwellings  of  Germany,  Fi-auce,  and  England 
were  like  stables. 

2.  An  obsolete  term  for  a  movable  frame  of  fas- 
cines to  cover  a  working  ]>arty. 

Change'a-ble  Gage-truck.  A  means  of  ad- 
justing wheels  to  different  g-ages  of  tracks,  by  mak- 
ing the  wheels  adjustable  on  the  axles.    The  arrauge- 

Fig.  12« 


Chan^enhie  Ga^-Trvck. 


ment  is  shown  in  Fig.  1244  ;  one  wheel  in  section, 
the  other  in  elevation.  The  two  views  below  the 
truck  are  sections  transvereely  of  the  axle.  The 
wheels  are  cast  with  an  elongated  hub  or  sleeve  b 
projecting  inwards,  in  which  there  are  two  slots,  and 
in  the  axle  there  are  coiTCsponding  recesses  which 
admit  of  the  wheels  being  fimdy  fixed  to  the  axle  by 
means  of  V-shaped  wedges  or  blocks  d  d.  Two  in- 
dia-rubber bands  or  rings  /  /,  fitting  tightly,  are 
placed  over  the  openings  in  the  sleeve,  thus  holding 
the  wedges  in  jiosition  ;  and  they  are  farther  secured 
by  a  s]ilit-pin  with  curved  ends,  which  is  passed 
lengthwise  through  the  sleeve  and  wedges,  and  ex- 
pands at  the  inner  end  in  an  enlarged  opening.  As 
an  additional  security,  also,  there  is  a  set-screw  g 
passing  through  the  sleeve,  which  is  made  to  press 
upon  the  split-pin,  thus  preventing  the  possibility 
of  the  latter  ever  being  jerked  or  shaken  out  whilst 


CHANGE-PUMP. 


526 


CHAPE. 


running.  The  gage  is  changed  by  merely  removing 
the  wedges,  and  then  passing  the  wagons  over  a 
converging  or  tliverging  track,  as  the  case  may  be, 
and  the  usual  time  occuiiied  in  changing  is  from  live 
to  ten  njinuti's  for  each  car. 

Change-pump.  A  immp  introduced  by  the  suc- 
cessors of  Boulton  and  Watt  in  connection  with  the 
boilers  of  sea-going  vessels,  in  order  to  keep  a  con- 
tinual change  in  the  body  of  water,  removing  the 
super-salted  water  and  substituting  sea  water. 

The  change-pump  has  been  superseded  by  the 
blow-oft'  cock,  which,  Ijeing  turned  at  intervals, 
allows  a  portion  of  the  super-salted  water  to  escape 
overboard.  Kxternal  condensation  and  fresh-water 
boiler-suiiply  are  now  the  mode. 

Chaiige-wheel.  (Muchinery.)  Changi-irlieds, 
having  \arying  numbers  of  cogs  of  the  same  pitch, 
are  used  to  connect  the  main  arbor  of  the  lathe 
with  tlie  feed-screw,  so  as  to  vary  the  relative  rates 
of  rotation  and  couseijuently  the  pitch  of  the  screw 
to  be  cut. 

The  first  application  of  cluinqc-whecls  to  a  lathe  is 
supposed  to  have  been  in  a  fusee-cutting  lathe,  de- 
scribed in  a  work,  1741.  The  change-wheels  are 
intermediate,  and  journaled  in  a  bracket,  which  per- 
mits them  to  be  brouglit  into  engagement  with  the 
rotative  and  feed  wheels  respectively.  See  ScuEW- 
OUTTINC  Lathe;  Engine-l.'VTHe. 

Chan'neL  1.  {Shipbuilding.)  Chain-vmh.  A 
flat  ledge  of  wood  or  iron  projecting  outward  from 
the  ship's  side,  for  spreading  the  shrouds  or  standing 
rigging  at  each  side  of  the  masts,  and  protecting  the 
chain-plates.  The  channels  are  at  the  level  of  the 
deck  beams. 

2.  {Xaiitical.)     The  rope  track  in  a  tackle-block. 

3.  (Boot-makinri.)  The  c\it  in  the  .sole  of  a  boot 
to  hold  the  thread  and  allow  the  stitches  to  sink 
below  the  surface  of  the  sole. 

4.  A  long  groove  cut  in  a  stone  on  a  line  where  it 
is  to  be  split.  , — , 

5.  {Mininy.)     An  air  conduit  or  pipe,  to  con-     S» 
duct  air  into  a  mine.  pj- 

6.  (Foundinii.)    A  trough  to  conduct  melted  j  i4_; 
metal  to  tlie  pig-lied  or  mold. 

Chan'nel-ing.  (Architecture.)  Perpendicu- 
lar channels,  or  cavities,  cut  along  the  shaft  of 
a  column  or  pilaster. 

Chan'nel-ing-ma-chine 


presented  obliiiuely  upon  the  surface  of  the  sole,  and 
cuts  the  channel  ;  the  other  has  an  oblique  (nearly 
ojiposite)  iiresentation,  and  slices  oft'  the  upper  edge 
of  the  sole,  leaving  it  beveled. 

2.    (Stonc-icorkinrj.)     A  machine  having  a  series 
of  jumpers   or 


chisels 
m.ake  a 
across  tin 
a    block 


quarry, 
tached. 


w  h  i  c  h 
gioove 
lace  of 
in  the 
or  de- 
In  the  il- 
lustration shown, 
the  machine  has 
a  gang  of  cutters 
operated  by  direct- 
acting  steam-cyl- 
inder. Tlie  cut- 
ters have  direct 
motion  I'rom  the 
piston.  Thevalve 
is  reversed  at  the 
blow  of  the  cut- 
ters ;  or,  in  case 
of  no  blow  being 
given,  it  is  re- 
versed before  the 
cylinder  -  bottom 
is  touched  by  the 
piston.  The  cut- 
ter-bar is  adjust- 
able on  the  cylin- 
der-bar, tosuitthe 
de|)th   of  groove 


Fig,  1246. 


Stone  Channel^ng^l!^Iac/dne. 


cut.  The  whole  mechanism  is 
mounteil  on  vertically  adjustable  rollers,  and  the 
feed-device  is  operated  from  the  cross-head. 

Chan'nel-ing-tool.     A  tool  used  for  cutting  a 
channel  near  the  edge  of  a  pi»ce  of  leather,  so  as  to 


Fig.  1247. 


Sole  Channetins-Maclitne. 


forward  against  the  knives. 


1.  (Boot-makinr/.) 
One  for  cutting 
the  channels  in 
boot-soles,  to 
allow  the  thread 
to  bury  itself  in 
the  leather  and 
be  protected 
from  immediate 
wear.  It  con- 
sists of  a  knife, 
which  makes 
an  oblique  cut 
in  the  sole,  to 
a  gaged  depth 
and  regulated 
as  to  distance 
from  the  sole- 
edge  by  a  guide. 
In  the  exam- 
ple, the  sole 
rests  upon  the 
roller  B  and  its 
edge  against  the 
guide;  it  is 
then  pressed 
One  of  the  latter  is 


Channeling-  Tool. 

hide  the  sewing.  Used  in  making  round  work,  such 
as  running  reins,  whips  ;  also  in  sinking  giooves  in 
shoe-soles,  to  hide  the  stitching.  The  cutter  is  ad- 
justable on  the  shank,  for  penetration,  and  the  guide 
at  the  end  to  gage  the  distance  of  the  channel  from 
the  edge  of  the  leather. 

Chan'nel-i'ron.  1.  A  form  of  angle-iron  having 
a  ^\cb  with  two  flanges  extending  only  on  one  sitle 
of  the  web. 

2.  {Bui/ding.)  A  brace  or  hook  to  support  the 
guttering. 

Chan'nel-v^ale.  (Shipbuikling.)  One  of  the 
straki's  brtween  the  ports  of  tlie  gun-deck  and  up- 
per deck  of  large  vessels. 

Chant'er.  (Music. )  The  tenor  or  treble  pipe  of 
a  b;iu;)ii)ie. 

Chant'late.  (Building.)  A  projecting  pan  of 
the  rouf-slieatliing  at  the  eave,  to  carry  the  drip 
clear  of  the  wall. 

Chap.    A  c/icft  of  a  vise.    Oiw  of  Uk  jnu:').    Chop. 

Chape.  1.  The  catch  or  jiiece  by  which  an  ob- 
ject is  attached,  — to  a  belt,  for  instance ;  as  the  piece 
of  leather  known  specifically  as  the  froij,  to  which 
a  bayouet-scabbard  is  attached,  and  which  slides  on 
the  belt  ;  or  a  piece  used  to  fasten  a  buckle  to  a  strap 
or  other  piece  of  leather. 


CHAPELET. 


527 


CHAEGE. 


2.  A  plate  on  the  back  of  a  buckle,  or  the  bar  of  a 
buckle,  by  wliich  it  is  attached  to  a  belt. 

3.  The  hook  of  a  scabbard. 

4.  The  plate  at  the  point  of  a  scabbard.     The  tip. 
Chap'el-et.      1.     {Hydraulic  Engineering.)     a. 

A  drtd^ing  or  water-raising  machine,  consisting  of  a 
chain  provided  with  scoops  or  scuttles,  or  with  pal- 
lets travereing  in  a  trougli  ;  the  chain  mo^^ng  over 
rollers  or  wheels,  of  which  the  upper  one  is  driven 
by  power,  and  the  lower  one  is  rertically  adjustable 
so  as  to  regulate  the  position  of  the  scoops  or  pallets, 
to  bring  them  against  the  mud  to  be  lifted,  or  to 
submerge  them  in  the  water  to  be  raised.  See  Chaix- 
PIMP  ;  Dkedgixg-m.\chixe. 

b.  A  French  name  for  the  chain-pump  in  which 
the  cushions  or  buttons  which  occur  at  intervals  on 
the  chain  are  compared  to  the  beads  of  the  rosary. 
H^nce  also  known  as  paternoster  piunips. 

2.  {Sadd/ery.)  A  pair  of  straps  with  stirrups, 
joined  at  the  middle  and  secured  to  the  frame  of  the 
saddle. 

Chap'let.  (Architecture.)  A  small  molding  dec- 
orated with  round  or  oblong  beads  or  other  similar 
forms. 

Cbar'coal.  Charcoal  consists  of  wood  burned 
with  but  little  access  of  air.  Billets  of  wood  are 
built  into  a  heap,  which  is  covered  with  earth  or 
sand.  The  heap  is  fired  at  openings  left  near  the 
bottom  of  the  pile,  and  the  gases  escape  at  small 
openings  above. 

For  njaking  fine  charcoal,  such  as  that  of  willow, 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  gunpowder,  the  wood  is 
burned  in  iron  cylinders,  or  rather  retorts,  in  which 
a  process  of  destructive  distillation  removes  the  vol- 
atile hydrocarbons,  pyroligneous  acid,  etc.  By  this 
more  perfect  means  the  process  isaccuratelyregulated. 

Charcoal  is  used  in  the  arts  as  — 

A  fuel.  A  polishing  powder. 

A  table  on  which  pieces  of  metal  are  secured  in 
position  to  he  soldered  by  the  blow-pipe. 

A  filtering  material. 

A  defecator  and  decolorizer  of  solutions  and  water. 

An  al  isorbent  of  gases  and  aqueous  vapors. 

A  non-conducting  packing  in  ice-houses,  safes,  and 
refrigerators. 

An  ingredient  in  gunpowder  and  fire-works. 

In  the  galvanic  battery  and  the  electric  light. 

Char'coal,  An'i-mal.  {Suynr-rcfininy.)  Ani- 
mal charcoal  is  prepared  by  calcining  bones  in  closed 
vessels.  These  are  either  retorts,  similar  to  those  in 
which  coal  is  distilled  for  the  production  of  illumi- 
nating gas,  or  they  are  earthenware  pots  [liled  up  in 
kilns  and  fired.  Charges  of  fifty  pounds  of  bones  to 
a  pot  will  require,  say,  sixteen  hours  of  firing.  The 
bones  are  then  gi'ound  between  fluted  roUei's,  the 
dust  removed,  and  the  granulated  material  used  for 
charging  the  filters  of  the  sugar-refiner.  The  mate- 
rial is  used  for  removing  color,  feculencies,  and  fer- 
menting ingiedients  from  the  syrup.  See  Boxe- 
BLACK  FfRXACE. 

Char'coal-cool'er.  A  wire  cylinder  in  which 
ajiimal  charcoal  is  agitated  and  cooled,  after  revivi- 
fying, while  a  current  of  air  carries  oft'  the  noxious 
gases. 

Char'coal-fil'ter.  A  filter  charged  with  ordi- 
nary or  animal  charcoal  for  domestic  use,  or  with  an- 
imal charcoal  for  use  in  the  sugar-house  or  refinery. 

The  filter  for  the  removal  of  feculent  and  other 
matters  held  in  suspension  in  the  clarified  cane-juice 
is  a  high  cylindrical  vessel  charged  with  bone-black. 
Upon  the  perforated  bottom  a  filter-cloth  is  spread, 
and  U]ion  this  a  layer  of  bone-hlack  is  tightly  packed ; 
over  this  the  main  body  of  animal  charcoal  C  is  piled 
in   loosely.     Another  cloth  and  a  perforated  plate 


Fig.  124S. 


<^, 


complete  the  col- 
umn. The  syrup 
to  be  filtered  is  let 
in  from  the  cistern 
S,  the  supply  being 
regulated  by  the 
ball-cock  h  d,  the 
level  being  main- 
tained a  little  above 
the  top  of  the  filter- 
ing-material. <  is  a 
tube  by  which  air  is 
allowed  to  escape. 
m  is  a  man-hole  by 
which  the  interior 
is  reached  for  cleans- 
ing when  required. 

The  operation  re 
moves  vegetable  col- 
oring-matter, excess 
of  lime  derived  from 
the  clarifying,  mineral  salts,  an' 
men  ring  stage. 

Char'coal-fur'nace.     A  furna 
charcoal  hv  the 


'  C.-'c- 


■,^.:-.i;: 


m 


•■'■> 


Jf  U^LjaJa_HJ  sU-j 


t  tiarcnat-Fitter. 


pa 


iticles  in  a  fer- 


for  producing 


drj'  distillation  Kg- 1249. 

of  wood,  and  for 
the  collection  of 
the  tar  and  py- 
roligneous acid 
resulting  there- 
from. 

The  air  pass- 
es in  between 
the  bars  of  the 
grate,  and  is 
regulated  as  to 
quantity  by  a 
closely  fitting 
ash-pit  door. 
The  wood  is 
built  in  at  the 
openings  a  b, 
and  the  char- 
coal extracted 
at  a.  "When 
sufficient  heat 
has  been  ob- 
tained, the  ac- 
cess of  air  is 
prevented,  and 
the  carboniza- 
tion   jiroceeds, 

the  volatile  matters  passing  off  at  the  neck  above,  to 
be  collecte<l  and  separated.  The  lower  figure  .shows 
the  mode  of  building  a  charcoal -heap.  A  is  the  cen- 
tral post,  B  an  earthen  covering. 

Char'coal-point.  A.  pencil  of  carbon  prepared 
for  use  in  the  electric-light  apparatus. 

Charge.  1.  The  body  of  ore,  metal,  fuel,  or  oth- 
er matter  introduced  into  a  fumace  at  one  time,  for 
one  heat,  or  one  run,  as  the  case  may  be. 

The  charge  of  a  puddling-furnace  is  about  500 
pounds  of  pig-iron,  and  this  forms  i  blooms. 

The  charge  of  a  gas-retort  is  220  pounds,  intro- 
duced in  two  scoopfuls  of  110  pounds  each. 

The  charge  of  a  tumbling-box  is  as  many  castings 


Charcoal-  Furnace. 


CHARGER. 


528 


CHARIOT. 


or  other  matters  as  it  will  i-oiiveniently  contain  and 
give  room  for  mutual  attrition. 

The  f/icn/i:  ot'an  amalgamating  jian  i.s  according 
to  size.     They  vary  from  U  to  6  fi'et  in  diameter  ; 
some  work  oil'  two  tons  in  twenty-four  hour.s,  others 
a  charge  of  1,400  pounds  in  tliree  or  four  hours. 
And  so  on. 

2.  The  amount  required  to  furnish  an  implement 
or  machine  for  a  single  operation  ;  as,  — 

The  charrje  of  a  gun.  The  sirvicc-chargc  for 
smooth-hored  guns  may  be  J  to  J  the  wei  lit  of  the 
projectiles.  For  hot-shot  and  ricochet  tiring  these 
charges  are  reduced.  Rifled  guns,  avoiding  wiiul- 
age,  reijuire  a  smaller  charge  than  smooth-bores. 
tIic  service-charge  of  the  Armstrong  gun  is  one 
eighth  the  weight  of  the  projectile. 

In  the  navy  three  charges  are  used :  distant,  full, 
and  reduced. 

The  weight  of  a  gun  ranges  in  smooth-bores  from 
500  to  700  tinn'S,  and  in  rifled  guns  from  600  to  800 
times,  the  weight  of  the  service-charge  of  powder. 

The  weight" of  the  carriage  (shipboard)  is  about 
one  fifth  that  of  the  gun.  The  weight  of  the  spheri- 
cal shot  is  about  four  times  that  of  its  service-charge  ; 
and  of  cylindrical  shot,  eight  times.  The  weight 
of  the  cast-iron  sjihere,  in  pounds,  is  equal  to  the 
cube  of  the  diameter,  in  inches,  multiplii-d  by  0.134 
nearly.  Weight  of  a  steel  sphere,  in  pounds,  is 
equal  to  cube  of  diameter,  in  inches,  nmltiplied  by 
0.148  nearlv. 

The   e.xiilosive  energy  of  gunpowder  completely 
burned  is  estimated  at  from  240,000  to  300,000  foot 
pounds,  per  pound  of  powder.     Owing  to  inciimi>lete 
combustion,  and  other  causi'S  of  loss,  its  <'nergy  com- 
municated to  cannon-shot  is  considered  to  be  from 
144,000  to  192,000  foot  ]iounds,  per  pound. 
The  velocity  is  thus  oalculated  ;  — 
"  Divide  the  energy  due  to  the  powder   by  the 
•weight  of  the  shot  ;  the  quotient  is  a  liight  in  feet 
which  is  to  be  nndtiplied  by  64.4  ;  the  square  root 
of  the  product  will  be  the  initial  velocity  of  the  shot 
in  feet  per  second."  —  Rankine. 
FiK.  1250  Char'ger.     1.  {Mining.)     A 

spiral  instrument  for  charging  hori- 
zontal blast-holes. 

2.  A  device  for  dropping  into 
the  tore  of  a  fowling-])ieee  from  a 
shot-belt  or  pouch  a  gaged  quantity 
of  shot.  15y  forcing  down  the 
plunger  the  communication  with 
the  jiouch  is  closed,  and  the  charge 
is  allowed  to  pass  to  the  tube, 
which  conducts  it  to  the  gun.  The 
piston-head  is  adjustable,  to  vary 
I  the  capacity  of  the  charge-cham- 
ber. 

Char'i-ot.  1.  An  ancient  two- 
wheeled  vcdiicle,  drawn  by  horses 
attached  to  a  pole,  and  used  in  state 
Gan-Ckar^er.  processions,  in  warfare,  and  for  ra- 
cing. 
The  Egyptian  chariot  was  light,  made  principally 
of  wood,  and  rested  on  an  axle  ujion  which  the 
wheels  were  secured  by  linch-pins.  In  many  cases, 
however,  it  would  ajipear  that  the  wheels  were  fixed 
to  the  axle,  which  turned  with  them.  The  Hoor  of 
the  car  was  sometimes  made  of  latticed  thongs,  to 
give  it  a  certain  amount  of  elasticity  to  the  rider, 
who  a'Avays  stood,  unless  he  sat  on  the  edge,  as  the 
car  had  no  seat.  The  body  was  strengthened  with 
leather  and  metallic  bands.  The  pole  was  inserted 
into  the  middle  of  the  axle,  and  rested  in  front  upon 
saddles  which  bore  upon  the  withers  of  the  horses  and 
were  secured  in  place  by  collars  and  belly-bands. 


The  chariots  had  invariably  two  wheels,  which  weie 
strengthened  at  the  junctions  of  the  fellies  by  bronze 
bauds  and  bound  with  metallic  tires.     In  some  cases 


Fig.  12-51. 


Egyptian  Chariot  (Wilkinson). 

the  fellies  appear  to  have  been  made  by  bending  a 
single  stiip  around  a  former.  The  pole,  according 
to  Homer,  was  about  l^  feet  long,  and  the  yoke 
was  attached  to  it  by  a  strap  and  a  pin.  and  sometimes 
was  connected  by  a  single  trace  to  a  part  nearer  to 
the  chariot.     No  double  traces  are  noticed. 

The  accompanying  cut  shows  the  war-chariot  with 
all  its  rigging,  bow- 
eases,  quivers,  and  ^'S- 1252. 
maces.  The  arrange, 
ments  ai'c  graceful, 
and  the  ornamenta- 
tion is  florid.  Char- 
iots represented  on 
the  ruins  at  Persep- 
olis  are  the  same  in 
essential  points  of 
construction.     The 

horses  are  hitched 

by  a   yoke  to   the 

carriage  -  pole,    the 

saddles   resting  on 

the  withers,  as  be- 
fore stated  in  regard 

to     the     Egyptian 

mode.  

A   four-wheeled  Egyptian  War- CharioHJrom  Thebes). 

hearse    occurs     on 

several  of  the  tomb-iiaintingsin  Egypt.    See  Hf.arse. 
Fig.  1253,  from  Wilkinson,  repre.sents  an  ancient 

Scythian  car  actually  found  in  Egypt  and  preserved 

in  the  Florentine  Museum.     It  is  believed  to  have 

Fii.  1253. 


Srythian  Chariot. 


been  taken  as  a  spoil  from  Scythia  by  the  Egj-ptian 
conqueror. 

War-chariots  do  not  appear  in  any  Egyptian  mon- 
uments prior  to  the  eighteenth  dynasty. 

The  price  of  an  Egyptian  chaiiot  in  the  time  of 
Solomon  was  600  shekels  of  silver,  about  .$300  ;  an 
immense  price,  considering  the  then  value  of  money. 

The  first  horses  and  chariots  are  represented  at 
Eileithyias  at  the  time  of  Ames  or  Amosis,  about 


CHARIOT. 


529 


CHASE. 


1510  B.  c.     They  do  not  appear  to  have  been  used  I 
in  Eifvpt  during  the  time  of  the  Osirtasens.  | 

Herodotus  says  that  "the  Greeks  learnt  from  the 
Libyans  to  yoke  lour  hoi"ses  to  a  chariot "  (IV. 
1S9).  It  is,  however,  mentioned  by  Homer  (Iliad, 
riii.  ISo  ;  Odijssetj,  xiii.  SI). 

In  the  Assyrian  chariots  a  spare  horse  was  some-  i 
times  attached  by  a  .single  inside  trace  to  the  chariot. 
The  Lydians,  it  is  said,  liad  sometimes  several  poles 
to  their  chariots  and  horses  between  each.  This 
resembles  the  modern  shafts.  The  origin  of  shafts, 
however,  must  be  looked  for  in  another  dire(-tion. 
In  the  primitive  form,  shafts  consisted  of  a  jiair  of 
poles  attached  by  girth  ami  lireast-liand  to  the  sides 
of  a  horse  and  dragging  Ijtdiind.  Thi'  load  was  laid 
upon  the  rear  end.  Thus  the  North  American  In- 
dians move  their  lodges. 

In  the  triumphal  procession  of  Ptolemy  Pliiladel- 
phus  were :  — 

24  chariots  drawn  by  4  elephants  each. 

60  chariots  drawn  by  2  goats  each. 

12  chariots  drawn  by  antelopes. 

7  chariots  drawn  by  ory.xes. 
15  chariots  drawn  by  bulfaloes. 

8  chariots  drawn  by  2  ostriches  each. 
7  chariots  drawn  by  gnus. 

4  chariots  drawn  by  2  zebras  each. 
4  chariots  drawn  by  4  zebra.s  each. 
On  all  these   animals   rode   boys   wearing   wide- 
awake hats  {petasi). 
The  chariot  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans  had  two 
wheels,    and    but   one 
Fig.  1254.  pole  usually,  althoiigh 

^  some  of  the  Lydian 
chariots  had  two  or 
even  three  poles. 

The  body  had  an 
elevated  forward  por- 
tion, answering  to  our 
dash-hoitnl,  and  called 
the  nnt^x.  The  an- 
nexed cut  a  is  from 
an  ancient  chariot  pre- 
served in  the  Vatican. 
The  body  was  some- 
times of  light  open- 
work, or  even  of 
wicker. 

The  pole  was  the 
!!ole  means  of  draft,  and  was  mortised  into  the  axle. 
Two  horses  were  always  used.  If  more  were  added, 
each  was  attached  by  a  trace  on  the  side  towards 
the  pole-horses.  The  yoke  was  attached  by  a  pin 
to  the  pole,  and  rested  just  in  front  of  the  withers 
of  the  horses.  They  pulled  by  the  yoke,  which 
was  secured  by  bueast-bands  and  surcingles  to  the 
animals.     See  H.\kn'Ess. 

This  mode  of  drawing  wa.s  universal.  The  lateral 
horse  had  a  collar,  from  whence  the  trace  passed  to 
the  rim  of  the  car. 

One  exception,  perhaps,  must  be  made.  It  is 
possil>le  th.at  the  Eoman  cixium,  a  kind  of  gig,  had 
shafts,  and  w;vs  drawn  by  one  horse. 

The  axle  was  usually  of  oak,  but  sometimes  of 
ilex,  a.sh,  or  elm.  The  body  was  sectu'ed  thereto, 
and  to  the  pole,  which  was  mortised  into  the  axle 
and  braced  or  strengthened  by  irons.  The  spindles 
or  arms  of  the  axle  were  of  wood  ;  no  slrins,  so  far  as 
we  are  informed. 

The  wheels  revolved  on,  not  with,  the  axles,  and 
wei-e  secured  by  linch-pins.  They  consisted  of 
nave,  spokes,  fellies,  and  tire,  all  usually  of  woml. 
We.  read  of  bronze  tires,  but  they  were  exceptional. 
The  fellies  were  bent. 
34 


Roman  Chariot. 


The  ancient  Britons  were  celebrated  for  their  skill 
and  i)rowe.ss  in  chariot-wariare.  Their  chariots  were 
open  in  front  insteail  of  behiml ;  the  poles  were  wide, 
and  the  charioteer  ran  out  upon  the  pole  and  dis- 
charged his  javelin  (i-jUeitt),  even  standing  upon  the 
yoke,  and  then  retreating  to  the  car. 

The  skill  of  the  ancient  Britons  in  chariot-driving 
filled  Julius  CiEsar  with  iistonishment.     See   Cae-  ' 
niAOF.  ;  C'.iKT. 

Chariot-wheels  of  bronze  are  preserved  in  the  Ber- 
lin Museum,  and  one  of  wood  of  ancient  Egypt  is  in 
the  Abbott  Collection,  Xew  York  Historical  Society. 

2.  The  modern  chariot  is  a  stately  four-wheeled 
pleasure-carriage  having  one  seat. 

Char  i-o-tee'.  A  four-wheeled  pleasure-carriage 
having  t«o  seats  covered  by  a  calash-top. 

Char-kan'a.    (Fnhric)    A  checked  Dacca  muslin. 

Char-ov'en.     A  furnace  for  carbonizing  turf. 

Char'ring-chis'eL  A  broad  uigging-chisel,  used 
in  clvniiiij  or  lit-vving  stone. 

CSiart.  1.  A  representation  of  a  portion  of  the 
earth's  surface  projected  on  a  plane.  Tlie  term  is  com- 
monly restricted  to  those  intended  for  navigators' 
use,  on  which  merely  the  outlines  of  coasts,  islands, 
etc.,  are  represented. 

2.  A  sheet  exhibiting  a  statement  of  facts  in  tab- 
ular form,  so  arranged  that  any  particular  may  be 
icailily  referred  to. 

Hipparchus,  of  Alexandria  (160-125  B.  c),  re- 
duced geography  to  a  science,  iletermining  the  lati- 
tude and  longitude  of  places  by  celestial  observa- 
tions. 

The  geography  of  Ptolemy  was  tianslated  into 
Arabic  by  the  command  of  the  Khalif  Al  Maimoun, 
between  813  and  S33  A.  D. 

Charts  were  introduced  into  the  marine  service  by 
Henry,  son  of  .lolni  1.  of  Portugal,  .about  A.  i).  1400  ; 
brought  to  England  by  Bartholomew  Colon  in 
1489. 

Mercator's  chart  is  a  projection  of  the  surface  of 
the  earth  in  the  plane,  with  the  meridians  parallel 
to  each  other,  the  degrees  of  longitude  all  equal, 
and  the  degrees  of  latitude  increasing  in  a  cor- 
resjionding  ixitio  towards  the  poles.  It  was  intro- 
duced by  Gerald  Jlercator  in  1556. 

The  princi|ilc  of  its  constniction  had,  however, 
been  previously  explained  by  Edward  Wright. 

The  first  computation  of  longitude  from  the  me- 
ridian of  Greenwich  Observatory  was  in  1679. 

The  first  magnetic  chait  was  constructed  by  Dr. 
Halley,  in  1701.  It  was  limited  to  the  Atlantic 
and  Indian  Ocean.s. 

Char-tom'e-ter.  An  instrument  for  measuring 
majis  and  charts. 

Chase.  1.  {Prin/inr/.)  A  rectangular  iron  frame 
(«,  Fig.  1255)  which  receives  the  matter  from  a  gal- 
leij,  and  in  wliich  it  is  arranged  in 
columns  or  pages,  and  locked  up 
in  order  for  printing.  Rules  (if 
neces.sar^')  and  ftirnilurc  for 
spacing  the  pages  are  placed  be- 
tween the  pages,  and  all  locked 
firmly  in  the  clw.sc  by  wedges 
c  c  c,  called  quoins. 

Thefitrnilurc,  b  b  h,  consists  of 
slips  of  wood  or  metal,  half  an 
inch  in  thickness,  and  of  any  re- 
quired length. 

Those  at   the  head,  foot,  and     

side   are   called    liead-slicls,   fool- 

slick.%,  side-sticks.     Those  between  Clia.v. 

the  ])ages  are  called  gutters. 

Gutenberg  used  screws  to  lock  up  his  form  in  the 
chase.     Quoins  came  later. 


Fig.  1255. 


CHASER. 


530 


CHASER. 


2.  (Ordnance.)  a.  The  portion  of  a  gun  forward  of 
the  trunnions  to  the  s%uell  of  the  muzzle.  I  u  inodern 
guns,  the  swell  is  suppressed,  and  the  cluisc  extends 
to  the  muzzle. 

b.  A  cfctsc-gun  is  one  mounted  at  tlie  bow  to  fire 
at  a  vessel  being  chased.  It  is  fired  from  a  chase- 
port. 

3.  (Masonry.)  A  groove  cut  in  the  face  of  a 
wall. 

4.  {Shipbuilding. )  A  kind  (if  joint  by  which  an 
np(;r/«/i-joint  gradually  lieconies  a  fitish- joint,  as  at 
the  hooding-end  of  clinker-built  boats.  A  gradunlly 
deepening  rabbet  is  taken  out  of  each  edge  at  the 
lands,  so  that  the  projection  of  eacli  strake  beyond 
tlu'  next  below  it  gradually  diminishes,  and  they 
lit  tlusli  with  each  other  into  the  rabbets  of  the  stem 
and  stern  post. 

5.  A  gioove,  trench,  or  passage  of  a  given  width 
and  deptli  to  tit  an  object  wliich  traverses  or  fits 
therein  ;  as, — 

The  clm^c  or  curved  water-way,  or  braiM  in  which 
a  breast-iulu^cl  or  seoop-whecl  rotates.  Tlie  sides  of 
the  chase  fit  as  nearly  as  po.ssible  to  tlie  wheel,  to 
prevent  waste  of  water. 

The  trencli  made  by  spades  or  machines  for  the 
recejition  of  draiu-tile. 

Chas'er.  1.  (Maddncnj.)  A  tool  for  cutting 
threads  in  the  liand-lathe  ;  soinetiuies  called  a 
condi,  from  its  having  a  row  of  projecting  teeth  (c  c 
c.  Fig.  1256). 

It  is  made  of  steel,  and  the  teeth  filed  by  hand  or 
by  a  cutting  liub.  It  is  first  forged  in  blank  in  the 
form  of  d  for  an  outside  chaser^  or  in  the  form  of  ij 


for  an  inside  chaser.  The  teeth  are  then  filed  or 
made  by  a  hub  (which  see).  The  latter  is  a  steel 
mandrel  rotated  on  the  centers  of  a  lathe  and  having 
a  section  of  screw-thread  cut  ujion  it.  The  thread 
is  notched  in  places,  so  as  to  make  cutting  edges. 

By  hol(iing  the  edge  of  the  c/(".«(V-blank  against 
the  huh  the  teeth  are  cut  in  the  former,  and  it  is 
ready  for  tempering.  It  may  thi'U  be  used  in  cutting 
or  linisbing  screw-threads  on  a  bolt  or  rod,  or  in  a 
.socket  oi'  coupling,  as  the  case  may  be,  or  may  be 


used  in  making  a  hub  on  a  mandrel  of  softened  steel 
turned  down  to  the  riglit  size  and  shape. 

The  eliasei-  is  dispensed  witli  in  power-lathes, 
which  are  provided  with  trains  of  gears  for  varying 
pitcli  and  witli  automatic  leed,  the  work  being  ro- 
tated slowly,  the  chaser  supporteil  in  a  rest,  ajid 
sliding  tlierewith  at  a  rate  detennined  by  the  pitch 
of  the  feed-screw  and  the  rate  of  rotation  of  the 
work. 

In  the  cha.sing-engine  (Fig.  12ri6),  the  cutter  k  is 
made  as  a  ring  of  steel,  wlncli  is  sere\\'ed  internally 
to  the  diameter  of  the  bolt  /  which  is  to  be  threaded, 
and  turned  externally  with  an  under-cut  groove,  for 
the  small  screw  n  and  nut  o,  by  wliich  it  is  held  in 
an  iron  stock  s  formed  of  a  corresponding  sweep  ; 
for  distinctness,  the  cutter  k  and  screw  n  are  also 
sliowu  detached.  The  center  of  curvature  of  the 
tool  is  placed  a  little  below  the  center  of  the  lathe, 
to  give  the  angle  of  sejiaration  or  penetration.  Af- 
ter the  tool  has  been  ground  away,  in  the  act  of 
being  sharpened,  it  is  raised  u)i  until  its  jioiiits  touch 
a  straight  edge  applied  on  the  line  m  in  of  tile  stock. 
This  denotes  the  proper  higlit  of  center,  and  also 
the  angle  to  which  the  tool  is  intended  to  be  hooked, 
namely,  10°.  Each  ring  makes  four  or  live  cutters, 
and  one  stock  may  he  used  for  several  diameters  of 
thread. 

In  Shanks's  arrangement  for  cutting  screws  in  a 
lathe,  a  liont  and  a  back  cha.ser  are  employed,  so  that 
one  may  cut  while  the  slide  traverses  in  one  direction, 
and  the  other  during  the  return-movement,  p  rep- 
resents the  front  and  t  the  back  tool,  which  are 
mounted  on  one  slide  c  c,  and  all  three  are  moved  as 
one  piece  by  the  handle  .c.  In  the  first  adjustment, 
the  wedge  jv  is  thrust  to  the  bottom  of  the  corre- 
sponding angular  notch  in  the  slide  c,  and  the  two 
tools  are  placed  in  contact  with  the  cylinder  to  be 
threaded.  For  the  first  cut,  the  wedge  tv  is  slightly 
withdrawn,  to  allow  the  tool  /'  to  be  advanced  toward 
the  work  ;  and  for  the  return-stroke,  the  wedge  is 
again  shifted  under  the  observation  of  its  divisions, 
and  the  slide  e  is  brought  forward  towards  the  work- 
man, up  to  the  wedge  ;  this  relieves  the  tool  p  and 
projects  t,  which  is  then  in  adjustment  for  the  sec- 
ond cut  ;  and  so  on  alternately.  The  command  of 
the  two  tools  is  accurately  given  by  the  wedge, 
which  is  moved  a  small  quantity  by  its  screw  and  mi- 
crometer, between  every  alternation  of  the  pair  of 
tools,  by  the  screw  y  operated  by  the  liandle  x. 

Punches  or  gravers  are  used  for  embossing  or  en- 
graving the  surfaces  of  metal,  the  design  being  in 
low  relief  or  cut  in  intaglio.     See  also  E.s'cii.vsixo. 

In  the  embossing  by  juinches,  the  object  is  filled 
with  lead  or  pitch,  and  laid  on  a  sand-bag  a,  or  in  a 
pilch-block,  while  tlie  chasing-tool  b  is  liehl  vertically 
and  driven  by  a  hammer.  Some  portions  of  the 
metal  are  thus  driven  inward,  while  those  around 
rise  up  from  the  displacement  and  reaction  of  the 
pitch. 

The  chasing-tools  are  of  various  kinds,  with  flat, 
rounded  faces  and  curved  edges,  so  as  to  follow  a 
pattern.  Other  tools  have  faces  ornamented  with 
designs  in  cameo  or  intaglio,  which  are  conferred 
upon  the  metal  by  the  action  of  the  punch  and  ham- 
mer. 

Chasing  by  the  graver  may  be  merely  engraving  in 
lines,  but  is  usually  in  the  form  of  relief ;  jiarts  of  the 
metal  being  cut  away,  leaving  protuberant  jiortions 
of  ornate  form,  and  which  are  farther  b<'autified  by 
gi-aver-lines,  frosting,  milling,  etc.  The  sand-bag 
HUi>iiiirts  the  woi-k  while  being  chased  by  the  graver. 

The  art  of  chasing  was  much  practiced  among  the 
Greeks.  Two  celebrated  examples  of  chasing  in 
iron  are :  — 


CHASING-CHISEL. 


531 


CHASSIS. 


Tlie  iron  ba.se  of  the  vase  made  by  Olaiicus  of  Chi- 
os, and  deilicated  to  the  Delphic  oracle  by  Alyattes, 
king  of  Lydia.  This  had  small  figures  of  animals, 
insec^ts,  and  plants. 

The  iron  helmet  of  Alexander,  the  work  of  The- 
ophilus 

The  principal  chasing  of  antiquitj-  was  upon  weap- 
ons, armor,  shields,  chariots,  tiipods,  quoits,  can- 
delabra, chaii-s,  thrones,  mirroi-s,  goblets,  dishes. 

The  art  arrived  at  great  perfection  in  Etruria. 

*'  But  none  the  golden  bowl  can  chase, 
Or  give  to  bra.«s  such  varied  "rrace, 
Ai  that  renowned,  hardy  race 
That  dwells  by  Arno's  tide.'' 

Critias,  quoted  by  Athena?us  {k.  d.  220). 

2.  (.VclfiHiiniit.)  One  of  the  edge-wheels  which 
revolves  in  a  trough,  to  grind  substances  to  ]iow- 
der.  (SeeCiiiLiAX  .mill;  JIohtak-mii.l;  Oil-mill.) 
Al.-o  used  ill  grinding  ore  for  puddling-furnaces,  etc. 

Chas'lng-ohis'el.  A  punch  used  in  enchasing. 
The  mallet  liy  which  it  is  driven  is  the  chasing-luim- 
mcr,  and  the  ojieration  is  performed  on  a  stake.  See 
CiiASKi;. 

Chas'ing-haiu'iner.  The  mallet  of  the  chaser 
in  the  opii-.itiou  of  enchasing  by  embossing  by 
punclies.      (.'^ee  n  b.  Fig.  1236.) 

Chas'ing-latbe.  A  .screw-cutting  lathe.  So 
called  from  the  name  of  the  tool  wherewith  screws 
were  cut  by  hand  in  the  old  form  of  lathe,  before 
the  slide-rest  and  feed-screw  were  invented. 

In  the  illustration,  which  shows  Sellers's  improved 

Fig.  1257 


Chasse'pot-gun.  The  breech-loading,  center-fire 
needle-gun  of  the  French  service.  It  was  designed 
as  an  unprovement  on  the  Prussian  needle-gun,  or 
zundnadclgctechr,  to  which  it  was  opposed  in  the 


Sellers^s  Chasin^'Latfie. 

form  of  lathe  for  brass  work,  a  is  the  live-head,  which 
is  back-geared.  Tl)e  spindle  c,  for  holding  the  chas- 
ing-hobs, is  so  arranged  as  to  accommodate  two  dif- 
ferent jiitches  at  the  .same  time,  or  to  cut  with  a 
single  pointed  tool  either  single,  double,  triple,  or 
quadruple  threads.  The  slide-rest  d  for 
the  chaser  is  carried  by  a  bar  c  at  the 
back  of  the  lathe  ;  the  counter-weight 
to  chasing-bar  presses  either  to  or  from 
the  face-jdate  /;  a  poppet-head  with 
square  spindle  and  detachable  screw  for 
quick  motion  can  be  adjusted  to  any 
ta|>er  when  used  to  carry  tuiiiing-tool.s, 
and  is  }irovided  with  slide-re.st  move- 
ment,     h  is  the  hand-tool  rest. 

Chas'ing-tools.  Those  used  by  the 
chaser  in  the  operation  of  embossing  by 
punches.  The  work  is  laid  on  a  cluising 
stake  or  cushion,  and  tlie  juinch  .struck 
byhammerormallet.    (Seert6,Fig.  1256.) 


Gtassepot  Rifle. 

Franco-Prussian  war  of  1871,  and  derives  its  name 
liom  the  inventor.  A  paper  cartridge  is  employed 
in  the  gun  as  originally  constructed  in  1S6<,  but  in 
1869  M.  Chassepot  patented  an  improved  arrange- 
ment, embracing  a  cartridge-retractor  for  use  with  a 
central-fire  metallic  cartridge  ;  the  construction  of 
the  gun  is,  however,  essentially  the  same. 

An  opening  on  the  right  of  the 
chamber  ^1  permits  the  insertion  of 
the  cartridge,  which  is  effected  by 
resting  the  butt  of  the  gun,  held  in 
the  left  hand,  against  the  left  hip, 
turning  the  lever  c  from  right  to  left 
and  drawing  it  back,  thus  retracting 
the  hollow  cylinder  or  breech-block 
£;  the  cartridge  is  placed  in  the 
opening  thus  made,  and  is  pushed 
home  to  its  seat  by  a  forward  move- 
ment of  the  lever,  which  is  then 
turned  back  to  its  original  position, 
locking  the  breech-block  in  place. 
The  shaft  C,  contained  within  the 
cylinder  B,  carries  the  needle  e,  aiid 
is  drawn  back  by  means  of  the  knob 

: D,  compre.ssing  the   .spring   which 

^=^  surrounds  the  shaft,  until  a  detent 
thereon  e)ig:iges  with  the  tumbler  of 
the  lock,  holiling  the  latter  in  cocked 
position.  Pressure  on  the  trigger 
allows  the  spring  to  act,  driving  the 
needle  forward,  penetrating  the  cartridge,  and  ex- 
ploding the  fulndnate.  .4.  rubber  washer  at  the 
inner  end  of  the  cylinder  B,  through  which  the  nee- 
dle ]>a.sses,  acts  as  a  gas-cheek. 

Chas'sis.    ( Ordnance. )    The  base-frame  on  which 

Fig.  1K9. 


CHATELAINE. 


532 


CHECK-HOOK. 


a  barbette  or  casenmte  gmi  is  run  in  ami  out  of  bat- 
tery. Tlie  chassis  Is  capable  of  a  certain  amount  of 
lateral  sweep,  called  tmtvrsi',  so  as  to  adjust  the  gun 
horizont:dly  in  pointing.  This  is  rre(|uently  by  os- 
cillating in  an  ai-e,  a  ]tintle  in  front  of  the  eliassis 
being  tlu^  center  of  oscillation.  (See  Gux-c.\ri;iage.  ) 
In  the  example,  the  gun-carriage  is  moved  on  the 
eliassis  by  a  system  of  gear.s  operated  by  a  crank  ;  a 
lateral  fi'iction-eompressor  within  the  princi]ial  s]nir- 
whe.d  being  employed  to  partially  resist  the  recoil 
of  the  carriage.  A  winillass,  operating  on  a  toothed 
bar  or  rack  attached  to  the  chassis,  controls  the 
traversing  or  directing  movement. 

Chat'e-laiiie.  A  lady's  waist  ornament,  with 
susjicndcd  charms,  keys,  etc. 

Chat-roll'er.  (Mining.)  An  ore-crushing  nui- 
eliine,  consisting  of  a  pair  of  cast-iron  rollers,  for 
grinding  roasted  ore. 

Chats,  {iliniiu].)  The  central  portion  or  stra- 
tum of  a  mass  of  ore  in  the  process  of  washing. 

Chat'ty.  A  jiorous  earthen  water-pot,  used  in 
India  in  refrigerating. 

Chauffer.  A  small  table-furnace.  It  may  be  of 
iron  or  of  a  black-lead  crucible,  lifted  with  air-holes 
and  a  grate. 

Che-bec'.  {Nautical.)  A  kind  of  vessel  employed 
in  the  Newfoundland  tislieries.  Named  from  Che- 
bacco  (now  Esse.\),  a  town  in  filassachnsetts.  Also 
callet.i  a  vink-stern. 

Check.  1.  {Fabric.)  A  pattern  produced  by 
crossing  stripes  in  the  warp  and  the  weft.  The 
stripes  may  be  of  varying  colors,  or  varying  thick- 
ness, or  both. 

2.  An  East-Iuilian  screen  or  .sun-shade  made  of 
narrow  strips  of  bamboo,  four  to  six  feet  long,  with 
connecting  cords,  and  hung  beftire  doors  or  windows 
of  apartments. 

3.  A  card,  jilate,  or  tag  in  dnplicate,  used  to  iden- 
tify articles  plaecd  promiscuously  with  others.  See 
HAGGAOK-OniCCK. 

4.  {Miisii:.)  A  padded  post  on  the  back  end  of  a 
piano-forte  key,  used  to  catch  the  head  of  the  ham- 
mer in  its  descent  and  prevent  rebounding,  which 
might  cause  it  .again  to  strike  the  string.  It  is  a 
feature  of  the  rfrand  acUmi. 

Check-bar.  (aUusIc.)  A  bar  which  limits  the 
backward  )ilay  of  tlie  jacks.     See  PiaNh-movkmrx  r. 

Check-bridge.  (Steam  Eny inc.)  The  tire-bridge 
of  a  .steam-boiler  I'urnace  ;  ,so  I'alled  as  it  was  sup- 
posed to  check  the  too  great  freedom  of  draft  which 
was  carrying  off  the  heat. 

Check'er-ing-file.  A  compound  til(>,  consisting 
of  two  tiles  riveted  together,  and  whose  edges  project 
nni'iiually,  so  that  one  acts  as  a  spcwcr  in  check- 
working  the  sitmll  of  gun-stocks,  etc.  See  Double 
Fh.k. 

Check'ers.  A  game  played  with  pieces  of  two 
colors  on  a  board  of  si.vty-four  scpuires,  who.se  alter- 
nating colors  have  given  it  the  name  of  a  checker- 
board.    Also  calleil  draughts. 

Kameses  III.,  the  great  Sesostris  of  Herodotus,  is 
represented,  in  his  palace  at  Medinet  Aboo  and  in  a 
number  of  instances,  playing  at  draughts  ;  generally 
with  one  of  the  ladies  of  his  harem.  The  still  oldi-r 
tombs  of  Beni  Hassan  (say  about  2000  ii.  c. )  have 
similar  representations.  Tlie  nature  of  themoves  can- 
not be  well  determined  ;  the  pieces  of  the  respective 
players  are  di\'ersely  I'olored.  They  took  each  other, 
for  in  one  figure  of  Rameses  he  has  a  handful  of  cap- 
tives from  the  board.  His  lady  is  evidiuitly  losing, 
and  is  idayfully  holding  a  Howcr  to  his  nose  to  di- 
vert his  attention.  They  are  both  moving  their 
pieces  at  once,  however. 

The  pieces  were  of  ivory,  bone,  or  wood,  and  of  the 


same  general  form  ;  but  some  had  human  heads  dif- 
fering for  the  respective  sides  of  tlie  board.  Tlie 
largest  pieces  are  about  IJ  inches  high  and  IJ  in 
diameter. 

The  checkers  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans  was  a 
game  playeil  with  pieces,  the  sets  being  of  dilfeivut 
colors  and  sometimes  assuming  fanciful  shapes.    They 


Dntn^hlx  af  Stsostris  (  Tliihfs). 

were  .sometimes  ]iebbles  {calculi),  used  as  counters 
on  the  abacus,  and  were  calleil  by  the  epithets 
"thieves,"  "marauders"  (latrunculi),  "soldiers" 
(civilcs),  "  foes  "  (/jos/m),  etc.,  indicating  that  the 
game  represented  a  miniature  combat. 

There  are  indications  among  thi'  Roman  writers, 
that,  in  one  form  of  the  game,  some  of  the  men 
moved  in  a  certain  direction  {nrdiunrii),  while  oth- 
ers had  more  liberty  of  movement  and  were  termed 
vacji.  This  resembles  chess.  A  man  inclosed  be- 
tween two  others  was  in  check  {allirjalus)  and  was 
taken  from  the  board. 

The  abacna.  in  which  it  was  ])laycd,  was  marked 
with  lines  or  divichnl  into  squares.  There  were,  no 
doubt,  several  modifications  of  the  game.  (See 
An.vcrs.)  Sometimes  the  moves  were  determined 
by  dice  {tessera),  like  our  backgainnion  and  tric-trac. 
See  Dice. 

Check-hook.  1.  A  device  in  hoisting  and  low- 
ering apjiaratii',  r.esigued  to  sto|i  the  motion  of  the 
wlieid  over  which  the  ro]ii'  runs,  if  the 
machinery  becomes  unmanageable.  On 
the  pulley  are  hooks  which  tly  out  by 
the  centi'ifngal  force  when  the  speed 
becomes  excessive,  and  engage  stop- 
]iins  which  aiTe.st  the  rotation  of  the 
Jiulley  and  the  descent  of  the  eage. 

2.    {Saddlerii.)     A   hook   on    a   gig- 
.saddle  for  the  attachment  of  a  beariug- 

reiu.  C/letk-Hock. 


Fig.  1-61. 


CHECK-LIN'E. 


533 


CHEESE-PKESS. 


Check-line.  {Saddlery.)  The  line  which  braiiches 
off  liom  til.-  iniiiripal  rein.     See  CuFXK-KEiy. 

Check-lock.  A  lock  so  applied  to  the  door  as 
to  check  or  liuld  the  bolts.  The  bolts  of  the  check- 
lock  do  not  themselves  hold  the  door,  but  are  the 
means  of  detaining  the  bolts  which  do. 

Check-nut.  A  secondary  nut,  screwing  down 
upon  the  former  to  secure  it.  A  jam-kut,  lock-uut, 
or  pinching-ntd. 

Check-rein.  iSaddhry.)  The  branch  rein  which 
connects  the  driving-rein  of  one  horse  to  the  bit  of 
the  other.  In  double  lines,  the  left  rein  pxst*s  to  the 
near  side  bit-ring  of  the  near  horse,  and  a  chakMnv 
proceeds  from  the  said  left  rein  to  the  near  bit-ring  of 
the  ajf  horse.  The  right  driving-rein  pa.sses  directly 
to  the  off  bit-ring  of  the  oil'  horse,  and  has  a  duck-rem 
which  connects  with  the  oH'  bit-ring  of  the  near  hoi-se. 

The  horses  of  the  Egyptian  chariots  had  check- 
rein-. 

Check-rein  Hook.    See  Check-hook. 

Check-striug.  A  cord  by  which  the  occupant 
of  a  carriage  si^inals  the  driver. 

Check-valve.  A  valve  placed  between  the  feed- 
pipe and  the  boiler,  to  prevent  the  return  of  the 
feed-water.  See  Alakm  Check-valve  ;  Back- 
PKF.ssniE  Valve. 

Cheek.  One  of  the  conesjionding  side-plates  or 
]>arts  of  a  frame  or  machine  ;  more  frecjnently  used 
in  the  plural,  as  — 

1.  The  side-|)iece5  of  a  gun-carriage  on  which  the 
trunnions  immediately  rest ;  also  called  brackets. 

2.  The  shears  or  bed-bars  of  a  lathe  on  which  the 
puppets  rest. 

3.  The  projections  on  the  side  of  a  mast  on  which 
the  trcnth-trccs  i-est. 

4.  The  side-pieces  of  a  window-frame. 

5.  The  solid  part  of  a  timber  on  the  side  of  the 
mortise. 

6.  (Foundi/iff.)  The  middle  part  of  a  three-part 
flask. 

7.  The  brandies  of  a  bridle-bit. 

8.  The  standards  or  snpports,  arranged  in  pairs,  of 
such  machines  as  the  Stanhope  or  copper-plate  jiriut- 
ing-press,  the  rolling-mill,  and  many  varieties  of 
presses. 

9.  The  sides  of  an  embrasure. 

10.  The  jaws  of  a  vise. 

11.  The  sides  of  a  pillow-block  which  hold  the 
boxing. 

12.  Th'-  miter-sill  of  a  lock-gate. 
Cheek-block.     {Xnulie"/.)     A  block,  one  side 

of  which  is  formed  by  a  cheek-piece  secured  to  an 
object  which  forms  the  other  side,  as  in  the  cheek- 
blocks  near  the  ends  of  the  yards  for  the  sheets  of 
the  si^uare  sails.     See  Boo.m-iron. 

Cheek-straps.  (Saddlcnj.)  Strapspassingdown 
each  side  of  the  horse's  head  and  connected  to  the 
bit-rings. 

Cheese.  Jlilk-curd  pressed  into  a  shape  and  ri- 
pened. 

Hippocrates  (460  B.  c.)  states  that  the  mode  of 
preparing  this  food  from  milk  was  discovered  by  the 
Scythians  at  a  very  early  date.  There  can  be  little 
doubt  that  it  was  a  common  article  of  food  among 
the  pastoral  nations  of  Uz,  Canaan  and  Asia  Minor, 
a-s  well  as  among  the  Scythians.  The  Egyptians, 
also,  had  injmense  herds  of  kine,  goats,  and  slieep, 
and  the  curds  of  milk,  soured  naturally  or  artificially, 
must  have  been  used.  Curds  are  pressed  to  remove 
the  buttermilk,  and  then  become  cheese.  The  ri- 
pening of  cheese  develops  its  flavor.  Virgil  describes 
cheese  as  the  common  food  of  the  Roman  shepherds. 

Strabo  records  a  difficulty  experienced  in  former 
times  by  the  Iberians  in  the  vicinity  of  Gades  (Ca- 


diz) :  "The  excellence  of  the  pasturage  is  such  that 
the  milk  of  the  cattle  there  led  does  not  yield  any 
whey,  and  they  are  obliged  to  mix  it  with  large 
quantities  of  water  on  account  of  its  richness.  Af- 
ter lifty  days'  pasturing,  it  is  necessary  to  bleed  the 
cows  to  keep  them  from  choking.  The  pasturage  is 
dry,  but  it  fattens  wonderfully."  So  it  would  ap- 
pear. 

Cheese  is  mentioned  three  times  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment Scriptures,  but  each  time  under  a  diflerent 
Hebrew  name.  It  was  some  coagulated  and  hard- 
ened production  of  milk.  Burckhardt  describes  it 
as  coagulated  and  dried  buttermilk,  ground,  and 
eaten  by  the  Aralis  Avith  butter. 

Among  a  pastoral  people  great  are  the  uses  of 
milk.  Cheese  fonns  a  .staple  article  of  diet  to  mil- 
lions who  know  but  little  of  agriculture.  Jesse  sent 
ten  cheeses  by  the  hands  of  DaWd  to  the  captain  of 
the  thousand  in  which  the  brethren  of  the  latter 
served  (1  Samuel  .xvii.  IS)  ;  and  "cheese  of  kine" 
were  brought  to  David  at  Slahanaiin  (2  Samuel  xvii. 
29),  1023  E.  c.  Job  complains,  in  his  anguish,  of 
his  distemper  :  "  Hast  thou  not  poured  me  out  like 
milk  and  curdled  me  like  cheese  !  " 

Cheese-cut'ter.  A  device  for  breaking  the  curd 
into  small  pieces,  that  the  whey  may  more  readily 
exude. 

Cheese-hoop.  An  open-ended  cylinder,  usually 
of  wood,  in  which  curds  are  pressed,  to  expel  the 
whey  and  acquire  a  form. 

Cheese-knife.  A  large  spatula,  used  in  dairies 
to  break  down  the  curd. 


Cheese-press. 

The  cheese-press 
(A,  Fig.  12(j2)  is 
constructed  of 
iron.  The  hoop 
containing  the 
curd  is  placed  on 
the  bottom-plate 
A,  and  the  ujiper 
plate  B  is  made 
to  descend  upon 
it.  There  are  two 
waysofdoingthis; 
one  quick  and 
easy,  until  the  re- 
sistance becomes 
great,  and  the 
other  slower  and 
more  powerful, 
and  used  for  the 
conclusion  of  the 
operation. 

On  the  axis  C 
of  the  wheel  D 
there  is  a  pinion 
of  eight  teeth, 
which  works  in 
the  rack  R.  On 
the  axis  E  there 
is  another  ]iinion 
of  eight  teetli, 
which  acts  in  the 
wheel  D  of  twen- 
ty-four teeth. 
This  axis  E  may 
be  turned  by  the 
crank-handle  i/, 
three  turns  of 
which  will  make 
the  rack  descend 
through  a  space 
equal  to  eight  of 


Fig.  1262. 


Ciecsc-'Prc^scz. 


CHEESE-SHELF. 


534 


CHEMICKING. 


Fig.  1263. 


its  teeth.  In  tliis  way,  the  plate  B  may  be  lowered 
to  touch  the  cheeses,  and  to  conimeiice  the  pressure  ; 
but  when  the  pressure  beeumes  consiilemble,  the 
second  method  of  acting  upon  the  rack  is  i-esorted 
to.  On  the  axis  E,  besides  the  pinion  liefore  men- 
tioned, there  is  a  ti.xed  ratchet-wheel  F;  the  level' 
/,  which  embraces  /'',  is  also  placed  on  this  axis,  but 
turns  freely  rouml  it.  A  pawl  or  click,  turning  on 
a  pin,  may  be  made  to  engage  in  the  notches  of  the 
ratchet-wheel  F.  By  means  of  this  arrangement, 
when  /  is  raised  u]),  and  the  click  engaged  in  F, 
the  axis  E  and  its  pinion  will  be  turned  round  with 
great  ]iowcr  on  deiircssing  the  end  /  of  the  lever  ; 
and  by  alternately  raising  and  depressing  /,  any 
degree  of  pressure  reipiired  may  be  given  to  the 
cheese.  The  weight  IV  may  be  suspended  to  con- 
tinue the  pressure. 

The  Pneumatic  Cheese-press  B,  shown  in  the 
lower  part  of  the  same  figure,  consists  of  a  stand 
about  three  feet  high,  on 
the  top  of  which  is  a 
metallic  vessel  «,  forming 
a  liiutp  for  the  ou'd.  This 
vessel  has  a  loose,  corru- 
gated bottom  covered  with 
wire-eloth.  The  bottom  of 
the  vessel  connuunicates  by 
a  pipe  c  with  a  receiver  d, 
which  is  exhausted  of  air 
'  by  means  of  an  air-pump 
b  and  pipe  e. 

The  curd  being  salted 
and  placed  in  a  cloth  in 
the  vessel  «,  the  jninip  is 
worked  and  the  pressure  of 
the  atmosphere  drives  the 
whey  down  through  the 
curd,  and  it  collects  in  the 
receiver,  from  whence  it  is 
,iK— 'i:.  AT'-         discharged,  as  occasion  inay 

>!St  ^-«e-_  require,   by  means    of    the 

jiipeand  faucet/.  The  curd 
is  then  subjected  to  ]ires- 
sure  in  tlie  usual  manner. 
Another  form  of  press  involves  the  use  of  the 
toggle,  as  the  leverage  increases  as  the  platen  de- 
scends. The  weight  is  suspended  by  a  chain  which 
runs  over  the  pulley  on  the  eiul  of  the  long  arm  of 
the  toggle.  A  hand  lever  operates  the  screw  for 
quick  movements. 

Cheese-shelf.  One  constructed  for  holding 
cheeses  during  the  process  of  ripening.  Ingenuity 
has  been  exercised  in  saving  the  time  in  turning  the 
cheeses  singly  day  by  day,  by  inverting  the  whole 
shelf  with  its  row  of  cheeses. 

Cheese-turn'er.  A  shelf  capable  of  being  in- 
vcrtetl,  so  as  to  turn  over  the  cheeses  laid  upon  it, — 
a  daily  duly  during  tlie  progress  of  the  ripening  of 
the  cheese. 

Cheese-vat.  The  necessity  for  preserving  a  cer- 
tain temperature  in  cheese-vats  has  given  rise  to  nu- 
merous ilevices,  among  which  may  be  cited  that 
illustrated  at  .1  in  the  acconiiianying  cut.  The  vat 
A  is  semi-cylindrii'al  auil  double-walled,  water 
being  contained  between  the  shells.  Under  the  vat 
is  a  I'unniee  B,  for  heating  the  water,  the  smoke 
from  which  escapes  by  the  pipes  C.  The  degree  of 
h("at  admitted  to  the  water  is  regulated  by  a  sliding 
damper  J).  A  coil  of  circulating  pipes  is  affixed  to 
the  outer  shell  of  the  vat,  connecting  with  the  water 
space  at  center  and  ends  of  the  vat,  thus  equalizing 
the  heat  iu  the  water  space.  Spouts  are  attached 
for  drawing  oil'  tlu^  whey,  the  water  from  the  water 
space,  and  discharging  tlie  curd.     To   aid  in  this, 


Cheese- Prf.-(; 


one  end  of  the  ma- 
chine is  set  on  eccen- 
trics E.  The  wire 
frame  cuts  tlii"  curds 
into  small  blocks,  and 
sweeps  it  from  the 
inner  surface  of  the 
vat. 

The  vat  used  on  the 
]ilains  of  the  Po, 
where  the  Parmesan 
cheese  is  made,  is 
shown  in  the  lower 
figure.  It  is  a  copper 
caldron,  slung  from 
a  crane  over  a  conical 
fireplace,  in  which 
wood  is  burned.  In 
this  vat  the  milk  is 
heated  and  coagulat- 
ed, and  without  re- 
moving is  broken  by 
a  stick  having  cross 
wires.  The  curd  is 
then  again  heated, 
taken  out,  drained, 
salted,  liressed,  and 
ill  forty  days  is  moved 
to  the  cheese-loft. 

In  Fig.  1265  the 
pan  is  hinged  to  the 
vat  and  rests  upon 
pins  within   it ;    the 

contents  are  warmed  by  a  furnace  beneath ;  the 
whey  drawn  off  liy  a  strainer ;  adjustable  legs  per- 
mit the  inclination  of  the  vat. 

Fig.  1265. 


Chek'mak.  (Fabric.)  A  Turkish  fabric  of  silk 
and  g'llil  threail  mixed  with  cotton. 

Chem'i-cal  Ap'pa-ra'tus.  The  name  chemislry 
indicates  literally  "  Egyjitiau  art,"  the  art  of  the 
black  land ;  for  Plutarch  knew  that  the  Egyptians 
called  their  country  Xrjixda,  from  the  black  earth. 
The  inscription  on  th(^  Kosetta  stone  has  C/inii.  See 
Still,  H.\l.\N('K,  Hydhometer,  etc.,  in  their  spe- 
cific alphabetical  places. 

Chem'i-cal  Fur'iiace.  A  small  furnace  for  la- 
boratory uses.     See  SruV£.s  AND  Heating  Appli- 

ANCE.S. 

Chem'i-cal  Print'ing-tel'e-graph.  An  appa- 
ratus for  printing  symbols  upon  prepared  paper  by 
means  of  electro-chemical  action  ;  as,  for  instance, 
by  an  iron  stylus  on  jiaper  jireiiared  with  a  solution 
of  yellow  cyanide  of  potassium.  In  the  example, 
the  paper  strip,  just  before  passing  under  the  record- 
ing-needle, is  moistened  by  contact  with  a  wheel 
revolving  in  a  reservoir  of  suitable  liquid.  See  Elec- 
Tr.d-ciiF.MicAL  Teleghaph.     (Fig.  1266.) 

Chem'ick-ing.  {BIcadnng.)  The  process  of 
steciiing  goods  in  a  dilute  solution  of  chloride  of 
lime  in  stone  vats,  the  liquor  being  continuously 
pumped  up  and  straining  through  the  goods  until  the 


CHEMIN  DES  ROXDES. 


535 


CHESS. 


Fig.  1266. 


Chfviical  Priitttng-TeU^aph. 

action  is  complete.  Tliis  preceilcs  the  souring  which 
sets  free  the  chlorine.     See  BrcKlxo  KrER. 

Che-miu' des  Rondes.  (For/ificntiim.)  Abeam 
at  tlie  loot  of  the  exterior  slope,  sometimes  masked. 

Che-mise'.  1.  {Mtisoiiri/.)  A  wall  that  lines 
the  face  of  a  bank.     A  bmisl-icnU. 

2.  A  French  name  for  an  under-garment  ;  from 
the  Spanish  camisa,  a  shirt  ;  this  from  the  Arabic 
himis,  which  is  from  the  Sanscrit  I'schaiitna,  linen. 
The  garment,  its  name,  and  the  cotton  from  which 
it  is  now  made,  were  introduced  into  Europe  by  the 
Sp-mish  Saracens. 

Chem'i-type.  (Engraving.)  A  somewhat  gen- 
eral term  which  includes  a  number  of  relief  processes 
by  which  a  drawing  or  impression  from  an  engraved 
plate  is  obtained  in  relief,  so  as  to  be  printed  ou 
an  ordinary  printing-press. 

Cover  a  zinc  plate  with  ground,  and  etch  the  de- 
sign ;  bite  in  in  ;  remove  the  ground  ;  fill  the  lines 
with  fusible  metal,  and  scrape  down  to  the  zinc  sur- 
face. Bite  the'  plate  with  aqna-fortis,  which  will 
cut  away  the  zinc  and  leave  the  fusible  metal  salient 
to  be  printed  from  by  the  ordinary  press. 

Che-niUe'.  A  round  fabric  or  trimming,  made 
l\v  uniting  with  two  or  more  sets  of  warps,  either  by 
weaving  or  twisting,  a  fine  filling  or  weft,  which  is 
allowed  to  project  beyond  the  warps.  Tliis  filling  is 
cut  at  its  outer  edges,  and  the  fabiic  is  then  twisted, 
a.ssuming  a  cylindrical  shape  with  weft  projecting 
radially  from  the  central  line  of  warps. 

Che-nllle'  Car'pet.  The  chenille  carpet  is  soft 
and  beautiful,  but  costly.  In  making  it,  the  warp- 
threads  are  stretched  out  horizontally,  as  in  a  com- 
mon loom,  and  the  weft  is  thrown  in  by  a  shuttle  ; 
but  this  weft  consists  of  chenille,  instead  of  mere 
yarn,  and  whiMi  the  weaving  is  completed,  the  loose, 
colored  threads  of  the  chenille  are  combed  up  and 
made  to  appiear  at  the  surface,  where  they  are  cut 
and  sheared  to  a  state  of  velvety  softness.  The  pat- 
tern is  dyed  in  the  chenille  itself,  nothing  appearing 
at  the  surface  of  the  carpet  except  the  ends  of  the 
chenille  fi'intie. 

Che-nille '-ma-chine'.  In  one  form  of  French 
machine,  tlie  material  is  constantly  refie.xed  upon 
itself,  so  that  the  article  in  the  fii'st  instance  presents 
a  series  of  close  loops,  which  m\ist  be  cut,  to  give  it 
a  finish.  Martin's  machine,  invented  in  1851,  pro- 
duces in  this  way  2J  yards  per  minute. 


In  Canter's  machine  the  silk  is  confined  between 
two  strands,  whidi  are  twisted  together  iu  the  act 
of  mauufacture,  and  a  rotatory  knife  in  let  down  as 
may  be  required,  to  cut  the  pile,  or  silk,  worsted,  or 
other  material  which  forms  the  ornamental  surface 
of  the  chenille  ;  or,  by  holdiug  the  knife  aloft,  to 
lea\e  the  pile  nncnt,  to  vary  the  etlMt. 

Chep.  A  piece  of  timber  forming  the  sole  of  a 
irn-icrcst  plow. 

Cher'ry.  A  spherical  bur.  Used  especially  in 
■aniing  out  the  cavities  of  bullet-molds.     See  BfR. 

Cher'ry-ston'er.    A  domestic  implement  which 

orks  by  introducing  a  forked  prong,  which  pushes 
the  cheny-stone  out  of  the  pulp,  in  Fig.  1267,  the 
cherries  fall  from  the  hopper  B,  and  are  thence  pushed 

Fig.  1267. 


•  Oierry-Stoner. 

in  a  gang  by  a  plunger  provideil  with  a  series  of 
faces  c,  sejiarated  by  phite.s  and  acting  upon  the 
cherries  individually.  Each  stone  is  detained  by  a 
cruciform  plate  o,  whose  single  post  traverses  a  slot 
in  the  annular  face  of  the  plunger,  which  expels  the 
fleshy  portion. 

In  Fig.  1268,  the  cherries  pass  from  the  hopper  0 
down  inclined  chutes  to  the  cavities,  where  they  are 
consecutively  operate{l  njion  by  the  descending  forked 
plungers  i,  which  push  the  stones  thj-ongh  the  elas- 

Fig  1268. 


Cherry- Stoner. 

tic  diaphragms  g  and  return  with  the  impaled  fntit, 
which  is  strip)ied  from  them  by  plate  H,  and  falls 
into  an  inclined  discharging-t rough  G.  A  £  in  the 
clamp  bv  which  the  cherry-stoner  is  attached  to  the 
table-leaf. 

Chess.  1.  A  hoard-game  which  originated  at  an 
eaily  date  in  India.  Tlie  ciuitumiign,  or  primeval 
Indian  game,  was  played  by  four  persons,  and  the 
piece  to  be  moved  was  indicated  by  throwing  dice. 


CHESSEL. 


536 


CHILIAN  MILL. 


This  was  the  game  down  to  tlie  si.xtli  century  A.  D. 
Fi-oni  thence  to  the  sixteenth  century  tlie  luediiEval 
game  (the  Sliatranj)  Wiis  practiced,  in  this  two  per- 
sons only  played,  and  the  element  of  chance  was 
discarded. 

Modern  chess  extends  from  the  sixteenth  century 
to  the  present  time,  tile  cliange  from  the  mediicval 
consisting  in  the  increase  of  the  power  of  bisliops 
and  ([ueen,  and  tlie  introduction  of  castling. 

The  Emperor  Akbar  (1543-l«0.i),  .sunianied  Jalal- 
ud-din,  "The  Glory  of  the  Faith,"  had  a  chess  court 
in  his  palace  at  Futtehpore,  nineteen  miles  IVom  Agra 
on  the  Ganges.  He  was  the  gi-eatest  and  the  wisest 
of  the  nionarchs  of  Hindostan,  and,  like  Alfred  of 
the  West  Saxons,  seems  to  have  been  as  vei-satile  as 
he  was  grand.  On  the  tesselated  pavement  of  one 
of  the  court-yards  of  tliis  sjilendiii  palace,  the  prince 
Sethis  battle  in  array,  with  the  mimic  kings,  queens, 
priests,  ami  men-at-arms  ;  his  vizier  and  he  mar- 
saaling  the  forces,  and  ordering  the  moves  of  the  liv- 
ing pieces.  With  pretty  girls  for  pawns,  and  beard- 
less beings  of  epicene  gender  fur  priests  and  cavaliers, 
he  probably  came  as. near  enjoying  him.self  as  any 
one  can  wdio  has  all  he  wants. 

2.  A  fiooi'iug  board  of  a  military  bridge.  The 
cJicsscs  lie  upon  the  balti,  which  are  longitudinal 
timbers  resting  upon  the  bateaux  or  pontons.  Cites- 
sex. 

Ches'sel.  The  perforated  wooden  mold  or  vat 
in  which  cluM'se  is  pressed.     Cliesscc.     See  Chkss. 

Chess-tree.  {yaulical.)  A  piece  of  oak 
fastened  on  the  top-side  of  the  vessel,  for  securing 
the  niaiTi-tack  to,  or  liauling  home  the  clue  of  the 
maiu-sail. 

Chest-bel'lows.     The  piston  bellows. 

Chest-lock.  A  mortise  lock,  inserttnl  vertically 
into  tlu-  Ijody  of  a  chest  or  box,  the  plate,  which 
frequently  has  two  staples,  being  let  into  the  under 
siiles  of  the  lid.  The  bolt  has  a  horizontal  move- 
ment. 

Chest-rope.  (.Xautkal.)  A  long  boat-rope,  or 
warp. 

Che.st-saTV.  A  species  of  hand-saw  without  a 
ba.-k. 

Che-val'-de-frise.  A  bar  traversed  by  rows 
of  pointed  stakes,  and  used  to  bari'icade  an  approai'h 
or  close  a  brciich.  Called  a  Frii'-ihind  horse  because 
first  used  at  the  siege  of  Groniiignn,  in  that  prov- 
ince, in  16.'i8. 

Che-val'-glass.  A  Inoking-glass  of  such  size 
and  so  mounted  as  to  exhibit  the  full  figure. 

Chev'er-il.     Leather  of  kid-skin. 

Che-ville'.  The  peg  of  a  violin  or  similar 
strnc^vil  instinment. 

Chev-rette'.  {Ordnance.)  A  machine  for  rais- 
ing heavy  guns  on  to  their  carriages. 

Chev'ron.  1.  A  bent  bar,  rafter-shaped,  in 
heraldry,  ,iind  the  fovm  adopted  for  a  distinguishing 
mark  on  the  coat-sleeves  of  non-commissioned 
olRcers. 

2.   .\  zigzag  molding. 

Chi-a'ro-os-cu'ro.  1.  A  drawing  made  in  two 
colors,  Idack  and  white. 

2.  (Printing.)  A  system  of  printing  by  suc- 
cessive blocks  of  wood  which  carry  respectively  the 
outlines,  lighter  and  darker  shades,  etc.  Practiced 
in  Germany  and  Italy  in  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth 
centuries. 

3.  A  term  used  by  artists  to  describe  the  effect  of 
light  and  shade  in  a  picture. 

Chick'en-coop.  A  house  or  inclosure  for  fowls, 
of  more  or  Icks  pietensions.  In  the  example  tlie 
coop  is  provided  with  a  metallic  open-work  end- 
piece,    provided   with   sliding   doors   connected  to- 


gether so  as  to  be 
opened  .simultane- 
ously. The  broods 
are  protected  by 
(dosing  these  sliding- 
doors  at  night. 

Chick'en-rais'- 
ing  Ap'pa-ra'tus. 
An  //ic»i('?o;-(  which 
see). 

Child's  Car'- 
riage.  A  small  car- 
riage adapted  for 
children's  uses, 
being  drawn  or 
pushed  by  an  at- 
tenilant. 

Chil'i-an  Mill. 


Chicken-Coop. 


From  time  immemorial  the  ores 
of  Jlexico,  ('cntral  America,  and  Peru  have  been 
worked,  and  the  processes  yet  used  in  sonic  of  the 
more  remote  districts  are  rude  and  wasteful  or  ex- 
ceeding slow.  The  Chilian  mill  and  arrastra  are 
specimens  of  the  latter.  A  in  the  accompanying 
cut  shows  the  adaptation  of  water-power  as  a  motor 
for  the  primitive  mill  of  Central  America,  the  ar- 

f  ig  1270. 


Chilian  MiU. 

rangements  being  of  a  massive  and  rude  description. 
B  shows  a  more  moih'in  fonu  of  the  same  device. 

The  moilern  form  of  the  Chilian  mill  in  its  appli- 
cation to  the  grinding  of  oleaginous  s(;eds,  nuts,  ker- 
nels and  fniits,  is  shown  in  Fig.  1271. 

Each  stone  has  a  rotation  on  its  horizontal  axis 
.4',  and  also  a  rotation  around  the  common,  vertical 
axis  A.     The  latter  is  driven  by  the  pinion   S  and 


CHILL. 


537 


CHIME. 


berd  cog-wheel.  A  certain  latituile  of  motion  is 
allowed  to  the  stone.s  on  their  Imrizoiital  axis,  anil 
this  [lasbes  tlirougli  aii  oviil  ajiertuie  in  the  shaft  ,-V, 
so  as  to  a. low  the  shaft  to  rise  and  fall  according  to 
the  (luanlity  of  material  under  the  .st(jnes  ;  the  free- 
dom of  motion  allowing  the  stone  to  pass  over  heaps 
of  the  material  without  straining.  The  bed-stone  is 
supported  on  a  foundation  of  itiasonrv,  and  has 
raised  inner  and  outer  borders  to  keep  the  material 
from  falling  off.  The  grain  is  collected  in  the  paths 
of  the  stones  by  scrapers,  which  partake  of  the 
motion  of  the  central  post,  one  scraper  gathering 
the  magma  from  the  outlying  parts  and  placing  it 
in  the  track  of  one  stone  while  the  other  scraper 
draws  it  so  as  to"  he  crushed  by  the  other  stone. 
The  stones  are  placed  at  different  distances  from  the 
vertical  shaft,  so  as  to  give  them  a  wider  track  of 
usefulness.     The  inner  one  is  two  thirds  of  its  width 

Fig.  1271. 


Oil  MiU 

nearer  to  the  shaft,  so  that  their  tracks  lap  a  little. 
When  the  crashing  is  coinjiletcd,  another  adjust- 
ment of  the  scrapers  transforms  them  into  clearers, 
and  they  carry  outwards  the  material,  which  then 
falls  through  an  open  part  of  the  hoop,  and  is  col- 
lected in  a  receptacle  whence  it  is  shoveled  into  bags 
ready  for  the  press. 

The  Chilian  mill,  so  called  (also  known  as  the 
"  TrnpicJie"),  is  as  old  as  Herodotus,  at  least.  It 
■was  used  by  the  Phoenicians  for  ina,shing  olives. 
See  Oil-mill. 

Chill.  A  piece  of  iron  introduced  into  a  mold  so 
as  to  rapidly  cool  the  surface  of  molten  iron  which 
comes  in  contact  therewith.  Cast-iron,  like  steel,  is 
hardened   by   rapid   cooling,    and   softened  by  the 


Fig.  1272. 


prolongation  of  the  cooling  process.  The  extreme 
in  the  i'oriner  direction  gives  chilled  iron  the  hanl- 
ness  of  hardened  steel  ;  tlie  extreme  in  the  direction 
of  sol'tness  is  obtained  by  pr,  longing  the  heat,  ab- 
stracting the  carbon  from  the  cast-iron,  reducing  it  to 
a  nearly  pure  crystalline  iron.    See  Malle.\hi.e  1  noN. 

The  chilled  cast-iron  plowshare  has  a  hard  under- 
surface,  and  the  top  wears  away,  leaving  a  cotn]iara- 
tively  thin  edge  of  hardened  metal.  This  resembles 
the  natural  provision  in  the  teeth  of  rabbits,  squir- 
rels, and  other  rodents,  whereby  the  enamel  remains 
in  advance  of  the  softer  portion  of  the  tooth,  keeping 
a  sharp  edge. 

Chilled  ca,stings  are  used  for  axle-boxes,  iron  wheel- 
hubs,  rolls  for  iron-rolling  mills,  jilowshares,  and 
mold-boards,  stamji-heads,  heavy  hammers,  ami  an- 
vils for  some  kinds  of  work,  and  in  many  other  in- 
stani-es. 

Chill-hard'en-ing.  A  mode  of  tempering  steel- 
cutting  instruments,  by  exposing  the  red-hot  metal 
to  a  blast  of  cold  air. 

Chime.  1.  A  number  of  bells  attuned  to  each 
other  in  diatonic  succession.  A  peal  consists  of 
three  or  more 
bells  in  liarmonic 
succession,  which 
may  be  rung  suc- 
cessively or  simul- 
taneously, but 
will  not  admit  of 
a  tunc  being  play- 
ed upon  them. 
Thus  a  set  em- 
bracing the  eight 
notes  of  the  com- 
mon scale  will 
constitute  a 
chime,  while  a  set 
upon  the  Jirst, 
til  ire/,  fflli,'  and 
cigldli  of  the  scale 
would  be  a  peal. 
The  smallest  num- 
ber of  bells  that 
can  be  said  to  con- 
stitute a  chime  is 
live,  but  the  num- 
ber may  be  in- 
creased indeiinite- 
ly.  The  usnal 
number  is  at  least 
nine,  which  num- 
ber embraces  the 
eight  notes  of  the 
natural  scale,  with  the  addition  of  a  flat  seventh. 

The  illustration  shows  a  chime  in  a  Philadelphia 
church  ;  nine  bells,  key  of  D,  weight  12,798 
pounds. 

A  set  of  three  small  bells  mounted  in  a  stand  for 
ringing  by  hand,  used  in  the  Koman  Catholic 
church       ser- 


vice, is  also 
called  a  chime, 
OT  altar  chiine. 
A  new  car- 
illon of  bells 
manufactured 
in  France  and 
mounted  in 
Buffalo,  is  43  ; 
in  number. 
They  are  work-  (_ 
ed  by  a  key- 
board,     and 


Fig  1273. 


Altar  Chir'* 


CHIME-BARREL. 


538 


CHIMNEY. 


discourse  bi-.autil'iil  mu.sic.  Attacliud  to  tlic  caiillon, 
and  iiidc:]Wiidi'Mt  of  flic  key-lKiard,  is  a  clock,  which, 
by  delicate  machinery,  is  made  to  play  any  an-anged 
tune  on  the  bells  by  means  ol'  1-23  hammers  adjusted 
on  the  outside  of  the  bells.  Tlie  clock  also  strikes 
the  hours,  half-hours,  and  quarters. 

Apparatus  for  ringing  chimes  is  said  to  have  been 
first  maile  at  Alost,  in  the  Netherlands,  in  US?. 
Scheppen  of  Louvain  is  celebrated  as  a  chime-player, 
and  performcul  violin  music,  rottheff,  the  chime- 
player  of  Amsterdam,  100  years  since,  played  piano- 
foi'te  music  with  facility.  Each  key  required  a 
force  ei[ual  to  two  pounds'  weight. 

Chimes  on  a  small  scale,  rather  as  toys  and 
scieutiHc  instruments,  have  been  rung  by  electricity ; 
a  clapper  or  suspended  ball  being  made  to  rotate 
around  a  central  axis,  striking  in  succession  the 
bells  which  are  arranged  in  a  circle  beneath. 

2.  An  ari'angejneut  of  bells  and  strikers  in  an 
organ  or  musical  bo.x,  operated  in  harmony  with  the 
reeds,  pipi'.s,  or  tongues,  as  the  case  may  be. 

3.  (C'oop.:riiiij.)  The  rim  of  a  cask  or  tub,  formed 
by  the  ends  of  the  staves,  which  project  beyond  the 
liead. 

Chims-bar'rel.  (Horoloji/.)  A  prolongation 
of  the  rim  of  a  striking-wheel,  wluch  is  furnished  with 
pins,  likt-  tlie  barrel  of  a  musical  box,  the  pin  lift- 
ing the  tails  of  the  hammers,  which  are  set  on  one 
axis  and  strike  their  respective  bells  when  set  in 
motion. 

Chirn'mins.  {Mctallmy/.)  The  operation  of 
agitating  ore  in  a  kivoe  or  tub,  by  me.ins  of  a  stir- 
rer, the  kcxDe  being  inclineil  at  an  angle  of  45°.  The 
ore  and  water  being  placed  iu  the  tub,  the  whole 
mass  is  violently  stirred  until  it  all  partakes  of  the 
gyration,  when  thestirrina;  is  stopped  and  the  heavi- 
er particdes  lirst  reach  the  bjttom.  The  dilferent 
strata  of  particles  are  then  sorted  accordingto  quality. 
See  Kkkvk. 

Chim'ney.  The  open  hole  for  the  emission  of 
smoke  is  referred  to  in  H M-o.lotus,  VIll.  137:  — 
"  Now  it  happened  that  the  sun  wai  shining  down 
the  chimney  into  the  room  where  they  were ; . .  .  .  the 
boy  who  had  a  knife  in  his  hand  made  a  mark  with 
it  round  the  sunshine  on  the  lloor  of  the  room." 

The  passages  from  the  Greek  authors,  which  have 
been  cited  as  showing  the  use  of  chimneys,  do  not 
pi-ove  tlu'ir  existence,  but  genciully  refer  to  a  mere 
opening  at  which  the  smoke  escaped. 

Here,  however,  is  one  fair  notice  of  a  chimney  :  — 

*'-B  Don't  cut  me,  cut  the  meat, — 

Boys,  bring  the  kid. 
^-  Is  there  a  kitchen  near? 

B.  There  is 

A  And  has  it  got  a  chimney  too  ? 

For  this  you  do  not  say. 
B  It  has  a  chimney. 

A    But  if  it  smokes,  it  will  be  worse  than  none 
£■  The  mm  will  kill  mo  with  his  endless  questions  " 

JFrom  "  The  Woman  sitting  up  all  Night," 
a  play  by  AlK.tis  ;  (luoted  by  ATHENiDS 
in  the  "  JJeipnosophists,"'  a.  d.  220. 

One  mode  of  warming  is  noticed  by  Seneca  and 
Pliny,  and  consisted  in  an  arrangement  of  ])i|)es 
to  convey  hot  air  from  an  underground  a|iai-tmeiit 
into  which  red-hot  coals  were  occasionally  thrown. 
The  intention  was  to  avoid  the  .smoke  incident  to  the 
burning  of  the  fuel  before  it  attained  the  red-hot 
condition.  In  the  greater  number  of  houses  the  fuel 
was  burnt  in  the  room  and  the  .sninke  escaped  as  it 
could, at  the  nearest  door,  window,  or  an  o]iening  in 
the  roof.  In  the  hot-air  arrangement  described,  the 
caloric  current  was  conveyed  by  pipes  to  the  room, 
and  dischargeil  at  a  mouth  which  was  often  orna- 
mented with  a  dolphin's  or  a  lion's  head,  according 


to  fancy,   and  which   could   be  opened  or  shut  at 
pleasure. 

The  Emperor  Julian,  when  at  Paris,  comjdained 
of  the  rigor  of  the  climate  and  the  inetticieut  means 
for  nutigating  it,  even  in  tlie  best  apartments.  He 
disliked  the  braziers,  and  it  would  seem  that  no  ar- 
rangements, such  as  described  by  Seneca,  and  sug- 
gested by  the  hypocaust  of  the  baths,  was  at  hand. 
See   HYruCAi'sT  ;  Heati.no  .\im'.\uatus. 

Vitruvius  does  not  nicntion  cliimueys.  AVinckel- 
maiiii  states  that  no  traces  of  them  arc  found  in  Her- 
culaneum,  where  the  people  warmed  themsidves  by 
fires  in  braziers  placed  on  the  lloor  of  the  apartment, 
as  did  Alexander  the  Great  — acconling  to  Plutarch. 
In  Pompeii,  chimneys  are  seen  in  connection  with 
bath-rooms  and  bake-houses,  but  none  in  jirivate  , 
dwellings. 

Palladio  only  mentions  two  cliimueys,  which  stood 
in  the  middle  of  the  rooni.s,  and  consisted  of  columns, 
supporting  architraves  whereon  were  plai'ed  the 
pyramids  or  funnels  through  which  the  smoke  was 
conveyed.  Scaniozzi  mentions  only  three  in  his 
time,  placed  similarly. 

We  learn  from  Fletcher — "Notes  from  Nine- 
veh"—  that  the  houses  in  Mosul,  on  the  Tigris,  are 
not  always  ju-ovided  with  cliimney.s,  although  the 
weather  is  occasionally  very  severe.  They  use  a 
round  brazen  vessel,  with  two  rings  attached  to  the 
sides,  by  which  it  is  conveyed  from  one  room  to 
another.  Mosul  is  termed  by  travelers  the  "  Mod- 
ern Nineveh,"  and  the  apartments  of  the  old  palace 
which  once  stood  in  the  vicinity  were  no  doubt  sim- 
ilarly heated,  llosea  xiii.  3,  speaks  of  the  smoke 
escaping  from  the  chimney  (a  hole  in  the  roof),  and 
makes  it  an  emblem  of  instability. 

There  are  no  chimneys  or  fireplaces  in  the  houses 
of  the  Ja]ianese.  In  the  center  of  the  common  sit- 
ting-room there  is  a  square  hole  lined  with  tiles  and 
filled  with  sand,  in  which  a  charcoal  fire  is  kept 
burning,  and  a  teakettle  is  supported  above  by  a 
tripod.  A  superior  class  of  houses  are  warmed  by 
braziers  placed  on  lacquered  stands.  Holes  in  the  roof 
and  walls  allow  the  smoke  to  escajie.  Wood,  in  its 
natural  state,  is  but  little  used  as  fuel. 

Travelers  tell  us  that  even  now  in  Rome,  which 
has  a  humid  and  raw  atmosphere  at  times,  the  mode 
of  warming  is  by  chafing  pans  and  portable  charcoal 
furnaces,  rather  than  by  the  generous  fire  of  a  giate 
or  furnace. 

Down  to  the  thirteenth  century,  the  peojile  .seem 
to  have  been  generally  destitute  of  chimneys.  In 
the  Jliddle  Ages  people  made  fires  in  their  house  in 
a  hole  or  pit  in  the  center  of  the  floor,  under  an 
opening  foinied  in  the  roof  ;  and  when  the  family 
laid  down  for  the  night,  —  for  it  can  hardly  be  said 
they  went  In  bed,  —  the  bole  was  closed  by  a  cover 
of  wood.  The  laws  of  the  I'eudal  ages  (couvrc-feti  of 
the  French  ;  curfew-bell  of  the  English),  ordered  that 
such  fires  should  be  extinguished  at  a  certain  time 
in  the  evening.  William  I.  introduced  this  law  into 
England  iu  lOtiS,  and  fixed  the  iipii/cgiiint  at  seven 
in  the  evening.  The  law  was  abolished  by  Henry  I. 
iu  1100. 

The  curfew-bell  also  answered  as  a  vesjier-bell, 
calling  the  people  to  prayer.s.  Pope  .John  XXUI. 
ordered  three  Avc-Afarias  to  be  repeated  at  the 
hearing  of  the  ignitegium.  Pope  Calixtus  III. 
ordered  the  hell  to  be  rung  at  noon  also,  to  drive 
away  a  dreadful  comet  and  the  Turks.  In  due  time 
the  comet  left,  by  whicli  the  faith  of  the  people 
in  bells  was  much  strengthcni'd,  no  doubt.  The 
Turks,  under  Mahomet  II.,  who  had  captured  Con- 
stantinople a  few  years  previously,  were,  however, 
long  the  bane  of  that  corner  of  Europe,  and  are  yet. 


CHIMXEY. 


539 


CHIMXEY. 


We  find  distinct  notices  of  chimneys  about  the  I 
middle  of  the  fourteentli  century,  at  Venice,  Flor- 
ence, and  Padua. 

Francesco  de  Carraro,  lord  of  Padua,  came  to 
Rome  in  13CS,  and  finding  no  chimneys  in  the  inn 
wliere  lie  lodged,  because  at  that  time  tire  was 
kindled  in  a  hole  in  the  middle  of  the  Hoor,  he 
caused  two  chimneys,  like  those  which  had  been 
long  used  in  Padua,  to  be  constructed  and  arched 
by  masons  and  carpenters  whom  he  had  Virought 
along  with  him.  Over  these  cliimneys,  the  hi'st  ! 
ever  seen  in  Rome,  he  afti.xed  his  arms,  which  were 
remaining  in  the  time  of  Gataro  (the  narrator),  who 
died  of  the  plague  in  1405. 

Among  the  earliest  English  chimneys  of  which 
we  have  any  knowledge  is  that  of  the  large  tire- 
hearth   iu   the   gi-eat  guard-room   of   Conisborough 


Fig  1274. 


3X 


Fireplace  and  Chimney  in  Conisborough  Castle. 

Castle,  erected  in  or  near  the  Anglo-Saxon  period. 
The  mantel  is  supported  by  a  wide  arch,  with  two 
tran-som  stones  running  under  it ;  the  back  of  the 
fireplace,  where  it  joins  the  hearth,  is  in  a  line 
with  the  walls  of  the  room,  and  the  recess  at  the 
mantel  is  fomied  by  the  back  of  the  fireplace 
sloping  outwards,  a.s  it  rises  into  the  thickness  of 
the  wall,  until  it  reaches  a  loophole  on  the  outside, 
where  the  smoke  finds  an  exit.  The  cut  shows  an 
elevation  and  a  section  of  this  fireplace,  in  which  A 
is  the  Hoor  of  the  room,  E  the  mantel,  and  C  the 
loop-hole. 

In  other  castles  erected  about  the  same  period, 
the  hearth  was  fomied  in  the  thiiknass  of  the  wall, 
and  the  conical  smoke-tunnel  ended  in  a  loop-hole, 
as  at  Conisborough  Castle. 

Winwall  House,  in  Norfolk,  England,  is  of  the 


Anglo-Norman  period,  ha.s  recessed  hearths  and 
flues  rising  from  them,  carried  up  in  the  external 
and  internal  walls.  It  was  built  in  the  twelfth 
century.  Rochester,  Kcnilworth,  and  Conway  Cas- 
tles, Great  Britain,  show  chimneys  similar  to  that  in 
Conisborough  Castle. 

A  chinmey  in  Bolton  Castle,  erected  in  the  reign 
of  Richard  II.,  1377-1399,  ha.s  a  chimney  thus  de- 
scribed by  Leland  :  — 

"  One  thynge  I  niuche  notyd  in  the  hawle  of  Bol- 
ton, finiched  or  kynge  Richard  the  2  dyed,  how 
chimeneys  were  conveyed  by  tunnels  made  on  the 
syds  of  the  walls  betwyxt  the  lights  in  the  hawle, 
and  by  this  means,  and  by  no  covers,  is  the  smoke 
of  the  harthe  in  the  hawle  wonder  strangely  con- 
veyed." 

In  the  old  palace  at  Caen,  which  was  inhabited 
by  the  C'on(jueror  while  he  was  Duke  of  Noi-maiidy, 
the  great  guard-chamber  contains  two  spacious  re- 
cessed fire-hearths  in  the  north  wall,  strll  in  good 
preservation,  from  which  the  smoke  was  carried 
away  in  the  same  manner  as  in  the  above  examples. 

The  opeuing  into  the  room  is  the  fireplace. 

The  floor  of  the  fireplace  is  the  hearth. 

The  paved  portion  in  front  of  the  hearth  is  the 
slab. 

At  the  back  of  the  fireplace  is  the.  fire-back. 

The  flaring  sides  of  the  fireplace  are  the  covings. 

The  vertical  sides  of  the  opening,  a  part  of  the 
wall  of  the  apartment,  are  the  jambs. 

The  chimncy-piccc  is  the  ornamental  dressing 
around  the  jambs  and  maniel. 

The  entablature  resting  on  the  latter  is  the  mantel. 

The  mantel-shelf,  or  mantcl-pirtx  rests  thereupon. 

The  whole  hollow  space  from  the  fireplace  to  the 
top  of  the  wall  is  XXie  funnel,  or  chimney-hood. 

The  contracting  portion  of  the  funnel  is  the  gath- 
ering. 

The  narrowest  part  is  the  throat.  The  throat  is 
closed  (at  times)  by  a  damper. 

Above  this  is  the  rf«<;. 

The  wall  above  the  mantel  against  the  flue  is  the 
breast. 

The  chimney  above  the  roof  is  the  shaft. 

This,  in  England,  is  usually  surmounted  by  a 
chimney-pot.  And  that  frequentl}"  by  a  hood,  vane, 
or  cowl. 

A  cluster  of  chimneys  is  a  stack. 

A  chimney-board  closes  the  fireplace  in  summer. 

A  ciper-tunnel  is  a  false  chimney  placed  on  a  house 
as  an  ornament  or  to  balance  things. 

Fig.  1275  illustrates  the  various  parts  of  a  fire- 
place and  chimney. 

a,  wall.  Fig- 1275. 

b,  back. 

c,  breast. 

d,  flue, 
c,  hearth. 
/,  slab. 
7,  floor. 

h,  mitered  border. 
!,  brick-trimmer. 
j,  ceiling. 
k,  joi.sts. 
I,  mantel-shelf. 
m,  reveal  or  coving. 
n,  throat. 
0,  mantel. 
p,  jamb. 

q,  plinth.  Chimnry. 

r,  bridging. 

The  chimney  at  the  Port  Dundas  Works,  Glas- 
gow, is  the  tallest  chimney  and  one  of  the  highest 
masonry  structures  in  existence.     In  Eurofie  there 


CHIMNEY-CAP. 


540 


CHINESK-CAPSTAN. 


are  only  two  cliui'fli  sti'i'iilcs,  those  of  tlii>  Straslnirg 
Catlii-'dnil  ami  of  St.  8ti'i>hi'n's  Chiinli,  in  Vienna, 
vhieli,  by  a  few  feet,  exeeed  tlie  liijjlit  of  tliis  eliini- 
ney,  and  the  great  ryraniid  of  (iliizeh  was  —  hnt  is 
not  now —  the  only  other  human  erection  <'xe<*erling 
this  great  ohininey  in  hight.  The  dimensions  of 
this  chimney  are  ;  —  Total  hight  from  foundation, 
408  feet;  hight  above  ground,  454  feet;  outside 
diameter  at  the  level  of  ground,  32  feet  ;  outside 
diameter  at  the  top,  12  feet  8  inches  ;  thickness  at 
ground  level,  7  bricks;  thickness  at  the  top,  1h 
hricks.  Thi^  internal  diameter  at  the  base  is  20 
feet,  and  it  gi'adually  contracts  toward  the  to])  to  10 
feet  4  inches  diameter.  The  section  is  cii-cular 
throughout.  The  batter  is  straight,  and  it  has  no 
cap. 

During  its  erection  it  underwent  the  operation  of 
straighti'uing  by  sawing  the  mortar  joints.  The 
mortar  in  the  newly  built  portion  of  the  work  being 
still  soft  and  plastic,  the  pressure  of  the  wind 
caused  a  lateral  deflection  of  the  column,  amounting 
to  7  feet  9  inches  from  the  vertical  at  the  top.  The 
whole  structure  was  thereby  endangered,  and  in 
order  to  restoi'e  its  stability,  it  W'as  necessary  to 
bring  it  back  to  the  vertical  line.  This  was  safely 
accomplished  by  sawing  away  the  mortar  on  the 
bowing  side  at  selected  points,  so  as  to  cause  the 
chimney  to  settle  back  again  and  resume  the  per- 
pendicular. 

A  wrought-iron  chimney,  196  feet  high  and  six 
feet  seven  inches  in  diameter,  has  just  been  erected 
in  Pittsburg.  Another  is  to  be  put  up  275  feet 
high.  The  first  was  I'iveted  together  in  a  horizontal 
position,  and  then  lifted  to  the  peii>endiculai'  by  a 
crane.  The  other  is  nuide  upright,  tiie  ]ilates  lieing 
riveted  by  means  of  a  scatlblding  running  up  inside. 
Chim'ney-cap.  An  abacus  or  cornice  forming 
a  crowiung  termination  for  a  chimney. 

A  device  to  render  more  certain  the  e.xpulsion  of 
smoke,  by  pre.sentiiig  the  exit  aperture  to  leeward, 
or  by  a  rotatory  device.     See  Cowl. 

Chim'ney- 
1276  col'lar.     A  de- 

vice to  prevent 
the.  leakage  of 
rain  around  a 
chimney  -.stack 
where  it  pro- 
trudes through 
a  roof.  The 
slates  or  shin- 
gles lie  upon 
the  slanting 
plates,  and  nji- 
I'ight  plates  lie  closely  against  the  bricks. 

Chim'ney-hook.  A  liook  suspended  in  a  chim- 
ney liiim  which  to  hang  ]iots  over  the  tire. 

Chim'iiey-jack.     A  rotating  chinmey-head.     A 

Fig  1277. 


Chimney- Collar. 


Chimney- Jack. 


3 


form  of  coH'l.  In  the  example,  the  chimney-head 
has  si'gmental  sliding  doors,  within  which  are 
jiivotrd  plates  which  deflect  the  currents  p,a.ssiug 
tliroiigli  llic  side  openings  of  the  <'hinine3\ 

Chim'ney-piece.  The  ornamental  frame  round 
a  tireplaci'  :  consisting  of  jambs  and  mantel. 

Chim'ney-pot.     A   tube   of    pottery   or   sheet- 
metal  to  extend  a  flue  aboye  the 
chinmey-shaft.     They    are   some-  Fig.  1278. 

times  ornamental,  and  made  to 
agree  in  di-sign  with  the  character 
of  the  l>uildiug. 

Chim'ney-shaft.    The  part  of 
achinincy  above 
the  roof.  ^ 

Clilm'ney-        //^ 

s'wee  p  '  er  .  v^  ^  ^ 

Invented  in 
I'.ngland  by 
Smart,  1805,  to 
sujiersede  the 
climbing  boys, 
who  were  so 
cruelly  treated. 
A  brush  of  rat- 
tan is  fixed  on 
the  end  of  a  rod 
which  consists 
of  jointed  sec-  Chimmii-Put. 

tious   of    cane, 

with  a  rope  running  down  throughout  the  length  of 
each  section. 

Chim'ney  Top.  1.  A  chimney-cap  or  a  cowl.  See 
Cowl. 

2.  [Musie.)  In  organ  building:  a  metallic  mouth- 
pipe  whose  otherwise  closed  u|iper  end  has  an  open 
tube  of  small  dimension,  which  allows  a  pait  of  the 
air  to  escajie  and  has  the  effect  of  sharjiing  the  note. 
See  M(n'TII-riPE. 

Chim'ney-valve.  A  device  of  Dr.  Franklin  for 
withdiawing  the  foul  air  from  an  apartment  by 
means  of  the  upward  draft  in  the  chimney.  In  its 
simplest  form  it  consists  merely  of  a  metallic  frame 
fitted  in  an  aperture  in  the  chimney  and  having  a 
.suspended  ihi])  opening  inwardly  to  the  chimney 
which  alloAVs  a  current  to  pass  in  that  direction, 
but  shuts  off  a  down-draft  into  the  room. 

Chi'na.  A  tine  variety  of  pottery,  now  known 
as  porcelain,  originally  introduced  from  the  country 
whose  nami'  it  bore  for  some  centuries.  The  term 
porcelain  is  Portuguese.      See  PoiiCF.LAIN. 

Chi'iia-blue  Style.  A  mode  of  calico-printing 
in  which  iudigo-bhu's  are  printed  on  the  cloth  ancl 
fixed  liy  baths  of  salts  of  iron  and  of  alkali. 

Chi'na-grass  Cloth.  {Fubric.)  A  fine  fabric 
made  from  the  lilier  of  an  Indian  nettle,  the  Jlltcca 
or  Haii/ir. 

Chin-chil'la.  (Fabric. )  A  heavy  cloth  for  wo- 
men's winter  cloaking,  with  a  long-napiie<l  surface 
rolled  into  little  tufts  in  imitation  of  chinclnlla  fur. 

Cni'n6.  {Fabric.)  a.  A  lady's  dress  goods 
made  w  ith  printed  or  dyed  cotton  or  silk  warps,  af- 
terwards woven.      A  mottled  effect  is  produi'cd. 

b.  A  faiiric  in  which  a  mixture  of  colors  is  jjro- 
duced  by  a  double  threail  formed  of  two  smaller 
threads  nf  ilifl'irent  colors  twisted  together. 

Chine'ing-ma-chine'.  (Conpcring. )  A  maclnne 
to  cliMnifer  the  ends  of  staves  on  the  inner  surface, 
and  form  the  chine. 

Chi-nese'-baPance.  A  f'oini  of  the  stechjard 
ha^•illg  four  points  of  suspension  and  as  many  quad- 
rated sides  to  the    weight-arm    of    the    lever.      See 

STKKLY.VKn. 

Chi-nese'-cap'stan.      A    differential    hoisting 


CHINESE-FIRE. 


541 


CHISEL. 


or  hauling  device,  haviug  a  vertical  axi.s,  anil  there- 
in only  dirt'ering  from  the  differential  windlass 
(whicli  see). 

Chi-nese'-iire.  A  pyrotechnic  comiiosition  con- 
sisting of  gLin[iowder,  16  ;  niter,  8  ;  charcoal,  3  ; 
sulphur,  3  ;  cust-imn  boring.s  (small),  10. 

Chi-nese'-wind'lass.  .A.  differential  windlass 
in  wliich  the  cord  winds  off'  one  part  oF  the  barrel 
and  on  to  the  other,  the  amount  of  absolute  lift  be- 
ing governed  by  tlie  difference  in  the  diameteis  of 
the  respective  [rortions. 

It  is  a  good  contrivance  in  the  respect  that  great 
power  may  be  attained  without  making  the  a.xle  .so 
small  as  to  be  too  weak  for  its  work.  See  Differ- 
ential \VlNDL.\SS. 

Chin'ka.  The  single  cable  bridge  of  the  East 
Indies,  upon  which  traverses  a  seat  in  the  shape  of 
an  ox-yoke. 

Chinse.  (Naii/Mal.)  To  stop  a  seam  tempo- 
rarily by  crowding  in  oakum  with  a  knife  or  chisel. 
A  slight  calking. 

Chins'ing-i'ron.  {Xautical.)  A  calker's  edge- 
tool  or  chisel  for  chinsing  seams. 

Chiu-strap.  (Sttdillenj.)  A  strap  connecting 
the  throat-strap  and  nose-band  of  a  halter. 

Chintz.  A  cotton  cloth  gayly  printed  with  de- 
signs of  flowers,  etc.,  in  five  or  six  lUH'ereut  colors. 
It  was  a  favorite  in  the  time  of  Queen  Anne,  long 
before  cotton  prints  became  cheap. 

—  "  let  a  charming  chintz  and  Bruf.sels  lace 
Wrap  my  cold  limbs  and  shade  my  lifeless  face." 

The  English.  Parliament  liad  prohibited  the  burial 
of  corpses  in  cotton  or  linen  goods,  intending  to  im- 
prove the  demand  for  woolens.  Tlie  young  lady  is 
supposed  by  Pope  to  express  her  disgust  at  donning 
the  unfashionable  fabric  even  for  burial. 

Swift  says:  —  "Chintzes  are  gaudy  and  engage 
our  eyes." 

The  name,  being  highly  respectable,  has  since 
been  applied  to  goods  lacking  the  graceful  and 
artistic  character  of  the  genuine  article. 

The  chintzes  of  the  Coroman<lel  coast  were  cele- 
brated in  the  time  of  Marco  Polo,  thirteenth  cent- 
ury. They  are  mentioned  also  by  Odoardo  Bar- 
bosa,  a  Portuguese,  who  visited  India  soon  after  the 
passage  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  by  Vasco  da 
Gama  : — "Great  i"(uantities  of  cotton  cloths  ad- 
miralty painted,  also  some  white  and  some  striped, 
held  in  the  liiglicst  estimation." 

Chip.  {XimUi-il.)  A  piece  of  wood  of  the  shape 
of  a  quadi'ant,  of  6  inches  radius,  and  \  imdi  thick, 
placed  on  the  end  of  a  log-line.  The  chip  is  loaded 
at  the  circular  t^dge  so  as  to  float  upright,  about  two 
thirds  being  immersed  in  water.  The  knotted  log-line 
is  wound  on  a  reel,  and  the  cA//)  or  locj  being  thrown 
overboard  catches  in  the  water  ami  remains  about 
stationary  there,  while  the  cord  unwinds  as  the  ves- 
sel proceeds.  The  number  of  knots  passing  the  sea- 
man's hand  while  the  sand  in  the  half-minute  glass  is 
running  out,  indicates  the  number  of  knots  or  nauti- 
cal i]iiles  per  hour  of  the  vessel's  speed.     See  Log. 

Chip-ax.  A  small,  single-ham  led  ax  used  in 
chipping  or  listing  a  block  or  scantling  to  a  shape 
aiiproxiuKiting  that  to  which  it  is  to  be  dressed. 

Chip'ping-chis'el.  A  cohl  chisel  with  a  slightly 
convex  face  and  an  angle  of  al)out  SO" ;  used  in  re- 
moving a  scale  of  iron,  hardened  by  contact  with 
the  damp  mold  in  casting.  The  removal  is  a 
preparation  for  tinishiug  with  the  file  or  other  tool, 
the  cliiUed  iron  being  very  destructive  of  fili'S. 

Chip'ping-ma-chine'.  A  planing-machine  for 
cutting  dye-woods  into  chips.     See  BAnK-curriNG 

M.\CHINE. 


Chip'ping-piece.  (Fuundinij.)  a.  An  elevated 
cast  (or  lorgcd)  surface,  affording  surplus  metal  for 
reduction  by  the  tools. 

b.  The  projecting  piece  of  iron  cast  on  the  face  of 
a  piece  of  iron-frannng,  where  it  is  intended  to  be 
fitted  against  another. 

Chi'ra-gon.  A  writing- machine  for  the  blind. 
A  ccco;/r'tj>/(. 

Chi'ro-plast.  An  instrument,  or  hand-director, 
as  its  name  indicates,  for  training  and  exercising 
the  hands,  for  giving  them  facility  and  command 
in  playing  music.  It  was  invented  by  Professor 
John  Bernard  Logier,  a  native  of  Germany,  and 
resident  of  London,  England,  who  died  about  1852. 
Patented  in  England  about  1812. 

It  consists  of  the  position-frame,  to  keep  the  hands 
from  wandering  ;  thejinijcr-guidcs,  two  movable  brass 
frames  each  having  five  divisions  ;  and  the  lo-ist- 
guide,  to  preserve  the  proper  position  of  the  wrist. 

The  (janiiU-board  was  also  a  })ortion  of  the  appa- 
ratus, its  use  being  to  indicate  the  notes,  it  being 
fitted  closely  to  the  finger-board. 

The  inventor  was  a  distinguished  contrapuntist 
anil  theorist,  —  a  musical  luminary. 

Chis'eL  An  edged  tool  for  cutting  wood,  iron, 
or  stone.  It  is  operateil  by  striking  its  upper  end 
with  a  hammer  or  mallet  or  by  pressure. 

Mr.  Burton  found  at  Thebes,  and  deposited  in  the 
British  Museum,  a  carpenter's  basket  and  a  kit  of 
tools  which  have  survived  their  owner  some  thirty 
centuries.  The  art  of  joining  boards  by  dovetailing 
and  by  doweling  was  practiced  in  Egypt  as  long  ago 
as  0.sirta.sen,  1706  B.  c.  The  dowels  were  pinned  in 
))lace  by  thin  wooden  pegs.  Glue  was  also  employed 
by  them.     See  Veneeuing. 

The  chisels  of  early  Egypt  (a  a.  Fig.  1279)  were 
of  bronze,  the  handles  of  tamarisk.  In  some  cases 
the  blades  were  attached  by  thongs  to  the  handles. 

One  of  the  commonest  tools  or  weapons  in  the 
museums  is  the  celt.     This  term  is  held  to  include 

Fig.  1279. 


Egyptian  and  Roman  Tools. 

numerous  cutting-tools  ;  it  is  derived  from  the  word 
ce.ltes,  an  old  Latin  term  for  a  chisel.  Axes,  hatchets, 
chisels,  skin-scrapers,  and  other  tools  are  assembled 
in  these  collections  under  the  one  nanus 

In  the  accompanying  cut,  I)  is  a  bronze  socket- 
chisel,  6  inches  long,  found  at  Karnbre,  Cornwall, 
England.  The  ear  or  loop  may  have  been  for  carry- 
i)ig  it  suspended  from  the  girdle,  but  was  probably 
for  lashing  it  to  a  helve.     See  HATCHET,  Figs,  c  c. 

c  and  d  are  bronze  chisels  in   the  British  Museum. 

e  has  a  round  handle.  It  is  9  inches  long,  is  of 
bronze,  weighs  2  pounds  5  ounces. 

f,  g,  and  h  are  smaller  tools,  adapted  to  be  used 
with  the  mallet  or  otherwise. 

The  chisels  and  gouges  of  the  Tahitians  when  first 
discovered  were  of  bone,  generally  that  of  a  man's 


CHISEL. 


542 


CHLORINATION. 


Fig.  :28i). 


tti'iii   between  the  wrist  and  elbow.     The  bone  tools 
iibai.lieared  iu  a  few  years  alter  the  advent  of  the 
ivliit«  iiiuii. 
Stone  chisels,  pointed  and  wide  bitted,  also  mal- 
lets of  the  modern  form,  .ire 
shown  in  the  jiaintings  of 
ancient  Thebes.    They  were 
jirobably    of   hard   Inonze, 
though    it    is    not    to   be 
iloubti'd  but  that  steel  was 
known    to    tlie     artitieers 
'  of  that  wonderful  nation. 
Iron   and   steel   have  per- 
ished with  rust  while  bronze 
has  survived,  and  articles 
of  that  metal  abound  in  all 
the  nuiseums. 

The  Japanese  chisels  are 
light  and  small.  The  cut- 
ting parts  of  some  are  the 
size  and  shape  of  a  section 
of  half  a  dollar,  the  sipiare 
side  being  the  cutting  edge, 
and  a  rnuud  metallic  shaft 
connecting  the  convex  side 
with  a  wooden  handle. 

The  knife  must  be  re- 
garded as  the  primary  tool, 
and  tlie  chisel  is  a  stiong 
knife  sharpened  and  pre- 
sented endways. 

Holtzaptfel,  in  generaliz- 
ing on  the  subject,  regards 
the  chisel  as  a  keen  wedge, 
.sonietiuics  employed  with 
ijuiet  pi'cssure,  and  at  oth- 
er tiuies  with  percussion, 
the  formi'r  including  the  plane  bit,  and  the  latter 
the  a.v  and  adze. 

The  chisel  used  as  a  turning-tool  introduced  the 
circulatory  process,  and  tlie  reversal  of  eumlitions 
constitutes  the  cuttiug-tool  the  mover  and  introduces 
the  boring-tool. 

Saws  he  regards  as  a  multiplication  of  scraping- 
chisels,  and  the  tile  as  a  suggestion  from  tlie  saw. 

The  blades  of  shears  and  scissors  act  as  chisels 
from  opposite  sides  of  the  material,  and  the  punch 
is  a  chisel  with  a  circular  edge,  whose  counteqiart, 
if  it  have  one,  is  an  aperture  whose  margin  answers 
as  the  opposing  shear. 

This  is  ingenious  and  somewhat  .satisfactory,  and 
is  to  be  e.\pected  of  a  man  who  makes  the  lathe  and 
its  cutting-tools  the  primary  central  cluster  of  the 
mechanical  tirmanient.  "  It  is  good  to  be  zealously 
afl'ected  in  a  good  thing,"  said  an  able  mechanic  of 
yore. 

James  Watt,  no  mean  judge,  said  that  "the  true 
inventor  of  the  critiik  rotative  tnotion  wa£  the  num 
—  who  unfortunately  has    not  been  deitied  —  who 
first  invented  the  common  foot-lathe." 
See  under  the  following  heads  :  — 


AnrieiU  Flint- Chisels  an  t 
Stiarpenin^  Im/tlements. 


Astragal  tool. 
Bent  gouge. 
Blacksmith's  chisel. 
Blind-.slat  chisel. 
Boasting-chisel. 
Bolt-chisel. 
Bone-chisel. 
Bur-chisel. 
Calking-chisel. 
Cant-cliisel. 
Carpenter's  chisel. 
Carving-chisel. 


Center-chisel. 

Chasing-chisel. 
Chipping-chisel. 
Chisel  in  marteliue. 
Cold  chisel. 
Cope-chisel. 
Corner-chisel. 
Cross-cutting  chisel. 
Cross-mouth  chisel. 
Dental  chisel. 
Diamond-point  chisel. 
Dog-leg  chisel. 


Double-chisel. 

Drove-chisel. 

Entering-chisel. 

File-chisel. 

Firmer-chisel. 

Flat-chisel. 

Flogging-chisel. 

Framing-chisel. 

Gouge. 

Grafting-chisel. 

Hardy. 

Heading-chisel. 

Hooked  tool. 

Ice-chisel. 

Indented  chisel. 

Joiner's  chisel. 

Making-iron. 

Marteline-chisel. 

Mortise-lock  chisel. 

Mortising-chisel. 


Paring-chisel. 

Parting-tool. 

Point. 

Pruning-chisel. 

Rod-chisel. 

Eound  cliisel. 

Kound-nose  chisel. 

Sash-chisel. 

S-chisel. 

Skew-chisel. 

Slick. 

Small  chisel. 

Socket-ehisel. 

Splitting-chisel. 

Spoon-chisel. 

Tang-chisel. 

Tapping-gouge. 

Tenoning-cbistd. 

Tongued-cliisel. 

Turning-chisel. 


Besides  those  mentioned  in  the  list  are  several 
varieties  peculiarly  adapted  to  the  needs  of  certain 
trades  ;  such  as  :  — 


Millwright's  chisels. 
Mortise-lock  chisels. 


Blunt  chisels. 
Coachmaker's  chisels. 
Long-paring  chisels. 

Chis'el-draft.  i,Masonry.)  In  squaring  the  end 
of  a  stone  block,  one  edge  is  chisel -dressed  to  a 
straight  edge  and  forms  a  base  for  the  determination 
of  the  other  sides. 

Chis'el  in  Mar'tel-ine.  A  boasting-chisel  used 
by  marljle-workers.  It  is  furnished  with  steel 
points  at  tlie  end.     See  Marteline. 

Chit.     A  small  /row  used  in  cleaving  laths. 

Chi-tar'ah.  (Fabric.)  A  cotton  and  silk  stuff 
made  in  Turkey. 

Chlo'ri-na'tion.  A  process  for  the  extraction 
of  gold  by  exposure  of  the  auriferous  material  to 
clilorine  gas. 

The  process  was  first  introduced  by  Plattner,  a  pro- 
fessor in  the  School  of  Mines,  Freiberg,  Saxony. 

"The  principle  involved  is  tile  transformation  of 
metallic  gold,  by  means  of  chlorine  gas,  into  soluble 
chloride  of  gold  (the  auruiii  potabi/c  of  the  ancients), 
which  can  be  dissolved  in  cold  water,  and  precipi- 
tated in  the  metallic  state  by  sulphate  of  iron,  or  as 
sulphide  of  gold  by  sulphureted  hydrogen  gas. 
Tlie  precipitate  may  then  be  tilterecl,  dried,  and 
melted  with  suitable  fluxes  to  obtain  a  regulus  of 
malleable  gold." —  E.WMOND. 

The  following  conditions  are  neees.sary  :  — 

1.  The  gold  must  be  in  a  metallic  state. 

2.  There  must  be  no  other  substance  in  the 
charge  which  would  combine  with  free  chlorine. 

3.  The  chlorine  must  have  no  impurities  which 
would  dissolve  other  metals  or  bases. 

i.  No  reaction  must  lie  induced  which  would 
cause  precipitation  of  the  gold  before  the  termination 
of  the  process. 

The  process  with  quartz  and  free  gold  does  not 
involve  roasting,  but  the  latter  process  is  necessary 
with  ores  containing  sulphurets  and  arseniurets. 
In  the  chlorination  in-ocess,  the  ore  is  sifted  into  a 
wooden  vat  lined  with  piti  h,  and  having  a  false 
bottom  beneath  which  the  gas  is  admitted.  The 
top  is  luted  on  and  the  gas  admitted  ;  when  the  gas 
begins  to  escape  at  a  hole  of  observation  in  the  lid, 
it  is  the  signal  that  the  air  is  ejected  and  the  hole 
is  then  closed.  The  gas  is  continually  ]iassed  into 
the  mass  for  say  eighteen  hours,  ai.cording  to  the 
coarseness  of  the  gold  ;  the  cover  is  removed  and 
water  introduced,  and  the  solution  drawn  oil'  into 


CHLOKOMETER. 


543 


CHOROGRAPH. 


tile  jireeipitation  vat.  The  gold  is  precipitated  by 
sulphate  of  iron,  the  supernatant  liipior  decanted. 
The  sediment  is  a  brown  powder  which  is  filtered 
upon  paper  dried  in  an  iron  or  porcelain  vessel, 
smelted  to  a  metallic  rcfjulus  in  clay  crucibles,  a 
little  borax,  salt,  and  nitrate  of  potash  being  used 
as  fluxes.  See  Raymond's  "Mines,  Mills,  and 
Furnaces,"  pji.  417-431. 

Chlo-rom'e-ter.  An  instrument  for  testing  the 
decoloiTzing  or  bleaching  powers  of  samples  of 
chloride  of  lime. 

Ure's  process  consists  in  adding  liquor  of  am- 
monia of  a  known  strength,  tinged  with  litmus,  to 
a  solution  of  a  given  weight  of  the  chloride  tinder 
examination  until  the  whole  of  the  chlorine  is 
neutralized,  which  is  known  by  the  color  being 
destroyed.  From  the  quantity  of  ammonia  con- 
sumed the  strength  of  the  sample  is  estimated. 

The  instrument  is  an  inverted  and  graduated 
siphon -shaped  tube  with  a  closed  long  end,  and  a 
shorter  open  end.  The  tube  being  tilled  with  mer- 
cury, a  certain  quantity  is  displaced  by  a  wooden 
plug,  say  10°.  This  space  is  filled  with  the  solution 
of  the  chloride,  which  is  then  let  up  into  the  closeil 
end  of  the  tube  by  putting  the  finger  over  the  open 
end  and  tipping  the  tube.  Licpior  of  ammonia  is 
now  let  up,  ami  nitrogen  is  evolved  equivalent  to 
the  chlorine  present. 

Chock.  1.  (Shipbuilding.)  a.  A  block,  pref- 
erably wedge-shaped,  driven  behind  the  props  of  a 
cradle  to  jirevent  it  from  slijiping  on  the  ways  be- 
fore the  .ship  is  ready  to  launch. 

b.  A  piece  of  timber,  framed  into  the  heads  and 
heels  of  ship's  timbers  at  their  junctions  to  act  as  a 
lap  to  the  joint,  and  make  up  the  deficiency  at  the 
inner  angle,  as  in  the  stein-piece  and  the  main- 
piece  of  the  head ;    in   the   dead  wood,   etc.     See 

STR.M. 

2.  A  wedge-shaped  block  placed  beneath  and 
against  the  bilge  of  a  cask  to  keep  the  latter  from 
rolling. 

3.  A  piece  of  wood  by  which  the  wheel  of  a  car- 
riage is  prevented  from  moving  forward  or  back- 
ward. 

In  the  United  States  Ordnance  Department  two 
kinds  are  em))loyed,  the  simplest  form  being  tri- 
angular in  section,  while  another  description  of 
chock  is  wedge-shaped  and  provided  with  a  han- 
dle. 

Choc'o-late-mill.  Chocolate  is  a  pa.ste  made 
froui  the  roasted  kernels  of  the  Theobroma  caaw 

Fig.  1281. 


ChiicolaU-MHl 


(food  for  the  gods),  so  called  by  Linnajus,  who  so 
much  esteemed  it.  The  beverage  was  advertised  in 
London  in  1657,  as  "  an  excellent  West  India  drink 
called  'chocolate.'  " 

The  roasted  and  crushed  seeds  of  the  cacao-nut 
tree  are  ground  between  two  horizontal  millstones, 
which  are  kept  at  a  temperature  of  about  200°  F., 
by  means  of  a  steam-jacket. 

The  nibs  pass  down  from  the  hopper  into  the 
shoe,  which  is  shaken  by  a  damsel  on  tlie  spindle  of 
the  runner  so  as  to  discharge  the  nibs  into  the  eye 
which  leads  them  to  the  space  between  the  stones. 
The  heat  and  friction  liberates  the  oil,  which  is 
one  third  of  the  weight,  and  the  cacao  issues  as  a 
paste  from  the  spout  and  is  conducted  to  a  second 
and  sijnilar  mill  where  the  stones  are  similarly 
heated  but  are  closer  set,  so  as  to  still  farther 
reduce  the  paste.  It  is  discharged  from  the  secomi 
grinding  in  a  liquid  condition  and  is  collected  in  a 
pan,  where  it  hardens  into  a  cake. 

To  enable  it  to  form  an  emuLsion  with  water,  it 
receives  additional  substances.  Sugar,  honey,  mo- 
lasses, giuu,  starch.  Hour,  rice,  and  ariow-root  are 
adapted  for  this  purpose.  Spices  and  flavoring  ex- 
tracts are  added  for  some  markets. 

Devinck's  machine  (English)  is  for  wrapping 
cho.colate  in  paper  envelopes. 

Choir-or'gan.  (Mu^ie.)  One  of  the  three  ag- 
gregated organs  which  are  combined  in  an  organ  of 
large  power.  The  other  two  are  the  </»'cn(-organ  and 
the  swell.  The  great  organ  has  its  large  pipes  in 
front  and  its  bank  of  keys  occupies  the  middle  posi- 
tion ;  it  contains  the  most  important  and  powerful 
stops.  The  c/iOJ'r-organ  has  its  key-board  below  that 
ol'  the  i/;-tY((-organ,  and  contains  stops  of  a  light  char- 
acter and  solo  stops.  The  swell  has  its  bank  of  keys 
the  highest  of  the  three,  and  has  louvre  boards  which 
may  be  opened  and  shut  by  means  of  a  pedal,  so  as 
to  ))roduce  crescendo  and  diminuendo  eH'ects. 

Choke-strap.  {Sriddleri/.)  A  straji  passing  from 
the  lower  ]ioitioii  of  the  collar  to  the  belly-band,  to 
keep  the  collar  in  place  when  descending  a  hill  or 
backing. 

Chon-drom'e-ter.  A  steelyard  for  weighing 
grain. 

Chon'dro-tome.  (Surgicnl.)  A  knife  specifi- 
cally adajiti'd  to  dividing  cartilages. 

Chop.  The  ncovalile  wooden  vise-jaw  of  a  car- 
penter's or  cabinet-maker's  bench. 

Chop-boat.  A  Chinese  lighter  for  transporting 
merchandise  to  and  from  vessels. 

Chop-ham'mer.     {Metal.)    A  cutting-hammer. 

Chop'ness.     A  kind  of  spade  (English). 

Chop'per.  An  agricultural  implement  for  thin- 
ning out  jilants  in  drills.  It  is  used  in  England 
for  turni]is  ;  in  the  Uniteil  States,  for  cotton-]ilants. 
Cotton-seed  is  drilled  in  and  conies  up  in  a  row  ;  the 
cotton-chopper  straddles  the  row  and  elmjis  wide 
gaps,  leaving  the  plants  in  hills.  These  are  thinned 
out  by  liand. 

Chop'ping-knife.  A  knife  designed  for  chopping 
meat,  vegetables,  fruit,  etc.,  upon  a  board,  block,  or 
in  a  bowl.  Used  on  a  domestic  scale  for  cutting 
meat  for  mince,  hash,  sausage,  etc.  See  Sausage- 
machine. 

Chorl.  The  angle  at  the  junction  of  the  blade  of 
a  penknife  with  the  square  shank  which  forms  the 
joint. 

Cho-rob'a-te.     The  Greek  level.     See  Level. 

Cho'ro-graph.  .\n  instrument  contrived  by  Pro- 
fessor Wallace,  of  Edinburgh.  "  To  determine  the 
position  of  a  station,  having  given  the  three  angles 
made  by  it  to  three  other  stations  in  the  same 
plane  whose  positions  are  known." 


CHROMATIC   PRINTING. 


544 


CHROMATIC   PRINTING. 


The  problem  iicours  frequently  in  maritime  sur- 
veying, and  is  otherwise  stated  :  — 

"  To  ronstruct  two  simiUu'  triangles  on  two  given 
straight  lines." 

Chro-mat'ic  Priut'ing.  The  precursor  of  color- 
printing  was  the  ilhniiiiiated  ndssal  with  its  initial 
letters  and  borders,  hand-painted  in  colors,  and  tlie 
playing-eards  upon  wliicli  the  art  of  printing  was 
tirst  executed  in  Europe.      Sec  C.\KD. 

Ku^ter's  Sjiicu/iim/Iumuiiai SaU"iliones,  ]iriiited  at 
Haarlem,  1440,  has  engravings  on  wood  printed  in 
different  color  fiom  the  body  of  the  work. 

Fust  and  Shceffer's  Psalter,  1457,  had  initial 
letters  and  nourished  lines  jninted  in  two  colors, 
red  and  blue. 

Tlie  art  soon  became  common,  and  tow'ards  the 
end  of  the  fifteenth  century  imitations  of  pen-and- 
ink  sketches  on  a  colored  grounil  were  made  by 
celebrated  artists.  This  was  followed  by  drawings 
on  blocks  in  regular  sets  for  separate  colors.  Al- 
bert Durer  engraved  such  blocks ;  I'armigiano,  Titian, 
and  Katfaelle  made  designs  on  blocks  ibr  the  pur- 
pose. 

Jackson  started  a  paper-li.inging  factory  at  Chel- 
sea, England,  1720-17.^4,  the  di^signs  being  print- 
ed in  oil  by  wooden  blocks.  He  a)ipears  to  have 
been  unsuccessful  in  some  details  and  in  the  specu- 
lation. 

The  art  was  adopted  and  improved  by  a  succes- 
sion of  persons  in  England  and  elsewhere  ;  Skippe 
anil  kSavage  of  the  former,  and  Gubitz  of  Berlin, 
adding  considerably  to  the  eminence  already  attained. 

Savage  ground  the  various  pignu'Uts  of  the  painter 
into  inks,  and  imitated  water-color  drawing  success- 
fully. 

Whiting  and  Branstou  apjilied  dilferent  colored 
inks  to  ornamental  borders,  and  to  notes,  bonds, 
checks,  etc.,  to  prevent  forgery. 

Vizitelly  and   Branston,  and  subsequently 
Baxtei',  attained  considerable  excellence.    See 

Cni;i)MCJ-I.lTHi>CI!Al'HV. 

The  invention  patented  some  years  ago  by  Mr. 
Chailcs  Knight,  of  London,  is  a  process  wherelty 
fac-similes  of  designs  in  four  colors  are  produced  on 
the  .same  sheet  before  it  leaves  tlie  press,  Ity  means 
of  a  revolving  carriage  or  bed,  upon  which  the  blocks 
are  secured.  A  mode  of  printing  in  four  colors  by 
means  of  turning  the  tympan  with  the  shei't  secured 
on  it  was  somewhat  less  complicated  than  Mr. 
Knight's.  The  processes,  however,  necessitated  the 
application  of  the  four  colored  inks  at  every  revolu- 
tion and  impression,  and  also  involved  considerable 
outlay  for  machinery. 

In  Carpenter's  ]n'oc(!ss  everything  is  carried  on  in 
as  straightforwaril  a  manner  as  in  ordinary  black 
printing.      It  may  be  thus  brieHy  described  :  — 

A  form  is  set  up  by  the  compositor  ;  he  then  di- 
vides it  into  four  sections,  and  so  imposes  them  in 
one  chase  that  the  same  relative  corner  of  each 
(whichever  may  be  chosen)  shall  point  towards  the 
middle  of  the  chase.  It  is  then  ready  for  the  press- 
man. It  requires  vuikuift  rcrubi  with  points  placed, 
according  to  the  tact  of  the  workman,  in  such  yiosi- 
tiou  as  may  be  deemed  expedient,  four  points  bring 
sulticient  in  all,  and  these  so  jilaccd  that  the  sheet 
may  be  pointed  when  turned  either  to  the  right  or 
the  left  hand.  Sliould  1,000  copies  be  required,  the 
250  sheets  are  printed  in  the  first  color.  They  are 
then  simply  turned  one  quarter  round  in  either  di- 
rection and  ]uinted  in  the  second  color.  The  opera- 
tion is  repeated  for  the  third  color,  and  again  for  the 
fourth  color.  This  jiroduces  1 ,000  perfect  impressions 
of  four  varieties,  in  which  the  colors  are  ditierently 
arranged. 


Should  the  whole  possible  numlier  of  combina- 
tions of  foui-  colors —  namely,  twenty-four — be  re- 
quired, imthing  more  is  necessary  tlian,  while  tlie 
sheets  aie  being  worked  in  the  second  i-nlor,  to  turn 
a  portion  of  their  number  into  the  third  and  fourth 
positions,  — which  produces  three  kinds  of  .sheets  or 
twelve  single  varieties,  —  and  while  working  the 
third  color  take  half  of  each  of  the  three  kinds  and 
work  them  respectively  in  the  second,  third,  and 
fourth  ])ositions,  )iroihicing  six  kinds  of  sheets  or 
twenty-four  single  varieties. 

One  inking  apparatus  is  sufficient,  and  hut  one 
ink  IS  s|u'ead  at  a  time,  passing  over  all  of  the  forms 
at  once.  This  has  no  artistic'  merit,  unless  mere 
blocks  of  color  in  given  juxtaposition  give  oppor- 
tunity ^or  the  exertion  of  taste  in  harmony  or  agree- 
able contrasts.  It  is  not  very  dilferent  from  print- 
ing in  colored  bands  or  lines  of  type  of  dilferent 
colors. 

One  press  prints  in  several  colors  from  one  form 
and  at  one  impression  by  making  the  inking  cylin- 


Fig.  1282. 


OiTomattc  Printing- Pr^ss. 

der  in  parts  and  supplying  the  sections  with  tlie 
separate  colors. 

Adams,  1844,  had  a  poly-chromatic  press  by 
wliicli  a  number  of  colors  were  had  at  one  impres- 
sion by  a  seiies  of  sejiarate  inking  fountains. 

M'Kcnzie,  1S46  ;  a  series  of  sliding  tympans  and 
cori'esponding  series  of  plates  for  the  separate  colore, 
which  im|iressi'd  the  paper  in  succession,  giving  a 
varicolored  result. 

Weaver,  IS.'il  ;  an  ink  trough  with  perforated 
side  and  movable  partitions,  to  give  out  inks  of 
varying  colors  in  lines  or  belts  corresponding  to  the 
lines  of  type. 

Habcock,  ]S.')4  ;  a  sheet  carrii-d  on  a  revolving- 
platen  to  plates  of  successive  colors. 


CHROMATIC   PRINTING. 


545 


CHROMO-LITHOGRAPHY. 


Sweet,  1855  ;  narrow  distributing  rollers  carrying 
Tarious  inks  and  laying  them  in  belts  on  the  inking- 
roUer. 

Baker  and  HiU,  1863  ;  a  continnons  sheet  of 
paper  is  printed  in  two  colors,  by  intermittent 
motion  and  successive  exposure  to  two  reciprocating 
platens  carrying  forms  which  receive  their  specilic 
colors  from  their  own  set  of  inking-rollers. 

In  Baylies  and  Wood,  1S67,  an  oscillating  frame 
carries  a  series  of  rollers  which  are  brought  in  con- 
tact with  fountain  rollers  of  a  series  of  fountains, 
each  canying  ditferent  colored  ink  ;  and  the  ink  is 
communicated  by  another  series  of  rollers  to  the 
segmental  rollers,  which  in  turn  communicate  the 
ink  to  a  set  of  rollers  common  to  all,  and  by  which 
the  type  is  inked  in  strips  of  various  colors. 

Slater,  1868  ;  adjustable  parallel  inking-tables, 
each  carrying  its  o«ti  color  and  furnishing  it  to  a 
belt  of  corresponding  \vidth  on  the  inking-roller. 

Hunt,  1S6S  ;  two  forms,  two  impressions,  ink- 
rollers  with  bands  of  colors. 

In  Dunk's  press  the  sheet  is  held  by  the  nippers 
while  it  receives  the  colors  consecutively.  There 
are  two  sectional  cyUndei-s  revolving  in  unison,  one 

Fig  1283. 


Owomatic  Printing-Prtss. 

of  them  carrying  the  required  number  of  forms  and 
the  other  a  corresponding  number  of  tvmpans,  while 
a  skeleton  cylinder  contains  the  nippers.  The  sheet 
is  retained  unril  fully  printed,  in  the  same  nippers, 
which  present  it  to  the  successive  forms,  from  each 
of  which  it  receives  an  impression  in  a  ditferent  color. 

The  nipper  shafts  are  joumaled  in  wheels  of  larger 
diameter  than  the  platen-cylinder,  and  the  series  of 
nippers  outnumber  the  platen  surfaces.  The  platen- 
cylinder  has  longitudinal  recesses  in  its  periphery, 
into  which  the  nipper-shafts  enter  when  in  proxim- 
ity to  the  form-cylinder,  and  by  the  larger  diameter 
of  the  nipper-wheels  the  sheets  are  earned  to  a  fresh 
surface  at  each  revolution  to  receive  the  portion  put 
on  in  fresh  color.  The  inking-rollers  are  moved  ra- 
dially, to  bring  them  to  their  proper  type  and  to 
avoid  the  forms  carrjing  another  color,  by  cam- 
grooves  which  give  the  neces.sarj-  motion  to  their 
journal-frames.  The  distributors  have  their  recipro- 
cation by  the  obliquity  of  their  motive-wheel. 

A  valuable  article  on  the  colors  aud  mixing  of 
35 


colors  for  chromatic  printing  may  be  found  in  Ring- 
wait's  "  Encyclopedia  of  Printing,"  pp.  109-112. 

Printing  in  colors  by  a  succession  of  colors  super- 
imposed as  to  those  portions  which  are  foraied  by 
the  blending  of  tints  is  now  done  by  the  lithogi-.iphic 
process.     See  Chromo-lithogk.^phy. 

Chro-mat'ic  Ther-mom'e-ter.  When  fue 
edge  of  a  rectangular  plate  of  glass  is  apjilied  to  a 
piece  of  heated  metal,  or  other  substance  having  a 
temperature  different  from  that  of  the  glass,  and 
exposed  to  a  beam  of  polaiized  light,  colored  fringes 
are  developed.  As  the  diifei-ent  tints  depend  on 
the  different  temperatures  of  the  glass  (which  is 
supposed  to  be  kuown),  and  that  of  the  object  to 
which  it  is  applied,  the  color  of  the  central  fringe 
affords  a  means  of  inferring  approximately  the  tem- 
perature of  the  substance.     Biiaxde. 

Chro-mat'ic  Type.  Type  made  in  parts,  which 
are  inked  of  various  colors  and  separately  impressed, 
so  as  to  unite  into  a  variegated  whole. 

Chro 'ma-scope.  An  instrument  to  exhibit  the 
three  optical  etl'ects  of  colors  :  — 

1.  The  refraction  of  prisms  and  lenses. 

2.  The  transmission  of  light  through  transparent 
media. 

3.  The  reflection  of  speculum  s. 

Chro 'ma-trope.    An  arrangement  in  a  magic- 
lantern  similar  in  its  effe<:t 
to  the  kaleidoscope.     The  Fig.  12St 

pictures  are  produced  by        r 
brilliant     designs     being        | 
painted  upon  two  circular        I 
glasses,    and    the   glasses      •7#=§i^ 
being  made  to  rotate  in  J       * 
different   directions.     An 
endless  variety  of  changes        _ 
in  the  pattern  are  caused  CiromaiTope 

by  turning  the 

wheel,  sometimes  slowly,  then  quickly, 

backward  and  forward. 

Chro 'ma-type.  (Photography.)  A 
process  in  which  the  chromic  acid  is  de- 
oxidized. There  are  several  modes  of 
getting  photographs  by  the  chrominesalts 
preferably  the  bichromate  of  potash. 

Chro-meid'o-scope.  The  same  as 
DErrscoPE  (which  see). 

Chro  mi-om'e-ter.  An  instniment 
for  determining  the  purity  of  water  by  its 
colorlessness.  It  consists  of  a  glass  tube 
of  about  a  yard  in  length,  closed  at  the 
end  by  a  cork,  and  resting  upon  a  white 
dish  of  porcelain.  A  green  tinge  is  jiro- 
duced  by  minute  algae,  a  white  opacity  often  by 
fungoid  growths  ;  iron  salts  are  indicated  by  a  pecu- 
liar ochry  color. 

Chro'mi-um.  Equivalent,  26.4;  symbol,  Cr.  ; 
specific  gra^^ty,  6.81  ;  is  infusible  excejit  with  an 
oxy.-pyd.  blow-pipe.  A  grayish-white,  brittli',  hni-d 
metal,  aud  combined  with  iron  makes  an  alloy  which 
resists  all  tools  of  steel,  and  is  used  for  safes. 

Compounds  of  chromium  make  beautiful  pigments, 
and  affnnl  colors  for  glass,  porcelain,  and  enamels. 

Chro'mo.  A  contraction  of  chromo-lithrogi-aph 
adopted  by  Mr.  Prang,  of  Boston,  for  reasons  of 
brevity  aud  as  a  trade-mark  to  indicate  his  produc- 
tions.    See  CHni)MO-LiTHor,p..iPHT. 

Chro'mo-li-thog'ra-phy.  The  art  of  color- 
stone  drnuing  as  indicated  by  the  three  Greek 
words  from  which  the  name  is  derived.  Color- 
piinting  was  first  ajiplied  in  Europe  to  illuminating 
missals  and  printing  playing-cards.  (.See  Chfd.matic 
Pkintin'g.)  The  printing  in  a  number  of  colors  on 
wooden  blocks  or  metallic  plates  was  never  success- 


CHROltO-LITHOGRAPHY. 


546 


CHRONOGRAPH. 


fill  in  an  artistic  point  of  view,  inasmucli  as  the 
gradations  of  light  and  shade  can  only  be  expressed 
by  lines  of  diti'erent  thickness  and  by  isolated  dots, 
and  do  not  admit  of  the  complete  blending  of  tints 
necessary  to  imitate  the  effect  of  an  oil-painting. 
Tills  was  accomplished  when  the  art  of  lithography 
Wiis  brought  in  aid.  Baxter,  1803-1861,  in  England, 
produc;'d  some  really  pretty  work  by  a  combination 
of  metallic  plates  and  wooden  blocks. 

Lithography  was  invented  by  Alois  Senefelder, 
who  was  born  at  Prague,  1771.  (See  LitH(igk.\phy.) 
In  short,  it  may  be  described  as  drawing  upon 
stone  with  a  material  which,  when  treated  with 
certain  chemicals,  will  take  up  the  printer's  ink 
when  rolled  up.  Senefelder,  even  at  that  early 
d  ite  in  the  history  of  the  art,  spoke  of  the  possi- 
bility of  making  fac-sirailes  of  oil-paintings.  Storch 
aid  Kram.M',  of  B,'rlin,  successfully  reproduced  oil- 
paintings  by  this  process  (1840  - 1850). 

In  making  chronio-lithogra|ihs,  an  outline  draw- 
ing is  made  by  tracing,  and  this  is  transferred  to  all 
the  stones  (one  for  each  color),  required  to  coin- 
])lete  the  picture  ;  so  as  to  secure  e.vactness  in  the 
corelation  of  all  parts  on  each  stone.  Within  these 
outlines,  and  upon  these  ditt'ereut  stones,  the  artist 
draws  the  different  tints  and  colors.  The  number 
of  stones,  or  plates,  needed  to  complete  the  chromo, 
varies  of  course  with  the  character  of  the  picture  to 
be  reproduced.  The  highest  number  of  stones, 
each  representing  one  tint  or  color,  emjjloyed  by 
Prang  upon  the  famous  chromo  called  "Family 
Scene  in  Pompeii,"  was  4.3.  An  artist  must  have 
njt  only  a  high  degree  of  skill  in  drawing,  but 
must  possess  a  fine  feeling  for  and  a  thorough 
knowledge  of  color,  and  when  a  picture  is  presented 
to  him  he  must  be  able  to  tell,  approximately  at 
least,  what  number  of  plates  will  be  required  to  re- 
produce it,  and  in  what  order  the  tints  and  colors 
must  follow  each  other.  Furthermore,  when  draw- 
ing a  new  stoue  for  a  chromo  in  process  of  printing, 
he  must  not  only  be  able  to  calculate  what  effect 
the  tint  or  color  in  which  the  plate  is  to  be  printed 
will  have  upon  the  preceding  tints  or  colors,  —  which 
latter  will  partly,  or  perhaps  wholly,  underlie  the 
new  color,  —  but  he  must  also  keep  in  view  the  tints 
and  colors  still  to  be  added,  which  again  in  their 
turn  will  tend  to  modify  or  alter  all  those  already 
printed.  Thus  it  will  be  seen  that  the  accusation 
.sometimes  leveled  against  chromos  —  viz.,  that  they 
are  merely  nwdianical  productions  —  is  wholly  un- 
founded. 

To  treat  it  more  in  detail,  it  may  be  said  that  the 
drawing  is  made  upon  the  slab  with  a  sort  of  colored 
soap,  wliich  adheres  to  the  stone  and  enters  into  a 
chemical  combination  with  it  after  the  application 
of  certain  acids  and  gum.  When  the  drawing  is 
complete,  the  slab  is  put  on  the  press,  and  carefully 
dimpened  with  a  sponge.  The  oil  color  is  then  ap- 
plied with  a  leathern  roller.  The  parts  of  the  slab 
which  contain  no  drawing,  being  wet,  resist  the 
ink  ;  while  the  drawing  itself,  being  oily,  repels  the 
water,  but  retains  the  color  applied. 

In  chromo,  the  first  proof  is  a  light  gi'ound-tint, 
covering  nearly  all  the  surface.  It  h:i,s  only  a  faint, 
shadowy  resemblance  to  the  completed  picture.  It 
is  in  fact  rather  a  shadow  than  an  outline.  The 
next  proof,  from  the  second  stone,  contains  all  the 
shades  of  another  color.  This  process  is  repeated 
again  and  again  ;  frequently,  as  often  as  thirty 
times.  The  number  of  impressions,  however,  does 
not  necessarily  indicate  the  number  of  colors  in  a 
painting,  because  the  colors  and  tints  are  greatly 
multiplied  by  combinations  created  in  the  process 
of  printing  one  over  another.     In   twenty-five  im- 


pressions, it  is  sometimes  necessary  and  possible  to 
produce  a  hundred  distinct  shades. 

The  last  impression  is  made  by  an  engraved  stone, 
which  produces  a  resemblance  to  canvas.  On 
proper  registering,  the  entire  possibility  of  pro- 
ducing a  picture  at  every  stage  of  its  progress  de- 
pends. "  Registering"  is  that  part  of  a  pressman's 
work  which  consists  in  so  arranging  the  paper  in 
the  press,  that  it  shall  receive  the  impression  on 
exactly  the  same  spot  of  every  sheet. 

Chro'mo-type.  1.  A  sheet  printed  in  colors. 
The  modes  are  various,  but  the  usual  plan  is  to  pre- 
pare a  block  for  each  color,  or  a  form  for  each  color, 
and  to  place  the  paper  upon  each  in  succession,  the 
exact  place  being  preserved  at  each  impression  by 
means  of  register  pins  or  a  similar  device.  See 
Chrom.vtic  Pkinting  ;  Chro.mo-lithogkaphy. 

2.  A  photogi'aphic  picture  produced  in  the  natu- 
ral colors.  This  was  long  sought  by  Niepce  de  St. 
Victor,  and  he  announced  his  success  even  with  yel- 
low, but  no  way  has  been  discovered  of  fixing  these 
heliochrnniic  pictures. 

Chroino-scy'lo-graph.  A  colored  picture 
produced  by  a  succession  of  wooden  blocks,  each 
bearing  its  separate  color.  See  Chro-MAtic  Pkint- 
ing. 

Chro'no-graph.    A  time  indicator. 

Astronomical  intervals  are  noted  by  pressing  a 
key  which  makes  one  dot  or  puncture  on  a  traveling 
strip  of  paper  and  another  at  the  end  of  the  observa- 
tion.    Such  a  tinie-i>aper  becomes  a  record. 

The  racer's  chronograph  is  one  which  deposits 
ink-spots  on  a  traveling  paper  at  the  start  and  ar- 
rival of  the  horses. 

Professor  Glaesner,  of  the  University  of  Liege, 
has  a  chronograph  for  the  measurement  of  very  mi- 
nute particles  of  time  by  the  application  of  electro- 
magnetism.  To  measure  the  velocity  of  a  cannon- 
ball,  a  series  of  targets,  consisting  of  hoops  inter- 
f  ected  by  wires,  are  placed  at  given  distances  apart. 
The  wires  of  each  hoop  communicate  with  a  separate 
electro-magnetic  apparatus,  by  which  an  iron  pencil- 
holder  is  kejit  in  an  unvarying  position  by  attraction 
so  long  as  the  circuit  is  not  interrupted.  Opposite 
and  close  to  this  pencil-holder  there  is  a  cylinder 
turning  on  its  axis  at  the  rate  of  four  revolutions  in 
a  second.  Its  surface,  which  is  covered  with  pa]'er, 
is  divided  into  five  hundred  parts  liy  lines  drawn 
parallel  to  its  axis,  so  that  each  part  represents  one 
two-thousandth  of  a  second.  Its  motion  is  eftected 
by  clock-work.  Now,  whenever  the  electric  cur- 
rent is  interrupted,  the  pencil-holder  ceases  to  be 
attracted,  and  falls  on  the  surface  of  the  cylinder, 
on  wliii-h  its  jiencil,  therefore,  describes  a  line. 
Whenever  the  circuit  is  completed  the  pencil-holder 
is  reattracted  and  leaves  the  paper.  Let  us  now 
suppose  a  cannon-ball  to  be  fired  through  all  these 
targets,  so  placed,  of  course,  as  to  lie  in  the  path  of 
the  curve  described  by  the  missile.  Each  time  it 
passes  through  one  of  the  hoops  it  snaps  asunder 
one  of  the  wires  ;  the  circuit  is  conseijuently  inter- 
rupted, the  pencil-holder  falls  and  marks  the  precise 
time  of  the  passage.  And  so  on,  from  target  to 
target,  each  of  which,  as  we  have  said,  is  connected 
with  a  separate  apparatus.  In  this  way  both  the 
space  and  the  time  employed  in  going  over  it  being 
determined,  the  velocity,  which  is  the  ratio  of  time 
to  space,  is  determined  also  to  a  fraction  of  one 
two-thousandth  of  a  second. 

Since  1848,  the  idea  of  recording  astronomical 
observations  by  galvanic  electricity  has  been  put  in 
successful  operation  by  several  individuals  ;  Pro- 
fessor Hilgard  of  the  coa^t  survey,  and  Professor 
Hough  of  the  Dudley  Observatory,  among  the  num- 


CHRONOMETER. 


547 


CHRONOMETER. 


l>er.  The  chronograph  of  the  latter  prints  with 
t^'pe  the  time  of  an  observation.  The  profes.sor  thus 
describes  it  in  brief.  The  plan  is  based  upon  the 
principle  of  using  separate  systems  of  mechanism 
for  the  fast  moving  type-wheel,  and  those  recording 
the  integer  minutes  and  seconds,  regulating  each 
with  electro-magnets  controlled  by  the  standard 
clock. 

I.  A  system  of  clock-work  carrying  a  type-wheel 
with  fifty  numbers  on  its  rim,  revoh-ing  once  every 
second  ;  one,  two,  or  parts  of  two  numbers  being 
always  printed,  so  that  hundredths  of  seconds  may 
be  indicated.  This  train  is  primarily  regulated  to 
move  uniformly  by  the  Frauenhofer  friction  balls, 
and  secondarily  by  an  electro-magnet  acting  on  the 
fast  moving  tj'pe-wheel,  and  controlled  by  the  stand- 
ard clock.  This  train  is  entirely  independent,  and 
can  be  stopped  at  pleasure,  without  interfering  with 
the  other  type-wheels. 

II.  A  system  of  clock-work  consisting  of  two  or 
more  shafts,  carrying  the  type-wheels  indicating 
the  minutes  and  seconds.  The  motion  of  this  train 
is  also  governed  by  an  electro-miignet,  controlled 
by  the  standard  clock,  operating  an  escapement,  in 
a  manner  analogous  to  the  action  of  an  ordinary 
clock  ;  every  motion  of  the  escapement  advancing 
the  tj'pe  one  number.  There  are  three  tyjie- wheels, 
indicating  minutes,  seconds,  and  hundredths  of 
seconds.  The  integer  seconds  are  advanced  at  every 
oscillation  of  the  standard  pendulum,  and  the 
minute,  at  the  end  of  each  complete  revolution  of 
the  seconds  wheel.  The  tj-jie-wheels  are  constructed 
of  bi'ass  disks,  around  the  circumference  of  which  is 
soldered  a  strip  of  electrotype  copper,  holding  sixty 
nuubers. 

The  record  is  made  by  an  armature  hammer,  the 
hammer  being  raised  by  weight  and  gear.  The 
types  are  inked  by  small  rollers.  The  paper  fillet, 
two  inches  in  width,  is  wound  on  a  small  spool, 
holding  about  forty  feet,  and  drawn  between  two 
roUei-s,  the  same  as  a  Jlorse  register.  Every  time 
the  hammer  falls,  the  fillet  is  advanced  about  one 
quarter  of  an  inch,  by  the  action  of  an  escapement 
driven  by  a  weight.  One  spool  of  paper  will  hold 
about  1 ,  200  observations,  including  the  spacing  for 
dirt'erent  objects.  This  same  escapement  is  also 
operated  by  an  electro-magnet,  under  the  control  of 
the  observer,  who,  by  pressing  a  key,  is  able  to  make 
spaces  of  any  width  between  the  prints. 

The  train  carrying  the  minutes  and  integer 
seconds  will  run  eight  houi-s  ;  the  gear  for  elevating 
the  hammer  will  deliver  800  blows  ;  and  the  train 
for  moving  the  paper  fillet  will  go  1,200  times 
without  winding.  The  f;ist  moving  train  runs  one 
hour  and  thirty-six  minutes  ;  but  since  this  train 
can  be  stopped  at  pleasure,  without  changing  the 
zero  of  the  type,  its  comparatively  brief  running  is 
not  a  serious  inconvenience. 

Chro-nom'e-ter.  1.  A  chronometer  is  a  meas- 
urer of  time,  and  this  general  meaning  would  include 
clocks,  watches  of  all  kinds,  clepsydras,  and  some 
other  devices,  such  as  hour-glasses  and  the  graduated 
candles  of  the  beloved  King  .Alfred.  The  term  is, 
however,  apjjlied  in  a  restricted  sense  to  those  hav- 
ing adjustments  and  compensations  for  the  fluctua- 
tions of  temperatur,'.  These  have  been  adapted  to 
the  clock  and  to  the  watch  :  in  the  former  the  mer- 
curial pL-ndulum  of  Graham  and  the  gridiron  pendu- 
lum of  Harrison  may  be  cited  ;  and  in  the  latter, 
the  expanding  and  contracting  balance-wheel,  de- 
pending upon  the  une  [Ual  expansion  under  changes 
of  temperature  of  two  different  metals.  AVith  the 
improvements  as  adapted  to  instruments  having  a 
balance-wheel  this  article  has  to  do. 


The  proposition  to  determine  longitude  at  sea  by 
means  of  a  timepiece  and  observation  for  noon  was 
made  by  Gemma  Frisius,  in  1530.  The  attempt  did 
not  fail  for  want  of  suggestions  ;  Alonzo  de  Santa 
Cruz  suggested  to  determine  it  by  the  variation  of 
the  compass-needle,  and  by  sand-and-water  tinie- 
[lieces,  wheel-work  moved  by  weights,  and  bv 
"  wicks  saturated  with  oil,"  which  were  supposed  to 
burn  equal  lengths  in  given  periods  of  time. 

During  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries 
the  Spanish,  Dutch,  French,  and  English  govern- 
ments had  offered  rewards  tbi-  an  instrument  which 
should  determine  longitude  within  a  certain  sf>eci- 
fied  degree  of  accuracy.  Sir  Isaac  Newton  sug- 
gested the  discovery  of  the  longitude  by  the  dial  of 
an  accurate  time-keeper,  and  the  Parliament  of 
Queen  Anne  in  1714  passed  an  act  granting  £10,000 
if  the  method  discovered  the  longitude  to  a  degree 
of  sixty  geographical  miles,  £15,000  if  to  forty  miles, 
£20,000  if  to  thirty  miles,  to  be  determined  by  a 
voyage  from  England  to  some  port  in  .-Vmerica. 

John  Hanison,  bora  in  1693  at  Faulby,  near 
Poutefract,  in  England,  undertook  the  task,  and 
succeeded  after  repeated  attempts,  covering  the  period 
1728-1761.  His  first  timepiece  was  made  in  1735  ; 
the  second  in  1739  ;  the  third  in  1749  ;  the  fourth 
in  1755,  the  year  of  the  great  earthquake  at  Lisbon. 
In  1758  his  instrument  was  sent  in  a  king's  ship  to 
Jamaica,  which  it  reached  5"  slow.  On  the  return 
to  Portsmouth,  after  a  five  months'  a'iseuce,  it 
was  1'  5"  wrong,  showing  an  error  of  eighteen 
miles  and  within  the  limits  of  the  act.  He  received 
the  reward  of  forty  years'  diligence  in  instalments. 
He  died  in  1776. 

Arnold    made    many    im-  Fig.  1C85. 

provements,  and  received 
government  rewards  amount- 
ing to  £3,000. 

Mr.    Denison    states    that  | 
Earnshaw  brought  the  chro- 
nometer to  its   present  per- 
fection. 

The  principles  of  the  com- 
pensation balance  are  ex- 
plained under  Compexs.\- 
Tiox  B.\L.\NXE  (which  see). 

a  a',  box  and  its  lid. 

b,  chronometer  suspended 
in  gimbals. 

c,  chronometer  balance. 
Chronoraetere   are    known  Chronometer. 

as  ship's  and  pocket. 

The  rating  of  chronometers  is  usually  conducted 
at  government  observatories. 

"The  instruments  are  sent  from  the  different 
watch-makers  and  received  at  stated  periods.  They 
remain  the  greater  part  of  a  year,  their  rates  being 
noted  daily  by  two  persons.  The  best  receive 
piizes  and  are  purcha.sed  for  the  navy  ;  others  re- 
ceive certificates  of  excellence ;  others  are  unre- 
warded. On  their  arrival  in  January,  they  are  left 
to  the  ordinary  atmospheric  temjierature  for  some 
months  ;  their  rates  are  taken  under  these  condi- 
tions. 

The  apartment  is  then  heated  to  a  tropical  tem- 
perature, and  the  rate  taken. 

They  are  then  placed  for  a  certain  period  in  trays 
over  the  stove,  and  the  rate  taken. 

They  are  then  placed  in  a  refrigerating  chamber 
cooled  by  a  freezing  mixture,  and  the  rate  taken 
under  this  artificial  arctic  temperature. 

Their  capacity  to  stand  these  variations  consti- 
tutes their  value,  and  their  actual  range  of  exposure 
may  be  estimated   at  180°  —  from  the  +  120°  of 


CHRONOMETER-ESCAPEMENT. 


548 


CHUCK. 


Fig.  1286. 


Aden  and  Fernando  Po  to  the  —  60°  of  the  Arctic 
regions  wlien  frozen  in  the  pack  of  ice  and  watching 
through  the  long,  long  night. 

Tlie   two   columns   on    which    most    reliance    is 
placed  in  the  schedule  of  performances  are  :  — 
a.   "  Difference  between  greatest  and  least  rate." 
4.    "Greatest    ditfereuce   between  one  week  and 
the  ne.xt." 

2.  {.Uiisic.)  An  instrument  to  indicate  musical 
time.     A  victrotiome. 

Chro-nom'e-ter-es-cape'meat  The  chronom- 
eter-escapement was  invented  by  Herthoud,  anil  im- 
proved by  Harrison,  Arnolil,  Eamshaw,  and  Dent. 
It  is  the  most  perfect,  delicate,  and  sati.sfactory  in 
its  opemtion,  of  all  the  escapements.  It  is  also  kept 
more  carefully,  at  least  in  marine  chronometers,  as 
the  gimbal-joint  hanging  enables  it  to  maintain  a 
constant  position  relatively  to  the  horizon,  and  it  is 
carefully  guarded  from  jars. 

There  are  several  points  which  distinguish  it  from 
other  escapements,  and  several  which  it  has  in  com- 
mon with  one  or  more  of  the  others. 

The  piece  carrying  the  dctent-pallct  is  a  spring, 
and  its  motion  to  free  the  tooth  of  the  escape-wheel 
is  by  the  contact  of  a  pin  or  tooth  on  the  verge  with 
a  secondary  spring  attached  to  the  former. 

As  the  balance  oscillates  in  the  direction  of  the 
arrow,  its  tooth  V  comes  in 
contact  with  the  secondary 
spring  a,  and  presses  the 
lever,  so  that  its  tooth  7"  is 
freed  from  the  tooth  of  the 
escape-wheel.    A  ruby  pal- 
let P  on  the  verge  receives 
the     impact     of    another 
scape-tooth,  and  the  bal- 
ance receives  its  impulse 
thereby.     As  the  balance 
returns,  its  verge-tooth  V 
presses    past    the     spring 
without  moving  the  lever 
which  rests  against  a  stop. 
The  impulse  is  commu- 
ChronometeT-Escapement.     nicated    from    the    scape- 
wheel   direct   to  the  bal- 
ance-arbor, as  it  is  also  in  the  duplex  movement, 
not  as  in  the  lever  movement  where  a  pivoted  lever 
intervenes. 

Arnold's  chronometer-escapement  is  substantial- 
ly the  same  ;  a  secoudary  spring  attaclied  to  the 
spring-lever  is  made  etiective  in  vibrating  the  latter 
when  moved  in  one  direction,  and  in  the  other  is  so 
pliable  as  to  allow  the  verge-tooth  to  pass  freely. 
As  just  e.xi)Iained,  the  stroke  wliich  raises  the  spring- 
lever  withdraws  the  detent  from  the  tooth  of  the 
scape-wheel,  and  at  the  same  time  that  this  tooth 
escapes,  another  strikes  a  ])allet  on  the  arbor  of  the 
balance,  and  restores  to  the  balance-wheel  the  force 
lost  dunng  a  vibration. 

The  free  movement  of  the  balance  is  only  opposed 
at  one  point  during  a  complete  oscillation. 

Chro'no-met'ric  Gov'ern-or.  A  device  by 
which  a  time-measurer  .set  to  work  at  a  prescribed 
and  ecpiable  rate  i<  m.ade  to  regulate  the  motion  of  an 
eiii;ine.  Invented  by  Wood  ami  improved  bySiemen. 
Chron'o-scope.  Invented  by  Profes.sor  Wheat- 
stone  in  1S40,  to  mea-sure  small  intervals  of  time. 
It  has  been  ajiplied  to  ascertaining  the  velocity  of 
projectiles.  In  Pouillet's  ehronoscope,  a  galvanic 
current  of  very  short  duration  makes  a  niagnetic- 
neeille  deviate,  the  duration  of  the  cuiTent  being 
measured  by  the  amount  of  deviation ;  by  thia 
nu>ans  as  short  a  time  as  some  thousandths  of  a 
second  can  be  measured.     Schutz's  ehronoscope  was 


em[)loyed  by  the  Ordnance  Department  at  the  ex- 
perimental firings  at  Foi'tress  Monroe.  The  ap- 
paratus, operated  by  electricity,  is  described  as  fol- 
lows : —  Two  wire  targets  are  placed,  one  about 
twenty  yards  from  the  gun,  and  the  second  about 
the  same  distance  farther  on.  These  are  connected 
by  a  fine  insulated  wire  with  the  instrument,  whiili 
is  about  400  yards  in  the  rear  of  the  ordnance.  The 
instrument  is  adjusted  on  a  plan  similar  to  an 
electro- ballistic  machine.  When  the  shot  is  fired,  it 
cuts  the  wire  in  the  first  target,  and  then  in  like 
manner  cuts  the  wire  in  the  second  target,  the  in- 
stant each  wire  is  severed  being  recorded  by  the 
instrument.  The  interval  of  time  occupied  by  the 
ball  in  passing  from  one  target  to  the  other  furnishes 
the  data  for  obtaining  the  initial  velocity  of  the 
shot. 

Noble's  ehronoscope  is  used  for  mea.suring  the 
Telocity  of  the  shot  during  its  passage  through  the 
gun.  The  ball  presses  upon  a  series  of  disks  which 
in  moving  break  or  make  electric  connections, 
which  are  recorded  on  a  rapidly  rotating  disk  which 
has  a  known  rate. 

Chrys'o-type.  (Photography.)  A  proce.ss  by  Sir 
John  Herschel  in  which  a  sheet  of  paper  is  satuated 
with  a  solution  of  ammonio-citrate  of  iron  dried  in 
the  dark.  Exposed  in  a  camera  or  printing-frame, 
the  faint  picture  is  developed  by  brushing  over  with  a 
neutral  solution  of  chloride  of  gold  washed  in  water 
repeatedly,  fi.\ed  by  a  weak  solution  of  iodide  of  po- 
tassium, and  then  finally  washed  and  dried. 

Chrys-tal'lo-type.  (Photoyrnphij.)  A  name 
given  to  a  kind  of  jiicture  on  a  translucent  ujaterial. 
Opaloft/pc. 

Chuck.  1.  An  appendage  to  a  lathe.  Beingscrewed 
on  to  the  nose  of  the  mandrel,  it  is  made  to  gi'asp 
the  work  to  be  turned.  There  are  several  varieties, 
as  — 


Arbor. 

Geometric 

Branch. 

Oblicpie. 

Centeiing. 

Oval. 

Concentric. 

Plain. 

Driver. 

Prong. 

Eccentric. 

Ring. 

Elastic. 

Screw. 

Epicvcloidal. 

Surface. 

E.xpanding. 

Universal. 

An  expansion  or  elastic  chuck  a,  having  a  certain 
range  of  capacity,  may  be  formed  by  giving  a  quad- 
Fig  1287. 


Expansion  Chuck. 


CHUCK. 


549 


CHURN. 


rafid  cleft  to  the  end  of  a  cylindrical  tulie,  whose 
other  end  screws  on  to  the  threaded  mandrel  of  the 
lathe-head.     The  object  to  be  turned  is  thrust  into 
the  chuck,  expanding  the  quadripartite  socket. 
b  is  Beach's  patent  drill-chuck. 

c,  center-drill  chuck. 

d,  Warwick  chuck. 

e,  Morse's  adjustable  chuck. 

A  circular  saw  of  small  diameter  may  be  mounted 
on  a  lathe-chuck  /,  which  has  an  a.xial  tenon  to  fit 
the  hole  in  the  saw,  and  a  central  screw  or  nut  to 
ti.x  the  same. 

Opticians  use  this  mode  for  the  small,  thin  saws 
with  which  they  out  the  notches  in  the  tubes  serv- 
ing as  springs  in  pocket-telescopes. 

Carvers  in  ivory  mount  their  saws  in  a  similar 
manner.  The  saws  for  cutting  the  nicks  in  screw- 
lieads,  and  those  for  making  slits  in  gas-burners, 
may  be  chucked  or  mounted  on  a  mandrel. 

■The  small,  wooden  mechanism  for  the  interior  of 
pianos  is  cut  by  saws  similarly  mounted. 

(I  is  a  scroll  chuck  with  three  radially  adjustable 
dogs. 

h  is  a  planer  chuck. 
i  is  a  screw  chuck. 
Ic  is  an  independent  jaw  chuck. 
The  eccentric  chuck  is  designed  for  changing  the 
center  of  the  work,  and  consists  of  two   principal 
pieces  ;  one  attachable  to  the  mandrel  of  the  lathe 
and  the  other  adjustable  in  a  plane  at  right  angles 
to  the  a.vis  of  motion,  in  a  dovetail  groove  of  the 
former  piece.     The  sliding-piece  is  moved  by  a  set 
screw. 

The  elliptic  or  oval  chuck  was  invented  by  Abra- 
ham Sharp,  and  consists  of  three  parts,  the  chuck, 
the  stiller,  and  the  eccentric  circle.  The  chuck  is 
secvired  to  and  partakes  of  the  circular  motion  of 
the  mandrel.  In  front  of  the  chuck  is  a  dovetail 
groove  for  the  reception  of  a  slider,  from  the  center 
of  which  projects  a  screw  to  which  the  work  is  at- 
tached. As  the  work  turns  round,  it  hiis  a  sliding 
motion  acro.ss  the  center  which  generates  an  ellipse. 
Tile  sliding  motion  is  produced  by  an  eccentric 
circle  or  ring  of  brass  fastened  to  the  puppet  of  the 
lathe  close  to  the  collar  in  which  the  neck  of  the 
mandrel  runs. 

A  straight-line  chuck 

is  used  in  a  rose-engine 

I  when  the  patterns  are 

to  be  made  to  follow  a 

,^  straight    instead   of    a 

circular  direction. 

A  geometric  chuck 
has  a  radial  slider  to 
which  the  work  is  at- 
tached, and  this  is  so 
governed  as  to  give  a 
combined  circular  mo- 
tion and  radial  oscilla- 
tion to  the  work  rela- 
tively to  the  tool.  See 
Geometric-lathe; 
rose-engin'e. 

Fig.  1288  shows  three 
forms  of  lathe-chucks 
liaving  jaws  to  grasp 
the  tool  or  the  work, 
as  the  case  may  be. 

a.  The  stock  of  the 

chuck  terminates  in  a 

conical,  threaded  head, 

Ckucka.  which  opens  or  closes 

the    jaws,   wliich     are 

threaded,  and  slide  in  grooves  in  the  conical  shell. 


Fig.  128? 


b.  The  nut  has  a  conical  opening  in  the  end 
which  operates  against  the  inclined  backs  of  the 
jaws,  to  clamp  them  upon  the  drill ;  when  relieved 
they  are  expanded  by  springs. 

c.  This  chuck  belongs  to  that  class  which  is 
constructed  with  screws  for  the  purpose  of  operating 
the  jaws.  It  is  provided  with  a  double  screw,  the 
pitch  of  one  being  just  half  that  of  the  other,  to 
0{)erate  the  jaws  simultaneously  in  opiKisite  direc- 
tions so  that  they  will  approach  or  recede  from  the 
center  at  e(iual  speed,  thereby  forming  a  self-center- 
ing mechanism. 

2.  (Nautical.)  d  is  a,  warping  chtcck  in  wliich 
hawsers  or  ropes  run.  Friction  rollere  prevent  the 
wearing  of  the  rope.  It  is  used  on  the  rail  or  other 
portion  of  a  shi]i's  side. 

Chuck-lathe.  A  lathe  in  which  the  work  is 
held  by  a  socket  or  grasping  device  attached  to  the 
revolving  mandrel  of  the  head-stock.  It  is  used  for 
turning  short  work  such  as  cups,  spools,  balls,  and 
a  gieat  variety  of  ornamental  and  u.seful  articles. 
See  Chuck. 

Churn.  A  vessel  in  which  milk  or  cream  is  agi- 
tated to  induce  the  separation  of  the  oily  globules 
from  the  other  portions. 

The  ancient  mode  of  making  butter  was  probably 
the  same  as  practiced  by  the  Bedouin  Arabs  and 
the  Moors  in  Barbary  at  the  present  day.  The 
cream  is  placed  in  a  goat-skiu  and  agitated  by  hand 
or  by  treading  it  with  the  feet. 

The  butter  and  honey  mentioned  by  Isaiah  vii. 
15,  is  to  this  day  an  article  of  food  in  the  East. 
The  butter  and  honey  are  mixed  and  the  bread  dipped 
in  it. 

The  word  chamea,  rendered  butter  in  our  transla- 
tion of  the  Bible,  seems  to  have  I'eferred  to  several 
forms  of  milk  and  its  productions,  such  as  sweet  or 
sour  milk,  cream,  thick  milk,  curd,  or  butter.  The 
latter  Ls  perhaps  the  most  infrequent  form  of  its 
use,  but  is  evidently  intended  in  those  passages 
where  the  article  is  used  for  anointing.  It  was 
"butter  of  kine  and  milk  of  sheep"  that  made 
Jeshuruu  "wax  fat  and  kick."  Abraham  "took 
butter  and  milk  and  the  calf  which  he  had  dressed 
and  set  before "  three  stranger  visitors.  Sisera 
"a.sked  water,  and"  Jael  the  wife  of  Heber  the 
Kenite  "  gave  him  milk  ;  she  brought  forth  butter 
in  a  lordly  dish "  before  she  nailed  him  to  the 
ground  with  a  tent-jiin  and  a  hammer.  Job  refers 
to  the  time  when  he  anointed  his  feet,  or  as  he  ex- 
pressed it,  "washed  my  steps  with  butter,  and  the 
rock  poured  me  out  rivers  of  oil."  "Surely  the 
churning  of  milk  bringeth  forth  butter."  The 
reader  can  pick  out  the  various  probabilities  of  each 
case  for  himself.  It  must  be  mentioned,  however, 
that  the  word  rendered  clmrning  may  be  just  as 
correctly  rendered  pressing,  and  may  refer  to  the 
pressing  of  cnrd  to  rid  it  of  the  whey.  Sweet  milk 
occupied  but  a  limited  space  in  the  Oriental 
economy,  ancient  or  modern.  It  necessarily  be- 
came soon  soured,  and  tliey  accepted  the  situation. 
The  leban  (coagulated  milk)  of  the  Arabs  was  aud 
is  the  usual  fomi  in  which  milk  is  used. 

The  Turks  yet  show  their  Tartar  origin  in  the 
preference  for  sour  over  sweet  milk. 

We  have  a  mention  of  butter  in  the  description 
of  the  Scythians  by  Herodotus  (b.  484  B.  c. ). 
"These  people,"  says  he,  "pour  the  milk  of  their 
mares  into  wooden  vessels,  cause  it  to  be  violently 
stirred  or  shaken  by  their  blind  slaves,  and  sejiarate 
the  part  tliat  arises  to  the  surface,  as  they  consider 
it  more  valuable  and  more  delicious  than  that  which 
is  collected  below  it."     This  is  evidently  butter. 

Hippocrates   (460    B.    c.)   describes    the    process 


CHURN. 


550 


CHUKN. 


more  clearly,  stating  that  the  lighter  portion  (but- 
ter) rises  to  the  top,  and  the  other  part  was  sepa- 
rated into  a  liijuid  and  solid  portion  {curd  and 
whey),  of  which  the  Ibrnier  was  pressed  and  dried 
{chj:cse). 

Ths  butter  is  recommended  by  this  "father  of 
medicine "  as  an  ointment,  and  subseciuently  by 
Galen,  A.  D.  131. 

The  poet  Ana.xandrides,  describing  the  wedding 
of  Iphicrates,  who  married  the  daughter  of  Cotys, 
king  of  Thrace,  wondered  that  the  latter  people  ate 
butter. 

The  references  to  butter  are  occasional  only  ;  by 
Aristotle,  who  speaks  of  it  as  the  oily  part  of  milk  ; 
by  .Strabo,  who  speaks  of  its  use  by  the  Ethiopians  ; 
by  Plutarch,  who  speaks  of  a  .Spartan  lady  anointed 
with  butter,  anii  smelling  so  loudly  that  Berenice, 
hin-  hostess,  positively  could  not  stand  it.  Hereuice 
on  her  part  smelt  so  strongly  of  rancid  oil,  that  the 
Spartan  was  happy  to  leave. 

Dioscorides  and  Galen  refer  to  the  u.se  of  butter 
as  a  substitute  for  olive-oil  as  a  dressing  for  table  use 
or  for  leather.  Lamp-black,  obtained  by  the  burning 
of  butter,  they  recommend  for  an  eye-.salve. 

Pliny  describes  the  use  of  butter  and  cheese  by 
the  "  barbarous"  Germans.  The  Romans  used  but- 
ter for  anointing,  the  Germans  for  a  hair-dressing, 
the  Egyiitians  for  burning.  None  of  them  probably 
knew  the  taste  of  good,  liard,  clean  butter. 

The  Christians  of  Egy|)t  used  butter  instead  of  oil 
in  their  lamps  in  the  third  century.  It  was  easier 
to  raise  cattle  than  olives,  apparently,  in  that  laud 
where  it  is  said  it  now  costs  less  than  three  dollars 
to  raise  a  child  to  maturity. 

The  Arabians  and  Turks  have  a  preparation  of 
curdled  milk,  called  Icb.in  by  the  former  and  yaouH 
by  the  latter,  which  they  preserve  in  bags.  In  ap- 
pearance it  resembles  pressed  curds  after  they  have 
been  broken  by  the  hand  ;  mi.\ed  with  water  it  be- 
comes a  cooling  drink,  ami  is  said  to  be  wholesome 
and  serviceable  in  febrile  diseases.  It  probably 
formed  the  last  meal  of  Sisera. 

Fresh  ynourt  is  much  used  as  food  by  the  natives, 
and  Europeans  soon  acquire  a  taste  for  it. 

The  butter  received  at  Constantinople  from  the 
Crimea  and  Kuban  is  not  salted.  It  is  prepared  by 
melting  in  large  pans  and  skimming  off  the  impuri- 
ties which  rise  to  the  surface.  Butter  thus  jirepared 
is  called  gluo  in  India.  It  is  used  for  food  by  some 
castes  and  for  anointing.  Ghee  is  used  to  soak  the 
wood  on  which  the  victim  of  the  suttee  is  sacri- 
ficed. 

The  classes  and  varieties  of  churns  are  so  numer- 
ous that  justice  cannot  be  done  to  the  subject  within 
admissible  bounds.  The  following  classitication, 
with  an  example  of  each,  will  afford  a  glance  at  the 
distinctive  kinds. 

1.  The  plunger  churn,  a  represents  the  vertical- 
dasher  plunger  churn.  A  spring  assists  in  the  re- 
coil or  lifting  motion .  Rotation  of  the  dasher  may 
be  given  by  a  s[)iral  on  the  stem,  or  by  giving  a  spi- 
ral set  to  the  blades. 

b  is  a  horizontally  operated  dasher  churn. 

2.  Bnrrel  churn,  c  has  a  pair  of  dashers  revolv- 
ing in  different  directions  by  distinct  cranks.  In  a 
modified  form,  the  barrel  is  mounted  on  trunnions 
and  is  itself  rotated. 

d  has  a  stationary  barrel  and  one  rotated  dasher. 

3.  Box  churn,  c  has  two  dashers  revolving  at  dif- 
ferent speeds.  The  inner  dasher  is  driven  by  the 
crank-axis  direct ;  the  outer  one  by  an  internally 
geared  wheel,  a  pinion,  and  a  third  wheel  on  the 
sleeve  which  carries  the  dasher.  The  arrangement 
of  wheels  is  shown  at  «'. 


4.  Tub  churn,  /has  a  vertical  dasher-shaft  ro- 
tated by  wheel  and  pinion  from  the  crunk-shalt. 

(J  has  two  dashers  rotating  in  ditfereut  directions, 
one  di'iven  by  the  central  axis  and  the  other  by  the 


Fig.  1289. 


Qiums 


sleeve  axis.  Each  axis  has  its  own  pinion,  driven 
by  a  common  wheel. 

h  has  a  pair  of  parallel  dashers  driven  in  contrary 
directions  by  the  master-wheel,  which  acts  upon  the 
respective  pinions. 

5.  Atmospheric  churn,  i ;  as  the  dasher  rises,  the 
valve  on  the  upper  end  of  its  stem  falls  and  admits 
air,  the  valve  on  the  hollow  guide-rod  closing.     As 


CHURN. 


551 


CHURN. 


the  dasher  descends,  the  action  of  the  valve  is  re-  | 
versed,  and  the  air  issues  into  the  milk  at  the  open- 
ings in  the  lower  end  of  the  hollow  stem. 

j  has  a  bellows  arrangement  supplementary  to  the 
beating  action  of  the  dashers. 

There  are  many  other  varieties  of  atmospheric 
churns  ;  some  have  cup-shaped  dashers,  to  cairy  air 
down  into  the  milk  ;  others  operate  by  centrifugal 
action. 

6.  Compressor  chums,  k  has  a  rubbing  or  grind- 
ing action  on  the  cream  in  the  upper  chamber,  the 
intention  being  to  break  the  little  sacs  which  con- 
tain the  butjTic  particles. 

7.  The  Mocker  churn,  I,  Fig.  1290. 

8.  The  Pendulum  churn,  m. 

The  churn  rests  in  the  swinging  frame,  the  up- 
rights of  which  are  slotted  for  traverse  of  the  axial 


Oiurjts. 


pin,  and  have  segmental  bars  bearing  upon  the 
dasher  crank-shaft,  and  causing  its  reciprocating 
rotation. 

9.  The  Divided  dasher  chum,  n,  has  a  pair  of 
dashers  vertically  reciprocating  and  operated  by  the 
respective  cranks  on  the  common  shaft. 

10.  The  Revolving  and  Reciprocal ing  chum,  o ;  the 
shaft  carries  a  rotary  dasher  whose  wings  act  as 
slides  for  the  arms  of  a  reciprocating  dasher.  An 
inner  sleeve  carries  the  reciprocating  dasher  and 
passes  through  an  outer  sleeve  carr^^ng  the  pinion 
of  the  rotarj-  ami. 

11.  The  Oscillnting  chum,  p  ;  the  cylinder  is 
suspended  on  trunnions  and  oscillated  by  the  re- 


ciprocating dasher-shaft,  which  is  connected  to  the 
revolving  crank. 

12.  The  Oscillating  dasher  churn,  represented 
at  q. 

13.  The  Thermonutric  churn,  in  which  the  box 
or  the  dasher-shaft  has  a  thermometer  to  give  con- 
stant indication  of  the  temperature  of  the  cream. 

Numerous  patents  have  been  granted  for  matters 
of  detail  such  as :  — 

Water-tanks  for  hot  or  cold  water  to  temper  the 
cream.  Ivory  bushings  to  prevent  the  taint  of 
brass,  or  the  rust  of  iron.  Materials,  such  as  glass, 
stoneware,  etc. 

Au  artificial  butter  is  made  from  suet,  which  is  firet 
finely  divided  by  circular  saws  in  a  cylinder  ;  then 
treated  with  water,  carbonate  of  potassa,  and  finely 
divided  fresh  sheep's  stomachs  at  a  temperature  of 
45°  C.  The  pepsin  and  heat  separate  the  fat,  which 
floats  on  the  surface,  whence  it  is  decanted,  and 
when  cool,  placed  on  an  hydraulic  press,  which  st>)>«- 
rates  the  stearine  from  the  semi-fluid  oleomargarine, 
which  is  employed  as  follows  in  the  preparation  of 
the  butter  ;  oOkilogramniesof  thefat,251itei-sofnulk, 
and  20  liters  of  water  are  placed  in  a  churn  ;  to  this, 
100  grammes  of  the  soluble  matter  obtained  from 
cows'  uddere  and  milk-glands  is  added,  together 
with  a  little  annotto.  The  mixture  is  then  churned, 
when  the  butter  separates  .in  the  usual  manner. 

In  connection  with  this  subject,  we  may  be  par- 
doned introducing  a  short  account  of  how  royalty 
chums  by  proxy  and  how  nice  a  dairy  may  be  made 
when  "  expense  is  no  object." 

Prince  Albert's  model  fann  is  about  a  mile  from 
Windsor  Castle.  The  daily  is  a  lieautiful  cottage 
with  a  marble-paved  and  frescoed  vestibule.  The 
interior  is  a  room  about  thirty  feet  square,  the  roof 
supported  by  six  octagonal  columns  of  white  marble, 
with  richly  carved  capitals.  The  floors  are  of 
white  porcelain  tiles,  the  windows  stained  glass, 
bordered  withhasvthorn  blossoms,  daisies,  buttercup.?, 
and  primroses.  The  Bool's  are  lined  with  tiles  of 
jiorcelain  of  a  delicate  blue  tint,  with  rich  medal- 
lions inserted  of  the  Queen,  Prince  Consort,  and 
each  of  the  children.  Shields,  monograms  of  the 
royal  family,  and  bas-reliefs  of  agricultural  design, 
representing  the  seasons,  complete  the  ornamenta- 
tion of  this  exquisite  model  dairy.  All  around  the 
walls  runs  a  marble  table,  and  through  the  center 
two  long  ones,  supported  by  marble  jiosts,  resting 
on  basins  through  which  nins  a  perpetual  stream  of 
spring  water.  By  this  means  the  slabs  of  table 
are  always  cold,  and  the  temperature  of  the  dairy  is 
chill,  while  the  white  and  gilt  china  milk  and  but- 
ter dishes  resting  on  the  tables  are  never  placed  in 
water.  The  delicious  milk  is  brought  in  in  blight 
metal  buckets,  lined  with  porcelain,  the  Queen's 
monogi-am  and  crest  glittering  on  the  brass  plates 
on  the  covers.  In  the  room  where  the  butter  is 
made,  milk  skimmed  and  strained,  the  eyes  may 
be  feasted  on  the  rows  of  metallic  porcelain-lined 
cans  of  every  size,  made  to  lock,  and  sent  to  the 
royal  family  even  as  far  as  Scotland ;  so  they  always 
have  good  milk  and  butter.  The  churn  was  of  metal 
also,  and  lined  with  porcelain,  made  in  two  com- 
partments. The  outside  chamber  surrounding  the 
cylinder  can  have  warm  or  cold  water  poured  in 
to  regulate  the  temperature.  The  lid  is  screwed 
on,  and  the  stationary  stand  on  which  the  whole  is 
turned  makes  the  work  easy  and  rajiid.  But 
while  ov*r  sixty  cows  are  daily  milked,  and  as  many 
more  are  out  grazing,  the  royal  family  are  more 
than  satisfied,  and  the  Londoners  giowl  that  the 
overplus  is  sold  and  the  money  pocketed  by  their 
money -saving  sovereign. 


CHURN-DASHER. 


552 


CIGAR. 


2.  (Porcelain.)  The  block  or  chuck  on  a  porce- 
lain turner's  lathe,  on  which  the  thrown  and  baked 
articles  are  turned  by  thin  iron  tools  to  give  truth 
and  smoothness  to  circular  articles. 

Churn-dash'er.  The  moving  agent  in  a  churn, 
7otary  or  reciprocating,  by  which  the  nulk  or  cream 
is  agitated. 

Churn-drilL  A  large  drill  used  by  miners.  It 
is  several  feet  long,  aud  has  a  chisel-point  at  each 
end. 

Chum-pow'er.  A  motor  for  driving  churns  or 
cliurn-dashers  to  agitate  the  milk  or  cream. 

Animds,  such  as  dogs,  sheep,  or  goats,  are  em- 
ployed in  treadmills  or  slatted  platlVoms  on  endless 
belts. 

The  power  of  descending  weights,  springs,  wind 
or  water  driven  wheels,  etc.,  are  used. 
Chute.    An  inclined  tro.igh. 
On  a  moderate  scale  it  forms  a  leader,  or  feeder  for 
materials  or  blanks,  to  machines. 

On  a  large  scale  it  leads  water  from  a  penstock  to 
a  water-wheel,  or  an  inclined  plane  down  which  logs 
are  [lassed  from  a  higher  level  to  a  lower  one.  These 
are  sometimes  in  mountainous  countries  for  land 
transiiortation,  and  sometimes  are  the  links  of  a 
slack-water  system,  as  on  the  Ottawa  ;  called  sliiks. 
Ci-bo'ri-um.  (Ai-chiicdare.)  An  insulated  arched 
vault  resting  ou  four  pillars,  as  that  over  the  high 
altar  of  a  church. 

Ci'der-mill.  A  grinder  for  apples  generally,  in 
practice,  including  the  press  in  which  the  pomace  is 
pressed. 

The  common  cider-mill  a,  used  in  the  Southwest 
of  Englanil,  is  on  the  prin(!iple  of  the  Chilian  mill, 
being  a  cylindrical  stone  weighing  one  or  two  tons, 
and  rotating  in  an  annular  trough  of  masonry. 

The  a.\is  of  the  stone  is  connected  by  arms  to  a 
sweep  which  is  pivoted  on  a  centiul  post  and  re- 
volved by  a  horse.  In  some  cases  the  central  space 
forms  compartments  for  holding  apples.  The  roller 
is  from  2i  to  4i  feet  iu  diameter,  and  9  or  10  inches 
wide  at  the  face.  The  trough  is  somewhat  wider  at 
top  by  the  inclination  of  its  outer  side,  to  allow 
freedom  of  motion  to  the  runner.  The  bed  is  from 
9  to  12  feet  in  diameter. 

Cider-mills  in  England  are  also  made  with  hollow 
iron  fluted  roUers,  working  in  pairs  and  meshing 
into  each  other. 

In  Ireland  the  ai)ple  is  crushed  between  wooden 
cylinders  studded  with  iron  teeth  ;  the  pomace  is 
afterwards  pounded  with  wooden  pestles. 

The  culcr-prcss  of  the  West  of  England  is  a  modi- 
fication of  the  common  screw-press.  The  pomace  is 
enclosed  in  a  bag  of  haircloth  about  i  feet  square, 
aud  holding  two  or  three  bushels.  These  are  heaped 
over  each  other  in  the  press,  to  the  e.xtent  of  fifteen 
or  eighteen  bags.  These  yield  from  100  to  200  gal- 
lons of  juice,  according  to  number  and  the  succu- 
lency  of  the  apples.  The  press-screw  is  manipulated 
by  a  lever. 

Tile  cuU-r-miU  (b)  used  in  the  South  of  Fi-ance  has  a 
platform  of  boards  framed  together  and  is  traversed 
by  a  conical  frustum  of  cast-iron  whose  axis  is 
hooked  to  a  rotating  eye  in  the  center  of  the  plat- 
form and  is  swept  around  by  manual  power,  crush- 
ing the  fruit  in  its  passage. 

The  mill  c  has  a  grinding-wheel  and  concave,  and 
an  apron  which  carries  the  pomace  between  two 
pressing  rollers  and  a  wire-screen  cylinder  thi-ough 
which  the  juice  runs. 

d  has  alternate  grinding  portions  and  a  double- 
headed  piston,  which  presses  the  pomace  against  the 
ends  of  the  box  alternately.  One  end  of  the  box  is 
filling  while  the  other  is  pressing. 


Fig.  1291. 


Cider-Mills. 


e  has  a  metallic  grinder  and  a  hoop  with  a  screw. 

/has  a  grinder  and  presser,  which  may  be  acting 
.simultaneously.  A  hoop  filled  with  grindings  is 
pushed  from  below  the  hopper  to  beneath  the  screw, 
and  an  empty  hoop  substituted  beneath  the  former. 

Ci-gar'.    A  roll  of  tobacco-leaves  for  smoking.  It 

Fig  1292. 


Cigar-Bundler. 


CIGAR-BUNDLER. 


553 


CIONOTOME. 


has  a  pointedmouth-end  and  a  square-butted  lighting- 
end.  The  word  is  derived  from  Spanish  cigarro,  a 
kind  of  tobacco  grown  in  Cuba.  Also  spelt  scgar. 
The  cheroot  is  the  cigar  of  the  Manillas,  and  has  a 
regular  taper,  but  both  ends  are  squarely  cut  off,  one 
of  course  is  smaller  than  the  other. 

Ci-gar'-btxn'dler.  A  clamping-press  having  jaws 
of  such  shape  and  capacity  as  the  size  of  the  cigar 
and  the  number  desired  in  a  bundle  may  warrant. 
The  required  numlier  being  placed  between  the  jaws, 
the  latter  are  drawn  together  by  the  pres.sure  of  the 
foot  on  the  stirrup  and  cord,  and  the  jaws  locked 
by  an  ann  while  the  tie  or  band  is  placed  around 
the  ciijars. 

Cigar-ette'.  A  small  package  of  cut  tobacco 
done  up  in  a  rolled  paper  envelope.  The  envelope 
is  made  of  rice,  tobacco,  or  com-husk.  The  latter 
is  the  best. 

Ci'gar-ette'-fill'er.  A  little  implement  for  in- 
troducing the  finely  cut  tobacco  into  the 
Fig.  129.3.  paper  envelope.  It  has  two  forms  ;  a  tube 
fCJI  and  a  wrapper.  The  former  is  shown  in  Fig. 
jlj  1293.  A  roll  of  paper  is  wrapped  around  a 
jl  I  tube,  and  its  inner  end  clamped  between 
y^\  two  short  tubes  or  collars  ;  the  tube  is  filled 
with  tobacco  and  withdrawn,  leaving  the 
tobacco  in  the  paper  envelope.  A  hollow 
pi.ston  maintains  the  position  of  the  tobacco 
while  the  tube  is  withdrawn  and  forms  a 
stem. 

Cigar-ette '-ma-chine'.  Adorno's  ci- 
garette-machine uses  an  endless  roll  of  paper. 
It  cuts,  wraps,  and  folds  the  paper  around 
a  regulated  quantity  of  tobacco,  which  is 
supplied  at  one  end  of  the  machine,  while 
the  finished  cigarettes  emerge  at  the  other 
end. 

Ci-gar'-light'er.  A  littlegas-jet  suspended 
by  an  elastic  tube.     It  receives  gas  through 


Fig.  1294. 


its  trunnions  ;  the  jet  is 
decrea-sed  as  the  handle 
hangs  suspended,  and  is 
increased  as  it  is  raised 
for  ligliting.  The  plug 
is  chambered  for  half  its 
length,  and  the  gas-pipe 
is  screwed  into  it.  A  per- 
foration in  the  plug  con-  Cigar-Lighter. 
nects  the  interior  with  a 

channel  on  its  periphery  and  in  the   socket,   the 
channel  being  regulated  by  a  screw. 

Ci-gar'-ma-chine'.  For  making  fillers  of  cigars 
and  wrapiiiug  them.  The  operations  are  generally 
conducted  in  a  series  of  machines  :  one  cuts  wads  of 
cigar  length  and  quantity  from  a  stream  of  cigar- 
leaves  packed  and  traversing  in  a  chute  whose  nidth 
is  equal  to  the  length  of  a  cigar  ;  the  wad  thus  cut  off 
is  driven  into  a  mold  which  gives  it  the  cigar-shape, 
and  in  this  it  is  left  to  dry,  so  that  when  removed 
it  only  requires  the  wrapper  to  complete  it.  This  is 
put  on  in  another  machine  in  which  the  filler  is 
laid  bias  upon  the  strip  of  leaf,  and  rolled  tliereon, 
a  pad  or  apron  simulating  the  action  of  the  human 


palm.  The  tip  is  finished  sepai'ately,  and  then  the 
stub-end  cut  off  squarely. 

Another  mode  of  procedure  is  to  lay  a  suitable 
bunch  of  leaves  in  an  apron  which  is  lajqied  around 
them  so  as  to  form  them  into  a  sufficiently  tight 
roU  ;  or  the  rolling  device  consists  of  a  set  of  cylin- 
ders in  a  circular  series,  which  opens  to  admit  the 
bunch  of  leaves,  and  when  closed  forms  a  cylindri- 
cal space  in  which  the  bunch  of  leaves  is  rolled  and 
pressed  into  a  shape  for  the  molds  in  wliich  it  is 
eventually  pressed  to  the  required  shape  for  a  filler. 
The  latter  is  covered  by  hand  or  by  a  machine. 

Ci-gar'-press.  A  press  having  a  motion  in  two 
directions  :  one  to  compress  the  cigars  in  their  rows, 
and  the  other  to  press  them  vertically. 

The  press  has  side-screws  working  horizontally, 
and  a  vertical  screw  so  placed  as  to  be  over  the  stack 

Fig  1295. 


Cigar-Press. 


containing  the  cigai'S  ;  the  side  press-board  slides  in 
the  slotted  sides  of  the  horizontal  boards.  The  ci- 
gars are  arranged  upon  the  boards  with  intervening 
slats. 

Ci-gar-steam'er.  A  peculiar  form  of  craft, 
shaped  like  a  spindle,  and  constructed  by  Winans, 
of  Baltimore. 

The  first  was  built  in  Baltimore  —  length,  635  feet ; 
diameter,  16  feet. 

Second,  in  St.  Petersburg — length,  70  feet;  di- 
ameter, 9  feet. 

Third,  in  Havre  —  length,  72  feet;  diameter,  9 
feet. 

Fourth,  in  Isle  of  Dogs  —  length  256  feet  ;  diam- 
eter, 16  feet. 

The  propeller  of  the  first  was  placed  around  the 
middle  of  the  vessel  ;  the  second  had  a  propeller 
beneath  her  bottom  ;  the  third  is  fitted  for  trying 
propellers  in  various  positions ;  and  the  fourth  has 
a  propeller  at  each  end. 

Cim'e-ter ;  Scim'e-ter.  An  Oriental  cavalry 
sword  with  a  blade  of  gi-eat  curvature. 

Cinc'ture.  (Architecture.)  A  fillet  or  ring  di- 
riding  the  capital  from  the  shaft.  Another  cincture 
divides  the  latter  from  the  base. 

Cin'der.     1.  A  scale  of  oxide  removed  in  forging. 

2.  Certain  kinds  of  light  slag  in  metallurgic 
operations. 

Cin'der-frame.  (Steam-engine.)  A  wire-work 
frame  in  front  of  the  tubes  of  a  locomotive,  to  arrest 
the  passage  of  large  pieces  of  ignited  fuel. 

Cin'que-foil.  (Architecture.)  A  five-leaved  or- 
nament used  in  the  arches  of  the  lights  and  tracery 
of  windows,  panelings,  etc. 

Ci-on'o-tome.  An  instrument  for  excising  a 
portion  of  the  uvula. 


CIPER-TUNNEL. 


654 


CIRCULAR  LOOM. 


Ci'per-tun'nel.  A  false  chimney  jilaced  on  a 
house  lor  ornament  or  uniformity. 

Cip'pus.  A  low  column,  sometimes  round,  but 
more  Irequently  rectangular,  us'.d  as  a  bejiulchral 
monument. 

Cir-cas'si-enne.  (Fabric.)  A  light  kind  of 
cashmere. 

Cir'ci-nua.  The  comjiass  of  the  Ramans,  de- 
scrilied  by  Vitruvius. 

Cir'cle.  1.  This  plane  figure  —  comprehended 
by  one  line,  every  part  of  which  is  equally  distant 
from  the  same  point  —  gives  a  name  to  a  nunil)er  of 
instruments,  among  which  are  the  following  (which 
see)  :  — 

Mural  circle.  Circumferentor. 

Reflecting  circle.  Cir.'ular  saw. 

Repeating  circle.  Circular  shears,  etc.,  etc. 

2.   The  fifth  wheel  of  a  carriage. 

Cir'cle-i'ron.  1.  A  hollow  punch  for  cutting 
planchets,  wads,  wafers,  and  circular  blanks. 

2.   A  fifth  wheel. 

Cir'cuit.  A  continuous  electrical  communication 
between  the  poles  of  a  battery. 

(Tdetjrnpliii.)  The  wires  and  instruments  forming 
the  road  f(n'  the  passage  of  tl>e  current.  At  its  ex- 
tremities are  the  terminals,  where  it  joins  the  instru- 
ment. 

A  metallic  circuit  is  when  a  return  wire  is  used 
instead  of  the  earth.  * 

A  short  circuit  is  one  having  as  little  resistance  as 
possible  ;  nothing  but  the  apparatus  and  the  wire 
used  to  connect  it  with  the  battery. 

To  short  circuit  a  battery  is  to  connect  its  poles  by 
a  wire. 

A  local  circuit  includes  only  the  apparatus  in  the 
office,  and  is  closed  bv  a  relay. 

Cir'cuit-break'er.  (Tcleiirnphy.)  An  instru- 
ment which  periodically  interrupts  an  electric  cur- 
rent. The  name  Jlhcotome  was  given  to  it  by  Wheat- 
stone. 

With  the  automatic  apparatus,  the  circuit  is 
closed  through  the  armature  to  and  through  the 
electro-magnet  by  which  it  is  controlled.  When 
thus  closed  to  the  magnet,  the  latter  attracts  the 
armature,  breaking  the  circuit.  The  amiature  is 
then  retracted,  so  that  the  circuit  is  again  com- 
pleted, and  so  on.     ■ 

The  simplest  and  first  form  of  rheotome  or  circuit- 
breaker  was  a  file  connected  to  one  wire  of  a  batteiy, 
the  other  wire  being  rapidly  drawn  over  the  surface 
of  the  file  alternately  in  contact  with  a  tooth  and 
hopping  to  the  ne.xt  one. 

Another  form  is  a  spur-wheel  moved  by  hand  or 
clock-work  ;  this  is  common  in  telegraph  instru- 
ments and  in  electro-magnetic  machines. 

Cir'cuit-clos'er.  (Telegraphy.)  Primarily  any 
device  by  which  an  electrical  circuit  is  closed. 
Usually  a  key  ;  as  tire  common  telegrajih  key. 

In  fire  alarms  and  many  automatic  telegraphs,  it 
is  a  plain  metallic  disk  with  insulated  spaces  on 
the  rim  or  edge.  A  flat  sjiring  pressing  upon  the 
edge  closes  the  circuit  when  upon  tlie  metallic 
portion,  interrupts  it  when  on  the  insulated  portion. 
See  Dial. 

In  place  of  metallic  and  insulated  spaces,  projec- 
tions or  cogs  are  sometimes  used,  the  interdental 
spaces  answering  the  purpose  of  insulated  spaces. 

Cir'cu-lEir  Bolt.  A  machine  employed  by  the 
Nottingham,  England,  lace  manufacturers  in  mak- 
ing net. 

Cir'cu-lar  File.  A  circular  saw  or  seriated  disk, 
adaiited  to  run  on  a  s])indle  or  mandrel,  and  used  in 
cutting  teeth  of  cog-wheels. 


Cir'cu-lar  In'stru-ments.  Astronomical,  nau- 
tical, or  siirveying  instruments  which  are  grailnated 
to  360°,  that  is,  around  the  whole  circle.  Of  this 
kind  are  altitude,  azimnth,  mural,  reflecting,  and 
repeating  circles:   circumferentors  (which  see). 

Cir'cu-lar  Loom.  A  loom  in  which  the  shuttle 
moves  in  a  circular  race  and  continuously  in 
one  direction 

through     wai-ps  F'S- 1296. 

arranged  in  a 
circle.  The  cut 
shows  a  loom  of 
this  class  ;  the 
warps  proceed 
from  beams  or 
creels  near  the 
floor,  pass 
through  a  ring 
which  brings 
them  in  a  circle, 
then  through 
eyes  in  horizon- 
tally reciprocat- 
ing slides  which 
form  the  shed, 
then  through 
between  the 
dents  of  the  cir- 
cular reed  to  the 
take-up  nicch- 
a  n  i  s  m .  The 
shedding  -  slides 
are  moved  by 
cams  on  the 
main  vertical 
shaft.  The  shut- 
tle is  sustained 
by  and  moves  on 
the  dents  of  the 
reed,  and  is 
driven  by  means 
of  an  arm  pro- 
vided with  s 
roller  which 
presses  against 
the  head  of  the 

shuttle  and  allows  the  passage  of  the  warp  between 
them.  The  shuttle  may  be  provided  with  a  pi'O- 
jection  to  heat  up  the  filling,  or  conib-like  arms  made 
in  sections  may  be  made  to  beat  the  filling  between 
the  warps. 

Another  form  is  one  in  which  the  material  is 
woven  around  a  former  which  gives  it  size  and  pro- 
portion, as  in  Fig.  1297,  which  is  a  machine  for 
weaving  petticoats  and  hoop-skirts.  The  fabric  is 
woven  around  a  block  suspended  between  the  warp- 
carriers  and  the  track  of  the  shuttles,  said  block 
being  movable  vertically  and  laterally,  in  order  that 
it  may  be  adjusted  centrally.  The  shuttles  move 
on  a  circular  or  other  endless  track,  and  dejiosit 
their  woof  threads  alternately  above  and  below  a 
warp  thread  around  the  block.  The  warp-carriers 
receive  an  alternate  vertical  reciprocating  motion 
from  a  cam  on  a  revolving  drum,  from  which  the 
shuttles  also  derive  their  motion. 

The  warp-threads  have  to  be  spread,  so  as  to  have 
them  equidistant  from  each  other  around  the  block. 
For  that  purpose  the  carriers  have  horizontal  ex- 
tensions, which  are  diverging,  like  spread  fingers,  so 
that  the  desired  effect  is  produced,  and  the  desired 
distance  between  the  warp-threads  obtained,  with- 
o\it  requiring  the  spreading  of  the  carriers,  which 
are  arranged  in  groups  of  six,  more  or  less.  To 
diminish  friction  in  the  operation  of   the  carriers, 


Circular  Loom. 


CIRCULAR  MICROMETER. 


555 


CIRCULAR  SAW. 


Fig.  1297. 


Circular  Weaving- Loorru 


such  grouping  is  necessarj',  a.s  otherwise  each  car- 
rier would  require  its  own  connection  with  the  cam 
on  the  drum. 

The  cam  only  operates  one  set  of  each  group  of 
carriers,  and  the  carriers,  which  are  thus  alternately 
raised  and  lowered,  impart,  by  means  of  gearing  or 
otherwise,  motion  to  the  other  set  of  carriers,  so 
that  the  same  always  moves  in  the  opposite  direction 
with  the  first-namcil  set. 

Cir'cu-lar  Mi-crom'e-ter.  The  circular  or 
annular  micrometer  was  first  suggested  by  Bosco- 


vich  in  1740,  and  was  afterwards 
revived  by  Olbevs  in  1798.  The 
principle  is  as  follows  :  — 

"  If  the  field  of  a  telescope  I  e 
perfectly  circular,  and  its  diameter 
be  determined  by  observation,  tlie 
paths  of  two  celestial  bodies  acro.ss 
the  field  may  be  considered  as  two 
}iarallel  chords  which  are  given  in 
terms  of  a  circle  of  known  diameter. 
The  dirterenees  of  the  times  at 
w'hich  two  stars  arrive  at  the  middle 
of  their  paths  will  be  their  ascen- 
sional diii'erences  ;  and  the  distance 
between  the  chords,  which  is 
readily  coni]nited  from  their 
)~:r-jrj — "t — n  lengths,  gives  the  diff"erence  of  the 
— ^j  LL  1  I  declination  of  the  two  bodies." — ■ 
5jH  IP     \    I       Bkande. 

The  annular  foiTn  devised  by 
Fraunhofer  is  the  more  convenient 
instrument,  as  it  permits  the 
moment  of  ingress  and  egress  to 
be  determined  more  readily.  It 
consists  of  an  annular  glass  disk 
with  a  steel  ring  cemented  on  the 
inside  to  form  the  circular  aperture 
as  before  described. 

Cir'cu-lar  Saw.    The  circular 
B*  saw  was  introduced  into  England 

I about  1790,  but  its  inventor  is  not 

known. 

General  Bentham  contrived  the 
bench,  slit,  parallel  gxude,  and  sliding  bevel  guide. 
He  also  invented  making  circular  saws  of  segmental 
plates. 

One  was  patented  in  England  by  Trotter,  1804. 
Brunei's  veneer-saw,  1805-1808. 

The  double  saw-mill  shown  in  the  illustration  is 
of  the  Blandy  pattern,  selected  from  a  multitude 
of  others  as  a  good  specimen  of  its  kind,  a  is  the 
frame  of  the  saw-mill  proper,  b  the  ways  on  whii-h 
the  log-carriage  c  traver.ses.  g  is  the  lower  saw,  which 
may  have  an  average  diameter  of,  say,  60  inches. 


Fig  1298. 


Doubt  Saw- Mill. 


CIRCULAR  SHEARS. 


556 


CIRCUMFERENTOR. 


and  a  I'ate  of  revolution  of,  say,  500  to  600  revolu- 
tions per  minute,  varying  with  the  kind  of  wood  and 
the  diameter  of  tlie  saw.  d  is  the  upper  saw,  whose 
arbor  hiis  its  bearings  in  the  iron  frame  e  c,  which 
may  be  detached,  with  all  its  appendages,  from  the 
sill  pieces  a  a,  so  that  the  machine  then  becomes  a 
single  saw-mill,  the  working  radius  of  the  saw  being 
suHicient  for  the  run  of  logs  of  the  locality,  /is  the 
band-pulley  of  the  lower  saw,  ajid  h  i  are  the  pul- 
leys by  which  the  motion  of  the  lower  saw-arbor  is 
communicated  to  the  upper  saw  d.  j  k  are  the  cone- 
pulleys  concerned  in  the/tcrf  a.nii  giij-back  motions  of 
the  log-carriage  c.  I  is  the  lever  by  which  the  di- 
rection of  motion  of  the  carriage  is  regulated. 

p  p  are  the  knees  of  the  head-blocks  r  r,  on  which 
the  log  lies  and  is  fastened  by  the  dogs  s  s.  These 
head-blocks  are  adjustable  longitudinally  on  the 
carriage,  according  to  the  length  of  the  log,  and  the 
knees  of  the  liead-block  are  set  up  closer  to  the  saw 
after  each  cut  of  the  saw,  to  a  distance  equal  to  the 
thickness  of  board  required  and  the  width  of  the 
kerf.  The  setting  up  of  the  knees  is  done  simulta- 
neously by  the  vibration  of  the  lever  t,  which  has  a 
pawl  acting  upon  each  of  the  ratchets  u  u.  Wli.ii 
it  is  desired  to  saw  a  board  thicker  at  one  end  than 
at  the  other,  the  knees  on  the  respective  head-blocks 
are  moved  independently  by  the  levers  v  w  res])ec- 
tively,  these  levers  having  each  a  pawl  to  actuate 
that  one  of  the  ratchets  m  which  belongs  to  the  ap- 
propriate head-block. 

The  feed-motion  of  the  carriage  c  consists  of  a 
friction-wheel  x  on  the  pulley  y  ;  on  the  arbor  of 
the  latter  is  a  pinion  z,  which  meshes  with  the  rack 
on  the  under  side  of  the  log-carriage.  The  direction 
of  rotation  of  the  pinion  z  determines  the  feed  or 
gig-back  motion,  which  is  controlled  by  the  position 
of  the  lever  I  on  the  quadrant,  vi  is  a  revolving 
wedge  which  enters  the  kerf  and  spreads  the  boaid 
from  the  log. 

One  form  of  circular  saw  for  cross-cutting  cord- 
wood,  or  butting  framing-timber,  is  shown  in  the  an- 

Kg.  1299. 


Butttng-Saw. 

nexed  cut.  The  wood  lies  upon  a  sliding-frame  and 
is  pushed  toward  the  saw  and  drawn  back  by  hand. 

Saws  are  made  in  Trenton,  New  Jersey,  88  inches 
in  diameter,  with  48  in.sertable  teeth,  and,  allowing 
6  inches  for  collars,  are  adapted  to  cut  boards  41 
inches  wide.  Such  a  saw  is  designed  to  make  375  to 
400  revolutions  per  minute,  to  cut  6  inches  to  a  rev- 
olution, and  is  declared  capable  of  cutting  50,000 
feet  of  inch  lumlier  in  ten  hours. 

Cir'cu-lar  Shears.  A  shears  for  sheet-metal 
consisting  of  two  circ\ilar  blades  on  parallel  ]iins. 

Cir'cu-lar  Shut'tle-box  Loom.  A  loom  hav- 
ing a  box  with  a  nuniber  of  shuttles,  six  in  the  figure, 
and  having  means  for  actuating  it  so  as  to  bring  any 
one  of  the  six  shuttles  into  operation  as  required  by 
the  pattern.  The  circular  shuttle-box  is  mounted 
on  an  axle  at  one  end  of  the  sley,  and  has  a  positive 
revolving  motion  given  to  it,  when  required  to  change 


a  shuttle,  by  a  chain  H  actuated  by  gearing  G  in 
connection  with  two  racks,  the  amount  of  motion 
being  regulated  by  tumblers  connected  to  jacks  or 
levers  governed  by  Jacquard  cards. 

A  is  an  eccentric  connected  to  a  lever  B,  for  giv- 
ing motion  to  the  sliding  bar  C,  furnished  with 
projections  D,  which  act   upon  tumblers  E  when 


Circular  SItuttle-Box  Loom, 

they  are  lifted  by  the  cards  connected  to  the  jacks 
or  levers  F,  which  is  whenever  there  is  a  blank 
in  the  part  of  the  card  opposite  to  the  jack  or  lever. 
Wlien  these  tumblers  are  lifted  they  fall  into  slots 
in  the  racks,  and  being  caught  by  the  jirojections 
D,  the  racks  are  carried  forward  and  the  pinion  G 
turned  :  this  gives  motion  to  the  upright  shaft  and 
bevel  wheels,  through  them  to  the  chain  wheels  H  H, 
one  of  which  is  on  the  axle  of  the  shuttle-box.  Each 
jack  or  lever  F,  except  the  two  end  ones,  is  connect- 
ed to  two  tumblers,  one  on  each  rack  ;  and  as  the 
racks  are  on  opposite  sides  of  the  pinion,  the  tum- 
bler gives  motion  to  the  rack  on  one  side,  and  the 
other  tumbler  acts  as  a  stop,  and  regulates  the  exact 
distance  that  the  opposite  rack,  and  consequently 
the  shuttle-box,  moves. 

Cir'cu-lat-ing-pump.  (Stcam-enriine.)  The 
cold-water  pump  by  which  condensation  water  is 
drawn  from  the  sea,  river,  or  wvU,  and  driven 
through  the  casing  of  a  surface  condenser. 

Cir'cu-lus.  (GUtxs-muking.)  A  tool  for  cutting 
ott'  the  necks  of  glass-ware. 

Cir-cum'fer-en'tor.  1.  A  (ire  measurer.  A 
wheel,  a,  graduated  on  its  periphery  and  axled  in 


a  holder.  It  has  a 
circumference  of 
known  length,  and 
is  passed  around  the 
outside  of  the  rim 
of  a  wheel,  J,  to 
ascertain  the  length 
of  the  tire.  The 
instrument  having 
a  perimeter,  say  2 
feet  in  circumfer- 
ence, the  zero  is 
brought  to  a  marked 
spot  on  the  periph- 
ery   of    the    wheel 


Fig.  1301. 


CIRCUMFLEX. 


557 


CISTERN. 


to  be  measured.  The  small  wheel  is  then  caused  to 
travel  around  the  larger,  and  imlicates  the  length 
by  making  so  many  revolutions  and  such  a  fraction, 
as  the  case  may  be.     A  tire-circle. 

2.  A  surveying  instrument ;  used  commonly  in 
mines,  coal-pits,  etc.,  in  England,  but  a  very  com- 
mon instrument  in  the  United  States  lor  surveying. 
Many  of  the  old-fashioned  surveyors  yet  use  it, 
though  it  is  disappearing  as  the  theodolite  becomes 
more  and  more  commonly  known. 

It  consists  of  a  Hat  bar  of  brass  B  B  about  15 
inches  in  length,  with  sights  C  C  at  its  opposite 
ends,  and  two  narrow  slits  b  c  for  observations  ; 
in  the  middle  of  the  bar  is  a  cin^ular  brass  bo.f  A, 
containing  a  magnetic  needle  and  covered  with 
glass.  Tiie  ends  of  the  needle  jilay  over  a  brass 
circle  g,  which  is  divided  into  3t)0',  in  such  a 
manner  that  the  two  numbers  of  90°  are  at  right 
angles  to  the  Unes  drawn  through  the  sights.     The 


Fig.  1302, 


ZOTloftAl 


Circumferentor, 

instrument  is  supported  by  a  ball  and  socket-joint 
on  a  stalf  or  tripod.  When  the  magnetic  needle  is 
well  balanced  and  moves  freely  in  its  horizontal 
position,  the  sights  can  be  turned  towards  the  object 
to  be  surveyed,  and  the  needle  will  retain  its  posi- 
tion of  N.  and  S.  The  number  of  degrees  which 
the  angle  contains  after  moving  from  one  object  to 
another  can  be  counted  olf  on  the  graduated  circle. 
Tlifi  lower  part  of  tlie  ligiire  shows  the  mode  of 
reading  and  jdotting  the  bearings. 

Cir'cum-flex.  The  mark  [" /\  "]  over  a  vowel, 
indii-ating  a  certain  accent. 

Cir'cuiu-val-la'tion.  {Fortification.)  An  en- 
circling line  of  tield-works. 

Cir'cum-vent'or.  A  surveying  instrument  hav- 
ing a  compass-box  at  top  for  taking  angles.     See 

ClUCUMFERF.NTOR. 

Cir'so-tome.  {Surgical.)  An  instrument  used 
in  the  extirpation  of  a  varix  ;  that  is,  a  varicose 
or  dilated  vein. 

Cis'tern.  1.  A  tank  or  other  form  of  artificial 
reservoir  for  containing  a  supply  of  water. 

Cisterns  have  always  been  very  common  in  lands 
subject  to  occasional  abundant  sujiply  w^ith  intervals 


of  drouth.  In  India  cisterns  are  on  a  very  large  scale  j 
in  Egypt  they  assumed  the  proportions  of  lakes ;  in 
Ceylon  are  the  remains  of  many  on  a  scale  far  beyond 
the  ability  of  the  Cingalese  population  either  to  con- 
struct or  utilize. 

The  change  of  domicile  of  the  Israelites  from  a 
land  of  annual  overflow  to  a  land  of  rains,  from  a 
land  of  artificial  irrigation  to  one  of  running  waters, 
was  cited  as  one  of  the  peculiar  advantages  in  their 
removal  from  Egypt  to  Palestine.  "  For  the  land 
whither  thou  goest  in  to  possess  it  is  not  as  the 
land  of  Egypt  from  whence  ye  came  out,  where 
thou  sowedst  thy  seed,  and  wateredst  it  with  thy 
foot,  as  a  garden  of  herbs  ;  but  the  land  whither  ye 
go  to  possess  it  is  a  land  of  bills  and  valleys,  and 
drinketh  water  of  the  rain  of  heaven."  —  Dent.  xi. 
10,  11. 

Yet  even  in  Palestine  cisterns  were  a  necessity, 
the  rains  falling  only  in  spring  and  autumn.  The 
pools  of  Solomon  are  near  Bethlehem,  and  are  3  in 
number,  on  the  slope  of  a  hill,  and  one  above  another, 
so  as  to  form  a  chain  of  pools.  The  breailth  of  each 
is  from  80  to  90  paces  ;  the  upper  pool  is  about  160 
paces,  the  second  200,  the  third  220.  The  water 
was  conducted  to  Jerusalem. 

The  Romans  built  magnificent  and  elaborate  cis- 
terns,  many  of  them  on  such  a  scale  that  they  are 
called  reservoirs.  They  made  them  every  20,000 
feet  in  their  aqueducts,  to  act  as  reserve  and  admit 
of  repairing  the  conduit.  Near  the  baths  of  Titus  in 
old  Rome  are  nine  subterranean  cisteras  17^  feet 
wide,  12  feet  high,  and  about  137  feet  long. 

The  baths  were  constructed  with  a  number  of 
separate  lavatories,  named  according  to  the  tem- 
perature, the  frigidarium,  the  tcpidarium,  the  cal- 
darium,  or  bahieum.  These  were  made  of  masonry 
or  concrete. 

The  material  was  broken  stone  and  the  best  of 
mortar.  The  mortar  was  made  of  pure,  clean  sand, 
5  ;  lime,  2  parts.  The  stone  was  flint,  of  which  no 
piece  weighed  over  a  pound. 

Several  divisions  were  made  in  the  cisterns  which 
were  used  for  supply  of  water,  which  passed  from  one 
to  another,  depositing  its  impurities. 

The  reservoirs  wliich  received  the  water  from  the 
aqueducts,  and  from  which  the  supply  was  distrib- 
uted, had  three  pipes  of  equal  diameter,  so  connected 
that  when  the  water  overflowed  at  the  extremities  it 
was  discharged  into  the  middle  one,  which  supplied 
the  pipes  for  the  fountains  ;  a  second  pipe  supplied 
the  baths  ;  a  third  one  the  private  houses.  The 
public  supply  was  never  deficient  nor  could  it  be 
diverted.  A  tax  was  levied  on  the  private  houses, 
which  was  expended  in  keeping  the  aqueduct  in  re- 
pair. 

In  Fig.  1288,  a  is  the  elevated  cistern  used  for 
supplying   locomotive-tenders.      The  jointed   pipes 

Kg.  1303. 


Raitxcay-asiem. 


CISTERN-FILTER. 


558 


CIVIL  ENGINEERING. 


c  c  are  maintained  in  elevated  position  by  connter- 
balance  weijjlits  wlien  water  is  not  being  cUsoliaigeil. 
On  pulling  them  down,  as  shown  in  Sie  hgiire,  by 
means  of  an  attached  cord,  a  valve  at  the  joint  al- 
lows water  to  How  tln'oiigh  them  from  the  pipes  b  b, 
and  into  the  reservoir  of  a  tender  standing  on  either 
of  the  tracks  d  d.  This  is  also  known  as  a  water- 
crane. 
Fig.  1304.  Fig.  1304  is  the  cistern 

used  in  houses  when  the 
water  supj)Iy  is  intermit- 
tent ;  it  has  a  main-service 
pipe  provided  with  a  ball- 
valve,  a  house-service  pipe 
a,  provided  with  a  ball- 
cock  A,  and  a  rose  to  strain 
the  water,  a  standincj 
House-Cistern.  waste-pipe  c,  to  allow  e.\- 

cess  of  water  to  run  off, 
and  a  wnste-pipe  d,  which  allows  the  cistern  to  be 
emptied  for  cleansing,  when  the  standiinj-inpe  is  re- 
moved. 

Capacity  of  Cisterns  in  Gallons  for  cat:h  Ten  Inches 
in  Depth. 


Diam.  in  Fwt. 

Gallons. 

Diam.  in  Feet. 

Gallons. 

2 

19.5 

8.5 

353.72 

2.5 

30.6 

9 

396.56 

3 

44.6 

9.5 

461.4 

3.5 

59.97 

10 

4S9.6 

4 

78.33 

11 

592.4 

4.5 

99.14 

12 

705 

5 

122.4 

13 

827.4 

5.5 

148,1 

14 

959.6 

6 

176.25 

15 

1,101.6 

6.5 

206.85 

20 

1,958.4 

7 

239.88 

25 

3,059.9 

7.5 

275.4 

30 

4,400.4 

8 

313.33 

2.  (iTining.)  A  tank  in  a  deep  mine  shaft,  set 
upon  a  scarccitunt ;  it  serves  to  receive  the  water 
01  tlie  pump  below,  and  supply  water  to  the  pump 
above.  The  u.sual  lengtli  for  a  set  of  mining  pumps 
in  2.1  to  30  fathoms.  At  such  intervals  cisterns  are 
placed. 

3.  {Steam-engine.)  The  vessel  inclosing  the  con- 
denser of  a  condensing  steam-engine,  and  containing 
tile  injection  water. 

4.  (Gla.ss.)  The  receptacle  into  which  glass  is 
laiUed  from  the  pots  to  be  poured  on  the  table  in 
making  plate-glass,  or  in  casting  glass.     A  cuvette. 

Cis'tern-fil'ter.  A  cistern  having  a  permanent 
ch.imber   which   has  filtering  material  intervening 

between  the  supply 
Fig.  1305.  and  discharge.      In 

Fig.  1305,  the  water 
passes  througli  the 
filtering  material 
down  one  side  of 
the  vertical  axial 
dirision,  ami,  after 
passing  beneath  it, 
ri.ses  upon  the  other 
side. 

In  Fig.  1306,  the 
filter  is  at  the  lower 
end  of  the  pump- 
stock.  Two  con- 
centric cylinders 
are  clamped  be- 
tween an  upper  and 
under  disk,  by 
means  of  an  en- 
larged section  of  the 


FiUering-  Cistern. 


pump  tube.     The  annu-  f'e-  1306. 

lar   space   between    the 

cylinders   is  filled  with! 

filtering    material,    and! 

the   cylinders    are    per- 1 

forated  on  opposite  sides, 

so  that  the  water  makes  | 

a  partial  circuit  to  reach  | 

the   inner   space    which  I 

connects  with  the  pumpj 

tube. 

Cis'tern-pump.     A I 
small  pump,  lift  or  force, 
for  puniping  water  from  I 
the  moderate  depth  of 
cistern. 

Cit'a-del.    (Fortifica- ' 
tion.)     An    inner   work 
capable   of  independent 
defence,  but  joined  to  the  other  works  of  a  place. 

Cith'a-ra.  (Music. )  An  old  kind  of  harp.  The 
eithcni  is  an  Austrian  stringed  instrument.  The  eitole 
isanin.strumentliketheduleimer.  The  o'teoi  is  an  an- 
cient inslrnment  resembling  the  lute.     See  Cittern. 

Cit'tern.     (Ahtsic.)     An  old  kind  of  guitar. 

"  My  lord  [Sandwich]  called  for  the  lieutenant's 
cittern,  and  with  two  candlesticks  with  money  in 
them  for  symbols  (cymbals),  we  made  barber's 
music."  —  Pepys,  1660. 

Civ'er-y.  (Architecture.)  A  bay  or  compart- 
ment of  a  vaulted  ceiling.      A  severy. 

Civ'il  Eu-gi-neer'ing.  See  under  the  following 
heads : — 


cistern-Filter. 


Adobe. 

Alignment. 

Anchor-gate. 

Anchor-suspension  cable. 

Angle  of  repose. 

Aqueduct. 

A  rch. 

.\rched  beam. 

Artesian  well. 

Asphalte  pavement. 

Auger. 

Baleine. 

Hallast. 

Bank  protector. 

Banquette. 

Basal  ting. 

Batter. 

Battering  plumb-rule. 

Battery-head. 

Beam. 

Bearing-pile. 

Beche. 

Bed. 

Bench. 

Berme. 

Beton. 

Bevel  plumb-rule. 

Blasting. 

Blasting-needle. 

Blinding. 

Bolt  and  spike  extractor. 

Boring  wells. 

Bottoming. 

Bowstring-girder. 

Box-beam. 

Breakwater. 

I'reast-wall. 

Bridge     (varieties,     see 

Bp.ipoe). 
Bridge-stone. 


Buckled  plate. 

Cable.   Submarine. 

Cable.   Suspension-bridge 

Caisson. 

Camel. 

Camp-sheeting. 

Canal. 

Canal-lift. 

Canal-lock. 

Canal-lock  gate. 

Carpentry. 

Causeway. 

Cendree  deTournay. 

Centering. 

Chemise. 

Claw  bar. 

Cob  wall. 

Colfer  dam. 

Compo. 

Concrete. 

Conduit. 

Construction  way. 

Corduroy  road. 

Counter-fort. 

Coursed  masonry. 

Cradle. 

Cievasses.    Stopping. 

Crosette. 

Crow-bar. 

Crow's  foot. 

Cuddy. 

Culvert. 

Curb. 

Culling. 

Dam. 

Bead-wall. 

Detonating-primer. 

Digue. 

Dike. 

Ditching-machine. 


CIVIL  EKGIXEERING. 


559 


CLAMMING-MACHINE. 


Diring-bell.  Jlonkey. 

Dock  ;varieties,seeD0CK).  Mortar. 


Draining 

Diill. 

Drum-curb. 

Dualine. 

Duniping-bucket. 

Dynamite. 

Earth-boring  auger. 

Earth-work. 

Embankment. 

E.xcavator. 

Explorer. 

Extension  ladder. 

False  works. 

Fascine. 

Filling. 

Finger-grip. 

Fire-escape. 

Fire-ladder. 

Flood-gate. 

Fulminate. 

Gabion. 

Gage-ladder. 

Gavelock. 

Girder. 

Grab. 

Grade. 

Gradient. 

Grailing-post. 

Grafting  tool. 

Grapnel. 

Graving-dock. 

Grillage. 

Ground-mold. 

Ground-plan. 

Ground-plot. 

Ground-work. 

Grout. 

Gulleting. 

Gunpowder. 

Half- lattice  girder. 

Horse  power. 

Hoi-se  run. 

House  moving. 


Nitrine 

Nitro-glycerine. 

Nitroleum. 

Notching. 

Oil-well. 

Pannier. 

Paved  way. 

Pavement. 

Paving. 

PaWng-machine. 

Paving-roller. 

Pebble  paving. 

Pick. 

Pier. 

Pierameter. 

Pierre  perdue. 

Pile  (varieties,  see  Pile). 

Pile-drawer. 

Pile-driver. 

Pile-saw. 

Pi.se-work. 

Pitched  work. 

Plank-road. 

Polings. 

Pozzuolana. 

Praya. 

Pricker. 

Profile. 

Propeller   (varieties,    see 

Pp.orEi.LER). 
Pimip  ( varieties,  see  P  crxip). 
Quadrel. 

QuaiTying-machine. 
Rail  (varieties,  see  Rail). 
Railroad    (varieties,    see 
Railway-esgineeuixg). 
Raising  sunken  vessels. 
Ram. 
Rammer. 
Reamer. 
Retaining  waU. 
Rising. 
Road. 


Hydraulic      engineering  Road-making  machine 


and  devices. 
Hydraulic  mortar. 
Inclined  plane. 
Jar.     Boiing. 
Jetty. 
Jumper. 
Ladder. 
Laminated  rib. 
Landing  platform. 
Lattice  girder. 
Lengtheuiug  rod. 
Levee. 


Road  metal. 
Koad  roller. 
Road  scraper. 
Rock-crusher 
Rock  drill. 
Roman  cement. 
Roofing  composition. 
Roofing  machine. 
Roof  staging. 
Roof  truss. 
Rounder. 
Runner. 


Level  (varieties, seeLEVELlSaddle. 


Lewis. 

Lift.     Canal. 
Lift-lock. 
Li^dithouse. 
Lithofracteur. 
Lo-k.     Canal. 
Macadamizing. 
Masonry    (see     JIapons' 
AND         Br.ICKLAYElls' 

Tools,  etc.). 
Metal. 
Mill-dam. 
Jlining     (varieties, 

MiNISG). 

Mole. 


Sand  scoop. 
Sand  pump. 
Scaffold. 
Seagliola. 
Scarcement. 
Scraper. 
Screw-pile. 
Sea  waU. 
Sewer. 
Shield. 

Shipw  righting  (which  see) . 
Shrinkage, 
see  Side  cutting. 
Signal-tower. 
Sinking. 


Slackwater  navigation. 

Slating. 

Slip. 

Slope. 

Sludger. 

Snow-sweeper. 

Spandrel. 

SiK>il. 

Staging. 

Staith. 

Stall-boards. 

Starling. 

Steam-engine  (which see) 

Steining. 

Stone.     Artificial. 

Street-railway. 

Street-sprinkler. 

Street-sweeper. 

Street- watering. 

Subten-anean  railway. 

Sub-way. 

Suspension  bridge. 

S\ispension  railway. 

Swing  bridge. 

Talus. 

Tamping. 

Tamping-bar. 

Taniping-plug. 

Teaming. 

Telo-dynamic  cable. 


Temoine. 

Topit. 

Torpedo  for  oil-wells. 

Track-layer. 

Traction  engine. 

Tramway  for  ferry-boats. 

Tram-road. 

Trass. 

Trestle. 

Truss. 

Tube-extractor. 

Tubular  bridge. 

Tunnel. 

Tunnel-excavator. 

Vault. 

Vault-cover. 

Vault-light. 

Viaduct. 

Water-elevator        (which 

see). 
Water-wheel  (which  see). 
Well. 

Well  boring. 
Well-drill. 
Well  packing. 
Well-tubes,  driven. 
Well-tube  filter. 
AVharf. 
Wing  wall. 
Wiie  way. 


Clack.  1.  (Millwrighimg.)  A  device  in  grain- 
mills  for  ringing  a  bell  when  more  grain  is  reciuired 
to  be  fed  to  the  hopper.     A  miU-hopper  alarm. 

2.   A  valve. 

Clack-box.  1.  In  a  locomotive,  a  ball-valve 
chamber  attached  to  the  boiler,  and  preventing  the 
retiux  of  water  in  the  feed-pipe. 

2.  The  chamber  of  a  clack-valve.  The  illustra- 
tion shows  the  parts  of  a  bucket-lift  of  a  Cornish 

Fig.  1307. 

^ 


Clack  Box  and  Door. 

pump,  Ij-ing  upon  the  ground.  It  shows  the  work- 
ing-ban'el  n,  clack-box  b,  door  c,  and  wind-bore. 

Clack-door.     (Mining.)     The  aperture  through 
which  the  dai-k  is  fixed  or  removed. 

Clack-mill.    A  noisy  clapper  urged  by  the  wind, 
and  intended  to  scare  birds. 

Clack-valve.     A  valve  hinged  at  one  edge, 
opened  by  the  passing  current, 
and  clacking  back  on  its  seat  ^'8  1308. 

by  gra\-ity. 

The  butterfly-valve  has  two 
leaves  hinged  to  a  bar  crossing 
the  passage-way. 

The  valves  of  the  feed-pump 
of  a  locomotive  are  technically 
called  clacks,  though  they  are 
frequently  te??-valves. 

a.  valve  :  b,  hinge  ;  d,  seat,  -if^l 

Clarn'ming-ma-chine'. 
A  machine  in  which  an  engraved  Oack  -  Valve. 

and  hardeneil  die  {intaglio)  is 

made  to  rotate  in  contact  with  a  soft  steel  mi!!,  in  order 
todeliver  a  cameo  impression  thereupon.  The  mi!l  is 
used  to  indent  copper  rollers  for  calico  printing.     It 


CLAMP. 


560 


CLARIFICATION. 


Fig.  1309. 


vdrlt 


U- 


Ctam  mins-  Ma  chiiu. 


is  the  same  system  as  that  uspiI  in  the  American 
bank-note  engraving,  and  was  invented  by  Jacob 
Perkins. 

The  mill  is  cylindrical,  and  is  journaled  in  bear- 
ini^s  attached  to  the  beadstock  B  of  the  machine.- 
Tlie  cylindrical  die  is  journaled  in  the  sliding-piece 
C.  The  mill,  haWng  been  adjusted  in  its  bcaring.s, 
is  forcilily  screwed  up  against  the  die,  to  which  mo- 
tion is  imparted  by  the  gears  D  E  operated  by  the 
winch  F. 

Clamp.  1.  A  pile  of  bricks  built  up  together  in 
order  to  be  burned. 

2.  (.Vetii'lurgi/.)  A  pile  of  ore  heaped  for  roasting, 
or  of  coal  for  coking. 

3.  {Joiner]/.)  a.  A  frame  with  two  tightening 
screws  by  which  two  portiims  of  an  article  are  tight- 
ly compressed  together,  either  while  being  formed, 
or  while  their  glue  joint  is  drying,     (b.  Fig.  1310.) 

b.  A  back  batten  inserteil  or  attached  crosswise  to 
unite  several  boards  and  to  keep  them  from  warping. 
Otherwise  called  a  key. 

i.  (Shiphaildinrj.)  The  internal  planking  of  a 
ship  under  the  slicl/ on  which  the  ends  of  the  deck- 
beams  rest.  In  vessels  of  war,  the  damp  is  the 
planking  above  the  ports,  and  the  spirkcling  that 
below  the  ports.     See  Spirketino. 

5.  (Ordtiince.)  One  of  the  hinged  plates  over 
the  trunnions  of  a  gun,  usually  called  cap-squares. 

6.  (Mdchincrij.)  One  of  a  piir  of  movable  checks 
of  lead  or  copper  covering  the  jaws  of  a  vise,  and 
enabling  it  to  grasp  without  bruising. 

7.  (tiiiddlcrij.)    See  Sewino-clamp  ;  Stitching- 

CL.\MP. 

For  varieties  of  clamps,  see  under  the  following 
heads  :  — ■ 


Axle-clamp. 
Bench-clamp. 
Book-clamp. 
Castrating-clamp. 
Claw    for    suspending 

tackle. 
Clutch. 
Flask-clamp. 
Floor-clamp. 
Grinding-clainp. 
H  irness-clamp. 
Hitching-clamp. 
Holdfast- damp. 


Joiners'  clamp. 

Lathing-clamp. 

Line-clamp. 

Holders'  clamp. 

Newspaper-clamp. 

Pipe-clamp. 

Planking-clamp. 

Rigging-clamp. 

Rope-clamp. 

Rope-clutch. 

Saw-clamp. 

Sail-clutch. 

Screw-clamp. 


Touniiquet. 
Vise-clamp. 
Weather-boarding  clamp. 


Sewing-clamp. 
Stitching-clamp. 
Stop2)er.     Cable. 
Strap-clamp. 

Clamp'er.  A  metallic  shoe  for  a  boot-heel,  hav- 
ing calks  to  prevent  slipping  on  ice.     An  ice-crccper. 

Clamp-nail.  {Shipwrighling.)  A  large  kiml of 
nail  used  to  secure  the  clamps  to  the  ribs  of  a  siup. 

Clamp-acrew.  A  joiner's  implement,  on  the 
bench,  or  to  be  attached  to  the  work,  for  holding 
work  to  a  table,  or  two  pieces  together. 

Fig.  1310. 


CZamp- Screw. 

Clap'board.  (Carpentry.)  (Ger.  klapp-bord.) 
A  term  irregularly  used.     It  means  :  — 

1.  A  weather-board  on  the  side  of  a  house,  laid  on, 
lapping  tlie  one  beneath  it,  clinker  fashion. 

2.  A  roofing-board  larger  than  a  shingle  and  not 
usually  shaved.  A  common  size  is  a  riven-board  48 
inches  long,  and  8  inches  broad.  They  are  rived  in 
the  direction  of  the  medullary  rays,  and  the  edge 
toward  the  heart  is  the  thinner  of  the  two. 

3.  In  East  England,  a  plank  ;  a  ca.sk-stave. 
Machines  are  constructed  for  riving,  sawing,  plan- 
ing, and  gaging  clapboards. 

Clap'board-gage.  A  device  used  in  putting  on 
the  weather-boarding  of  a  house  so  as  to  leave  a  uni- 
form width  of  face  to  tlie  weather.  The  gage  takes 
its  set  from  the  lower  edge  of  the  board  last  nailed 
on,  and  has  a  stop  for  the  lower  edge  of  the  board 
next  above. 

Clap-net.  A  net  in  hinged  sections  which  close 
upon  the  game. 

Clap'per.     A  part  which  strikes,  as  :  — 

1.  The  tong\ie  of  a  bell. 

2.  {Mill.)  Theclack  which  strikes  the  mill-hopper. 

3.  A  piece  of  board  to  ]iat  bricks  to  correct  any 
warping  when  partially  dried,  in  removing  from  the 
floor  to  the  hack. 

4.  A  clack-valve. 

Clap'per-valve.  {Steam-engine.)  A  valve  sus- 
pended from  a  hinge  and  operating  on  two  o]ieniiig.s 
or  seats  alternat(dy.  In  a  modified  form,  it  consists 
of  a  disk  vibrating  between  two  seats.    A  clack-valve. 

Clap-sill.  {Hydraulic  Engineering.)  The  bot- 
tom part  of  the  frame  on  which  the  lock-gates  shut. 
The  m  iter-siU ;  lock-sill. 

Clar'ence.  A  close  single-seated  carriage  with 
a  driver's  seat  in  front. 

Clari-bel'la.     (Music.)     A  stop  in  an  organ. 

Clar  i-fi-ca'tion.  The  clearingofliquidsby  chem- 
ical means,  as  opposed  to  filtration. 

Clarijirrs  o\\finiuf/s  act  by  :  — 

1.  Embracing  the  feculent  matter  and  subsiding 
with  it  to  the  bottom  of  the  vessel.     Or  :  — 

2.  By  inducingachange  in  the  character  of  the  liquid 
by  which  the  feculencies  are  deposited  as  sediment. 

The  usual  clarifiers  are  :  — 

Albumen,  gelatine,  acids,  salts,  blood,  lime,  plas- 
ter-of-paris,  alum,  heat,  or  alcohol. 


CLARIFIER. 


561 


CLAVICHORD. 


Clar 'i-fi-er.    ( Suga  r. ) 
Fig.  13U. 

X 


Ctarijier, 


A  metallic  vessel  in  which 
cane-j  uice  is  puritied 
by  heatiiigand  treat- 
ment with  lime. 

It  consists  of  a 
hemispherical  cop- 
per pan  /"and  a  cast- 
iron  jacket  J,  the 
interveningspace  be- 
ing filled  with  steam 
fby  the  pipe  V.  A 
pipe  i.s  used  for  con- 
ducting off  con- 
densed steam,  and  re 
is  a  faucet  by  which 
air  escapes  when  the 
jacket  is  tirst  charged 
with  steam.  The 
cylindrical  upper 
portion  L  of  the  pan  is  to  k«ep  tlie  scum  from  froth- 
ing over.  The  plug  p  in  the  bottom  of  the  pan  is 
furnished  with  two  or  thrre  holes,  down  either  of 
which  the  contents  of  the  pan  may  be  discharged 
by  the  appropriate  movement  of  the  valve-handle 
beneath. 

The  darifier  being  filled  with  juice,  steam  is  ad- 
mitted to  the  jacket  and  the  temperature  raiseil  to 
174°.  After  skimming,  milk  of  lime  is  added  to 
neutralize  the  acid  in  the  juice,  the  process  being 
tested  from  time  to  time  by  litmus  paper.  A  thick 
scum  rises  to  the  top,  and  the  heating  is  continued 
until  the  scum  is  about  to  break,  when  the  steam  is 
shut  otf,  the  jnii.'e  allowed  a  few  minutes  to  settle, 
and  the  ndddle  portion  or  clear  li([uid  is  removed  Ijy 
turning  the  handle  of  the  cock  c,  which  opens  a  hole 
three  inches  from  the  bottou  of  the  pan.  As  soon 
as  scum  begins  to  appear  the  discharge  is  stopped. 
The  plug  p  is  tlien  removed,  when  the  scviin  and 
sediment  pass  out  of  the  pan  anf  ari  placed  in  bags 
which,  by  pressure,  yield  the  remaining  juice. 

In  the  darifier  shown  in  Fig.  1312,  the  centrifu- 
gal force  generated  Ijy  the  rapid  rotation  of  the  strain- 
Fig.  1312. 


Centr(fitgftl  Clar{fier. 

er  G  canses  the  juice  to  flow  up  to  and  discharge 
through  the  perforations  around  its  ujiper  edge, 
whereby  it  is  effectively  brought  in  contact  with  the 
gas  which  pervades  the  curb  ,/.  The  jets  of  juice 
are  met  by  currents  of  gas,  produced  by  the  vanes. 

Clar'i-fy-ing.  The  proi'ess  of  removing  feculent 
matter  from  saicharine  juices  by  heating,  skimming, 
and  precipitation.     See  Clarifif.r. 

Clar-i-net'.    {Ha.\.  darimUo  ;  ¥r.  clarivt/f^.)    A 

reed  instrument  used  in  bands.     Its  name  from  da- 

run  (Latinl,  dear,  .-ignifies  a  certain   dominance  of 

tone,  and  truly  it  emits  an  importunate  sound.     It 

36 


is  played  by  means  of  holes  and  keys,  opened  and 
closed  by  the  fingers,  after  the  manner  of  a  Hute.  It 
was  invented  by  John  Denner  in  Leipsic,  A.  D.  1600. 
The  double  clarinet  of  the  Arabs  is  termed  a  zomnara. 

Clar'i-on.  (Miisic.)  a.  A  trumpet  with  a  nar- 
row tube,  and  having  an  acute  and  shrill  tone.  It 
was  introduced  by  the  Moors  into  Spain,  A.  n.  .'  Hi. 

b.  A  stop  of  an  organ  having  metallic  reed  jiipes 
tuned  an  octave  higher  than  trumpet;  in  unison 
with  p)-incipal  emdjtute.     See  Stop. 

Clasp.  1.  A  catch  or  fastening  for  a  belt,  the 
covers  of  a  book,  etc. 

One  part  has  generally  a  plate,  which  is  bent  over 
to  form  a  hook,  and  the  other  has  a  wire  on  whi<'h 
the  hook  engages. 

A  belt-clasp  is  sometimes  merely  a  hook  and  eye 
on  the  respective  parts.     See  Belt-coufling. 

2.  {Spinnivg.)  A  device  consisting  of  two  hori- 
zontal beams,  the  upper  one  being  pressed  upon  the 
lower  one,  or  lifted,  for  drawing  out  the  thread 
of  cotton  or  wool. 

3.  A  little  bent  plate  which  fastens  two  objects 
together,  as  the  clasps  which  attach  the  wires  to  the 
tapes  of  hoop-skirts. 

Clasp-hook.    1 .  A  pair  of  hooks  moving  upon 
the  same  pivots,  and  foiin- 
ing     mousings     for     each  Fig.  1313. 

other. 

2.  A  tongs,  whose  jaws 
a  overlap  upon  each  other. 
The  running  ring  b  is  the 
vHiis.  Clasp-Hook. 

Clasp-knife.  A  large 
knife,   the  blade  of  which  shuts  into   the  handle. 

Clasp-lock.  A  lock  on  the  clasp  which  unites 
the  two  fiaps  of  a  boolc-cover. 

Clasp-nEuL  A  siiuare-bodied,  sharp,  wrought 
nail,  whose  head  has  two  pointed  spui-s  that  sink 
into  the  wood. 

Clav'e-cin.  {Music.)  A  harpsichord.  A  pros- 
trate harp  who.se  strings  were  agitated  by  plectra 
operated  by  keys. 

Clav'i-chord.  The  davichord  was  one  of  the 
predecessors  of  the  piano-forte.  Like  the  latter,  the 
stiings  were  slrnd: ;  unlike  the  Imrpsichord  and 
spinet,  in  which  the  strings  were  vibrated  by  a 
Huill. 

The  string  was  struck  by  a  vertical  pin-wire, 
when  the  key  was  depressed.  The  sonorous  vibra- 
tion was  modified  by  a  muffler,  consisting  of  a  strip 
of  cloth.  This  also  gave  a  certain  softness  to  the 
tone.     The  whole  was  enclosed  in  an  oblong  ease. 

See  PlANO-FOKTE. 

We  read  of  a  clavichord  having  forty-nine  stops 
(keys  ?)  and  seventy  strings,  which  bore  upon  five 
bridges,  the  first  being  the  highest,  and  the  others 
diminishing  in  proportion. 

The  clavichord  used  in  concerts  about  A.  D.  1589 
had  been  known  for  some  centuries  ;  it  was  a  Hat 
rectangular  box  having  twenty  keys,  embracing  two 
and  a  half  octaves,  the  semitone  li  fiat  being  intro- 
duced in  addition  to  the  seven  tones  of  the  diatonic 
scale.  The  instrument  had  no  legs,  and  was  sup- 
ported on  a  table.  It  may  be  considered  the  pre- 
cursor of  the  square  piano.  It  is  probable  that 
there  were  not  so  many  strings  as  keys,  the  strings 
being  shortened,  as  in  a  guitar,  by  a  device  brought 
into  action  by  the  movement  of  the  key,  which 
struck  the  note. 

We  read  in  a  Leipsic  work  of  1600  of  an  instru- 
ment brought  by  Piwtorius  from  Italy  to  Saxony, 
in  which  each  key  had  its  own  string.  This  was 
considered  quite  a  novelty  in  a  keyed  instrument, 
though  common  enough  in  harps,  and  was  not  fol- 


CLAVICITHERIUM. 


562 


CLAY-MILL. 


lowed  till  long  afterwards,  probably  the  latter  half 
of  the  eislitc'i'iith  I'eiitury. 

Clav'i-cith-e'ri-um.  (Music.)  An  old  form  of 
upright  stringed  instrument  played  by  means  of 
keys.  It  was  used  early  in  the  sixteenth  century, 
and  has  by  some  been  supposed  to  be  the  same  as 
the  virginal  (which  see).  The  davicUheriuin  may 
be  considered  the  precursor  of  the  upright  iiiaiio. 
It  was  modeled  upon  the  cilhara,  and  preserved  a 
harp  shape.  It  was  comparatively  light,  and  was 
rested  on  a  talile  or  the  knees  while  playing. 

Clavi-cym'bal.  Prtetorius,  who  wrote  in  the 
sixteenth  century,  describes  a  clavicymbal  which  he 
saw  at  Prague.  It  was  the  sha])e  of  a  prostrate 
harp,  or  a  grand  piano  without  legs.  Its  compass 
was  four  octaves,  with  nineteen  notes  in  each  octave. 
The  sharps  and  Hats  had  separate  keys  ;  as,  foi'  in- 
stance, e  sharp  and  d  flat  were  separate  with  differ- 
ent tones  ;  keys  were  also  provided  between  b  and  c 
and  c  and  /.     CI tivicijnibalicni. 

Cla'vi-er.  [Music.)  a.  The  key-board  of  an 
organ,  piano-forte,  or  other  instrament  similarly 
played. 

b.  From  Latin  clavis,  a  key.  The  musical  instru- 
ment of  the  sixteenth  century,  which  consisted  es- 
sentially of  harps  played  by  keys,  were  named  from 
the  latter  feature  Clavichord  ;  Clavicymbal  ; 
Ci.AVicrniEiiiu.M,  etc.  (which  see). 

Clav'i-ole.     (Music.)     A  finger-keyed  viol. 

Claw.     1.     (Carpcntnj.)     a.    A  hammer  with  a 
bent  and  split  peen  to  draw  nails. 

b.  A  little  split  tool  for  drawing 
tacks.. 

2.  The  bent  and  bifurcated  end  of 
a  crow-bar  ;  so  also  of  the  lifting-bar 
of  a  jack. 

3.  A  bent  hook  on  the  end  of  a 
hoisting  chain.     A  grapnel  for  sus- 

, pending   tackle.      (Fig.    1314.)     A 
ijhook-sliapej  tool. 

4.  {Locksmi/hinri.)  A  spur  or 
talon  projecting  from  a  bolt  or  tum- 
bler. 

The  essential  feature  is  the  talon  or  hook,  and  the 
word  forms  a  part  of  many  compound  words,  as  — 


Fig.  1315. 


Fig.  1316. 


Claw-Bar. 

Claw-bar. 

Claw-hammer. 

Claw-jack. 

Claw-wrench. 

Rail-claw. 

Tack -claw,  etc. 

Cla-w-bar.  A  lever 
or  crow-bar  with  a  bent 
bifurcated  claw  for  draw- 


C^w-Hammer. 


ing  spikes.  The  cut  shows  a  supplementary  shackle 
G,  for  reaching  the  heads  of  spikes  in  deep-seated 
depressions. 

Cla'wr-ham'iner.  A  hammer  having  a  bifurcated 
bent  peen,  suitable  for  catching  below  the  liead  of  a 
nail  to  draw  it.  ' 

Clawr'ker.  (Knitting -inachinc.)  A  feed-pawl  or 
hanil  for  a  ratchet. 

ClaTV-Tvrench.     A    wrench    having    a    loose, 
pivoted    jaw   which    binds    of 
itself.  Fig.  1317. 

Such  are  many  of  the  forms 
oi pipc-wnnchcs  (which  see). 

In  the  one  shown,  the  jaw  B 
is  made  to  approach  jaw  A  by 
the  engagement  of  the  circular  A  I 
rack  a  on  the  handle  with  the 
rack  c  on  the  jaw  B,  so  that 
the  harder  the  strain  on  the 
handle  the  tighter  the  pinch. 

Clay.      A     composition      of         aaw-Wnndi. 
silex     or     flint,    mixed     with 
alumina.     The  latter  is  usually  about  one  fourth. 

Porcelain  clay  is  formed  by  the  decomposition  of 
a  rock  formed  of  ([uartz  and  feldspar. 

Chinese  kaolin  consists  of — silc.x,  71.15  ;  alumi- 
na, 15.86  ;  lime,  1.92  ;  water,  6.73. 

Cornish  kaolin  consists  of  —  silex,  50  ;  alumina, 
50  ;  lime,  1. 

In  the  common  acceptation  of  the  term,  clay  is  an 
earth  which  possesses  sufficient  ductility  and  co- 
hesion, when  kneaded  with  water,  to  form  a  paste 
and  permit  being  fashioned  by  the  hand,  in  a  mold, 
or  on  a  lathe. 

Clayes.  (Fortification.)  Hurdles  to  form  blinds 
for  working  parties.  Reinfoiced  with  earth,  they 
are  substantially  gabions,  and  as  such  are  of  a  more 
permanent  character. 

Clay'ing.  1.  (Sugar-making.)  A  process  in  the 
crystallization  of  refined  sugar  in  molds,  in  which  a 
lump  of  wet  clay  is  laid  upon  the  base  of  the  in- 
verted cone  of  wet  srgar,  to  secure  the  more  per- 
fect ilrainage  of  the  coloring  solution  therefrom,  by 
the  prolongation  of  the  process. 

2.  (Mining.)  Lining  the  lilast-hole  with  clay,  to 
prevent  the  ex]"ilosive  becoming  damp. 

Clay'ing-bar.  (Mining.)  A  cylindrical  bar  for 
driving  tenacious  clay  into  the  crevices  of  a  blast- 
liole,  in  order  to  prevent  percolation  of  water  on  to 
the  charge. 

Clay-mill.     A  mill  for  grinding  clay  for  bricks, 

Fig.  1318. 


Clay-Mill. 


CLAYMORE. 


563 


CLEAR-FOUNDATION   LACE. 


tiles,  or  the  manufacture  of  pottery,  stone-ware,  por- 
celain, etc.  The  pug-mill  is  the  form  most  usually 
employed.     See  Bkick-machine  ;  Pug-mill. 

In  the  South  of  England,  at  a  famous  clay-pit 
which  supplies  the  potteries  of  London  and  Stattbrd- 
shire,  a  form  of  Chilian  mill  is  used.  The  dry  clay 
is  shoveled  into  a  pan,  which  has  a  grated  bottom  ; 
the  runners  rub  and  s([ueeze  the  clay  so  as  to  render 
it  homogeneous,  and  mix  thoroughly  the  clayey 
with  the  sandy  particles  with  which  it  abounds. 

To  the  upright  shaft  of  the  runners  are  attached 
two  scrapers  projecting  as  far  as  the  rim  of  the  bed- 
plate ;  the  one  is  continually  spreading  the  clay 
over  the  gratings,  to  allow  the  fine  clay  to  pass 
through ;  and  the  other  follows,  collecting  the 
coarser  particles,  and  is  so  placed  as  to  bring  them 
again  under  the  runners. 

Another  kind  of  mill  may  be  used  for  working 
clay  into  mortar  for  bricks.     It  is  used  in  England 


Fig.  1319 


for  grinding  chalk  into  pulp  for  adding  to  the  kinds 
of  clay  deficient  in  lime,  and  is  called  a  crashhiff- 
iiiill.  Two  of  these  mills  are  placed  close  together 
on  a  large  double  mound,  sufficiently  elevated  to 
allow  the  malm  to  run  down  freely  to  the  brick- 
earth.  The  chalk-mill  is  a  circular  trough  lined 
with  brickwork,  in  which  the  chalk  is  ground 
by  the  action  of  two  heavy  wheels  with  spiked 
tires,  made  to  revolve  by  either  one  or  two  horses. 
The  trough  is  supplied  with  water  by  a  pump,  the 
lever  of  which  is  worked  by  the  machinery  of  the 
clay-mill,  and  as  the  chalk  becomes  gi'onnd  into 
jnilp  it  pa.sses  by  a  channel  to  the  brick-earth  with 
wliich  it  is  incorporated  in  a  pug-mill. 
.    Clay'more.    Foimerly  the  two-handled  sword 


of  the  Scotch  Highlanders.  Now  a  basket-hilted 
broadsword. 

Clay-pipe.     See  Tobacco-pipe. 

Clay-proc'ess.  In  this  process  clay  is  substi- 
tuted fur  plaster  in  the  process  of  making  stereotype 
molds.  The  face  of  the  type  is  forced  into  the  clay 
by  pressure.  A  plaster-mold,  on  the  other  hand,  is 
formed  by  pouring  the  pla-ster  on  the  type. 

Clay-pul'ver-iz-er.  A  machine  for  grinding 
dry  clay  to  render  it  more  homogeneous  previous  to 
pugging. 

Clay-screen'ing  Ma-chine'.  A  machine  for 
sifting  pulverized  clay.  Used  in  preparing  it  for 
some  of  the  finer  ceramic  manufactures. 

Cleach'ing-net   A  hand-net  with  hoop  and  pole. 

Clead'ing.     Plank  covering  or  casing.     As  : 

1.  (ilinimj.)  The  boarding  which  lines  a  shaft 
or  a  tunnel. 

2.  (Hydraulic  Engineering.)  a.  The  planking  of 
a  dam  or  coli'er-dam  ;  or  of  a  sea-wall,  secured  to 
guide  piles,  for  instance. 

b.    The  jilanking  or  skin  of  a  canal  lock-gate. 

3.  {Steam-engine.)  The  wooden  covering  of  a 
steam-boiler  or  cylinder  to  prevent  the  radiation  of 
heat.     Lagging. 

Clean'er  1.  (Leather.)  A  currier's  straight, 
two-handled  knife,  with  a  blade  two  inches  broad. 

2.  (Founding.)  A  slirker.  A  tool  used  for 
smoothing  surfaces  in  sand-molding. 

3.  (Carding.)  One  of  a  ]iair  of  .small  card  cylin- 
ders called  urchins,  arranged  around  the  periphery 
of  a  card-drum.  The  u-orl'er  is  the  larger  of  tlie 
two  ;  it  takes  the  fiber  from  the  canl-drum  and  de- 
livers it  to  the  cleaner,  which  returns  it  to  the  card- 
drum.     See  CAiinixo-MACHlNE. 

Clean'ing-ma-chine'.  (Silk-manufactvrc.)  A 
machine  in  which  silk  thread  is  carried  from  bob- 
bins over  a  glass  or  iron  guide-rod,  and  then  ilrawn 
through  a  brush  in  order  to  detach  any  particles  of 
dust  or  dirt  therefrom.  To  remove  knots  or  bunches 
the  thread  is  drawn  through  a  notch  in  a  bar  of 
metal.  When  a  knot  refuses  to  pass  through  the 
opening,  the  plate  is  depressed,  the  bobbin  lifted 
off  the  friction-roller  which  drives  it,  and,  the  at- 
tention of  the  operator  being  thus  drawn  to  it,  tl'.e 
knot  or  fluff  is  picked  oflT  and  the  bobbin  again  set 
in  motion.     See  also  Cotton-cleaner. 

Cleans'ing-vat.  (Brewing. )  A  vessel  in  which 
the  fermentation  of  beer  is  concluded  ;  the  yeast 
running  out  of  the  bung-hole,  and  being  kept  full  by 
supply  from  a  store-vat. 

Clear'ance.  (SIcam-enginc.)  The  distance  be- 
tween the  piston  and  the  cylinder-head  when  the 
former  is  at  the  end  of  its  stroke. 

Clear-cole.  (Fainting.)  (From  claird  colle, 
transparent  size.)  A  priming  coat  prepared  with 
size  instead  of  oil. 

In  oil -gilding,  a  coat  of  clear-cole  is  laid  on  inter- 
mediate between  the  white  stuff  and  the  oil  gold-size. 
See  Gilding. 

Cleare.  The  filtered  fluid  of  coarse  sugar  de- 
colorized bv  bone-black. 

Clear'er.  1.  A  tool  on  which  the  hemp  for  sail- 
makers'  twine  is  finished. 

2.  A  rapidly  revolving  roller  in  the  scribbling- 
marhine  laid  alongside  the  worker. 

Clear'er-bar.  A  bar  in  a  horse  hay-fork  which 
throws  the  hav  out  from  the  teeth  when  the  rake  is 
lifted. 

Clear-foun-da'tdon  Lace.  Also  called  Lisle 
lace,  from  the  Frencli  town  of  that  name.  A  light, 
fine,  transparent,  white  thread,  hand-made  lace.  It 
has  a  diamond-sha|ied  mesh  formed  by  two  threads 
plaited  to  a  perpendicular  line. 


CLEARING. 


564 


CLEPSYDRA. 


CleEir'ing.  1.  (Silk-manit/acture.)  The  process 
of  removing  in-egularitie.s  from  silk  tilaments  be- 
fore spintiirjg,  liy  passing  them  beneath  a  scraper,  or 
between  steel  rollers.      See  SlLK-.MANUF.\i;Tlii;F.. 

2.  [Calk-ii-prinlinij.)  Wa.shing  the  dye  solution 
from  the  unmonlanted  portion  of  the  i:loth,  in  the 
"  madder  style  "  of  printing. 

3.  {Machiiicnj.)  The  amount  of  play  between 
the  ini'^hin  ;-t'eth  of  eog-wheels,  to  avoid  jam. 

Clearing-beck.  (Dyeing.)  A  vat  in  whicli 
cottons  printeil  with  certain  colors  are  scoured  with 
so;i|)  and  water. 

Clear'ing-pan.  (Su.gar-manufnctiire.)  A  Clar- 
IFlKl;  (whii'U  sre). 

Clear 'ing-scre\»'.  In  some  fire-arras,  a  screw 
at  right  angles  to  the  nipple,  affording  a  communi- 
cation with  the  chamber. 

Clear'ing-stone.  The  fine  stone  on  which  the 
curriiM"s  knue  receives  its  final  whetting.  It  is 
first  ground  on  tlie  riib-stoiu.  The  knife  has  its 
edge  tni'ned  over  liy  a  steel. 

Clear-stuff.  Boards  free  from  knots,  wane, 
wind-shakes,  ring-hearts,  dote,  sap. 

Cleat    (Cari)rHtri/.)     1.  A  strip  of  wood  secured 

to   another   to 
Fig.  1320  strengthen  it  ; 

as  a  batten 
placed  trans- 
versely on  the 
back  of  several 
boards  which 
ai'e  jointed  or 
matched  to- 
gether. 

2.  (Nauti- 
cal.) A  be- 
laying piece, 
consisting  of  a 
bar  with  two 
arms  fastened 
to  a  post  or 
stanchion  by  a 
bolt  pa.ssing 
through  its 
stem. 

Cltais.  a  a,   belay- 

ing-pins. 
b,  cleat.  d,  belayed  rope. 

b'  b'.  cleats  lashed  to  a       e,  beUying-inn  splice, 
stay. 

3.  An  iron  nailed  to  a  shoe-sole  to  preserve  it. 

4.  A  trunnion  bracket  on  a  gun-carriage. 
Cleav'er.     A  heavy,  long-bitted  chopping-tool, 

u.sed  by  batchers  in  cutting  up  carcasses.  In  the 
pork-packing  establishnidnts  of  Cincinnati,  Chicago, 
etc.,  it  is  used  to  the  exclusion  of  other  cutting 
tools,  except  in  trinnning.  Two  men  with  cleavers 
stand  on  each  side  of  the  block.  One  cut  severs 
the  head  from  the  body  ;  another  .severs  the  body  at 
the  loins,  cutting  olf  both  hams  ;  the  third  chops  off 
the  two  hind  feet ;  the  fourth  removes  the  two  fore 
feet  ;  a  fifth  divides  the  hams  ;  two  or  three  divide 
the  middles  and  shoulders  on  the  line  of  the  back- 
bone. It  is  more  ipiickly  done  than  told.  Circular 
saws  are  now  sviVis'itutecl  in  some  establishments. 

Cleav'ing-knife.  (Cuopenmj.)  A  tool  used  for 
rivin.;jnggli-s  into  staves,  clapboards.     X  from. 

Cleav'ing-saw.  A  />iV-saw  ;  a  np-saw,  as  dis- 
tinguislii'd  tV.im  a  rrosx-ait  .saw. 

Clench-bolt.  One  who.se  pointed  end  is  clenched 
after  p.issing  tluough  the  wood,  — sometimes  over  a 
washer  '^r  ring. 

Clep'sy-dra.  A  water-clock- ;  a  hydroscope.  The 
invention    of  the   clepsydra   was    ascribed   by   the 


ancient  Egyptians  to  Thoth,  who  is  held  to  lie  the 
original  ilercury.  It  was  in  use  among  the  Egyp- 
tians, Chaldeans,  Greeks,  and  Romans. 

The  name  is  derived  from  the  simple  form  of  a 
basin  with  a  small  hole  in  the  bottom,  which,  being 
placed  in  a  vessel  of  water,  gi-adually  filled  and 
sank.  This  plan  is  Si\id  to  be  still  used  in  Inilia, 
and  marks  a  time  equal  to  about  twenty  minutes, 
called  a  gurlicc.  An  Indian  clepsydra  of  a  diH'eri'Ut 
construction  is  mentioned  in  the  arithmetii;al  treatise 
of  Bhas-cara,  written  in  the  tw-elfth  century. 

The  clepsydra  is  thus  described  in  the  Surya- 
Siddhanta,  a  Sanscrit  text-book  on  astronomy  :  — 
"A  copper  vessel,  with  a  hole  in  the  bottom,  set  in 
a  basin  of  pure  water,  sinks  si.xty  times  in  a  day 
anil  night,  and  is  an  accurate  hemispherical  instru- 
ment."—  Ch.  xiii.,  s.  23. 

The  Chaldean  astronomers  used  clepsydras  as 
measurers  of  time,  and  they  remained  as  accessories 
to  astronomical  observatories  down  to  the  time  of 
Galileo. 

The  Chaldeans  divided  the  zodiac  into  twelve 
equal  parts  by  allowing  water  to  run  out  of  a  small 
orifice  during  the  whole  revolution  of  a  star,  and 
dividing  the  liquid  thus  obtained  into  twelve  ]iarts. 
So  says  Sextus  Enipiricus.  It  is  probable  that  the 
discharging-vessel  was  kept  at  a  constant  level, 
or  otherwise  equal  quantities  passing  would  mark 
une((ual  times  as  the  pressure  diminished.  If  the 
vessel  were  kept  constantly  full,  it  would  discharge 
a  quantity  equal  to  its  capacity  in  half  the  time  it 
would  empty  itself  imrenewed.  . 

Athenreus,  a  distinguished  Greek  writer  of  the 
third  century,  A.  D.,  a  native  of  Egj-pt,  in  the 
course  of  his  "table-talk"  mentions  that  Plato 
(372  B.  c.)  had  constructed  a  clepsydra  or  water- 
dial  which  played  uj>on  pipes  the  hours  of  the  night, 
at  a  time  when  they  could  not  be  seen  on  the  index. 

Vitruvius  dates  the  invention  something  over  100 
years  later,  attributes  it  to  Ctesibus  of  Alexandria, 
who  lived  under  Ptolemy  Euergetes,  245  B.  c,  ancl 
who  states  that  water  was  made  to  drop  upon 
wheels  which  Umied  and  actuated  a  small  statne 
having  a  .stick  in  his  hand.  The  figure  rotated  on 
its  jiedestal  and  pointed  to  the  figures  on  a  num- 
bered circle.  They  were,  however,  known  before 
Ctesibus,  but  it  is  probable  that  he  applied  toothed 
wheels  to  them.  They  were  introduced  into  Kome 
by  P.  Cornelius  Scipio  Nasica,  157  B.  c.  The  ora- 
tors in  Rome,  in  the  time  of  Ponipey,  were  limited 
to  a  certain  time  :  as  Cicero  says,  latrarc  ad  clcp.fij- 
dram.  It  issu]i]iosed  that  among  the  Romans  they 
consisted  of  a  vessel  from  which  the  water  issued 
drop  by  drop,  falling  into  another  vessel  in  which 
a  rising  float  indicated  against  a  gi'aduated  index 
the  lapse  of  time. 

It  may  be  that  they  used  the  hour-glass,  a  modi- 
fied form  of  the  clepsydra,  sand  being  substituted 
for  water,  and  under  a  gag  or  five-minute  rule,  the 
running  out  of  the  sand  shut  up  the  mouth  of  an 
orator  who  was  disagreeable  to  the  majority.  The 
friends  of  Cataline,  we  may  sujipose,  failed  to  en- 
force the  rule  against  Cicero,  whose  friends  moved 
for  a  suspension  of  the  rules,  and  so  we  have  Qiioiis- 
que  tandem  abuterc,  etc.,  the  delight  of  compositors, 
and  the  horror  of  dull  school-boys. 

In  the  instrument  of  Ctesibus,  2,  3,  Fig.  1321, 
the  device  for  the  measurement  of  the  hours  was  a 
cylinder  resting  upon  a  pedestal  ;  two  figures  were 
placed  upon  the  latter,  one  of  which  dropped  water 
from  its  eyes,  while  the  other  pointed  with  a  wand 
to  the  hour  marked  on  a  vertical  line  drawn  upon 
the  cylinder.  This  cylinder  turned  on  its  axis  once 
a  year,  aud  on  it  were  drawn  curved  lines  which 


CLEPSYDRA. 


565 


CLEW. 


exhibited  the  inequality  of  the  hours  on  different 
days,  by  their  being  marked  at  unequal  distances. 

The  manner  of  working  this  machine  was  to  allow 
the  water  to  rise  through  a  tube,  which,  passing 
through  one  figure,  was  discharged  into  a  reservoir 
M,  from  which  it  passed  into  the  pipe  B  C  D.  In 
this  pipe  a  piece  of  wood  floated  upon  the  surface, 
and  by  its  ascent,  as  the  pipe  filled,  it  raised  the 
hiuiU  pillar  G  D,  on  which  the  other  figure  rested, 
and  as  the  float  rose  in  the  pipe  the  wand  was  made 
to  jwiut  to  the  difl'eient  hours.  Every  twenty-four 
hours  the  vessel  became  filled,  as  did  the  inverted 
siphon,  which  eoinnuinicated  with  it.  The  water 
was  then  drawn  off  by  the  siphon,  E  F,  and  falling 
in  its  descent  into  the  buckets  of  the  wheel  below, 
pat  that  in  motion.  This  wheel  had  si.\L  buckets, 
and  therefore  made  one  revolution  every  six  days. 
Its  axis  carried  a  pinion  of  si.K  teeth,  working  on 
another  wheel  of  sixty  te£th ;  this  also  carrieil 
another  pinion  of  ten  teeth,  and  drove  a  wheel  of 
sixty-one  teeth,  which  by  its  axis  turned  the  pillar 
round  once  in  366  dajs.     These  machines  indicate 

Fig.  1321. 


Clepsydms. 

considerable  hydrodynamical  knowledge,  and  sng- 
pest  snmi-  acpiaintance  of  Ctesibus  with  Archi- 
ni  d  s.  who  travi-leil  in  Egypt. 

In  the  clepsydia  shown  at  1,  Fig.  1321,  the  water 
fro:n  an  upper  reservoir,  kept  constantly  full,  passed 
thro.igh  a  pipe  into  a  drum  having  apertures  of 
various  siz"s  correspomling  to  the  length  of  the 
d  lys  at  different  seasons  of  the  year.  The  flow  was 
reg-.ilated  by  turning  the  drum  so  that  its  index 
shiinlil  correspond  with  the  proper  diWsioii  of  a 
zo  liac  engraved  on  the  face  of  the  clepsyilra.  The 
water  was  discharged  into  a  lower  reservoir,  on 
which  floated  an  inverteil  vessel  suspended  from  a 
chain  passing  around  an  axis  upon  which  the  hour- 
hand  wiis  ft-xed  and  counterbalanced.  As  the  water 
r)s'',  the  ves-sel  ascendeil,  turning  the  hand  on  its 
axis  and  indicating  the  hour  on  a  dial. 

(Clepsydras  are  said  to  have  been  found  in  use 
among  the  Britons  by  Julius  Caesar,  5.t  b.  c. 

The  Saracens  had  several  kinds  of  cleixsydras  ; 
one  with  a  balance. 

A  clock  was  presented  by  Pope  Paul  1.  to  Pepin, 
King  of  France,  .\.  D.  760  ;  was  possibly  a  clep- 
svilr.i.  Pacificus,  Archdeacon  of  Genoa,  invented 
one  ill  the  ninth  century. 

I.at  dy,  the  clepsydra  has  been  adapted  by  Cap- 
tain Svater.  for  the  accurate  measui'ement  of  short 
inerv.ils  of  time,  by  the  flowing  of  mercury  from  a 
small  orifice  in  the  bottom   of  a  vessel,  kept  con- 


stantly   filled     to     a    cei-tain  ''U-  1322. 

hight.  The  stream  is  inter- 
cepted at  the  moment  of 
noting  any  event,  and  di- 
verted aside  into  a  receiver, 
into  which  it  continues  to  run 
till  the  moment  of  noting 
another  event,  when  the  in- 
tercepting cause  is  suddenly 
removed  and  the  stream  turned 
to  its  original  channel.  The 
weight  of  mercury  in  the  re- 
ceiver in  comparison  with  the 
known  rate  of  passage  deter- 
mines the  interval  between 
the  events. 

Professor  Airy,  Astronomer 
Koyal  of  England,  has  applied 
the  clep.sydra  to  communicat- 
ing motion  to  telescojies  equa- 
torially  mounted. 

Partington's  clepsydra  is 
constructed  to  discharge  equal 
quantities  of  water  in  equal 
times.  /;  is  a  float  on  the 
surface  of  the  water,  and  E  is 
a  weight  to  counterbalance 
the  weight  of  the  siphon  C, 
and  its  contained  water.  The 
water  Is  discharged  at  F,  the 
lower  end  of  the  long  leg  of 
the  siphon,  and  is  collected  in  the  box  G,  which 
forms  the  base  of  the  instrument. 

The  Chinese  clepsydras  are  descrilwd  in  the 
United  States  Agricultural  Report,  1S51,  plate  at 
the  end  of  the  book.  The  description  in  the 
Mechanical  Beport  of  the  Patent  Oflice,  same  year, 
pp.  335,  cl  xcq. 

Clere-sto'ry.  That  upper  portion  of  the  mid- 
dle aisle  of  a  Xormaa  or  Gothic  cathedral  church 
which  shows  above  its  side  aisles,  and  has  a  tier  or 
row  of  windows  on  each  side  looking  clear  over  the 
side-aisle  roof.     A  char-story. 

Cle'via    A  stinupshaped  metallic  strap,   used 

Fig.  1323. 


Ofpsydra. 


in  connection  with  a  pin  to  connect  a  draft-chain  or 
tree  to  a  plow  or  other  tool. 

The  illustration  shows  several  fonns  for  vertical 
and  hniizontal  adjustment,  for  plows,  double-trees, 
shovel-plow.s,  etc. 

Cle^.    (Nautical.)   a.  A  lower  corner  of  a  square- 


CLEW-GARNET. 


566 


CLINCHER-WORK. 


1324. 


sail  ;  the  aftmost  corner  of  a  fore-and-aft  sail.  The 
clewlines  aie  attaohed  to  the  clews  of  a  si|Luux'-sail, 
and  draw  the  latter  up  to  the  yard  in  furling.  The 
sluiets  are  attached  to  the  same  corners,  and  e.xpaml 
the  sail. 

b.  The  lines  fiistened  to  the  ends  of  a  hammock 
and  meeting  at  the  (jromntcts,  to  which  are  attached 
the  lanyards  by  which  tli(^  liamniock  is  suspended 
from  rings  or  liaoks  in  the  deck-ljeams. 

Clew-gar'uet.  (Ndutical.)  A  tackle  attached 
to  the  rk'w  of  a  lower  square-sail,  to  haul  it  up  to 
the  yanl  in  furling. 

Cle'W-gar'net  Block.  (Nautical.)  A  block  with 
a  single  sheave,  and  strapped  with 
two  eyes,  which  are  lashed  together 
above  the  yard. 

When  double,  the  foremost  sheave 
is  for  the  top-gallant  clewline  and  the 
after  one  for  the  royal  sheet.  The 
leading  part  of  the  fall  follows  down 
the  mast  to  the  deck. 

Clew'line.  (Naatkal.)  A  rope 
for  hauling  up  the  clew  of  an  upper 
square-Siiil. 

Cliche.  (PriiUiiiij.)  a.  The  process  of  obtaining 
a  matiix  or  cast  in.  iiitatjlio  from  a  form  of  type,  so 
tliat  a  cast  in  metal  in  cameo  may  be  obtained  there- 
from for  printing  purposes.  The  n.sual  material  for 
newspaper  work  is  papier-mache,  or  paper  in  sheets. 
When  tlie  latter  material  is  u.sed,  it  is  dampened  and 
laid  upon  the  form,  the  thickness  of  paper,  number 
of  sheets,  and  degree  of  dampness,  being  a  matter  of 
experience  and  skill.  A  stitl'  brush  is  then  dablied 
over  the  surface  in  such  a  manner  as  to  force 
down  the  paper  between  the  type,  so  as  to  obtain  a 
jierfect  mold.  This  is  tlu'n  dried,  backeil  to  give  it 
the  necessary  rigidity,  and  forms  a  mold  on  which 
a  stereotype-plate  is  cast. 

b.  A  mode  of  obtaining  an  impression  from  a  die 
in  high  relief,  or  from  a  form  of  type,  by  striking 
the  cold  die  with  a  sudden  blow  upon  a  body  of 
metal  which  is  ju.st  liecoming  solid. 

Click.  The  detent  a,  of  a  ratchet-wheel  b  (Fig. 
1325),  falling  into  tlie  spaces  bi-tween  the  cogs  as 
the  w'iieel  revolves  in  one  direction,  and  pi'eventiug 
the  backward  motion  of  the  wheel.  The  name  is  no 
doubt  derived  from  the  sound.  It  usually  acts  by 
spring,  sometimes  by  gravitation.  In  larger  ma- 
chines it  becomes  iipawl,  as  in  the  capstan. 

Click-pul'ley.     The  rim  of  the  sheave  c  (Fig. 
1325,   B)   has  notches, 
Fig.  1325.  engaged    by    a    spring 

click  d,  wliich  acts  as  a 
detent  to  restrain  the 
sheave  from  running 
back.  The  groove  of 
the  sheave  is  toothed 
to  prevent  the  slipping 
of  tlie  rope  therein. 
The  click  is  raised  by 
a  trigger  and  cord  when 
recpiired. 

CUck'et.    A  latch- 
key ;    the   latch   of    a 
mt,    door. 

nP     Click--wheel.      A 

wheel   whose   cogs  are 

radial  on  one  face  and 

inclined  on   the  other, 

so  as  to  give  a  sipiare 

face  to  the  end  of  the 

click,  pawl,  ratchet,  or  detent,  which   prevents  the 

back  movement  of  the  wheel.      A  ratchet-wheel. 

Climb'er.     1.   (TcUgraphy.)     A   boot    provided 


Click  anil  Ctick-PtlUey. 


FiR.  1326. 


aick  and  Click -Wheel. 

with  spurs,  hy  which  a  person  is  enabled  to  climb 
telegraph-poles  to  make  repairs  or  additions  to  the 
wires  or  insulators. 

2.  (Railroad  Engineering.)  A  driving-wheel  of  a 
locomotive,  having  a  positive  grip,  as  by  cogs  or 
pinchers,  upon  a  rail  or  rack  in  ascending  or  de- 
scending grades. 

Clinch.  1.  (Nautical.)  A  mode  of  fasteuing  large 
ro]ies,      consisting 

of    a     half -hitch  Fig.  1327 

with  the  end 
stopped  back  to  its 
part  by  seizings. 
The  outer  end  of  a 
hawser  is  bent  by 
a  clinch  to  the  ring 
of  the  anchnr. 

a,  slip-clinch. 

ft,  clinch  secured. 

e,  simple  clinch. 

The  knot  of  the 
breeching,  which 
secures  the  gun 
to  the  ring-bolts 
on  the  side  of  the 
gun-port. 

2.  A  fastening, 
d  (Fig.  1327),  in 
whicli  the  long  end 
of  a  nail  is  turned  Clinch. 
over  and  the  re- 
curved end  caused  to  enter  the  material  so  as  to 
oppose  retiaction. 

Clinching  is  distingnishcd  from  riveliiig,  as  the 
metal  in  the  latter  process  is  swaged  down  either 
against  the  object  or  upon  a  washer. 

3.  (Farriery.)  The  turning  over  and  beating 
down  of  the  end  of  a  hoi'seshoe  nail,  against  the 
wall  of  the  hoof,  to  prevent  retraction. 

Clinch-built.     See  Clinciieu-wuuk. 

Clinch'er.  A  tool  for  clinching ,  —  that  is, 
turning  over  the  pointed  end  of  a  nail  so  as  to  pre- 
vent its  retraction. 

In  wood,  the  end  is  bowed  over  and  driven  into 
the  piece  tlirough  which  the  nail  la.st  passed. 

In  farriery,  the  end  of  the  horseshoe  nail  is  nipped 
oft'  and  the  stub  battered  down  so  as  to  oppose 
a  liooked,  flattened  portion,  against  the  action  of 
withilrawal.  After  the  nail  has  been  driven  by  a 
hammer  in  the  ordinary  way,  one  jaw  is  placed 
upon  the  head  of  the  nail,  ami  the  other  jaw  is 
brought  up  to  engage  with  and  flatten  down  the 
point  of  the  nail. 

Clinch'er-built.    See  Clincher- work. 

CUnch'er-work.  1.  Lap-jointed  work.  A 
mode  of  building  in  which  the  lower  edge  of  each 
plank  overlaps    the   one  next    below  it,    like   the 


CLINCHING. 


567 


CLIPPING-SHEARS. 


weather-boarding  of  a  house  ;  the  shingles  or  slates 
of  a  roof. 

The  term  is  variously  compounded :  Clinclier- 
build,  clincher-plating,  clindicr-work,  aud,  erro- 
neously, cUnker-Kork. 

The  root  of  the  word  clinch  is  to  grasp  or  fasten, 
and  the  feature  of  the  joint  is  a  lap  or  fold.  Clink 
is  an  onomatopoetic  word  derived  from  the  sharp 
sound  of  a  vitreous  body  when  struck  ;  hence 
clinker. 

Clincher-work  is  used  on  boats  of  a  lighter  de- 
scription, —  the  galley,  gi?,  cutter,  jolly-boat, 
dingy,  etc.  (See  Boat.)  The  lower  edge  of  each 
strake  of  plank  overlaps  the  upper  edge  of  the  next 
strake  below.  They  are  not  built  upon  frames,  but 
upon  temporary  transverse  sectional  molds,  two, 
three,  and  four  in  number,  which  are  fi.\ed  at  their 
proper  stations  on  the  keel.  The  strakes  are  then 
put  on,  beginning  with  the  garboard  strake,  and 
bent  to  the  figure  giveu  by  the  molds.  Each  strake 
is  fastened  to  the  next  below  it  by  nails,  driven 
from  the  outside  through  the  laps  or  hinds. 

When  two  or  more  lengths  of  plank  occur  in 
a  strake,  they  are  scarfed  to  each  other,  the  outside 
lap  of  each  scarf  pointing  aft.  The  scarfs  have  a 
layer  of  tari'ed  paper  between,  and  are  fastened 
with  nails  driven  from  the  thin  end  of  each  piece. 

2.  A  mode  of  uniting  the  iron  plates  of  vessels, 
tanks,  or  boilers,  in  which  the  edges  are  lapped, 
and  secured  by  one  row  of  rivets.  It  is  distin- 
guished from  earvcl-hai\d,  in  the  respect  that  in  the 
latter  the  edges  of  the  plates  are  brouglit  together 
and  the  joint  covered  by  an  interior  lap  or  welt,  to 
which  the  plates  are  secured  by  two  rows  of  rivets, 
one  to  each  plate. 

Cliuch'ing.  (Nautical.)  Slightly  calking  the 
seams  round  the  ports  with  oakam,  in  anticipation 
of  foul  weather. 

Clinch 'ing-ir on.    See  Clincher. 

Clinch-joint.     See  Clincher- work. 

Clinch-ring.  A  lap-ring  or  open  ring,  in  which 
the  parts  on  the  sides  of  the  opening  overlap  each 
other. 

Clin'i-cal  Ther-mom'e-ter.  (Surrjieal.)  A 
thermoineter  with  a  long  bulb  on  a  bent  arm.  The 
straight  portion  only  is  attached  to  the  index-plate, 
which  has  a  range  from  80^  to  120\  In  use,  the 
bulb  is  inserted  in  the  axilla,  or  the  mouth.  The 
instrument  is  self-registeiing,  and  is  graduated  to 
fifths  of  degrees. 

Clink'er.  1.  A  brick  whose  surface  is  vitrified 
by  the  extreme  heat  of  the  fire. 

2.  A  description  of  Dutch  brick. 

3.  A  scale  of  oxide  of  iron  formed  in  forging. 

4.  A  mass  of  incombustible  vitrified  scori;B  or 
slag,  clogging  a  furnace. 

Clink'er-bar.  A  bar  fixed  across  the  top  of  the 
ash-pit  to  support  the  slice  u.sed  for  clearing  the  in- 
terstices of  the  bars. 

Clink'er-built    See  Clincher-work. 

Cli-nom'e-ter.  1.  An  instrument  used  in  de- 
termining the  slope  of  cuttings  and  embankments. 
It  has  a  (luadi-ant  graduated  to  degrees  and  fixed  at 

Fig.  1328. 


^-«- 

-~-^ 

^          ff^ 

g^^\          s 

(f/ 

k           \\k.c 

-^/7  /                   A 

u 

^            .        ^ 

Qinomeler  and  Level, 


the  end  of  a  long  bar  which  ia  laid  adown  the  slope  ; 
an  index  turns  upon  the  center  of  the  quadrant,  to 
which  a  spirit  level  is  attached.  The  level  being 
set  horizontally,  the  angle  of  the  same  will  be  indi- 
cated on  the  quadrant  as  the  latter  partakes  of  tlie 
motion  of  the  rod.     A  baltcr-lcvel. 

2.  A  carpenter's  tool  for  leveling  up  sills  and 
other  horizontal  framing  timbers. 

That  illustrated  is  a  combined  clinometer,  plumb, 
and  level,  and  has  a  vertical  circular  box,  with  an 
arrangement  of  scales  so  graduated  as  to  give,  in 
connection  with  one  or  more  index  fingers,  the 
amount  of  detlectiou  of  an  object  from  a  vertical  or 
horizontal  jX)sitiou,  in  both  circular  and  linear 
measurement. 

Clin'quant.  A  meretricious  alloy  ;  yellow  cop- 
per ;  Dutch-gold.     See  Alloy. 

Clip.     1.    An  embracing-strap  to  connect  parts 
together,  as  in  the  case  of 
clips    on    the    axle    which 
connect  the  springs  thereto. 

The  wheels  of  the  ancient 
Egj'ptian  chariots  had 
strengthening  clipsof  bronze 
at  the  junction  of  the  spokes 
and  fellies.  The  wheels 
were  of  small  diameter,  and 
not  of  very  strong  construc- 
tion. Metal  was  sparingly 
used. 

2.  An  iron  strap  on 
double  or  single  tree,  with 
a  loop  by  which  either  is 
connected  to  the  plow-clevis, 
the  trees  to  each  other,  or 
the  traces  to  the  single  tree. 

3.  A  projecting  fiange  on 
the  upper  surface  of  a 
hoi-seshoe  which  partially 
embraces  the  wall  of  the 
hoof 

Clip'per.   l..{ynutical.) 
A    fast-sailing   vessel,    constructed   on    fine,    sharp 
lines  ;  built  especially  for  speed  rather  than  cargo. 

2.  A  machine  for  clipping  hair.  It  is  especially 
used  for  horses,  and  in  England  more  than  in  any 
other  country.  One  form  has  a  stationary  knife 
and  several  spiral  knives  on  an  axis,  acting  against 
the  edge  of  the  former.  A  comb  is  .so  arranged  as 
to  determine  the  length  to  which  the  hair  is  cut. 

A  more  usual  form  has  a  serrated  knife  leciiiro- 
cating  sheanvise,  with  a  similar  plate,  stationary,  or 
also  reciprocating. 

Clip'ping-shears.     Shears  for  clipping  hoi-ses, 

Jij.  1330. 


Clipping-  Shears 


CLIP-PLATE. 


568 


CLOCK. 


having  a  guard  which  gages  the  length  of  hair  re- 
maining. One  I'orni  is  shown  in  Fig.  1330,  in 
which  the  serrated  knife  B  is  reeii)roeated  above 
tlie  serrated  plate  A  by  means  of  tlie  liandle  //,  the 
hairs  wliiuh  come  between  tlie  teeth  being  severed 
th.^reby.  A  number  of  cutters  are  so  arrangeil  on  a 
comb  that  the  length  of  hair  left,  in  clipping,  may 
b.!  regulated,  and  the  cutters  are  guarded  by  said 
comb  so  that  the  skin  of  the  animal  cannot  be  in- 
jured. 

Clip-plate.  {Carriage.)  The  axle-band  of  a 
wh.'cl. 

Clise-om'e-ter.  (Surgical. )  An  instrument  for 
nij-isMriug  the  angle  which  the  axis  of  the  female 
(Kdvis  makes  with  that  of  the  body. 

Clives.  A  hook,  with  a  spring  to  prevent  its 
uid'istv-niu'^. 

C!o-a'ca.  A  sewer.  The  word  is  Latin,  and  has 
beju  long  celebrated  ill  reference  to  the  Oloca  Max- 
i)aa,  the  main  sewer  of  ancient  Rome,  constructed 
by  the  Tar((uins,  and  yet  serviceable. 

Clock.  An  instrument,  —  differing  from  a  watch 
ill  not  b.dng  adapted  to  be  carried  on  the  person,  — 
iuid  havin^'  a  mative  weight  or  .spring,  a  train  of 
ge.iriug,  index-hands,  and  figured  dial,  and  a  pal- 
sative  device  to  determine  the  rate  at  which  the 
mach-inism  shall  move. 

Before  the  invention  of  mechanism  by  which  a 
rate  of  motion  of  a  staff  or  pointer  was  made  to  in- 
dicate periodic  lapse  of  time,  the  shadow  of  the  sun 
in  his  apparent  daily  progress  enabled  the  observa- 
tion of  the  passing  hours.  A  gnomon,  erected  so  as 
to  throw  its  traveling  shadow  across  a  graduated  arc, 
constitutes  a  dial,  though  many  considerations  in- 
tervene between  the  mere  post-shadow  which  cuts 
the  mark  upon  the  sand,  and  the  dial  whose  read- 
ings will  suit  the  varying  circumstances  of  the 
earth  in  its  solar  relations  at  the  solstices  and  the 
equinoxes.     See  Dial. 

First  the  dial  and  then  the  clepsydra,  is  the  ap- 
parent order  ;  the  latter  is  a  mechanical  time-indi- 
cator (.see  Clepsydi!.\),  but  not  i»  clock,  if  the 
meaning  of  the  latter  term  —  to  strike,  to  beat  — 
is  to  constitute  the  distinction  ;  the  cltick-cliich  of 
a  hen,  and  the  click-click  of  a  ratchet-wheel,  are 
the  Ungual  allies  of  the  clock,  whose  pendulum  gives 
the  rate  of  the  tick-tick  made  by  the  contact  of  the 
scape-wheel  teeth  with  the  pallets. 

The  graduated  face-plate  with  figures  belonged  to 
the  dial  long  before  the  time  of  clocks,  which  are 
audible  in  their  very  name  and  nature,  and  the 
name  cli.il  is  now  very  properly  applied  to  the  face 
of  a  clock  or  watch,  as  their  duties  are  (Latin, 
iliilii)  daily.  We  have  no  record  that  goes  back 
of  the  division  of  the  circle  into  degrees,  and  the 
(■arly  dials  were  thus  divided.  Perhaps  tlie  vigesimo- 
cjuartal  division  of  the  dial  was  deriveil  from  the 
Chinese,  tor  their  compass  had  many  centuries  ago 
a  number  of  divisions  representing  the  cardinal  ami 
intermediate  points,  and  also  certain  divisions  of  the 
natural  day.  The  division  of  the  Chinese  compass 
into  twenty-four  points,  marking  periods  of  the 
natural  day  erpial  to  15"  of  the  circle,  was  probably 
derived  from  tln^  supposed  number  of  days  (24  x  15 
=  3(i0)  occupied  by  the  sun  in  its  (apparent)  course 
through  the  heavens.     See  Dial. 

Most  nations,  we  may  suppose,  had  some  definite 
mode  of  marking  divisions  of  diurnal  time  ;  with 
the  .lews  the  time  between  sunrise  and  sunset  was 
divided  into  twelve  periods,  which  were  therefore 
longer  at  the  summer  solstice  than  at  equinoxes, 
and  longer  at  the  latter  than  at  the  winter  solstice. 
This  complicated  the  construction  of  "  the  dial  of 
Ahiiz "    referred    to   by  Hezekiali,    and  which  was 


probably  brought  from  Damascus  liy  Ahaz  ;  we 
know  that  he  obtained  the  pattern  of  an  altar  from 
thence.  We  read  (Daniel  iv.  19)  that  Daniel  "was 
astonished  for  one  hour,"  Chaldean  time,  which  is 
not  astonishing,  con.sidering  the  critical  nature  of 
the  message  he  had  to  deliver.  Distinct  intimation 
of  the  hours  is  given  in  connection  with  the  setting 
up  of  the  dial  in  the  Quirinus  at  Konie,  293  n.  c. 
The  hours  were  called  through  Home  by  public  cri- 
ers, as  they  were  at  night  by  watchmen,  within  the 
memory  of  some  of  us. 

"They  return  at  evening;  they  make  a  noise 
like  a  dog,  and  go  round  about  the  city."  —  Psalms 
lix.  6. 

Clocks  are  not  very  common  in  China,  being 
mostly  confined  to  the  public  offices,  where  it  is 
tomnion  to  find  half  a  dozen  all  in  a  row. 

The  Chinese  divide  the  day  into  twelve  parts  of 
two  hours  each.  The  Italians  reckon  the  twenty- 
four  hours  round,  instead  of  dividing  them  into  two 
sections  of  twelve  lionrs  each,  as  we  do.  The 
Mexican  day  was  divided  into  sixteen  hours  or 
periods. 

The  early  expedient  in  England  was  wax  tapers, 
invented  by  Alfred  the  Great,  A.  D.  886.  It  ap- 
pears that  even  hour-glasses  were  not  then  known 
in  England,  though  they  are  regarded  as  very  an- 
cient, and  were  certainly  known  in  Rome  long  pre- 
viously. 

The  first  "striking"  or  audible  notification  of 
the  hour,  on  record,  is  the  clepsydra  or  water-dial 
of  Plato,  372  E.  c,  which,  by  the  agency  of  water, 
sounded  ujion  organ-]iipes  the  hour  of  the  inght 
when  the  index  could  not  be  seen.  The  con- 
trivance is  mentioned  by  Atlienaeus  of  Egypt,  a  dis- 
tinguished Greek  writer  of  the  third  century,  and 
author  of  the  "  Deipno.sojihistue."     See  Ci.ki'sydka. 

Wheel-work  set  in  motion  by  springs  and  weights 
■was  known  in  the  time  of  Archimedes  (287-212 
B.  C),  and  applied  to  nieclninical  engines  and  toys. 

The  graduated  dial,  the  shadow  of  the  gnomon 
marking  hours,  was  known  in  Rome  293  li.  c. 

Two  more  things  were  necessary  to  make  a 
clock  :  — 

1 .  To  join  the  w  heels  to  a  pointer  which  traversed 
the  dial. 

2.  To  contrive  a  mode  of  regulating  the  speed  of 
the  going  works. 

When  these  two  features  were  united  to  form  a 
clock  is  not  known. 

The  early  indications  are  as  follows  :  — 

A.  D.  760,  a  clock  ]iresented  by  Pope  Paul  L  to 
Pepin,  of  France  :  prol  ablv  a  clepsydra. 

A.  D.  810,  the  clock  sent  by  the  Khalif  Ha- 
roun  al  Rascliid  to  Charlemagne  is  believed  to  have 
had  some  kinil  of  wheel-work,  but  to  have  lieeii  im- 
pelled by  the  fall  of  water.  In  the  dial  were  twelve 
small  doors  forming  the  divisions  for  the  hours,  each 
door  opened  at  the  hour  marked  by  the  index,  and 
let  out  small  brass  balls,  which,  falling  on  a  bidl, 
struck  the  hours.  The  doors  continued  open  until 
the  hour  of  twelve,  when  twelve  figures,  representing 
warriors  on  horseback,  came  out  and  paraded  around 
the  dial-plate. 

Pacificus,  Archdeacon  of  Verona,  seems  to  have 
improved  the  clock. 

A.  D.  1000,  Ebu  Junis,  of  the  University  of  Cor- 
dova, had  a  pendiilutn -(Aock  ;  to  which  (Jerbert 
is  sujiposed  to  have  added  the  escapement.     See  Pen- 

Ul'U'.M. 

The  balance  clock  described  by  Al  Khilzin!, 
twelfth  century,  consisted  of  a  beam  sus))ended  on 
an  axis  a  little  above  its  center  of  gravity,  and  hav- 
ing attached  to  one  of  its  arms  a  reservoir  which, 


CLOCK. 


569 


CLOCK. 


by  lui'aiis  of  a  perforation  in  its  bottom,  emptied  it- 
self in  tvventy-foiu'  hours.  Tlie  reservoir  was  poised 
by  other  weights  wliich  slipped  down  their  arm  as  the 
discharf;e  of  water  lightened  the  other  arm,  and  the 
place  of  the  weights  marked  the  lapse  of  time. 

Where  the  jwriod  of  the  clepsydra  terminated,  and 
that  of  weight-driven  clocks  commenced,  cannot 
now  be  determined,  but  it  is  certain  that  the  clocks 
of  the  Spanish  Saracens  were  driven  by  weights. 
The  renowned  Gerbett  studied  philosoidiy  and  com- 
mon-sense at  the  Saracenic  University  of  Cordo- 
va, becanis  successively  a  schoolmaster  at  Rheims 
(where  he  had  a  clock),  Archbishop  of  Ravenna, 
and  Pope  .Sylvester  II.,  to  which  latter  dignity  he 
w.as  advj,iiced  by  the  Emperor  Otho  III.  ;  and  they 
died  by  poison,  both  of  them. 

To  follo'.v  up  the  recital :  — ■ 

A.  D.  1238,  a  cloc'.c  was  placed  in  the  old  pal- 
ace yaid,  Louilon,  and  remained  till  the  reign  of 
Queen  Elizabeth. 

A.  D.  1292,  a  clock  was  placed  in  Canterbury 
Cathedral. 

A.  D.  1300,  Dante  refers  to  a  clock  which  struck 
tlie  hours.     Chaucer  refers  to  the  horoloijc. 

No  certain  mention  is  made,  up  to  this  time,  of 
the  means  of  regulating  the  speed  of  the  machine, 
and  that  the  pendulum  had  not  been  adopted  to  any 
extent,  is  certain. 

It  may  be  presumed  th.at  the  device  used  was  a 
Jlij  (sje  Fly)  ;  a  whecd  with  vanes  which  impinged 
upon  the  air,  the  latter  attbrding  a  resistance  pro- 
]iortioned  to  the  size,  number,  radius,  angle,  and 
speed  of  the  vanes.  Such  was  the  case  probably 
with  :  — 

A.  D.  13S0,  the  clock  erected  by  Richard  of  Wal- 
lingford,  abbot  of  St.  Albans. 

During  the  same  century  a  pulsating  regulator 
was  introduced  into  France. 

A.  D.  1364,  Henry  de  Wyck,  or  de  Vick,  a  Ger- 
man, erected  a  clock  in  a  tower  of  the  palace  of 
Charles  V.,  at  Paris. 

A.D.  13S8,  a  striking  clock  was  erected  at  West- 
minster. 

A.  D.  1370,  clocks  at  Sti-asburg  and  Courtray, 
after  which  tlu-y  became  quite  connnon. 

The  )julsating  arrangement  of  Henry  de  Wyck 
consisted  of  an  alteinating  balance,  w  hich  was  formed 
by  suspending  two  heavy  weights  from  a  horizontal 
bir  fixed  at  right  angles  to  an  upright  arbor,  and 
the  nuivement  was  accelerated  or  retarded  by  dimin- 
ishiug  or  increasing  the  distance  of  the  weiglits  from 
the  arbor. 

This  clock,  which  had  no  regulating  spring,  was 
the  type  of  the  astronomical  clocks  used  by  Tycho 
Brahe  (1,t82),  and  by  many  less  illustrous  but  wor- 
thy and  useful  obsei-vers,  at  and  about  the  same 
date. 

Clocks  were  in  possession  of  private  persons  about 
IjJO,  and  about  tlie  same  time  watches  were  intro- 
duced. 

Shakespeare  refers  to  a  watch  in  the  play  of 
Twc'flh  Niijlit,  where  Malvolio  says  :  —  "  1  frown 
the  while,  and  perchance  wind  up  my  watch,  or  play 
with  some  rich  jewel." 

"  Mr.  Pierce  showed  me  the  Queene's  [the  Portu- 
guese princess,  wife  of  Charles  II.]  bedchamber,  and 
her  holy-water  at  her  head  as  she  sleeps,  with  a  clock 
by  her  bedside,  wherein  a  lamp  burns  that  tells  her 
the  time  of  the  night  at  any  time." —  Pcptjs's  Diary, 
1664. 

The  pendulum,  which  engaged  the  attention  of 
the  Spanish  Saracens  in  the  eleventh  century,  and 
jiersous  of  other  nations  who  were  so  fortunate  as  to 
visit  their  University  of  Cordova,  had  a  sleep  of  six 


centuries,  for  it  was  reserved  for  the  seventeenth 
century  to  bring  it  into  general  notice  and  useful- 
ness. 

Early  in  the  seventeenth  century,  Galileo,  observ- 
ing the  oscillations  of  a  suspended  lamp,  conceived 
the  idea  of  m.iking  a  pendulum  a  nieasurei-  of  time, 
and  in  1639  published  a  work  on  mechanics  and  mo- 
tion, in  which  he  iliscussed  the  isochronal  projierties 
of  oscillating  bodies  suspended  by  strings  of  the 
same  length. 

A.  D.  1641,  Richard  Harris  constructed  a  pen- 
dulum clock  in  Loudon,  for  the  church  of  St.  Paul, 
Covent  Garden. 

A.  D.  1649,  a  pendulum  clock  was  constructed 
by  Vincenzio  Galileo  (the  younger  Galileo). 

A.  D.  1650,  Huyghens  constructed  clocks  on 
this  principle  :  —  He  first  explained  the  nature,  prop- 
erties, and  ap|iUcation  of  the  jiendnlum,  and  made  it 
perfect,  except  the  compensation  added  by  Graham, 
about  1700. 

Anchor  pallets  were  introduced  by  Clement,  in 
1680,  who  also  devised  the  mode  of  suspending  the 
pendulum  from  a  stud,  by  means  of  a  piece  of  watch- 
spring.  The  mcchiiuism  of  rejietition  by  means  of 
pulling  a  string  was  invented  by  Barlow,  1676. 
The  endless  cord,  to  continue  the  clock  in  regular 
motion,  during  the  time  of  winding  up,  was  invent- 
ed by  Huyghens,  1660.  This  was  otherwise  cH'ected 
by  Harrison,  1735,  by  means  of  his  auxiliary'  spring 
.and  additional  ratchet.  See  Guixg-whekl.  Huy- 
ghens was  also  the  contriver  of  the  ]uesent  dial-work 
for  changing  the  hour  into  sixty  njinutes  which  di- 
vide the  circumference  of  the  dial,  traversed  by  an 
additional  hand  in  the  center  of  the  clock-face. 

Clocks  were  applied  to  purposes  of  astronomy  as 
early  as  1484.  Gemma  Trosius,  in  1530,  suggested 
their  use  at  sea  for  acertaining  the  longitude.  In 
1741,  the  English  government  offered  a  leward  of 
£20,000  for  a  correct  mode  of  determining  lon- 
gitude at  sea.  This  was  won  by  Harrison,  in 
1762,  who  invented  and  introduced  the  compensat- 
ing pendulum  balance,  made  of  two  metals.  See 
Balance  ;  Chkonometf.r. 

The  balance-spring,  which  confers  upon  the  bal- 
ance the  isochronal  qualities  of  the  pendulum,  was 
invented  by  Hooke,  who  applied  it  in  a  straight 
form.     Huyghens  changed  it  to  a  helix. 

Graham  invented  the  dead-beat  escapement  in 
1700.      See  E.SCAPEMEXT. 

The  spring  as  a  motor  for  time-pieces  was  in- 
vented by  the  Gemians,  and  was  rendered  necessary 
to  confer  portability  upon  the  invention.  It  was 
first  placed  on  the  arbor  of  the  great  wheel  and  a 
supplementary  spring  ojiposed  the  former  during  the 
first  part  of  its  unwinding.  This  was  intended  to 
counteract  the  ineipuility.  The  fusee  was  afterwards 
introduced.  A  watch  with  a  fusee,  made  in  1525, 
by  Lech,  of  Prague,  was  in  London  a  few  years 
back. 

Musical  or  chiming  clocks  were  invented  in 
Germany.  Burney  notices  them  as  early  as 
1580. 

In  1544,  the  corporation  of  master  clock-makers 
of  Paris  obtained  a  statute  from  Francis  1.,  forbid- 
ding non-admitted  persons  to  make  clocks,  watches, 
or  alaruma,  large  or  small. 

Benjamin  Franklin's  clock  is  noted  as  being  the 
simplest  on  record.  It  .shows  the  hours,  minutes, 
and  seconds,  and  yet  contains  but  three  wheels  and 
two  pinions  in  the  whole  movement.  The  lowest 
wheel  has  160  teeth,  and  makes  one  revolution  in 
four  hours.  It  carries  the  hand  on  its  axle,  which 
points  out  both  the  hour  and  the  minute.  It  turns 
a  pinion  of  ten  leaves,  on  the  same  axis  with  which 


CLOCK. 


570 


CLOCK. 


is  a  wheel  of  120  teeth  that  gives  motion  to  a  pinion 
of  eight  leaves.  The  second-hand  is  attached  to  tlie 
axis  of  this  latter  pinion,  as  also  the  swiii^-wheel, 
which  canies  thirty  teeth,  that  gives  njotion  to  the 
pallets  of  an  anchor-escapement,  and  to  its  pendu- 
lum, that  vibrates  seconds. 

The  dial  of  this  clock  has  an  external  circle  having 
240  divisions  in  four  successive  notations  of  sixty 
each.  This  circle  shows  the  minutes  ;  within  it  the 
hours  are  arranged  in  a  volute  of  three  revolutions 
along  four  radii  which  form  riglit  angles  with  each 
other.  By  this  arrangement,  while  the  point  of  the 
hand  shows  the  minute,  the  side  shows  the  hour, 
or,  more  strictly  speaking,  that  the  hoiu'  is  one  of 
three  at  four  hours'  distance  apart.  It  is  supposed 
that  there  will  be  no  mistake  as  to  the  reading,  to 

Fig  1331. 


But  so  many  came  to  see  this  (the  like  of  which  all 
allowed  was  not  to  be  seen  in  Europe),  that  Mr. 
Miller  was  in  danger  of  being  ruined,  not-  having 
time  to  attend  to  his  own  business.  So  as  none 
olfered  to  purchase  it  or  reward  lam  for  his  pains, 
he  took  the  whole  machine  to  pieces." 

Church  clocks,  or,  as  they  are  termed  in  the  trade, 
tower  clocks,  are  very  diverse  in  their  api)earance 
from  any  hall  or  mantel  clock.  The  clock  in  the 
illustration  is  sujiported  by  four  legs  upon  the  Itoor 
of  the  elevated  apartment  in  the  clock-tower,  and  is 
driven  liy  two  weights,  a  is  the  chain  by  which 
tlie  gcriju/  weight  is  suspended  ;  the  chain  b  of  the 
striking  weight  passes  upward,  over  a  pulley,  and  is 
thence  suspended.  Each  chain,  of  course,  kee^w  up 
a  constant  strain  upon  its  own  train,  theyoj/iy  train 


Fig.  1332. 


Frimttin's  Clock 

the  extent  of  four  hours'  dif- 
ference. A  small  circle  above 
the  great  one  is  divided  into  sixty 
parts  for  seconds. 

The  clock  is  wound  up  by  a 
line  going  over  a  pulley  and  ratch- 
et on  the  axis  of  the  great 
■wheel. 

To  remedy  the  imperfection 
in  this  clock,  of  the  uncrtainty 
of  which  hour  of  three  it  denotes, 
the  spiral  coil  containing  the  liours 
has  been  changed  to  a  groove  of 
like  form  carrying  a  ball  which 
constantly  seeks  the  lowest  posi- 
tion, and  thus  indicates  the  hour  by  proximity  to 
the  figures  on  the  spiral. 

Rev.  John  Wesley  in  his  jonrnal  gives  the  follow- 
ing account  of  a  talking  (dock  :  — 

"On  Monday,  April  27,  1762,  being  at  Lurgan, 
in  Ireland,  I  embraced  the  opportunity  which  I  had 
desired,  of  talking  to  Mr.  Miller,  the  contriver  of 
that  statue  which  was  in  Lurgan  when  I  was  there 
before.  It  was  the  figure  of  an  old  man  standing  in 
a  case,  with  a  curtain  drawn  before  him,  over  against 
a  clock,  which  stood  on  the  opposite  side  of  the 
room.  Every  time  the  clock  stiuck  he  opened  the 
door  with  one  hand,  drew  liack  the  curtain  with  the 
other,  turned  his  head  as  if  looking  round  oji  the 
company,  and  then  said,  with  a  clear,  loud,  articu- 
late voice,  past  one,  or  two,  or  three,  and  so  on. 


Tower  Clock. 


aflfording  through  the  escapement  the  urging  pres- 
sure upon  the  pendulum-rod  ?»,  which  keeps  its 
motion  even,  and  neutralizes  exactly  its  tendency  to 
beat  gradually  in  a  smaller  and  smaller  arc,  and 
eventually  run  down.  The  striting  train  keeps  that 
poj'tion  of  the  machinery  in  constant  readiness  to 
respond  whenever  it  is  released  by  the  recurrence  of 
the  completed  hour,  c  is  the  hour-wheel  and  d  the 
snnil,  the  latter  determining  the  nuniber  of  blows, 
while  the  fin  e  regulates  the  rate  of  the  stiiking, 
that  is,  the  interval  between  the  blows  ;  /  is  the 
slnl-iiiff-leivr. 

The  going  train  is  principally  between  the  stand- 
ards h  h,  between  which  is  seen  the  anchor  of  the 
escapement.  The  gimbals  t  k  k  k  connect  to  as 
many  rods,  which  drive  the  motion-ivork  behind  the 


CLOCK. 


571 


CLOCK-SPRI\G. 


dials,  situated  in  the  four  faces  of  the  tower  respec- 
tively. 

The  clock  of  Beauvais,  France,  is  composed  of 
fourteen  different  moi'einents  consisting  of  90,000 
pieces,  weighing  over  35,000  pounds,  and  costing 
£5,600.  The  body  of  the  clock  is  3S  feet  high,  and 
16  feet  iu  breadth  by  nearly  9  in  depth.  The  main 
dial  —  there  aie  tifty  in  all  —  is  the  largest  work  in 
enamel  iu  existence,  and  cost  S  650.  Two  hands  of 
steel  covered  by  platinum  move  over  this  dial 
through  twenty-four  divisions  ;  it  is  pierced,  as  are 
all  the  others,  and  shows  tlie  pendulum,  weighing 
nearly  one  cwt.,  which  renews  its  impulse  from  a 
steel  ball  weigliing  a  gramme,  or  about  one  thirty- 
secon<l  of  an  ounce.  This  movement  impels  the  four- 
teen others,  and  is  wound  up  weekly,  being  driven 
by  weights  in  the  usual  way.  The  other  dials  are 
calendars  of  the  days  of  the  week  and  of  the  month, 
the  month,  year,  zodiacal  signs,  eclipses,  phases  of 
the  moon,  etc.  This  clock  shows  seconds  of  time, 
and  indicates  events  occ.irring  not  ofteuer  than  once 
in  100  years ;  for  instance,  it  must  be  remembered 
that  three  centuries  out  of  four  the  last  year  leaps 
its  bissextUe.  In  the.se  yeai-s  the  clock  has  to  leap 
from  February  29,  and  goes  from  the  2Sth  to  the 
1st  of  March.  Here  is  a  movement  occuning  only 
iu  400  years. 

A  Stitisbourger,  jealous  for  the  honor  of  his  town- 
clock,  seeks  to  outrank  these  Beauvais  claims,  and 
says  :  — 

*'  Our  cathedral  clock  shows  all  these  indications 
and  some  besides.  It  contains  an  ecclesiastiial 
computator  with  all  its  indications  ;  the  golden 
number,  the  e|)acts,  dominical  letter,  solar  cycle, 
etc.  ;  a  perpetual  calendar  with  the  movable  feasts, 
a  planetarium  on  the  Copernican  system,  showing  all 
the  mean  equinoctial  revolutions  of  every  planet 
risible  to  the  naked  eye  ;  a  celestial  sphere  showing 
the  precession  of  the  e  [uinoxes,  the  solar  and  lunar 
questions  for  the  redaction  of  the  mean  motion  of 
the  sun  and  moon  to  true  time  and  place.  The 
Beauvais  clo.^k  makes  a  change  in  eveiy  fourth  ceat- 
ur)-  ;  but  ask  an  astronomer  what  is  meant  by  the 
precession  of  the  equinoxes.  He  will  tell  you  it  is 
a  movement  in  the  stai-s  describing  a  complete  revo- 
lution round  the  earth  in  the  space  of  about  25,000 
to  26,000  years.  In  the  Stnisbourg  clock  is  a  sphere 
following  exactly  this  motion,  and  whose  rotation 
is  of  that  kind  as  to  insure  one  revolution  in  25,920 
years.  The  thing  can  be  measured  and  indicated  ; 
it  is  unnecessaiy  to  await  its  accomplishment." 

The  wooden-clock  manufacture  was  commenced 
in  Waterbury,  Connecticut,  by  James  Hanison,  in 
1790,  on  whose  books  the  first  is  charged  January 
1,  1791,  at  £3  12.S.  8d.  In  East  Windsor  the  bi-ass'- 
clock  manufacture  was  carried  on  by  Daniel  Burnap. 
In  1793,  Eli  Terry,  who  had  been  instructed  in  the 
business  by  Burnap,  made  brass  and  wooden  clocks, 
with  long  pendulums ;  prioe  for  a  wooden  clock  and 
ease,  from  SIS  to  §48,  the  higher  priced  ones  having 
a  brass  dial  and  dial  for  seconds,  and  the  moon's 
age,  and  a  more  costly  case.  Biuss  clocks  with  a 
case  cost  from  §38  to  §60. 

TeiTV  used  a  hand-engine  for  cutting  the  teeth  of 
the  wheels  and  pinions,  and  a  foot-lathe  for  the 
turned  work.  In  November,  1797,  he  patented  an 
improvement  in  clocks,  watches,  and  time-pieces, 
covering  a  new  construction  of  an  equation  clock, 
showing  the  difference  between  apparent  and  mean 
time.  In  1802,  in  which  year  Willard  of  Boston 
took  a  patent  for  his  time-pieces,  Terry  began  the 
business  on  a  larger  scale  by  water  power.  In  1814 
he  introduced  a  new  era  in  the  business  by  com- 
mencing on  the  Naugatuck  Kiver  the  manufacture 


I  of  the  shelf  or  mantel  clock,  which  he  patented  in 
1 1816.  The  cheapness  of  these  created  a  wide  de- 
mand. Several  improvements  n«de  by  him  in  the 
mechanism,  and  the  later  progress  in  niachiLery 
generally,  have  increased  the  annual  production  in 
that  State  to  hundreds  of  thousands,  and  given  to 
every  household  a  clock,  equal  to  the  old  ones,  at  a 
cost  of  §2  and  upward.  His  descendants  have  been 
engaged  in  the  business  to  the  present  time,  and  his 
j  pupil,  Chauncey  Jerome,  since  1821. 

The  Assembly  of  Connecticut,  iu  October,  17S3, 
awarded  a  patent  for  fourteen  yeai-s  to  Benjamin 
i  Hanks,  of  Litchfield,  for  a  self-winding  cloik.  It 
i  was  to  wind  it.self  by  the  help  of  the  air,  and  to 
j  keep  moi-e  regular  time  than  other  machines.  The 
principle  was  made  use  of  in  New  York  and  else- 
I  where. 

Several  ingenious  applications  of  natnral  pulsa- 
I  tions  have  been  made  to  efl'ect  the  .same  pur|ose: 
AVashburn's  Thermal-motor,  for  instance,  in  which 
the  expansion  and  contraction  of  bars  of  metal  is 
made  by  diflerential  levers  and  ratchets  to  wind  the 
spring. 

Clocks  with  hands  and  dials  having  a  common 
center  are  arranged  to  show  the  time  at  places 
hartng  different  longitudes.  A  number  of  concen- 
tric circles  are  marked  upon  the  dial  of  a  watch, 
each  of  which  is  marked  with  the  name  of  a  place. 
The  several  hands  correspond  to  the  number  of 
circles,  and  are  constructed  of  different  lengths. 
The  hands  move  upon  a  common  center,  but  are 
cajiable  of  an  adjustment,  so  that  the  distances  be- 
tween each  of  them  may  be  made  to  correspond  to 
the  difference  in  time  of  the  places  marked  on  their 
respective  circles. 

An  astrono'inical  clock  is  one  which  has  a  com- 
pensating pendulum  and  otherwise  of  marked 
quality,  used  in  determining  time  in  observations. 

A  chiming  clock  is  one  in  which  the  houi-s  or 
fractions  are  marked  by  a  carillon . 

An  electric  clock  is  one  whose  movements  are 
regulated  by  electro-magnetic  deWces. 

.■V  regulator,  or  watch-maker's  clock  of  superior 
quality  for  regulating  time-pieces. 

A  sidereal  clock,  one  regulated  to  sidereal  time, 
not  mean  time. 

Clock-a-lann'.  A  device  in  a  clock,  which  is 
capable  of  such  arrangement  that  when  a  certain 
hour  is  reached  a  repetitive  alaim  shall  be  struck 
upon  a  bell. 

An  alarm  arrangement  was  attached  to  the  water- 
clock  constructed  in  France,  in  the  last  century. 
The  clock  consists  of  a  cylinder  divided  into  several 
small  cells  and  suspended  by  a  thread  fixed  to  its 
axis,  in  a  frame  on  which  the  hour  distances,  formed 
by  tiial,  are  marked  out.  As  the  water  flows  from 
one  cell  to  another,  it  changes  ver)"  slowly  the  cen- 
ter of  gravity  of  the  cylinder,  and  puts  it  in  motion. 
The  alarm  "consists  of  a  bell  and  small  wheels,  like 
those  of  a  clock  that  strikes  the  hours,  screwed  to 
the  top  of  the  frame  in  which  the  cylinder  is  sus- 
pended. The  axis  of  the  cylinder,  at  the  hour  when 
one  is  desirous  of  being  wakened,  pushes  down  a 
.small  crank,  which,  by  letting  fall  a  weight,  puts 
the  alarm  in  motion.  A  dial-plate  with  a  handle  is 
also  placed  within  the  frame." 

Clock-move 'ment  Hain'mer.  The  striker  of 
a  clock  which  sounds  the  houi-s  upon  the  bell  or 
gonir. 

Clock-pil'lar.  One  of  the  posts  which  connect, 
and  at  the  same  time  hold  at  the  prescribed  distance 
apart,  the  plates  of  a  clock  movement. 

Clock-spring.  A  coiled  steel  spring  in  the  go- 
ing-barrel or  the  striking-barrel  of  a  clock  which 


CLOCK-WATCH. 


572 


CLOG. 


impels  the  train  or  strikes  tlie  hours,  as  the  case 
may  be.     Tlie  steel  ribbon  from  which  the  springs 
are  made  is  about^  inches  wide,  and  is  split  by  cir- 
cular shears  into  widths  H  inches  to  A  of  an  inch, 
for  the   dill'creut   powers   required.       I'ieces    of   the 
.same   breadth   are    riveted  togetlier  at  the  ends   to 
nr\ke   them   continuous,  are  coiled  on  a  reel,  from 
which  they  pass  to  be  hardened,  tempered,  polished, 
and  colored.    The  heating  is  done  by  pas.sing  the  steel 
ribbon  through   a   red-hot   iron    tube   6   feet   long, 
6   inches   wide,  and   2  inches  deep,  which  is   laid 
lengtliwiiys  of  a  furnace  of  suitable  length,  so  that, 
while    the    ribbon 
is    heated   by   the 
red-hot  tuba,  it  will 
not  come  in  contact 
with  the  fuel.     As 
till!  rilibon  emerges 
from  the  hot  tube, 
it  pitssesinto  a  bath 
of  oil  in  a  tank  si.v 
feet  long  and  kept 
cool    by    a    water-    , 
jacket        through 
wliiuli     a     stream 
co}istantly    passes. 
It      then      passes 
through  a  bath  of 
molten  lead,  which 
gives  it  tlie  neces- 
sary temper;  then  _ 
betwern   iron  roll-                                           '-'*^^^=- 
ers,  which  are  the 
meiliiim    of   deter- 

minin,'  the  rate  of  motion  of  the  ribbon  through  the 
heating-tube,  the  hardening-bath,  and  tlie  tenipering- 
bath.  The  rate  of  progression  is  about  1,000  feet  per 
day,  and  of  narrower  ribbons  several  may  be  passed  at 
a  time.  From  the  rolls  the  ribbons  are  again  wound 
over  reels  and  taken  to  be  polished  and  colored. 
The  ribbnn  is  then  passed  over  and  under  leather- 
covered  wooib-n  rollers  revolving  in  bo.ves  of  emery, 
by  which  both  surfaces  of  the  steel  are  polished  ;  at 
the  same  time  two  vulcanite  wheels  smooth  and 
round  the  edges.  It  is  then  passed  through  a  bath 
of  molten  lead,  which  gives  it  its  color  ;  after  cool- 
ing it  is  cut  into  lengths,  the  ends  softened,  the 
hooks  and  eyes  put  ou,  and  the  springs  coiled  up 
and  packed  for  sale. 

Clock-wratch.  A  watch  adapted  to  strike  the 
hours  and  ipiarters  similarly  to  a  clock,  as  dis- 
tinguished from  a  repeater,  which  strikes  the  time 
only  when  urged  to  do  so, —  by  pushing  in  the  stem, 
for  instance. 

Clock-'work  Lamp.  Carcel's  clock-work  lamp 
pumps  up  nil  from  the  reservoir  in  the  foot  of  the 
lamp  and  ovciHows  back  again  from  the  burner  to 
the  reservoir,  the  flow  being  in  e.'ccess  of  the  con- 
sumption so  as  to  prevent  the  heating  of  the  metallic 
portions  around  the  wick.  The  do -k-work  is  run 
by  a  spring  or  a  descending  weight,  according  to 
circumstances  of  size,  position,  purpose,  or  require- 
ments of  portability.  In  lighthouses,  the  excessive 
supply  inducing  overflow  is  a  necessary  feature, 
to  secure  uniform  supply,  and  the  arrangement  dif- 
fers from  the  domestic  form  of  lamp. 

De  Kerevenaii's  clock-work  lamp  ha.s  a  fan  driven 
by  clock-work  in  the  stem  or  foot,  furnishing  a  bla.st 
of  air  on  each  side  of  a  flat  wick  to  urge  the  flame 
and  perfect  the  combustion  of  the  carbon  of  the  oil. 
This  may  be  or  has  been  applied  to  Argand  lamps. 

Clock-work  has  been  applied  to  lamps  and  to  gas- 
buniers  to  light  them  at  a  specific  prearranged 
time,  the  device  being  on  the  principle  of  the  alarm 


clock  and  operating  upon  a  lever  or  trigger  to  light 
a  match,  close  an  electric  circuit,  or  by  other 
means. 

Clod-crush'er.  The  modern  Egyptians  use  a 
machine  called  klionfud,  hedijehoy,  to  break  the 
clods,  after  the  land  has  been  plowed.  It  consists 
of  a  cylinder,  studded  with  projecting  iron  pins. 
The  land  shown  in  the  cut  is  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
ancient  Heliopolis,  and  within  sight  of  the  minarets 
of  Cairo . 

One  form  of  clod-crusher  consists  of  a  series  of 
cast-metal  rings,  or  roller-parts,  placed  loosely  upon 

Fig  1333. 


Egyptian  Clod- Crusher  (Jrom  Wilkinson^ 

a  round  a.xle,  and  revolving  ther?on  independently 
of  each  other,  so  as  to  produce  a  self-cleaning  action, 
and  enable  the  machine  to  be  readily  tmiied  round 
about.  The  surfaces  of  the  roller-parts  are  ]iointed 
with  serrated  edges  and  a  series  of  inner  teeth,  pro- 
jecting sideways,  fixed  at  a  jiarticular  angle  to  the 
center  of  the  roller-a.xle,  so  as  to  act  most  effectually 
in  penetrating  clods  perpendicularly,  and  in  con- 
soliilatmg  the  young  jilants  in  the  soil.  The  roller 
is  removed  from   place  to  place  ou  two   traveling 

Fig.  1334. 


CrosskiU's  Clod-Crusher. 

wheels  of  larger  diameter,  which  lift  the  roller-parts 
clear  off  the  ground.  When  the  roller  ha.s  arrived 
in  the  field  where  it  is  intended  to  be  used,  the 
wheels  are  removed. 

Another  form  of  clod-cntsher  has  spiked  rollers 
attached  in  the  rear  of  a  harrow. 

Clog.  A  protection  for  the  foot  worn  over  the 
shoe.  The  .sole  is  ela.stic,  being  made  of  leather  or 
else  having  a  hinge  in  the  shank.  A  toe-cap,  heel- 
piece, and  instep-strap  hold  it  on  the  foot.  Be- 
neath the  sole-piece  are  an  extra  sole  and  heel-tap, 
made  of  wood. 


CLOISTER. 


573 


CLOTH-DRESSING  MACHIXE. 


Clod-Cruaher. 


Fig.  ISJo.  It  is  yet  much  used 

in  EurojM-,  but  goloshes 
or  india-rubber  over- 
shoes have  to  a  consider- 
able extent  superseded 
the  clog. 

Theclogisan  ancient 
form  of  toot-wear,  and 
consisted  of  a  leathern 
upper  and  wooden 
sole ;  the  upper  was 
nailed  to  the  edge  of 
the  sole  ;  the  latter 
was  sometimes  an  inch 
thick,  and  often  hooped 
with  sheet-iron.  They 
were  worn  by  the 
Greeks  and  Romans, 
and  are  still  common  in 
Italy,  Spain,  and 
Portugal.  They  are 
known  as  sabots  in  France  ;  galochns,  tamancos,  and 
zuecos  in  other  parts  of  the  Continent  of  Europe. 

The     Sabotiers, 
Pig.  1336.  an  order  of  friars 

which  originated 
in  the  fourteenth 
centur)',  vowed 
to  "be  shod 
with  wooden 
shoes,"  probably 
as  an  improve- 
ment on  the 
barefooted  Car- 
melites. They 
were  formerly 
worn  by  kings, 
came  to  be  re- 
ganled  by  the 
populace  of  Eng- 
land as  repre- 
dog.  senting    Popery 

and  slavery,  and 
formed  the  burden  of  popular  outcry,  aiding  in  the 
expulsion  of  James  II.  from  the  countrj-.  The  cry 
of  the  mob,  "Xo  slavery,  no  wooden  shoes,"  made 
Walpole's  life  uneasy. 

Clois'tsr.  (Archiiccture.)  A  covered  ambula- 
tory. 

Close-butt.  {Shipbuilding.)  A  fayed  or  rab- 
bet '(1  joint  where  the  pirts  are  so  clo.sely  fitted  or 
driven  as  to  dispense  with  calking. 

Clos'er.  (M'xsonrij.)  a.  The  last  stone  or  brick 
in  a  horizontal  course  closing  the  gap. 

b.  A  brickbat  inserted  in  coui-se  when  the  gap 
will  not  admit  a  whole  brick. 

A  kill]  closer  is  a  bat,  three  quarters  the  size  of  a 
brirk.     A  qitecn  closer  is  a  quarter-brick. 

Close-stool.  A  commode  or  box  with  tightly 
fitting  lid  to  contain  a  chamber-vessel.  A  chamber- 
slo  l/. 

Close-wall.     {Building.)     An  enclosing  wall. 
Clos'ing-liam'mer.     k  hammer  used  by  boiler- 
ma'.cers  and  iron  ship-builders  for  closing  the  seams 
of  iron  plates.     See  Rivetisg-tools. 

Cloth.  {Fabric)  A  woven  fabric  of  cotton, 
linen,  or  wool.  Silk  perhaps  hardly  comes  within 
the  categoiy.  See  Fabric  for  list  of  woven 
goods. 

Woolen  cloth,  after  weaving,  is  subjected  to  the 
following  processes  :  — 

Braying  or  scouring  :  that  is,  washing  in  troughs 
with  heavy  mallets,  water  and  detergents  being  used 
to  i-emove  the  oil  and  all  acquired  filth. 


Burling :  picking  off  the  knots  made  by  the 
weaver. 

Milling  or  fulling :  to  felt  the  fibers  of  the  cloth 
closer  together,  increasing  the  compactness  of  the 
fabric  and  the  finish  of  the  face.  See  Fulling- 
mill. 

Dressing :  this  is  done  by  teasels,  whose  hooked 
ends  bring  the  loose  fibers  to  the  surface  to  I'orm  a 
nap.     See  Teaseling  ;  Dressing. 

Shearing:  the  filaments  drawn  out  by  the  teasels 
are  shorn  or  singed  to  a  length.  See  Cloth-shear- 
ing Machine. 

Pressing  :  the  cloth  is  arranged  in  regular  folds 
and  subjected  to  hydrostatic- pressure.  A  polished 
pressing-board  is  placed  between  each  fold.  See 
(,'LOTH-FRESS. 

Some  of  the  later  processes  of  the  cloth-manufac- 
ture are  varied  or  combined. 

Hot-pressing,  boiling,  sitaming,  are  each  of  them 
means  for  giving  a  fine  finish  by  the  application  of 
heat. 

Picking  is  a  process  of  removing  blemishes  by 
tweezers,  or  coloring  faulty  spots  by  a  hair-pencil 
and  dye. 

Fine-draxcing  is  closing  minute  holes  or  faults  in 
the  fabric,  by  inserting  sound  yams  by  means  of  a 
needle. 

Marking  consists  in  working-in  with  white  or  yel- 
low silk  a  word  or  mark  indicating  the  quality  of 
the  piece. 

Baling  and  packing  conclude  the  series  of  pro- 
cesses. 

Cloth-creas'er.  A  device  which  may  be 
clami>ed       to 

the    table    or  Fig.  1337. 

the  sewing- 
machine,  the 
crease  being 
made  by  the 
adjustable 
bevel-edged 
wheel  under 
which  the 
fabric  is 
drawn. 

Cloth- 
cut  '  t  i  n  g 
Ma-chine'. 
A  machiue  for 

cutting  cloth  into  strips,  or  into  shapes  for  making 
into  garments. 

Among  the  various  forms  and  modes  may  be 
cited  :  — 

Knives  corresponding  in  shape  to  the  various 
parts  of  a  gaiment  are  mounted  upon  a  reciprocating 
platen,  and  descend  upon  the  material  jiiled  in 
thicknesses  upon  the  bed  beneath.  Envelope  blanks 
are  cut  out  of  the  sheet  in  this  manner. 

A  guillotine  knife,  straight  or  curved,  and  de- 
scending vertically. 

A  knife  or  saw  reciprocating  vertically  in  a  con- 
stant path  like  a  scroll  saw,  while  the  pile  of  cloth 
below  is  moved  beneath  so  that  the  saw  or  knife 
follows  a  line  marked  upon  the  upper  layer  of  cloth. 
The  knife  is  reciprocated  like  the  needle  of  a  sewing- 
machine,  and  a  presser  foot  holds  the  material.  It 
has  also  an  intermittent  feed. 

A  band-saw  acting  in  the  same  manner. 

A  rotary  cutter  mounted  on  a  venical  spindle 
which  allows  the  edge  of  the  knife  to  be  presented 
in  any  direction. 

A  mandrel  with  rotan-  cutters  to  cut  cloth  into 
striiis  for  carpet  or  for  other  purposes. 

Cloth-dress'ing    Ma-chine'.    A  machine   in 


Cloth-  CreastT. 


CLOTH-DRYING  MACHINE. 


574 


CLOTHES-PIN. 


whic'li  the  iia|i  of  woolen  cloth  is  raised  by  teasel.'!. 
See  Tkasklino-.machi.nk.  Also  knownas  a(/i^(/iHj- 
nutchine. 

Cloth-dry'ing  Ma-chine'.  A  machine  with 
h<^ate(l  rollers  over  which  cloth  is  pas.sed  to  drive  otl' 
the  moisture  aec(uired  in  dyeing,  washing,  etc.  In 
th'^  e.\anii)le,  .1/  is  the  feed-roll  from  which  the 
cloth  unwinds  ;  it  thence  {ms.ses  over  the  cylinder 
i'  B,  against  whose  surface  it  is  tightly  drawn  by 

Fig.  1338. 


Clotk-  Dryer 

th"  guide-rollers  i'  L^  L^  L*,  while  the  fans  C 
di-ive  a  current  of  air  through  the  meshes  of  the 
wire-gauze  cylimlers  and  the  cloth.  iV  is  the  take- 
up  roller  on  whiidi  the  cloth  rewinds. 

A  ste<ini  cloth-dryer  shown  at  the  Paris  Exposi- 
tion hail  an  annular  steam-chamber  constructed  of 
two  concentric  cylinders,  which  formed  a  closed 
cavity,  and  constituted  the  circumference  of  a  wheel 
more  than  12  feet  in  diameter.  Around  the  circum- 
ference of  this  wheel,  which  turned  slowly  upon  a 
horizontal  a.xis,  the  cloth  was  carried,  being  kept  in 
position  bymeans  of  two  endless  chains  havingtenter- 
hooks  attached.  The  cloth  passed  round  nearly  the 
entire  circumference,  beingcarriedofTonthe  same  side 
at  which  it  was  introduced  ;  the  velocity  of  motion  at 
the  circumference  was  about  si.x  inches  per  second. 

The  construction  permits  the  steam-chamber  to  be 
made  very  secure  against  accident,  and  yet  to  pre- 
sent an  exterior  of  quite  thin  metal,  facilitating 
greatly  the  transmission  of  heat.  The  necessary 
strength  is  obtained  by  means  of  numerous  interior 
stays  connecting  the  two  cylindrical  surfaces.  The 
steam  is  admitted  through  the  a.xis. 

Cloth  Em-boss'ing.  This  is  performed  in  a 
roIlin'.;-l)ress,  the  engraved  cylinders  of  which  act 
itpon  the  fabric  (or  paper),  which  is  passed  continu- 
ously between  them  ;  or  one  or  more  of  the  cylindeis 
may  be  printing-cylinders  having  the  usual  color- 
vats  and  doctors. 


Clothes-bruBh.  A  brush  usually  having  good 
blac-k  Hu.ssian  bri.stles,  adapted  for  brushing  cloth. 

Clothes-dry'er.  A  frame  on  which  clothes  are 
suspendeil  to  dry.  Among  the  multitude  of  forms 
may  be  mentioned  the  post  with  e-xtensible  bars  and 
parallel  cords,  Fig.  1339  ;  this  may  be  dismounted 
and  collap.sed  like  an  umbrella.  The  toggle-jointed 
frame,  with  cross-rounds  like  a  ladder,  and  folding 
ujj  on  the  lazy-tongs  principle.  Others  are  clothes- 
horses,  con.sisting  of  frames  with  cross-bars,  and 
shutting  together  like  book-covers.  Another  form 
has  radial  bars  like  spokes,  or  a  slatted  frame  hinged 
like  a  trap  door,  etc.,  etc. 

The  centrifugal  machine  is  used  to  remove  all  the 
moisture  that  can  be  got  rid  of  by  mechanical  means. 

Clothes-horse.  A  form  of  clothes-dryer  which 
stands  on  legs  and  has  cross-bars  on  wliich  clothes 


Fig.  1339. 


Ctothes-Horse, 


may  be  suspended  to  dry.  The  figure  .shows  numer- 
ous rounds  on  a  frame  collapsable  on  the  lazy-tongs 
princijile. 

Clothes-line.  A  cord  or  wire  for  suspension 
between  posts  or  other  supports.  It  is  preferably  of 
white  cord,  and  wound  on  a  reel  in  the  intervals 
of  non-use.      If  left  exposed  tinned  iron  wiie  is  good. 

Clothes-line  Hook.  A  hold-fast  or  bracket, 
with  a  spool  on  which  tlie  line  runs  and  is  stretched. 


1340. 


Fig.  1341. 


Clothfs-Line  Hook' 

Clothes-line  ReeL  A  cylinder 
or  axle,  on  which  a  clothes-line  is 
wound  and  usually  journaled  in  a 
protected  bracket  or  under  a  pent- 
roof  secured  against  a  building  or 
trei>. 

Clothes-pin.  A  little  spring 
nippers  which  pinches  a  garment 
against  the  line  from  which  it  is 
sns]ieniled  to  dry.  It  may  be  a  split  . 
pin  ;  a  ]iair  of  hinged  fingers  with  a 
spring  enclosed  ;  a  bent  wire  having 
a  liight  which  yields  and  clasps,  etc.  Clothes-Sprinkttr. 

Clothes-pins  are  turned  and  slot- 
ted in  machines  specially  constructed  therefor. 


CLOTHES-PRESS. 


575 


CLOTH-SHEARING  MACHINE. 


Clothes-press.  1.  A  receptacle  for  clothes. 
A  closet. 

2.  A  press  in   which  clothes   are   flattened   and 

creased  ;    crape   shawis,  I'or  instance.     See  Cloth- 

PltKS.S. 

Clothes-sprinkler.      A  receptacle   for  water,  I 
with   perforations   through  which  a  line  shower  of 
water  is   thrown   upon   clothes   in   damping   thein 
previous  to  ironing. 

Clotbes-stiok.  A  rod  by  which  clothes  are 
tiirnc-d,  loosened,  or  lilted,  while  iu  the  wasli-boiler. 

Clothes-tongs.  A  grasping-tool  for  removing 
hot  clotlies  from  a  boiler,  in  washing  or  dyeing. 

Clothes-wring'er.  A  frame  having  a  pair  of 
elastic  roils,  tlirougn  which  clothes  are  passed  to 
sipiejze  out  the  water.     The  improvement  concerns 


Fig.  1312. 


Clothes-  Wringer. 


."springs  for  pressure,  modes  of  gearing,  material  of 
ro  lers  and  modes  of  securing  them  to  their  shafts, 
modes  of  securing  the  wringer  to  the  side  of  the 
tub.     See  W'ri.st.er. 

Cloth-fia'ish-ing  Ma-chine'.  One  for  teasel- 
inf)  a.nd  slufi  ring ;  raising  the  nap,  and  bringing  it 
to  an  even  length.  See  Teaseling  ;  Shearing  ; 
Napping. 

Cloth-fold'ing  Ma-chine'.  One  in  which  wide 
goods  are  folded  lengthwise,  ironed  and  pressed 
ready  for  baling.  In  the  example  the  cloth  is 
passed  over  the  bulging,  spreading  roller  n,  which  is 
a«ljustable,  and  between  the  folders,  which  consist 


Fig  1343 


Cloth- Folding  Machine. 


of  a  plate  bent  isto  a  sinuous  form  like  a  flattened 
S.  From  the  folders  the  cloth  passes  beneath  the 
inclined  steam-heated  ironer  D,  and  from  that  to  the 
rollers  F  F,  by  which  it  is  drawn  forward. 


Cloth'ing  1.  (Steam.)  An  outside  covering  of 
felt,  or  other  non-conducring  material,  on  the  out- 
side of  a  boiler  or  steam-chamber  to  prevent  radia- 
tion of  heat.      Clcading  ;  lagging. 

2.  (Carding-machine.)  Bands  of  leather  studded 
with  teeth  of  wire  which  engage  the  fiber.  See 
Carding-machine. 

The  following  names  of  parts  of  clothing  are  used 
in  a  mechanical  sense  :  — 

Band.  Hoop. 

Belt.  Jacket. 

Bonnet.  Lining. 

Boot.  Pocket. 

Breeching.  Seam. 

Button.  Shoe. 

.    Cap.  Skirt. 

Collar.  Sleeve. 

Cuff.  Sole. 

Hat.  Yoke. 
Hood. 

3.  {Menage.)  Full  horse-clothing  consists  of  the 
quarter-sheet,  breast-piece,  hunting-piece,  pad-cloth, 
hood,  body-roller,  and  knee-caps. 

Cloth-ineaB'vir-ing  Ma-chine'.  A  machine 
by  wliich  fabrics  made  in  great  lengths  are  measured 
otf  in  pieces  of  convenient  length  for  sale,  and  hence 
known  as  piece-goods. 

Cloth-pa'per.  Heavy  paper  used  between  folds 
of  cloth,  in  the  tinishing-press. 

Oloth-plate.  That  plate  in  a  sewing-machine 
on  which  the  work  rests,  through  which  the  needle 
passes,  and  beneath  which  is  the  looper,  or  the  low- 
er spool  or  shuttle,  as  the  case  may  be. 

Cloth-press.  A  hydrostatic  press  in  which 
woolen  cloths  are  subjected  to  pressure. 

The  cloth  is  arranged  in  regular  folds,  a  polished 
pressing-board  being  arranged  between  each  fold  to 
prevent  contact  of  the  cloth  surfaces  with  each  oth- 
er. Between  each  two  pieces  of  cloth  is  an  iron 
plate. 

For  hnt-pressing,  three  hot  iron  plates  are  inserted 
between  the  folds  at  intervals  of  about  twenty  yards. 
Cold  iron  plates  next  to  the  hot  ones  moderate  the 
heat.  Pressure  is  then  applied,  and  the  pile  allowed 
to  stand  till  cold.  The  cloth  is  then  taken  and  re- 
piled,  so  that  the  creases  of  the  former  piling  come 
in  the  middle  of  the  pressing-boards  at  the  second 
pressure.  Hot  pressing  gives  a  lustrous  appearance, 
but  is  apt  to  spot  with  rain. 

Boiling  and  steaming  have  been  substituted  for 
hot-pressing,  or  used  in  connection  therewith. 

In  the  former  the  cloth  is  wound  tightly  upon  a 
wooden  or  iron  roller,  immersed  in  water  heated  to 
180°  F.,  steeped  for  five  hours,  taken  out  and  cooled 
for  twenty-four  hours.    It  is  treated  in  this  way  four 

or  five  times  ;  is  washed  with  fuller's  earth.     It 

is  then  stretched  on  a  tenter-frame  and  dried  in  a 

steam-heated  room. 

In  steaming,  after  the  cloth  is  hot  pressed,  it  is 

wound  around   a  perforated   copper   roller,    into 

which  steam  is  then  admitted.  If  at  high  press- 
uie,  it  will  pass  through  all  the  folds  in  a  few 
minutes  ;  if  at  low  pressure,  it  will  require  one 

and  a  half  hours.     After  this  it  is  boiled  twice. 

This  steaming  saves  the  time  of  three  boilings. 
Cloth -prov'er.     A  magnifying -glass  em- 

L  ployed  in   numbering  the  threads  in  a  given 
space  of  cloth. 
Cloth-shear'ing  Ma-chine'.     A  machine 
for  cutting  to  an  even  length  the  tilaments  of  wool 
drawn  out  in  the  process  of  teaseling.     It  was  for- 
merly done  by  hand. 

One  cloth-shearing  machine  consists  of  a  fixed 


CLOTH-SMOOTHING  MACHINE. 


576 


CLOUGH. 


semiciicular  rack  concentric  with  a  cutting-edge 
called  a  ledger-blade,  and  a  large  revolving  wheel 
containing  eight  small  cutting-disks,  whose  shafts 
have  pinions  which  engage  with  the  teeth  of  the 
semicircular  rack,  so  as  to  give  the  cutting-disks  a 
rotary  motion  on  their  axes,  in  addition  to  their  re- 
volving motion  with  the  large  wheel.  The  machine 
travels  over  the  cloth,  or  the  cloth  under  the  ma- 
chine, as  may  be  arranged. 

Revolving  shears  are  used  for  shearing  off  the  loose 
fibers  from  the  face  of  woolen  cloths.  For  narrow 
cloths  the  cylinders  are  30  inches  long  and  2  in  di- 
ameter ;  8  tliiu  knives  are  twisteil  around  the  cylin- 
der, making  2\  turns  in  the  length,  and  are  secured 
by  screws  and  nuts  which  pass  tlir  lugh  Hangcs  at 
the  end  of  the  axis.  Formerly  the  cylinders  were 
grooved  and  fitted  with  thin,  narrow  plates  of  steel 
6  or  8  inches  long.  The  edges  of  the  8  blades  are 
grounil,  so  as  to  cons'itute  parts  of  a  cylinder,  by  a 
grinder  or  strickle  fed  with  emery,  passed  to  and  fro 
on  a  slide  parallel  with  the  axis  of  the  cylinder, 
whicli  is  driv>-n  at  abo'jt  1,200  turns  in  the  minute. 

In  use,  the  cylinder  revolves  at  about  the  same 
rate,  and  in  contact  with  the  edge  of  a  long,  thin 
plate  of  steel,  called  the  ledger-blade,  which  has  a 
very  keen  rectilinear  edge,  whetted  to  an  angle  of 
about  45° ;  the  blade  is  fixed  as  a  tangent  to  the 
cylinder,  and  the  two  are  mounted  on  a  swing-car- 
riage with  two  handles,  so  as  to  be  brought  down  by 
the  hands  to  a  fixed  stop.  The  edge  of  the  ledger- 
blade  is  sharpened  by  grinding  it  against  the  cylin- 
der itself,  with  Hour,  emery,  and  oil,  by  which  the 
two  are  sure  to  agree  throughout  theii-  whole  length. 

The  cloth,  liefore  it  goes  through  the  process  of 
cutting,  is  brushed,  so  as  to  raise  the  fibers  ;  it  then 
passes  from  a  roller  over  a  round  bar,  and  comes  in 
contact  with  the  spring-bed,  which  is  a  long  elastic 
plate  of  steel,  tixeil  to  the  framing  of  the  machine, 
and  nearly  as  a  tangent  to  the  cylinder  ;  this  brings 
the  fibers  of  cloth  within  the  range  of  the  cutting- 
edges,  which  reduce  them  very  exactly  to  one  level. 

This  machine  has  several  adjustments  for  deter- 
mining with  great  nicety  the  relative  position  of  the 
ledgiT-bla  le,  cylinder,  and  spring-bed. 

Formerly  the  cloih  was  passed  over  a  fixed  bed 
having  a  mo.h'rately  sharp,  angular  ridge  ;  but  this 
was  found  to  cause  holes  in  the  cloth. 

Broadcloths  rcijuire  cylinders  sixty-five  inches 
long,  and  macliinery  of  proportionately  gi-eater 
strength.  In  Lewis's  patent  cloth-cutting  machine 
(Engli'sh)  the  clotli  is  cut  from  list  to  lint,  or  trans- 
versely, in  which  case  tlie  cloth  is  stretched  by  hooks 
at  the  two  ed.;es,  and  there  are  two  spring-beds  ; 
the  cylinder  in  this  machine  is  forty  inches  long,  and 
the  cloth  is  shifted  that  distance  between  each  trip, 
until  the  whole  piece  is  sheared. 

Other  fabrics, 


Fig.  13« 


C^otfi-Smootkins  Machine, 


such  as  carpets, 
are  sheared  by 
the  same  de- 
scription of  ma- 
chine. 

The  lawn- 
mower  operates 
on  the  same 
principle. 

Cloth- 
B  m  ooth'ing 
Ma-chine'.  A 
smoothing  and 
ironing  device 
for  cloth  in  the 
piece.  The  cloth 
is    damped   and 


heated  by  passage  over  a  trough  inclosing  a  per- 
forated steam-pipe,  and  then  beneath  a  hollow  heat- 
ed cylinder.  The  winding  roller  is  journaled  in  a 
weighted  frame,  and  the  cloth  is  wound  while  under 
pressure  between  the  said  roller  and  the  main  cyl- 
inder. 

Cloth-spong'er.  A  device  for  damping  cloth 
previous  to  ironing.  In  machiiu's  for  this  purpose 
the  cloth  is  sponge<l  by  steam  applied  through  a  per- 
forated adjustable  horizontal  cylinder  around  which 
it  is  roUecl. 

Cloth-stretch'er.  A  machine  in  which  cloth  is 
drawn  through  a  series  of  frictional  stretcliing-bars 
and  pa.ssed  over  spreading  rollers  so  as  to  eijualize 
the  inequalities  on  its  surface  and  enable  it  to  be 
firmly  and  smoothly  wound  on  the  winding-roll. 

Cloth-tear'ing  Ma-chine'.  A  machine  having 
a  fluted  roller  and  knife-edges.  The  lattei'  push  the 
cloth  into  the  flutes  and  tear  it  into  strips  as  it  passes 
through  the  machine. 

Cloth-teaz'ler.  A  machine  for  raising  the  nap 
of  cloth.     See  Te.\sei,ing-machise. 

Cloth-var'niah-ing  Ma-chine'.  For  making 
the  enameled  or  vamislied  fabric. 

The  cloth  is  passed  from  the  let-off  roller  beneath 
a  roller  in  the  steam-heated  size-vat  £  ;  thence  to  a 
steam-heated  table  C,  where  the  varnish  is  spiead 

Fig.  1345. 


Ctoth-Vamishing  Machine. 


by  a  revohang  brash  D,  and  thence  over  the  rollers 
of  the  drying-frame,  where  it  is  exposed  to  jets  of 
air  fiom  a  perforated  pi|'e,  and  from  which  it  is 
wound  on  a  take-up  roller. 

Cloth-'wheel.  1.  A  grinding  or  polishing  wheel, 
covered  with  cloth  charged  with  an  abrading  or  )iol- 
ishing  material ;  as,  pumice-stone,  chalk;  rotlen-slmie, 
crocus,  puJttj -powder,  roufjc,  etc. 

The  cloth  used  is  heavy,  similar  to  that  used  for 
the  blankets  of  printing-presses.  Felted  cloths  are 
sometimes  used. 

The  cloth-wheel  is  used  by  opticians,  lapidaries, 
and  ivory-workers. 

2.  A  foi-tn  of  feed-movement  in  sewing-machines. 
A  serrated-faced  wheel  protrudes  upwardly  through 
the  clotb-iilate,  and  has  an  intermittent  motion. 

Cloud'ing.  1.  An  a]i]iearauce  given  to  silks  and 
ribbons  in  the  process  of  dyeing. 

2.  A  diversity  of  colors  in  a  yarn  recurring  at  regu- 
lar intervals. 

Clough  A  sluice  used  in  returning  water  to  a 
channel  after  depositing  its  sediment  on  the  flooded 
land. 

A  floatinq  clour/h  is  used  for  scouring  out  some  of 
the  channels  of  the  Hnmber.  It  c«nsi.sts  of  a  fi-ime 
covered  with  plank,  ami  having  a  central  I'ulvert 
and  sluice.  In  front  ai'i-  timbers  shod  with  ii'on  in 
serrated  form,   wliich  can    be   raised  or  lowered  at 


CLOUT. 


577 


CLOVER-HULLER. 


pleasure.  'Side  wings  are  sloped  to  accommodate 
themselves  to  the  inclination  of  the  banks.  When 
the  water  is  at  high  tide  the  clough  is  floated  u[j 
stream  and  sunk  in  the  channel  by  adniirting 
water ;  and  the  wings  extended  by  ropes.  At  full 
ebb  the  seri'ate<l  frames  are  let  down,  the  machine 
allowed  to  yield  to  the  body  of  water  above,  which 
forces  it  along,  the  teeth  scraping  up  the  mud,  and 
the  current  carrjang  it  off. 

Clout.  (Carriage.)  An  iron  shield  or  plate 
placed  on  a  piece  of  timber  in  a  carriage  —  as  on  an 
axle-tree  —  to  take  the  rubbing  and  keep  the  wood 
from  being  worn. 

Clout-nail.     a.  One    with   a  large   flat    head. 


S'tockstiU  and  Scarrs  Oovfr-Seed  Harvester, 

Such  are  used  to  stud  timbers  exjiosed  to  the  action 
of  marine  borei'S ;  also  iu  fastening  leather  to 
wood. 

b.  A  long  blunt  stub-nail  for  boot- 
soles. 

c.  A  flat -headed  nail,  used  for  secur- 
ing c/oii/s  on  axle-trees  or  elsewhere. 

Clove.  {Fr.  Clou.)  A  long  spike- 
nail. 

Clove-hitch.  (Nautical.)  Two 
half-hitches.  A  half-hitch  is  to  give 
the  rope  a  turn  around  the  object,  pass 
the  end  of  the  rope  round  its  standing- 
part,  and  then  through  tlie  bight.  To 
make  a  clove -hitch,  repeat  the  motion 
around  the  standing  part  and  through 
the  bight,  and  stop  the  end  to  the 
standing-part.     See  Hitch. 

Clove-hook.  {XauficMl.)  An  iron 
two-part  liook,  the  Jaws  overlapping  ; 
used  in  lii'uding  chain  sheets  to  the 
clews  of  sails,  etc. 

Clo'ver-seed  Har'vest-er. 
Fig.  1346  illustrates  one  mode  of 
harvesting  clover-seed,  and  resembles 
the  first  of  which  we  have  any  reconl. 
A  wheat-harvester  on  this  princii>le 
was  nmning  in  Gaul,  in  the  first  cent- 
ury of  the  Christian  era,  and  the  ma- 
chine continued  in  favor  for  300  years, 
although  it  does  not  appear  to  have 
been  used  in  Italy.  In  front  of  the 
machine  is  a  row  of  fingers,  between 
37 


which  the  stalks  of  the  clover  pass,  while  the  heails 
remaining  above  are  torn  off  and  are  scraped  into 
the  box  of  the  machine.     It  is  known  as  a  head'  r. 

In  the  old  machine  used  1,800  yeai-s  ago  in  Gnnl, 
it  was  the  duty  of  the  attendant  to  sweep  the  eare 
back  into  the  box  of  the  machine,  which  was  driven 
before  the  ox  that  impelled  it. 

The  English  clover-harvester  of  thirty  years  back, 
shown  in  the  lower  part  of  same  figure,  is  of  the  old 
GaUie  pattern,  is  drawn  by  one  horse,  and  giiidi-d 
by  handles  in  the  rear.  The  load  js  scooped  out 
occasionally  and  deposited  in  bundles  in  the  field. 

Clo'ver-hull'er.  Red  clover  (known  in  England 
as  "broad  clover")  came  from  Flandei-s  to  England 


Fig.  1347. 


Clover- UuUer. 

and  from  England  to  the  United  States.  Its  adop- 
tion was  strongly  urged  by  Sir  Richard  Weston,  iu 
1645,  who  saw  it  growing  near  Antwerp  in  1644,  and 
noticed  the  speed  of  its  growth  and  how  soon  it  re- 
covered after  mowing.  In  ten  years  it  had  spread 
through  the  kingdom  and  made  its  way  to  Ireland. 

The  clover-heads,  previously  separated  from  the 
straw  by  tramping  or  thrashing,  after  passing  beneath 
the  thrashing-cylinder,  are  raised  by  an  endless  car- 
rier to  a  riddle,  through  whicli  the  seed  tails  u]ion 
a  carrier  which  takes  it  back  to  the  huller,  by  which 

Kg.  1348. 


Cloxer-Thrtther. 


CLOVER-THRASHER. 


578 


CLUTCH. 


Fig.  13i9. 


the  sued  is  liberated  from  the  hulls,  to  be  separated 
by  thf  fans  iinil  riddles. 

Clo'ver-thrash'er.  A  machine  in  which  clover, 
h.iy,  or  tin'  aftermath,  which  is  cut  for  the  seed 
alone,  is  tlirashed  and  the  seed  hulled  and  cleaned. 
The  clover  is  fed  in  at  the  throat  A,  thrashed  by 
the  cylinder  B,  received  on  the  slatted  apron  Ji,  car- 
ried uji  past  the  beater  F,  the  hay  picked  ort'  by  the 
jiicker  (f,  and  removed  by  tlie  straw-carrier  H,  while 
tlie  seed  and  chalf  fall  into  the  shaking-shoe,  where 
the  sieves  L,  the  viliratory  acticm,  and  tlie  blast  lin- 
isli  the  separation  and  deliver  the  results  separately. 
The  lower  figure  shows  the  outside  of  the  machine, 
the  arraiigennmt  of  the  belting,  and  the  elevator- 
bo.\  0,  in  which  the  tailings  and  unhulled  heads  are 
earriccl  np  to  be  rethrashed. 

CloTir.    .\  sluices  with  a  sliding-gate.   SeeCtouGH. 
Club'biiig.    (Nautical.)    Drifting  down  a  current 
with  an  anrhur  out. 

Club-com'pass-es.  A  pair  of  compasses  with 
a  bullet  or  cone  on  one  leg  to  set  in  a  hole. 

Club-foot,  Ap'pa-ra'tus  for.  Sheldrake's  ap- 
paratus for  club-feet  and  other  deformities  (English 
patent,  ISOl)  proceeds  upon 
the  principle  of  continued,  re- 
peated, and  varied  application 
of  springs  to  correct  the  ab- 
normal deflection  of  the  part. 

Tiemann's  apparatus  for  tali- 
pes varus  has  a  strong  leather 
shoe  with  a  metallic  sole  and  a 
joint  near  the  heel  to  allow 
lateral  motion.  A  spiral  spring 
draws  the  foot  outward  by  a 
constant,  elastic,  and  ea,sy 
traction.  Tliis  pressure  is  in- 
creased or  decreased  at  will,  by 
fastening  the  spring  in  a  series 
Apparatus  Jot  Talipe,   ^f  sockets. 

The  single  outside  upright 
steel  bar  with  joints  at  the  ankle  is  fastened  round 
the  limb  below  tlie  kn<!e-joint,  and  so  constructed 
that  the  screw  at  the  ankle-joint  forces  the  foot  Hat 
upon  the  tloor,  which  foot  in  almost  all  cases  is 
turned  under  as  indicated  by  the  sketch.  The 
spiral  spring  d  being  attached  to  a  cat-gut  cord, 
passing  round  a  pulley  at  the  center  of  the  bar  and 
fastened  near  tlie  toes  upon  the  outside  of  the  foot, 
elevates  the  toes  and  stretches  the  tendo  Achillis,  at 
the  same  time  drawing  the  foot  to  its  natural  posi- 
tion. 

The  apparatus  for  talipes  valgus  is  on  the  same 
principle,  but  with  reversed  action. 

Club-haul.  {Nautical.)  To  bring  a  vessel's 
he  id  round  on  the  other  tack,  by  letting  go  the  lee 
an  lior,  and  cutting  or  slipping  the  cable,  the  sails 
being  handled  so  as  to  cast  the  vessel's  head  in  the 
rc'iuireil  direction. 

Clump-block.  (Nautical.)  One  made  thicker 
an  1  stninger  than  ordinary  blocks. 

Clus'tered  Arch.  (Architecture.)  Arched  ribs 
of  whi(;h  several  spring  fi'om  one  buttress  ;  shown  in 
the  Gothic  order  of  architecture. 

Clus'tered  Col'umn.  (Architecture.)  A  pier 
which  consists  of  several  columns  or  shafts  clustered 
together. 

Clutch.  1.  (Machiiurij .)  A  coupling  for  shaft- 
ing used  in  transmitting  motion. 

■The  common  clutch  or  gland  1  (Fig.  1350)  has  a 
loose  band-pulley  P,  which  revolves  freely  upon  the 
shaft  A  except  when  it  is  shifted  by  the  lever  E,  so 
that  its  projections  engage  with  the  gland  D,  which 
is  firmly  keyeel  to  the  shaft. 

The  bayonet -clutch  2  has  Ja(/o)i«Zs// attached  to 


a  sliding  arm  73,  and  which  slip  through  holes  in  the 
cross-head,  which  is  keyed  on  its  shaft.  IJ  is  se- 
cured by  a  feather  on  its  shaft,  and  (j  is  the  seat  for 
the  shifting  lever. 

In  3,  the  clutch-box  D  is  socketed  upon  the 
square  arbor  of  the  shaft  A,  and  may  be  slipped  by 
the  lever  E  either  towards  or  from  the  counterpart 

3 

Fig.  1350.  4 

(C3)B 

c 


1    A 


box,  which  is  attached  to  the  constantly  revohnng 
cog-wheel  C  and  shaft  B.  The  faces  of  the  coiipling- 
membcrs  have  coacting  projections  and  interdental 
sjtaces. 

4  shows  a  double-clutch  by  which  the  vertical 
shaft  is  made  to  drive  the  lower  one  in  either  di- 
rection. The  lower  shifting-piece  is  secured  by  a 
feather  upon  the  shaft,  anil  may  be  coupled  with 
either  of  the  bevel-wheels,  which  otherwise  run 
loosely  upon  the  shaft. 

The  codc-clutch  consists  of  a  tapered  cylindrical 
yilug  sliding  on  a  fast  feather  in  one  shaft,  and  ad- 
mitting of  being  forced  by  a  suitable  arrangement 
of  levers  into  the  interior  of  a  somewhat  similar 
cylinder  fixed  on  the  shaft  to  be  driven. 

The  rf/si'-clutch  is  another  form  of  friction-clutch, 
one  disk  A  being  slipped  u]ion  a  spline  on  the  shaft 
C  so  as  to  impinge  upon  a  rotating  disk  i?,  and  par- 
take of  its  motion  or  impart  motion  thereto  by  fric- 
tional  adherence.  Friction-clutches  are  used  in 
heavy  machinery  so  as  to  start  the  machines  without 
a  sudden  jar. 

Fig.  1331. 


sOMWUls^i 


Clutches 


GrnppUng-  Cttitrh 


CLYSTER-PIPE. 


579 


COAL-BREAKER. 


The  lower  illustration  shows  another  form  of  fric- 
tion-clutch in  which  a  hoop  F  on  the  shaft  G  is  set 
in  motion  by  the  bayonet  C  D  E,  which  is  slipped 
upon  the  shaft  A,  the  rods  C  D  sliding  in  holes  in 
the  cross-head  U  B  I,  which  is  keyed  fast  to  shaft 
A.  When  the  bayonets  project,  as  in  the  illustra- 
tion, they  come  in  contact  with  the  studs  L  M  on 
the  hoop,  and  impart  motion  thereto.  The  hoop 
may  be  tightened  on  the  wheel,  which  it  incloses  to 
just  such  an  extent  as  will  cause  it  to  impart  motion 
thereto,  when  revolved,  without  giving  too  sudden 
a  jerk  in  startiog. 

2.  a.  A  gripfier  in  the  end  of  a  chain  by  which  it  is 
connected  to  the  object  to  be  moved,  as  in  the 
foundry-crane,  whose  clutches  take  hold  of  two 
gtulgeons  in  the  cente.s  of  the  ends  of  the  flask,  so 
that  a  mold  can  be  lifted  and  turned  round  in  the 
slings  for  examination,  repair,  transposition,  or  re- 
moval. 

b.  A  gripper  having  teeth  which  clasp  a  joist  or 
rafter  of  a  ham  to  afford  a  means  for  suspending 
tackle  for  lifting  in  hay,  ice,  or  what  not. 

Clys'ter-pipe.     The  nozzle  of  an  enema  syringe. 

Clys'ter-syr'inge.  A  syringe  for  admiuistering 
meduiiiejs  per  ano.     See  ENEMA-SYFaNOE. 

Coach.  1.  (Kelikle.)  A  four-wheeled  close  car- 
riige  with  two  seats  inside,  and  an  outside  driver's 
se^t. 

The  term  is  found  in  some  form  or  other  in  almost 
all  the  languages  of  Europe,  and  is  closely  allied 
to  coiich ;  reclining  in  comfort  seems  to  be  at 
the  bottom  of  it.     So  Mary,  Infanta  of  Spain,  wife 

Fig.  1.3-a 


Queen  EtizixbetK's  State  Coach. 

of  the  Emperor  Ferdinand  III.,  thou5;ht,  as  she  rode 
in  Carinthia  in  a  close  carriage  vdih  glass  windows. 
Queen  Elizabeth's  car- 
via:;e  was  rather  more 
solid  than  graceful. 

Hackney  -  coach  ;  a 
coach  kept  for  hire. 

Sing:  -  coach  ;  one 
travelling  on  a  regular 
route,  and  carrying 
passengers.  The  style 
variesiu  (liferent  coun- 
tries. The  stage  in 
England  carried  sLx 
in.side  and  foui-teen 
outside,  besides  the 
driver  and  guard. 

M(r  il  -  coach  ;  one 
employed  in  carrying 
the  mails  and  passen- 
gers. See  Caukiage  ; 
Cakt  ;  C'HAUtoT. 

2.  (Nnutkal.)  A 
cabin  on  the  after-part 
of  the  quarter-deck. 
A  vound-li-nuse. 

Coak.    1.  (Carpen- 


try.) a.  A  projection  from  the  general  face  of  a 
scaifed  timber,  of  the  nature  of  a  tenon,  and  occu- 
[lying  a  i-ecess  or  mortise  in  the  counterjiart  face  of 
the  other  timber.  A  tabling.  The  mortise  is  some- 
times known  as  a  sunk-coak. 

b.  A  joggle  or  dowel  by  which  pieces  are  united 
to  prevent  slipping  past  each  other,  or  to  fasten 
them  together.     See  Dowel. 

2.  A  squaie  bu.shing  in  the  sheave  of  a  block, 
which  forms  a  socket  for  the  pin.     See  Block. 

Coal-bor'ing  bit.  A  bit  with  an  entering  j  oint 
and  a  series  of  cutting  edges  of  stejis  of  incicaiiiig 
radius. 

Coal-break'er.  A  machine  for  crushing  lump- 
coal  as  taken  from  the  mine.  Also  adapted  to 
cleanse  and  assort  it. 

The  principle  is  illustrated  in  the  annexed  cut ; 
roUei's  with  spikes. 

The  new  breaker  erected  near  Carbondale  by  the 

Fig.  1353. 


Coal-Breaker. 

Erie  Railway  Company  cost  §300,000.  Some  in 
Schuykill  County  have  cost  over  §200,000,  and  the 
new  breaker  of  the  Delaware,  Lackawanra,  and 
Western  Railroad  Company,  near  Hyde  Park,  cost 
in  the  neighborhood  of  §250,000. 

In  that  invented  by  Berard,  shown  in  Fig.  1354, 
the  coal  is  carried  to  a  hopper  C,  whence  it  falls  on 
to  a  series  of  slanting  movable  gratings  or  perforated 
plates  D  suspended  by  chains  or  rods,  and  operated 
by  a  cam  motion,  by  which  it  is  sorted  into  various 
sizes.  The  larger  pieces  which  fall  through  the 
first  grating  fall  on  the  picking-table  E,  where 
stones  and  foreign  substances  are  removed  by  hand, 
while  the  smaller  coal  passes  from  the  second  grat- 

Fig  ia54. 


Coal  Breaker  an'f  VTasher. 


COAL-BREAKING  JACK. 


'580 


COAL-MINING  MACHINE. 


ing  on  to  the  crusliing-rollers  F,  ami  the  finest  of 
all,  falling  on  a  lower  plate,  is  delivered  by  the 
shoot  c  into  a  jiit  c. 

The  rollers  F  have  longitudinal  and  transvcree 
grooves,  forming  projections  which  break  up  the 
thin  fragmeiits  of  slate  mixed  with  the  eoal,  without 
reducing  the  latter  too  much  in  size.  It  then  falls 
into  the  pit  c,  whence  the  botly  of  eoal  is  elevated 
by  the  endless  chain  of  buckets  O  F  and  carried  to 
the  sorter  H,  which  separates  it  ai-cording  to  size 
for  delivery  to  the  boats  or  cars  which  are  to  I'eeeive 
it.  The  finest  portions,  which  pa.ss  through  all  the 
gi'atings  of  the  separator,  tall  into  the  tank  or  bac 
K,  through  which  a  current  of  water  is  forced  by 
means  of  a  cylinder  and  piston  0,  raising  the  broken 
l)ieces  of  slate  sulHciently  high  to  be  forced  through 
a  perforated  plate  and  dischargeil  by  the  spout 
L  M,  the  How  being  i-egulated  by  Hood-gates,  while 
the  coal,  in  consequence  of  its  greater  weight,  falls 
to  the  bottom  of  the  bac,  from  which  it  is  re- 
moved as  often  as  necessary  through  a  suitable 
opening. 

Coal-break'ing  Jack. 


Fig   1355 


The  jacks  A  are  in- 
serted in  a  small  re- 
cess made  in  a  seam, 
and  a  few  feet  of 
flexible  tubing  taken 
to  an  adjacent  pump 
shown  at  B.  On 
working  the  pump 
by  means  of  the  hand- 
lever  great  pressure 
is  obtained,  and  the 
coal  is  brought  down 
in  large  masses, 

Coal-bunk'er. 
(Nautical.)  The 
closed  room  around 
the  boiler  and  en- 
gine-room of  a  steam 
vessel  for  keeping  the 
fuel. 

Coal-car.    A 
freight-car    designed 
especially  for  coal,  having  facilities  for  dumping. 

Coal-chute.  A  spout  by  which  coal  in  bunkers 
or  elevated  boxes  is  loaded  into  cars  or  carts.  In 
the  illustration  it  is  shown  as  extensible  and  verti- 

Fig.  1353. 


Coal- Breaking  Jack. 


Coal-Clmtt. 

cally  adjustable  ;  the  fonner  by  a  rod  on  rollers,  the 
latter  bv  block  and  tackle. 


Coal-cut'ting  Ma-chine'.  A  macliine  for  ud- 
der-outting  coal-seams  in  the  mine  or  at  the  bank. 
See  CoAL-MiNiNf!  Machink. 

Coal-dump'ing  Ap'pa-ra'tus.  For  loading 
vessels  from  the  car.  On  top  of  the  rail  a  which 
forms  part  of  the  staith,  the  laden  carriage  desceuds 


Fig.  1357. 


from  the  higher  level, 
and  when  it  attains 
the  point  a  the  whole 
frame  b  with  the  car-  Coal-Dumping. 

riage  is  lowered  down 

by  the  chain  passing  over  the  pulley  at  d,  to  the 
center  of  the  deck  of  the  ve.ssel,  and  the  coals  de- 
posited in  the  hold  at  c. 

Coal-min'ing  Ma-chine'.  One  form  of  the 
coal-cutting  machine  has  an  engine  with  a  recipro- 
cating piston  driving  a  massive  steel  ])ick,  in  any 
desired  direction,  and  at  a  very  material  saving  in 
hewing,  or  kirving.  The  motive-power  of  the  en- 
gine is  highly  compressed  air,  condensed  by  the 
.steam-engine  at  the  mouth  of  the  pit,  and  this  elas- 
tic air  is  conveyed  by  slender  pipes  down  the  shaft 
and  along  the  mine  to  the  breast  where  the  coal  is 
being  worked.  The  compressed  air  is  |ium|)ed  by 
the  steam-engine  into  a  receiver  at  the  pit-head  dur- 
ing its  otherwise  idle  hours,  or  by  its  surplus  ]iower 
when  drawing  up  the  coal,  or  pumping  out  the  wa- 
ter from  the  mine,  and  is  condensed  to  a  tension  of 
forty  or  fifty  poimds  to  the  square  inch.  It  is  con- 
ducted in  metallic   pipes,    4|   inches   in   diameter. 

Fig.  1358. 


Coat-Ciiuing  Machine. 

down  to  the  bottom  of  the  shaft,  and  thence  in 
pipes  of  a  smaller  diameter  to  the  workings,  tubes 
of  1  or  \^  inch  caliber  bringing  it  to  tlie  cylinder 
of  the  machine.  This  compressed  air,  when  set  free 
at  each  alternating  stroke  of  the  piston,  impaits  to 
the  adjacent  poitions  of  the  mine  a  p\ire,  dry,  cool 
atmosphere,  from  a  well-known  law  of  all  liir  ami 


COAL-OIL  STOVE. 


581 


COAT. 


gases,  that  when  compressed  they  develop  heat,  and 
when  e.Y|)aiided  under  a  relaxation  of  pressure,  they 
are  relatively  cool. 

The  maehiue  is  supported  by  a  cast-metal  frame 
of  great  solidity,  and  in  of  a  size  and  weight  propor- 
tioned to  the  character  of  the  coal  to  be  cut.  It  is 
constructed  to  give  the  blow  of  the  pick,  either  by 
the  puU  or  push  of  the  piston. 

The  engine  has  an  oscillating  cylinder  which  has 
the  merit  of  combining  compactness  of  shape  with 
but  little  complication  of  working  parts.  Tlie  ma- 
chine rests  upon  flanged  wheels  and  is  propelled 
either  backwanl  or  forward  by  a  wheel  and  screw  on 
a  rachet  and  pinion,  attached  to  one  side  of  the  en- 
gine. On  the  opposite  side  is  a  valve-screw  for  reg- 
ulating by  the  hand  the  access  of  air  to  tlie  engine. 
When  working,  the  man  seated  upon  the  little  stool 
in  the  rear  of  it  moves  the  rachet-screw  connected 
Avith  the  gearing  of  the  under-earriage,  and  thereby 
propels  the  whole  machine  along  the  little  railway 
or  tram  laid  jrarallel  to  the  front  of  the  coal-seam, 
a  small  distance  equal  to  the  longitudinal  nip  or  bite 
of  the  pick. 

One  machine,  working  90  blows  of  the  pick  per 
minute,  discharges,  of  condensed  air,  about  100 
cubic  feet  per  minute,  which  immediately  becomes 
300  cubic  feet  of  cold  air  at  the  normal  density,  an^l 
each  machine  is  competent  to  sup|ily  from  12  to  15 
per  cent  of  the  ventilation  required  at  the  heading ; 
the  air  being  perfectly  fresh,  pure,  and  cool,  and 
allorded  precisely  at  the  localities  where  the  work- 
men are  most  ijr  need  of  such  an  atmosphere.  When 
woiking  at  120  picks  per  minute,  the  machine  cuts 
an  inch  at  each  stroke,  20  inches  deep,  24  inches 
wid  •■ ;  a  second  traverse  deepei^  it  to  30  inches,  and 
a  thirl  to  36  inches. 

Coal— oil  Stove.    One  specifically  adapted  to 

cook    or  heat    by 
Rg.  1359.  means  of  coal-oil 

lamps.  In  the 
illustration,  the 
burner  is  aiumlar, 
and  has  a  circle 
of  wicks,  the 
amount  of  oil 
being  regulated 
by  a  screw-valve 
J.  The  parts  of 
the  stove  are  a 
hot-plate  forcook- 
ing  vessels,  and  a 
chamber  above 
which  may  have 
an  oven  or  a 
clothes-boiler. 

Coal-sack.  A 
rough  and  .strong 
bag,  of  hemp  or 
jute,  generally 
tarred,  and  used 
for  conveying 
coals. 

With  the  United  States  portable  or  mountnin 
forge  there  is  furnished  a  leathern  coal-sack.  It  is 
14  inches  in  diameter  by  18  inches  in  bight,  and 
of  cylindrical  shape. 

Coal-screen.  A  sifter  for  coal.  At  the  mines 
it  is  a  very  large  cylinder  with  an  inclined  a.\is  and 
p'litions  of  varjTug  meshes,  so  as  to  sort  the  broken 
CO  il  into  sizes, 

Coal-acut'tle.  A  box  or  hod  for  holding  coals 
fur  iir-sent  use. 

Ccal-stove.  A  stove  for  heating  or  cooking, 
adajited  for  the  consumption  of  stone  coal,  as  dis- 


Coal-OU  Stove. 


tinguished  from  charcoal  fig  130O 

or  \vt)od.  The  heating- 
stove  is  of  many  varieties, 
as  the  niagiizine,  see  Fig. 
1360;  the  cook ing- stove  ; 
firep'ace  healer,  etc.  See 
list  under  Stuves  and 
HeATI-NG  Ap?L[AXCES. 

Coal-tongs.  A  pair 
of  tongs  for  grasping  coal 
in  lunii<s.     Fire-lomis. 

Coal-'wash'er.  A  ma- 
chine in  which  coal  which 
has  been  broken  and  as- 
sorted is  tinally  wa.sbed 
to  deprive  it  of  the  dust 
and   diit   adhering.     See 

COAL-BIIEAKEIL 

In  some  operations  it  is 
worth  while  to  sort,  clean, 
and  u.se  certain  portions 
of  the  fuel  which  have 
passed  through  the  fur- 
nace. In  Fig.  1361,  the 
coal,    ashes,  and    ciiulers  Conl-Sioce. 

are  ground,  washed,  and 

elevated  into  a  drum,  where  the  material  is  assorted 
by  fineness  and  passed  to  the  shaking-machine,  where 
the  qualities  are  sejiarated  according  to  gravity. 

Coam'inga.     (Shipbuilding.)    The  i-aised  border 

Fig.  1361. 


Coal-Wather. 

or  frame  of  a  hatchway,  to  prevent  the  water  on  the 
deck  from  flowing  below.      Combings. 

The  fore  and  aft  pieces  of  a  hatchway  frame  are 
eonmings,  those  athwart  ship  are  lu^ail-lcdi/eii.  The 
former  rest  on  cnrling!>,  which  extend  from  beam  to 
beam,  and  the  latter  rest  on  the  deck  beams. 

Co-ap'ta-tor.  (Surgery.)  An  apparatus  for 
fitting  together  the  ends  of  a  fractured  Iwne  and 
holding  them  in  position  while  the  bony  junction  is 
proceeding. 

Coarse-stuff.  (Phistering.)  The  first  coat  of 
inside  plaster-work.  It  is  composed  of  common 
lime  mortar,  as  made  for  biick  masonry,  with  a  small 
quantity  of  hair  ;  or  by  volumes,  lime  paste,  1  part ; 
sand,  2  to  2J  parts  ;  hair,  J  part. 

Coast'er.  A  vessel  employed  in  trading  voyages 
from  port  to  port,  along  a  given  coast. 

Coat.  1.  (Knutical.)  A  piece  of  tarred  canvas, 
put  about  the  masts  at  the  partners,  the  rudder-cas- 
ing, and   also   around   the   pumps,   where   they   go 


COATING  METALS  "WITH  METALS.        582       COCKLE  AND  GARLIC  SEPARATOR. 


through  the  upper  deck,  in  order  to  prevent  water 
passing;  down. 

2.   A  hiyer  of  plaster  or  paint. 

Of  plastering  :  — 

A  scralch-coat  is  the  first  of  three  coats  ;  when  laid 
upon  laths  it  is  from  J  to  |  of  an  inch  in  thickness. 

One-coat  v;ork  is  plastering  in  one  coat  without 
finish,  either  on  masonry  or  laths  —  that  is,  rendered 
or  In  id. 

Tico-coat  work  is  plastering  in  two  coats,  done 
either  in  a  laying-coal  and  set,  or  in  a  screed-coat  and 
set. 

Screed-coal;  a  coat  laid  even  with  the  edges  of 
the  screeds. 

Floated  coat  ;  a  first  coat,  laid  on  with  a  float. 

S' ippcd-cxit  is  the  smoothing  otf  of  a  brown  coat 
with  a  small  ([uantity  of  lime  putty,  mixed  with  3 
per  cent  of  white  sand,  so  as  to  miike  a  comparatively 
even  surface. 

Coat'ing  Met'als  -with  Met'als.  See  Gild- 
ing ;  Plating;  ELEcrr.o-PLATi.vG  ;  SiLVEurxG  ; 
Galvanizing  ;  Platinizing  ;  etc.  For  list  see 
Metalluugy  ;  Metal-woukino. 

Coa':-'ink.  A  pair  of  buttons  joined  by  a  link, 
fur  .1^1  li.ig  to^'ether  the  lappels  of  a  double-breasted 
coat. 

Co'balt.  Eriuivalent,  29.5  ;  symbol,  Co.  ;  spe- 
cific gravity,  8.92.  A  reddish-gray  metal.  Fusing- 
point  about  2800°  F. 

Oxide  of  cobalt  gives  the  blue  color  to  glass. 
This  glass  broken  into  fragments  forms  sinalt. 

Cob.  1.  (Miiiin'j.)  To  break  ore  with  a  ham- 
mer to  reduce  its  size,  to  enable  its  separation  from 
portions  of  the  gangue,  and  its  assortment  into 
graji's  of  quality. 

2    An  unburned  brick. 

Cob'le.  (Ntutical.)  A  .small  fishing-boat,  of 
gri'at  antitjuity  in  the  British  Islands.     C'oijg'e. 

Cob'ler.  A  bent  rasp  for  straightening  the  .shaft 
of  a  ramrod. 

Co'bourg-cloth.  (Fabric.)  A  lady's  dress 
goo  Is,  cotton-chain,  woolen-filling,  twilled  on  one 
sij.'.      It  miv  be  considered  an  imitation  of  merino. 

Cob— wall.  A  Will  built  up  solid  of  a  comjiost 
of  puddled  clay  and  straw,  or  of  straw,  lime,  and 
ear'h. 

Cob'vsreb-mi-crom'e-ter.  Invented  by  Rams- 
den  (H-^j- ISOO).  A  micrometer  in  which  cobwebs 
are  substituted  for  wires.  Ry  turning  the  screw 
which  approximates  or  separates  the  frames  across 
which  the  cobweb-threads  are  stretched,  the  slight- 
est alterations  of  the  lines  can  be  estimated,  and  a 
dilffrence,  even  of  jinAnnj  o{  an  inch  be  rendered 
ap)ireciable. 

Coch'le-a.  1.  An  ancient  term  for  an  engine  of 
spiral  form.  The  .screw  whereby ."^rchimedeslaunchcd 
the  greit  galli'v  of  Hiero  is  also  called  cochlea  by 
Athena;u-i.     A  screw-jnc':. 

2.  A  spiral  pump  for  raising  water,  as  introduced 
by  Archimedes  into  Egypt.  The  Archimedean 
screw. 

Cock.  1.  (Horology.)  A  bridge-piece  fastened 
at  one  end  to  a  watch-plate  or  block,  and  at  the 
other  end  forming  a  bearing  for  a  pivot  ;  of  the 
balance,  for  instance. 

When  the  piece  is  supported  at  both  ends,  it  is  a 
hrid(je. 

In  Lcpine  watches,  the  wheels  are  pivoted  in 
bridges  instead  of  full  plates. 

2.  The  hammer  of  a  gun-lock. 

3.  The  gnomon  or  style  of  a  dial.  It  represents 
the  axis  of  the  earth.  It  .stands  in  the  plane  of  the 
meridian,  and  its  angle  with  the  horizon  is  the  lati- 
tule  of  the  jdace.     Mercutio  may  have  referred  to 


this  when  he  made  that  very  exceptionable  remark 

to  the  nurse. 

4.  A  faucet  or  rotary  valve,  usually  taking  its 
name  from  its  peculiar  use  or  construction,  as :  — 

Blow-off  cock.  Self-closing  cock. 

Cylinder-cock.  Steam-cock. 

Feed-cock.  Stop-cock. 

Four-way  cock.  Three-way  cock. 

Gage-cock.  Try-cock. 

Oil-cock.  Water-cock,  etc.,  etc. 

5.  A  vane. 

6.  A  small  boat. 

7.  A  pile  of  hay.  A  cocking-machine  gathers 
hay  from  the  swath  or  windrow  and  puts  it  in  cock. 

8.  The  pointer  of  a  balance. 

Cock-bill.  (Nautical.)  An  anchor  is  a  cock- 
bill  when  it  is  suspended  vertically  from  the  cat- 
head.    See  Anchou,  page  96. 

Cock'et-cen'ter-ing.  One  in  which  head-room 
is  left  beneath  the  arch  above  the  sprinyinij-line. 
Where  passage  beneath  the  arch  is  not  rei)uire<l 
during  the  execution  of  the  work,  a  cocket-ccnierinfi 
is  not  needed,  but  the  centering  is  constructed  on  a 
level  tie-beam  resting  on  the  imposts. 

Cock-eye.  1.  (.Millinii.)  A  cavity  on  the  un- 
der-side of  the  balance-rynd  to  receive  the  point  of 
the  spindle. 

2.  (Saddlery.)  An  iron  loop  on  the  end  of  a 
trace,  adapted  to  catch  over  the  pin  on  the  end  of  a 
single-tree. 

Originally  woodcock  eye,  from  the  fancied  resem- 
blance of  the  thing  to  the  head  of  the  woodcock, 
the  loo])  answering  to  the  eye  of  the  bird. 

Cock-head.  Tl^  upper  point  of  a  mill-stone 
spindle. 

Cock'ing.     (Carpentry.)    a.   A  mode  of   fixing 

Fig  1362. 


Cocking. 

the  end  of  a  tie-beam  or  floor-joist  to  a  beam,  girder, 
or  wa'1-plate.     Cogging. 

b.   Mortising. 

Cock'le.  1.  The  hemispherical  dome  on  the 
crown  of  a  heating-furnace.     See  Heating-stove. 

2.  A  hop-drying  kiln.     An  oa.it. 

3.  To  buckle,  or  contract  into  wrinkles. 

4.  (Porcelain.)  A  large  drying-stove  used  in  a 
house  where  biscuit-ware  dipped  in  cj!aze  is  dried 
pretiaratoi'v  to  Jirinq. 

Cockle  and  Gar'lic  Sep'a-ra'tor.  A  machine 
for  se])arating  from  wheat  or  other  grain  the  seeds 
of  cockle  and  the  comis  of  the  wild  garlic,  which  is 
such  a  nuisance  in  some  portions  of  the  Atlantic 
slope. 

In  the  example,  the  hopperhas  a  small  adjustable 
outlet  through  whiih  the  grain  falls  on  to  the  per- 
forated cylinder  and  is  carried  round  and  swejit  on 
the  board  by  the  revolving  brush.     The  cockle  drops 


COCKLE-STAIES. 


583 


COFFEE-CLEAXING  MACHINE. 


Fig.  1363. 


Cockle  and  Garlic  Separator. 


through  the  per- 
foration.s  into  the 
cylinder,  and  is 
carried  round  till 
it  is  discharged 
at  the  end  into  a 
drawer.  Another 
mode  of  separat- 
"ng  cockle  and 
garlic  is  to  give 
he  roller  a 
ghtly  adhesive 
rface,  so  that 
therough-skinned 
cockle  or  the  soft- 
skinued  garlic 
may  adhere  there 


to,  and  he  earned  off  by  the  roller  to  be  swept 
awav,  while  the  hard  and"  bright-skinned  grain  re- 
fuses to  adhere,  and  passes  to  a  diti'erent  recep- 
tiele. 

Cock'le-^tairs.     (Carpentry.)    Winding  stairs. 

Cock-met'aL  An  inferior  alloy  of  copper  and 
lead  for  making  faucets.     See  Alloy. 

Cock-pit  {.Vautka!.}  The  after-part  of  the 
orlop  deck.  It  is  below  the  water-line  and  ordi- 
narily forms  rjuartei-s  for  junior  officers,  and  in  action 
is  devoted  to  the  surgeon  and  his  patients. 

Cock-spur.  {Pottcrij.)  A  .small  piece  of  pot- 
tery used  to  place  between  two  pieces  of  glazed-ware 
in  the  saggar,  to  prevent  their  adherence  during  the 
process  of  baking.      .Stilts;  Irwiujks. 

Cock-up  Let'ter.  (Printing.)  A  large  letter 
standing  above  its  fellows  in  the  line,  and  formerly 
used  for  the  initial  letter  of  a  book  or  chapter. 

Co'coa.  A  palm  (Cocos  uucifera.)  from  which 
the  nut  is  derived.  It  also  affords  coir,  from  which 
ropes  are  made. 

The  name  of  the  kernel  from  which  the  beverages 
cacao,  bioma,  and  chocolate  are  prepared,  is  some- 
times corruptly  spelt  cocoa.     See  Cac.\i>. 

Cod'ding-ton  Lena.  A  lens  of  spherical  form 
having  a  deep  e(|uatorial  groove  around  it  in  the 
plane  of  a  great  circle  perpendicular  as  to  the  axis  of 
vision.     The  groove  is  of  such  a  depth  that  the  stem 


Fig.  1364. 


Coe'horn.  (Ordiumce.)  A  small  mortar  made 
light  enough  to  be  carried  by  hand,  and  adapted  to 
throw  a  shell  to  a  small  distance.  Used  in  fortifica- 
tions and  for  signaling.  The  name  is  derived  from 
its  inventor,  the  Dutch  Engineer  officer,  Coehom, 
who  was  Director  General  of  the  fortifications  of  the 
United  Provinces  of  Holland. 

The  regulation  Coehom  mortar  in  the  United 
States  Service,  is  of  bra.ss,  weighs  160  pounds,  24- 
pdr.  caliber.  It  is  mounted  on  a  wooden  bed  having 
four  handles  by  which  it  is  carried  by  as  many  men. 

Fig.  1365. 


Coddington  Lens. 


connecting  the  hemispheres  has  a  diameter  equal  to 
■J  of  the  focal  length  of  the  lens.  This  lens  was 
invented  by  Dr.  WoUaston,  and  called  by  him  the 
jKriscopic  lens  ;  he  made  it  by  cenientiTig  together 
by  their  plane  faces  two  hemispherical  lenses  with 
an  annular,  opaque  diaphragm  between  them.  Sir 
David  Brewster  improved  it  by  cutting  a  groove 
in  a  whole  sphere  and  filling  the  groove  with  opaque 
matter  in  order  to  diminish  the  quantity  of  light 
and  prevent  the  confusion  arising  from  the  lateral 
rays. 

Cod-line.     An  18-thread  deep-sea  fishing-line. 

Cod'ling.  A  balk  sawed  into  lengths  for  sta%'es. 
It  is  cleft  or  rived  into  staves  by  means  of  a/row  and 
mallet. 


The  English  coehom  has  a  bore  of  4i  inches,  a 
length  of  12  inches,  and  weighs,  with  bed,  about 
340  pounds. 

Goodwin's  coehom  is  fixed  on  a  stake  and  fired  by 
a  trigger  and  lanyard.  It  is  a  surprisingly  elective 
little  piece,  throwing  a  three-inch  shell  to  a  gi'eat 
distance,  and  may  be  carried,  one  under  each  arm. 

Cof'fee-big'gia.  A  coffee-pot  with  a  bag  to 
contain     the 

ground     coffee  Fig.  1366. 

through  which 
the  boiling 
water  is  poured. 
Thewirestrain- 
er  is  a  substi- 
tute for  the 
flannel  bag. 

Cof  fee- 
clean 'ing 
Ma-chine'.  A 
machine  re- 
sembling a 
bran-diister  or 
smut  machine, 
in    which    the  Coffee- Biggin. 

coffee       grains 

are  beaten,  rubbed,  brushed,  and  2cimwurd  to  remove 
the  "parchment,"  or  thin  adhering  envelope  of  the 
grain,  and  also  purge  it  of  dust  and  foreign  matter. 
The  devices  are  numerous,  but  generally  consist  of 
rotating  beatei-s,  rubbing  surfaces,  fans,  etc. 


COFFEE-HULLER. 


584 


COFFEE-POT. 


NewcU's  patents,  1857  and  1859,  may  be  taken 
as  a  tyjie.  A  steam-heated  cylinder,  wire-gauze 
cylindrical  envclo]ic,  rotating  beaters. 

FoUowiiifr  these  are  al)ont  sixteen  patents. 

The  object  of  some  is  to  clean  the  grain  ;  of 
others  to  "  |iioduce  a  yellow,  brown,  or  golden  color, 
to  increase  the  coniniereial  value." 

Sand  and  tale-dust  are  used  by  some  to  rasp  the 
grain. 

Cof  fee-hiill'er.  A  machine  to  remove  the  husk 
or  sac  whicli  covers  the  cofl'ee-grains.  It  consists  of 
an  aiTangement  of  serrated  surfaces  on  a  belt,  or  re- 
<-i)irocated  past  other  serrated  surfaces,  between 
which  the  envelope  is  torn  and  loosened  from  the 
grain.  Subsetpient  rubbing,  brushing,  dusting,  and 
winnowing  complete  the  process  of  hulling. 

Tlie  mffee  cleaner  and  polisher  operates  upon  the 
grain  subsef|uently. 

The  machine  is  similar  to  a  rice-huller.  Ditson's 
patent,  1835,  has  abrading  surfaces  made  by  per- 
forating sheet-iron.     See  also  Adams's  patent,  1836. 


Fig.  1337. 


Coffee-Huller. 


Subsequent  to  these  are  about  ten  others,  which 
have  certain  peculiarities  of  construction.  In  the 
example,  the  husk  is  removed  from  the  coffee  while 
[lassing  between  the  serrated  blocks  of  the  endless 
belt,  and  the  serrated  lower  surface  of  the  yielding 
]ilate. 

Cof'fee-ma-chin'er-y.  Cotfee,  as  picked  from 
the  trei',  looks  like  cherries,  and  is  treated  in  Ceylon 
in  the  following  njanner  :  — 

The  beriies  are  laid  in  heaps  on  tlie  Hoor,  whence 
they  pass  to  the  palp  Ts.  These  remove  the  flesh  ami 
skin,  sarcocarp  aiicl  epicarp,  leaving  two  beans  in  a 
sac.  The  pulpcr  is  a  stout  fiame  supporting  a 
Hy-vvheel,  shaft,  and  barrel.  The  latter  is  of  sheet- 
copper,  puiK'lied  from  the  inside  so  as  to  expose  a 
grating  surface  to  the  fruit, which  is  fed  on  to  it  from 
a  hopper  and  ]>asses  between  the  barrel  and  a  chock, 
which  forms  a  throat.  The  pulp  passes  off,  while 
the  beans  in  their  envelope  fall  into  a  box  beneath 
and  are  placed  in  cisterns  where  they  are  covere<l 
with  water  for  twelve  hours  or  so,  in  order  to  slight- 
ly ferment  the  mucihige  which  covers  the  membrane 
and  prevent  its  hardening  upon  the  skin. 

After  washing,  it  is  plaeeil  on  the  barbecues,  whii'h 
are  circular  stone  structures  with  polished  plaster 
surfaces  on  which   tlie   beans   are   sunned   for   four 


days,  while  yet  remaining  in  their  envelope.  It  is 
thus  dried  sufficiently  to  be  sent  to  Kandy,  and 
thence  to  Columbo,  where  it  undergoes  a  final  treat- 
ment, consisting  of  curing,  removing  the  covering, 
and  picking  out  faulty  berries. 

In  some  establishments  the  beans  are  cured  by  a 
blast  of  warm  dry  air  introduced  into  a  chamber 
beneath  the  berries. 

Coffee-mill.  A  small  hand-mill  in  which 
roasted  cotl'ee-berries  are  ground  by  passing  between 
the  serrated  surfaces  of  opposed  steel  disks  or  rollers, 
or  roller  and  concave,  as  the  case  may  be. 

Cofl'ee  is  the  berry  of  the  Coffca  Arabica,  a  shrub 
of  the  order  rubiacea;,  and  its  fruit  resembles  the 
cheny.  Bruce  says  that  it  is  native  in  Abyssinia. 
The  use  of  the  infusion  as  a  beverage  cannot  be 
traced  back  very  far.  It  was  carried  by  Selini  from 
Egypt  to  Constantinople,  but  does  not  appear  to 
have  been  publicly  sold  till  1554.  Its  use  was  for- 
bidden by  the  mufti,  but  again  permitted  by  an 
edict  of  Solyman  the  Great.  The  Venetians  brought 
it  from  the  Levant  in  1615,  and  in  1645  it  was  in- 
troiluced  into  Marseilles. 

Coffee  was  introduced  into  England  by  Daniel 
hvards,  a  Turkey  merchant,  in   1657.     The  first 
coH'ee-house  in  England  was  in  St.  Michael's  Alley, 
'onihill,  London  ;  opened  by  Pasijua,  a  Greek  ser- 
vant of  Mr.  Edwards.     It  was  then  sold  at  froin 
four  to  five  guineas  a  pound.     Coffee-trees  were  im- 
ported from  Mocha  by  the  Dutch   about   1700,  and 
theuce  carried  to  Surinam.     In  1714  a  coffee-plant 
was  presented  by  the  magistrates  of  Amsterdam  to 
Louis  XIV.,  and  jikced  in  the  grounds  at  Marly. 
The  progeny  of  this  plant  were  carried  to  Cayenne 
and  Martinique.     In  two  centuries  its  use  spread 
all  over  the  civilized  world. 

The  coffee-tree  does  not  thrive  where  the  temper- 
ature ever  .sinks  below  55°  F.  It  grows  to  the  hight 
of  12  or  15  feet,  has  a  leaf  like  the  laurel,  but  not 
so  thick.  The  blossoms  are  white,  like  the  je-isa- 
mine,  and  issue  from  the  axillie  of  the  leaf-stalks. 
When  they  fade  they  are  succeeded  by  the  berry, 
which,  as  said  before,  resembles  a  cherry,  is  red 
when  ripe,  and  has  a  yellowish,  glutinous  pulp, 
enclosing  a  sac  containing  two  seeds. 

Coffee-pol'ish-er.     A  machine  for  removing 
traces  of  mildew  and  stain  from  coffee  as  imi)orteii, 
or  the  efli'ects  of  damp  or  heating  in  store.     In  the 
examjile,  the  coffee 

is  discharged  from  Fig.  1368. 

the  hopper  upon 
the  rim  of  a  cyl- 
inder, covered  with 
elastic  material, 
and  earned  be- 
tween the  crushing 
plate  or  rubber 
and  knobbed  belt. 
The  cru.shing  plate 
is  hinged  and  held 
in  position  by  an 
elastic  belt,  the 
end  of  which  is 
secured  to  an  ad- 
justalile  stretcher. 
Coffee-pot.  A 
vessel  in  which 
the  infusion  of  eof- 
ke  is  made.  Of  the  various  kinds  may  be  cited  ;  — 
1.  The  percolator,  in  which  the  infusion  passes 
from  the  infusion-vessel  through  a  strainer  into  a 
reservoir.  This  is  effected  by  simple  filtration,  by 
pressure  of  steam,  or  by  producing  a  partial  vacuum. 
Tlie  pcrcvlator  was  invented  by  Count  Kumford. 


Coffee'Potisher. 


COFFEE-POT. 


585 


COFFEE-DAM. 


The  giound  coffee  is  pressed  between  perforated  dia- 
phragms, so  as  by  compactness  to  prevent  the  water 
from  filtering  through  too 
Fig.  1339.  quickly. 

2.   Coffee-pots       having 
arrangements  for  condens- 
ing   the    steam     and    the 
essential  oil,  —  wliich  con- 
stitutes the  aroma  of  the 
cofl'ee,  —  and        returning 
them  to  the  infusion.     An 
early  arrangement  of  this 
kind  is  the  Bencini  patent, 
September  27,  1838.     See 
also  Martell's  patent,  1825  ; 
Rowland.     1S44 ;      Waite 
and   Sener,  "Old   Domin- 
ion,"   1856.     The.se    have 
Rumford's  Percolator.       lids  or  upper  chambers  to 
condense  the  steam. 
3    Coffee-pots  of  peculiar  construction,  a.s  :  — 
Hotte,  1870  ;  a  furnace  insiile  the  coffee-pot. 
Manning,  1869 ;  an  earthenware  liuing  to  a  metal- 
lic pot. 

Gibson,  1871 ;  a  flat  breast  to  prevent  lateral  tilt- 
ing when  the  pot  is  ti|)peil  forward. 

Suspended  on  journals  over  a  lamp  and  tipped  on 
its  bearings. 

A  strainer  suspanded  from  the  spout. 
Hot-water  jacket. 
Iron  heater  in  reservoir  ;  the  urn. 
Divided  chambers  for  tea  and  coffee,  or  coffee  and 
water. 

A  piston  to  compress  the  ground  and  expel  the 
infu.sion. 

A  i>iston  to  eject  water  in  desired  quantities  from 
the  water  reservoir  into  the  infusion. 

Various  arrangements  of  coffee-pots,  of  lamp- 
heated  ]>ots,  and  unis,  may  be  seen  in  Webster  and 
Paikes's  "  Enc  yclo|iedia  of  Domestic  Economy," 
London,  1852,  pp.  711-716. 

Fig.  1370. 


Coffee-Roasters. 


Coffee-pulp'er.  A  machine  for  treating  the 
coftee  fruit  by  removing  the  pulp  and  the  envelope 
of  the  seeds.     See  Cofff.e-.machineet. 

Cof  fee-roast'er.  Two  objects  are  attempted  to 
be  secured  in  coffee-roasters  :  to  keep  the  berries 
moving  and  prevent  their  buraing,  and  to  keep  the 
aroma  confined  as  much  as  possible.  The  aroma 
depends  upon  the  essential  oil  in  the  berry,  and  the 
empyreumatic  flavor  is  developed  by  heat  ;  or  the 
oil  is  developed  in  the  berry  in  the  process  of  de- 
composition. 

The  coffee-roaster  is  generally  of  a  cylindrical  or 
prismatic  fonn,  and  is  rotated  on  a  horizontal  axis 
by  means  of  a  crank.  In  Fig.  1370,  n,  the  base-plate 
is  made  to  fit  into  the  hole  in  a  stove-top  made  by 
removing  a  pair  of  stove-lids  and  the  center-plate 
between  them,  a  protecting  sheet  beneath  prevent- 
ing the  direct  action  of  the  fire  upon  the  cylinder 
which  rotates  in  journals  above.  The  axial  stud  at 
each  end  is  eccentric,  those  on  the  respective  emls 
being  on  alternate  sides  of  the  center,  so  as  to  give 
a  tumbling  motion  to  the  coffee,  which  is  thus 
shaken  from  end  to  end  of  the  cylinder  as  well  as 
from  side  to  side.  „.     ,,-i 

,  tig.   101  1. 

A  glass  pane  or 
slip  allows  the 
state  of  the  pro- 
cess to  be  ob- 
served. The 
chamber  is  a 
polygonal  prism, 
the  plates  fonn- 
ing  the  sides 
being  more  ef- 
fective in  tum- 
bling the  berries  Coffee.Roa.Her. 
than  are  the  smooth  surfaces  of  a  cylinder. 

b  (Fig.  1370)  has  a  spherical  chamber  which  oc- 
cupies a  stove-hole,  and  is  revolved  by  the  crank- 
handle  while  held  in  place  by  the  other  handle. 

c  is  a  cylinder  mounted  in  a  plate  with  legs. 

Law's  coffee-roaster  (English)  is  a  hollow  sphere 
having  a  compound  motion,  revolving  continuously 
in  a  horizontal  plane  and  intermittingly  in  a  ver- 
tical plane.     Uke,  I.  456. 

Fig.  1371  has  two  cylinders  A  B  with  wire-gauze 
diaphragms  E  E  hinged  together  and  held  closed  by 
their  handles.  The  coffee  is  contained  between  the 
foraminous  diaphragms.  The  roaster  is  reversible, 
and  sits  upon  the  stove-top  over  a  pot-hole. 

Coffer.  1.  (Architecture.)  A  sunk  panel  in  a 
soffit  or  ceiling,  deeply  recessed  by  one  or  more 
separate  faces,  having  the  appearance  of  inverted 
steps,  and  enriched  with  moldings  in  the  several 
internal  angles,  and  with  roses  in  the  center. 

2.  (Fortification.)  A  hollow  work  across  a  dry 
moat  to  aid  in  repulsing  a  storming  party  by  en- 
filade fire. 

3.  (Hydraulic  Engineering.)  A  canal-lock  cham- 
ber. 

4.  A  large  wooden  vessel  with  movable  ends  to 
receive  a  barge  or  other  vessel.     A  floating  dock. 

5.  A  casket  for  jewels. 

6.  A  .store-chest  for  muniments. 

Coffer-dam.  (Htjdraulic  Engineering.)  A  wa- 
ter-tight enclosure  formed  by  piles  driven  into  the 
bottom  of  a  river  and  packed  by  clay,  planks,  or 
other  stop-gap.  It  is  used  as  a  dam  while  laying 
bare  the  bottom  of  the  river,  in  order  to  establish 
a  foundation  for  a  pier,  abutment,  or  quay. 

Peronnet's  cofl'er-dams  at  the  bridges  of  Mantes 
and  Neuilly  were  made  of  two  rows  of  piles,  winch 
were  iron-.shod,  and  driven  with  a  monkey  weighing 
1,000  pounds.     The  mud  was  removed  from  the  in- 


COFFER-DAM. 


586 


COFFER-DAM. 


Fig.  1372. 


:^;.-^~— J 


v-._uHJbt^'>=Wt'HM=%>''Hfri-">-'^T 


F^TonneCi  Coffer-Dani. 


tervening 

the  s^iace 


space  by  menns  of  tlred^ing-machines  and 
filled  with  clay,  rammed  down.     The  wa- 

Fig.  1373. 


Co_lfer-DaTn. 

ter  from  the  interior  of  the  dam  was  then  pumped 
out. 

In  shallow  water  and  in  situations  but  little  ox- 
posed,  a  single  row  of  piles  sometimes  suffices,   the 


outside  beingjirotected 
with  clay  and  an  arti- 
ficial bank  a,  Fig.  1373. 
A  .sectional  view  b. 
Fig.  1374,  will  give  a 
clear  idea  of  the  duulile 
wall  of  piles,  between 
which  the  puddle  is 
rammed  to  form  a  wa- 
ter-tight filling. 

Instead  of  forming  a 
double  wall  of  piles  in 
thismanner.ithasbcen 
suggested  to  dredge  out 
the  mud  enelo.sed  by 
the  outer  wall  of  lir- 
cumvallatiou,  then  till 
to  a  certain  hight  with 
biton.  Upon  this  as  a 
basis,  an  inner  circle 
of  shorter  piles  is 
driven,  ami  the  space 
between  the  walls  pud- 
dled. The  interior  en- 
closure is  then  pumped 
out. 
The  pier  coffer-dam  of  London  Bridge  (Fig.  1 375) 
is  described  at  length  in  Cresy.     It  is  elliptical  in 


Coffer- Dam 


form,  and  a  portion  of  it  is  shown  in  plan  in  the  fig- 
ure.    It  was  composed  of  piles  not  less  than  I2J 


Fig.  1375. 


Coffer-Dam  of  London  Bridge. 


COFFERING. 


587 


COFFIN. 


inches  square,  driven  in  rows  anil  braced  by  timbers 
and  tit'-bolts.  The  outer  row  and  sheet  wiilings  and 
the  si)aces  between  rows  were  plugged  with  clay,  the 
joints  calked  and  covered  with  pitch.  Tlie  piles 
were  straightened,  planed  on  the  edges,  and  shod. 

A  coHer-dani  built  by  tlie  government  engineers 
engaged  in  improving  the  navigation  of  the  jlissis- 
sippi  River  over  the  rapids  of  Rock  Island  is  four 
thousand  sLx  hundred  feet,  or  seven  eighths  of  a 
mile  long.  It  runs  parallel  with  the  shore,  is  from 
eight  to  fourteen  feet  wide,  and  near  one  million 
feet  of  lumber  were  used  in  its  construction. 

Cof'fer-ing.  {.Vininy.)  Securing  a  shaft  from 
leaking'  liy  ramming  in  clay.     See  Caisso.n  ;  CuuB. 

Coffer-work.  (Masonry.)  Rubble-work  faced 
with  stone.     See  M.isositY. 

Coffin.  1.  {Mmiiiij.)  a.  A  mode  of  working, 
OjKii  to  grass,  in  which  the  bed  of  ore  is  uncovered 
by  casting  up  the  ore  and  attle  by  stall-boards,  from 
one  to  another,  to  the  suiface. 

b.  An  old  exposed  working. 

2.  {Prinling.)  The  wooden  frame  inclosing  the 
iinposing-stone. 

3.  A  receptacle  to  hold  a  corpse.     A  burial-case. 
Joseph  wa.s  put  in  a  coffin  in  Egypt  (Gen.  1.  26), 

about  16,tO  b.  c.  This  is  the  only  mention  of  a  coi'- 
Jin  in  the  Bible ;  that  mode  of  burial  was  never  com- 
mon among  the  Israelites,  but  Joseph's  body  was 
embalmed  and  coffined,  according  to  the  custom  of 
his  adopted  country,  and  was  taken  out  of  Egypt  by 
his  countrymen  when  they  left  for  Canaan,  1491  B.  f. 
The  coffins  of  ancient  Egypt  were  frequently 
staiued  to  represent  rare  and   foreign   woods.     The 


sycamore  was  the  principal  wood  used,  and  it  was 
handsomely  painted,  inlaid,  and  carved,  according  to 

their  peculiar  ideas  and  taste. 

It  must  be  admitted  that  Egypt  has  the  palm  of 
priority  and  skill  in  the  subject  of  coffins.  They 
iiad  a  good  reason  for  exercising  so  nnich  care,  as 
they  believed  that  in  due  time  the  spirit  would  re- 
turn to  the  body,  and  they  desired  to  keep  it  in  tlie 
best  order  possible.  We  have  no  room  to  go  into 
the  subject  of  embalming,  but  may  say,  that  the 
brain  and  viscera  were  withdrawn,  the  foniier  at  the 
nostrils,  and  the  latter  at  inci-sions  made  by  Hint 
knives  in  the  side  of  the  abdomen.  The  cavities 
were  then  stulied  and  the  body  bandaged,  resinous 
and  aromatic  substances  being  employed  to  arrest 
decay.  A  box  received  the  body  and  its  wrapping, 
and  the  lid  was  tightly  closed.  The  style  of  orna- 
mentation can  be  best  gathered  by  inspection  of  the 
mummies,  or  some  of  the  beautiful  volumes  written  by 
men  who  have  made  the  subject  a  study.  The  work 
of  the  French  professors,  "  Description  de  I'Egypte," 
made  under  the  auspices  of  Napoleon,  and  Wilkin- 
son's work  on  the  manners  and  customs  of  the  an- 
cient Egyptians,  will  atlbrd  the  best  information 
extant,  in  book  form. 

The  embalming  process  of  the  most  expensive  kind 
cost  about  a  talent  of  silver,  over  §1,000  of  our 
money.  The  processes  were  graded  in  price  accord- 
ing to  the  ability  of  the  survivors,  the  pecuniosity 
of  the  estate,  or  the  ante-mortem  directions  of  the 
defunct. 

The  illustration  annexed  is  from  a  Theban  tomb, 
exhibiting  the  trade  of  a  coffin-maker.     The  men 


Fig.  1376. 


.x'S'^'jSS^,, 


Coffin-Milkers  ( ntbes). 


are  engaged  upon  the  mummies,  which  are  shown  in 
two  stages  of  completion.  Some  are  ajiplying  the 
bandages,  one  is  using  the  drill  for  some  purpose  in 
this  connection,  others  are  painting  and  ixilishing 
the  case. 

The  coffins  of  the  Ethiopians,  exhibited  to  the 
emis.saries  of  Cambyses,  are  thus  described  in  Herod- 
otus :  —  "  They  place  the  body  in  a  crystal  block 
which  has  been  hollowed  out  to  receive  it,  ci-ystal 
being  dug  up  in  great  abundance  in  their  country, 
and  of  a  kind  very  easy  to  work.  You  may  see  the 
corpse  through  the  block  in  which  it  lies,  and  it 
neither  gives  out  any  unplea.sant  odor,  nor  is  it  in 
any  resjiect  unseemly  ;  yet  there  is  no  part  wliich  is 
not  as  plainly  visible  as  if  the  body  was  bare." 

Book  III.,  chapter  24,  he  speaks  of  the  body  be- 
ing dried,  and  painted  in  imitation  of  health  before 
inhumation  ;  and  of  a  corpse  being  treated  as  one  of 
the  family  for  a  year  after  death,  meals  and  atten- 
tions being  scrupulously  otfered  thereto. 

The  substance  described  as  having  been  hollowed 
out  for  the  reception  of  the  mummy  may  have  been 
glass,  which  was  known  in  Egypt  previous  to  this 
period,  or  it  may  have  been  the  lapis  sjKcularis,  or 
one  form  of  gypsum. 

A  sarcophagus  of  alabaster  was  (in  1845)  in  the 
museum  of  the  late  Sir  John  Soane,  Lincolu's-Inu 


Fields,  London.  This,  which  is  very  elaborately 
carved  and  decorated,  was  discovered  by  Belzoni,  in 
Upper  Egypt. 

It  is  the  subject  of  the  poem  commencing,  — 

*'  Thou  alabaster  relic  1  wiiich  I  hold, 
My  haod  upon  thy  sculptured  margin  thrown." 

Coffins  of  baked  clay  are  found  amid  the  niins  of 
the  ancient  cities  of   Mesopotamia.     They  are   oc- 


Parthian  Coffin. 


casionally   of   wood.     A    common    foi-m    of   burial 
among  the  Hamite  Chaldeans  was  to  lay  the  body 


COFFIN-GAGE. 


588 


COG-WHEEL. 


on  a  brick  platform  and  then  cover  it  with  a  dome 

of  pottery,  like  a  modern  dish-eover. 

CoHins  honi  Warka,  of  green  glazed  pottery  atid 
fliaiied  like  a  slipper-bath  (see  Fig.  1377),  belonged 
Jiroliably  to  the  L'halileaus  of  the  Parthian  age. 

One  sareo}>hagus  of  a  Scythian  king  entombed  at 
Kertch  was  found  to  be  of  yew  wood,  and  had  two 
compartments  ;  one  for  the  body,  the  other  for 
weapons.  The  sarcophagus  was  in  a  large  stone 
vault  which  contained  the  skeletons  of  a  wife,  an 
attendant,  a  horse,  and  divers  jars,  which  piobably 
once  held  provisions.  It  is  pictured  in  Kawlin.wn's 
Heroilotus,  note  to  pp.  49,  60,  Vol.  111.  (Am.  ed.). 

Sarcophagi  of  terra  eotta,  ornamented  in  bas-relief 
and  with  recumbent  statues  of  the  deceased,  are 
fouiui  in  the  British  Museum.  See  article  " Faniis," 
in  Smith's  "  Dictionary  of  Greek  and  Roman  An- 
UiJ,liti:S." 

Glass  coffins  were  patented  in  England  in  1847. 
Unfortunately  tliey  were  also  used  by  the  Egyptians 
over  2,000  years  ago. 

We  learn  from  Pliny  that  Varro  and  others  di- 
rected that  their  bodies,  when  dead,  should  be  de- 
2)jsited  in  earthenware. 

Coffins  madeof  slateslabsunited  by  metallic  corner- 
jiieccs  and  bolts  are  ih^scribed  in  an  18d8  patent. 

Coffins  are  rendered  impervious  to  moisture  by 
resin.s,  asphaltuni,  paraffine,  etc. 

A  Danish  paper  states  that  Herr  Woerman,  ship- 
owner of  Hamburg,  has  been  commissioned  to  pro- 
cure a  coffin  fur  his  present  Majesty  the  King 
Jberio,  on  the  rfest  coast  of  Africa.  The  coffin  is  of 
fir-wood,  polished  on  the  outside,  and  furnished 
very  comfortably.  It  is  lined  with  red  vtdvet,  and 
has  soft  velvet  cushions.  There  are  five  glass  win- 
dows in  the  lid  to  let  the  light  enter,  and  under  it 
is  placed  a  mirror  for  aid  toretleetion.  The  handles 
ami  feet  are  of  tin,  as  well  as  the  window  settings  ; 
and,  last'y,  the  colSn  arrangement  is  comjdeted  by 
two  bottles  of  gin  ami  the  necessary  glasses.  The 
prospect  of  death  is 


Fig.  1373. 


Cogs. 


•endered  cheerful  by 
the  continual 
presence  of  the  box 
in  his  Majesty's  state 
apartments. 

4.  {Milling.)  One 
of  the  sockets  in  the 
eye  of  the  runner, 
which  receives  the 
ends  of  the  driver. 

The  term  is  ap- 
plied to  other  depres- 
sions, especially  to 
such  as  are  hollowed 
or  chipped  out. 

Coffin-gage.  An 
instrument,  cro.ss- 
shaped,  with  gradu- 
ated stem,  head- 
piece, and  arms,  by 
which  the  measure- 
ment of  a  corpse  may 
be  readily  made. 

Cog.  1.  A  tooth, 
cam,  catch  or  lifter, 
which  acts  upon  an 
object  to  move  it  ;  as 
in  tlie  case  of  a  gear- 
wheel ;  the  wi|)er  on 
the  shaft  which  lifts 
a  trip-hammer,  or  the 
l)estie  of  a  stamp- 
mill  ;  the  projection 


from  the  arbor  of  a  stop-motion,  or  from  a  disk  in 
a  register  or  feed  motion,  etc. 

2.  (Carpentry. )  a.  A  projecting  piece  a  on  the  end 
of  a  joist,  which  is  in  the  nature  of  a  tenon,  and  is 
received  into  a  notch  in  a  bearing  timber,  such  as  a 
wall-plate,  the  cog  resting  Hush  with  the  upper  sur- 
face of  the  plate. 

b.  A  longitudinal  tenon  bed  projecting  from  one 
of  the  faces  of  a  scarf-joint  and  entering  a  recess  in 
the  face  of  the  other  timber,  to  prevent  lateral  de- 
flection of  the  scarf-joint.      A  cuak. 

Cog  and  Round.  An  old-fashioned  bucket- 
Fig.  1379. 


Coq  and  Round. 

hoist  having  a  coj-wheel  and  lantern,  the  latter 
having  staves  or  rounds. 

Cog-wear.  An  old-time  narrow  frieze  good.s, 
of  coarse  quality. 

Cog-wheel.  One  having  teeth  which  jnasli 
into  similar  ones  on  another  wheel  to  impart  motion 
thereto,  or  to  receive  it  tli^refrom.  The  name  — 
cog  —  shows  the  original  mode  of  construction,  in 
which  coys  or  pieces  of  wood  were  inserted  into  mor- 
tises in  the  face  of  a  wheel.  Wheels  thus  constructed 
are  used  under  the  names  of  ray  or  sprocket  wheels, 
in  connection  with  chains  or  hmlcrn  wheels,  the 
latter  having  rounds  or  r undies  between  disks. 

The  teeth  of  cog-wheels  are  now  usually  made 
solid  with  the  rim,  being  cast  therewith  or  cut  theie- 
upon. 

There  are  numerous  varieties  of  cog-wheels, 
known  by  peculiar  shapes,  modes  of  presentation  of 


Fig.  1380 


Cog-Wteel. 


the  wheel,  or  by  special  features  of  the  teeth.  A 
list  is  given  uniler  Geakino  (which  see). 

A  s/««c-wheel  has  cogs  projecting  radially,  either 
inward  or  outward. 

A  crown  or  contratc  wheel  has  cogs  projecting 
from  the  rim  parallel  with  the  a.\is. 

A  bevel  or  miter  wheel  has  teeth  whose  faces  are 
oblique  with  the  a.xis. 

The  pinion  bears  a  specific  relation  to  a  larger 
cog-wheel. 

For  list  of  cog-wheels,  see  Okarino. 

In  the  illustration  a  «piir-wheel  is  shown,  the 
cogs  being  radial. 


COIL 


589 


COIN. 


The  characteristic  parts  of  the  wheel  are  as  fol- 
lows :  — 

a,  primitive  or  geometric  radius  ;  distance  of  the 
center  of  the  wheel  from  the  pitch-line. 

b,  tnic  (or  red)  radius  ;  distance  of  center  of 
wheel  from  extremity  of  cog. 

The  adiknduin  is  the  difference  between  the  real 
and  geometric  radius. 

Interdental  space  ;  the  interval  between  cogs. 

The  pilch  c  of  a  wlieel   in  the  distance  measured 
along  the  pitch-line  from  the  center  of  one  tooth 
to  the  center  of  the  ne.Kt. 

The  pitch-surface  of  a  wheel  is  an  ideal  smooth 
surface,  intermediate  between  the  crests  of  the  teeth 
and  tlie  bottoms  of  the  interdental  spaces,  which, 
by  rolling  contact  with  the  pitch-surface  of  another 
wheel,  would  communicate  the  .same  velocity-ratio 
that  the  teeth  communicate  by  their  sliding  contact. 

The  pitch-line  of  a  wheel,  or,  in  circular  wheels, 
the  pitch-circle,  is  a  transverse  section  of  the  pitch- 
surface  made  by  a  surface  perpendicular  to  it  and  to 
the  axis  ;  that  is,  in  s/)Kr-wheels,  by  a  ]ilane  per- 
pendicular to  the  axis  ;  in  JcraZ-wheels,  by  a  sphere 
described  about  the  apex  of  the  conii;al  pitcli-sur- 
face ;  and  in  skcw-bcrcl  wheels,  by  any  oblate 
splieroid  generated  by  the  rotation  of  an  ellipse 
whose  foci  are  the  same  with  those  of  the  hyperbola 
that  generates  the  pitch  surface.     (R.\nkin.) 

The  pitch-point  of  a  pair  of  wheels  is  the  point  of 
contact  of  their  pitch-lines. 

The  crest  of  a  cog  is  its  exti-eme  outer  surface. 

The /ace  c  of  a  cog  is  the  acting  surface  beyond 
the  pitch-line.    /  is  the  shoulder. 

The  flank  d  lies  within  the  ]iitch-surface. 

The  substitution  of  the  iron  for  the  wooden  wheel 
is  originally  due  to  Snieaton,  who  introduced  iron 
wheels  at  Carron,  in  Great  Britain,  in  1 754,  and  at 
Belper,  Derbyshire,  shortly  after.  A  cast-iron  bevel- 
wheel  was  also  used  in  Scotland  about  the  same 
time  by  Mr.  W.  Murdock.  Not  until  17S4,  how- 
ever, was  cast-iron  fairly  introduced  in  the  various 
details  of  mill  work,  and  the  credit  of  this  wider 
application  of  tlie  improvement  belongs  to  John 
Ilennie,  an  eminent  and  successful  engineer,  who 
adopted  it  for  bevel  and  spur  wheels  at  Boulton  and 
Watt's,  at  the  Soho  Rolling  Mill  and  Foundry. 

Cog-wheels  were  formerly  distinguished  from 
toothed  wheels  by  the  fornn-r  having  teeth  of  dif- 
ferent materials  from,  and  inserted  into,  the  rim. 

This  distinction  is  not  now  very  usual. 

Coil.  1.  A  helix  or  spiral  ;  tlie  word  is  used  to 
indicate  variously  convolved  forms. 

It  seems  proper  that  tlie  term  "  coil  "  .should  be 
considered  generic,  including  both  the  helical  and 
spiial  forms. 

Helical,  appertaining  to  a  h-elix,  which  is  a  coil 
decreasing  in  radius  as  it  approaches  the  center ; 
whether  in  the  same  plane  as  a  coil  of  rope,  or  a 
watch-spring,  or  assuming  a  conical  shape,  as  with 
hclix.s  of  shells. 

Spiral,  sliaped  like  a  wire  wound  upon  a  cylin- 
d;r ;  as  the  spring  of  the  chronometer,  the  spring- 
balance,  etc.     TJie  coils  have  the  same  diameter. 

2.  (Nautical.)  Rope  laid  np  ring  fashion, /ni-c  on 
fak;.  When  laid  up  in  a  Hat  helix,  without  ridere, 
be>.'inning  in  the  middle,  and  "with  the  sun,"  it  is 
said  to  lie  a  Fli-mish  coil. 

Coiled-jpriug.  A  metallic  spring  laid  u]i  in  a 
spiral  so  as  to  have  a  resiliency  in  the  line  of  its 
axis,  either  by  extension  or  condensation,  as  the 
spring  may  be  an'anged.  Fig.  1381  shows  one  mode 
of  coiling  springs  in  which  the  wire  is  wound  on  a 
revolving  mandrel,  the  end  being  held  by  a  sliding 
sleeve  and  locking  dog.     The  wire  is  coiled  uj)on 


Fig.  1381. 


Machine  for  coiling  Springs. 

the  mandrel  /  as  it  rotates,  by  a  spirally  giooved 
cylinder  K.  The  coil  is  stripped  from  the  mandrel 
by  the  longitudinal  movement  of  the  latter. 

The  uses  of  such  springs  are  so  numerous  that  it 
will  be  impo.ssible  to  enumerate  a  large  proportion 
of  them.  Springs  for  railway  cars,  spring-balances, 
bed -bottom.?,  etc.     See  Fig.  1143,  page  483. 

Coin.  A  piece  of  metal  on  which  certain  char- 
acters are  stamped  by  authority,  giving  the  piece  a 
legal  current  value. 

No  coin  has  been  found  of  the  ancient  Egyptians 
or  Assyrians  ;  neither  do  the  Phcenicians  appear  to 
have  coined  money. 

Tlie  money  of  ancient  Egypt  was  in  the  form  of 
rings,  which  were  of  gold  and  silver,  abed,  fig. 
1382.  The  same  currency,  we  learn  from  Wilkin- 
son, is  in  use  in  Senaar  and  the  neighboring  coun- 
tries. The  Egyptians  had  no  coin  till  the  time  of 
Alexander,  330  b.  c,  except  a  few  of  the  Pei-sian, 
and  some  made  in  imitation,  which  co.st  the  viceroy 
his  life. 

The  Chinese  and  Japanese  have  also  ring-money. 

Money  was  originally  estimated  by  weight,  as  in 
the  case  of  the  sum  paid  for  a  piece  of  land  by 
Abraham  to  Ephron  the  Hittite,  and  the  money 
"  in  full  weight "  found  in  tlie  corn-sacks  of  Jose])h's 
brethren.  In  the  Theban  paintings,  the  public 
weigher  is  shown  in  the  act  of  weighing  money. 
See  Balance. 

To  avoid  the  trouble  of  weighing  the  metal  when- 
ever a  purchase  was  made,  or  of  cutting  it  to  make 
fractions,  pieces  of  a  known  weight  were  readv  cut 
and  introduced  into  circulation.  These  were  marked 
with  their  weight ;  afterwards  devices,  such  as  the 
name  or  figure  of  the  king,  were  placed  uj'on 
them  to  confer  authenticity,  and  thus  coins  were 
established. 

Chinese  bronze  and  copper  money  was  made  as 
early  as  1100  B.  c,  but  none  of  gold  or  silver  till  a 
much  later  period. 

The  brass  money  referred  to  by  Homer  as  existing 
1184  B.  c.  was  bronze,  and  may  have  been  merely 
pieces  of  known  weight.  Herodotus  .states  that  the 
Lydians  first  coined  money  about  1000  P.  (\  This 
was  at  the  period  when  Solomon  paid  Hiram  in 
corn,  wine,  and  oil,  for  the  use  of  his  skilled  work- 
men and  his  cedar-wood. 

The  early  coins  of  Lydia  .show  a  punch-mark  on 
the  reverse,  the  quadralum  inciimn,  given  by  a 
protuberance  on  the  anvil  upon  which  thi-  planchet 
of  metal  was  laid  to  receive  the  impression  of  the 
die,  which  was  laid  above  and  struck  by  a  hammer. 
The  punch-mark  on  the  reverse  was  afterwards  con- 
verted into  a  regular  impression  in  inlagUo.  The 
lion  device  of  Lydia  was  probably  adopted  on  coins 
by  Crcesus  ;  other  Lyilian  coins  have  the  archer, 
which  was  copied  on  the  Persian  daric. 

The  different  states  of  Greece  adopted  vaiious 
animals  for  emblems. 

The  earliest  representations  of  the  human  form. 


COIN. 


.590 


COIN. 


Jcsignt'd  as  portraits,  aie  the  Macedonian  series, 
eoiiinieiiciiig  witli  Alexander,  the  son  of  Amyntas. 

One  Ibnii  of  Greek  money,  before  the  introduction 
of  coin,  was  in  skewers,  of  wliich  six  formed  a 
hand/a'. 

An  early  gold  coin  was  the  Persian  darlic  e,  Fig. 
1382,  which  weighed  about  130  grains  troy.     Silver 


Fig.  1382. 


Ane'tent  Money. 


Coins  in  imitation  were  .struck  by  Aryandes,  governor 
of  Egypt  under  the  Persians,  for  which  act  he  was 
condemned  to  death.  Silver  is  said  to  have  been 
coined  by  Phedon  of  Argos,  750  B.  c.  Gold  by 
Philip  of  Macedon,  340  b.  o.  Servius  Tullius  coined 
cojiper  money,  578  B.  c.  Silver  was  coined  at 
Athens,  512  R.  c.  ;  at  Rome,  269  B.  c.  Iron  was 
coined  by  Lycurgus,  884  B.  c.     Plutarch  says  it  re- 


quired a  cart  and  two  oxen  to  draw  the  small  sum 
of  10  inina;,  about  $28. 

It  is  said  that  the  coin  of  Philip  of  Macedon  was 
the  lirst  that  was  alloyed  ;  it  was  done  to  hai'den  it, 
and  make  it  wear  better. 

Coined  money  was  first  cited  in  those  portions  of 
the  Hebrew  Scriptures  written  after  the  captivity. 
The  Jews  had  no  coined  money  of  their  own  till 
tlie  time  of  the  Maccabees,  when  King  Antiochus 
gave  leave  to  Simon  to  "  coin  money  foi-  his  country 
with  his  own  stamp."     (1  Maccabees  xv.  ti.) 

The  money  mentioned  by  Ezra  was  probably  the 
Persian  daric  e.  Fig.  1382,  equal  to  about  $5.50. 
Cyrus  paid  the  soldiers  of  Clearchus  a  daric  a  month. 
(Xenophon.) 

The  Jewish  silver  shekel  had  a  weight  of  about 
half  an  ounce,  and  value  aliout  62  cents  of  our 
money.  To  form  an  idea  of  the  economic  value  of 
money,  do  not  forget  to  consider  the  re'.ative  value 
of  provisions. 

f  (J  are  the  obverse  and  reverse  of  the  shekel. 

h  i  the  obverse  and  reverse  of  the  half-shekel. 

j  is  an  obverse  with  the  inscription,  "Shekel  of 
Israel." 

k  the  reverse  of  the  same  coin,  with  "Jerusalem 
the  Holy,"  and  a  vase  having  three  flowers. 

The  coins  of  Herod  are  ol'  copper  or  brass,  and  are 
abundant,  numismatically  speaking.  The  obverse 
I  has  an  inscription  and  anchor  ;  the  reverse  m  has 
two  cornucopia;,  within  which  is  a  caduceus. 

The  shekel,  stater,  drachma,  and  denariiui,  repre- 
senting three  dili'erent  nationalities,  were  current  in 
Palestine. 

Barkabab,  who  raised  a  politico-religious  crusade 
against  the  Romans  in  the  time  of  Hadrian,  closed 
the  series  of  Jewish  coins  (op),  for  after  this  ,leru- 
salem,  as  a  Jewish  city,  disappears  altogether,  ami 
under  the  name  of  M\i;\,  A.  D.  135,  became  a  liomau 
colony  from  which  Jews  were  rigorously  excluded. 
Constantine  restored  the  name  and  made  it  a  Chris- 
tian city  about  A.  D.  326.  Five  centuries  of  peace, 
a  long  period  for  Jerusalem,  followed  the  restoration 
under  Constantine  and  Julian.  Then  followed  the 
Persian,  Chosroes  II.,  A.  D.  614  ;  Heraclius  retneved 
it  in  628  ;  but  Omar  subdued  it,  A.  D.  637.  The 
Christians  regained  it  but  for  a  brief  and  bloody 
interval  of  87  years,  in  the  eleventh  and  twelfth 
centuries,  when  it  was  conquered  by  Saladin,  be- 
came nominally  attached  to  the  Kingfiom  of  Sicily 
in  1277,  and  in  1517  passed  under  the  sway  of  the 
Ottoman  Sultan,  Selim  1.,  whose  successor  Suliman 
built  the  present  walls  of  the  city  in  1542. 

The  stamping  of  metal  to  form  coin  was  ori.dnally 
performed  by  a  common  punch,  by  a  succession  of 
blow.s,  making  a  rude  impression,  more  or  less  ]ier- 
fect,  according  to  the  skill  of  the  workman.  An  in- 
stance of  this  is  an  early  silver  coin  of  jEgina  with 
the  emblematical  tortoise. 

The  slater,  the  principal  gold  coin  of  ancient 
Greece,  was,  perhaps,  the  earliest  coin,  and  the  mode 
of  its  manufacture  was  characteristic  of  coinage  for 
a  long  period.  The  obverse  has  a  rude  image  of  a 
lion's  head,  and  the  reverse  has  an  indentation.  A 
single  die  was  used,  and  the  piece  of  metal  ]ilace<l 
on  it  ;  a  punch  drove  the  metal  into  the  intaglio  of 
the  die,  and  the  marks  of  the  punch  remained  on 
the  reverse. 

The  first  improvement  upon  this  consisted  in  pla- 
cing a  device  on  the  face  of  the  punch,  giving  a  de- 
sign to  the  reverse  in  intaglio.  This  was  noi,  in  the 
first  place,  similar  to  the  cameo  relief  of  the  obverse, 
as  may  be  seen  in  the  (juarter-stater  of  Phocea. 
Then  followed  a  coinage  in  which  the  obverse  and 
reverse  showed  the  same  design,  —  one  in  relief  and 


COIN 


591 


COIN-ASSORTER. 


the  other  in  intaglio.  The  next  step  was  evidently 
to  make  two  dies  with  intaglio  laces,  between  which 
th'-'  [ilanchet  or  piece  of  metal  u^  swaged  so  as  to 
give  the  design  in  relief  on  each  side.  To  this  we 
still  adhere. 

The  first  designs  on  coin  were  emblematical  or  else 
indicative  of  weight,  that  is,  value.  The  emblems 
were  various,  as  in  the  case  of  the  tortoise  of  .^gina, 
or  the  owl  of  Athens,  and  were  afterwards  supplanted 
by  Hgures  or  heads  of  deities,  who  presided  over 
the  destinies  of  the  respective  countries  or  cities. 

The  silver  coin  of  Alexander  I.,  of  Macedonia, 
450  B.  c,  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  which  had  a 
representation  of  the  human  figure ;  and  the  drachma 
of  Archelaus,  413  B.  c,  the  first  coin  with  a  por- 
trait. This  practice  was  not  adopted  by  the  Eomans 
till  the  time  of  Julius  Caesar,  when  it  became  gen- 
eral, and  is  yet  practiced,  as  is  well  known.  The 
Mohammedans,  in  their  detestation  of  images,  in- 
scribe the  name  and  title  of  the  prince,  and  on  the 
reverse  the  name  of  the  coin  and  the  year  of  the 
Hegii-a.  The  crescent,  found  on  some  Byzantine 
coins,  was  adopted  as  a  symbol  by  the  Turks. 

"King  Abderahmaa  (Ben  Moavia)  had  his  zeka, 
or  house  for  the  coinage  of  money,  in  Cordova  ;  he 
introduced  no  change  in  the  currency,  but  retained 
the  dies  used  in  Syria  by  the  Caliphs,  who  were  his 
predecessors,  and  made  his  coins  in  all  respects  sim- 
ilar to  theirs,  .  .  .  excepting  what  was  necessitated 
by  time  and  place."  —  CoNDfc. 

Justinian  II.  was  the  first  who  had  the  image  of 
Christ  struck  on  coins,  A.  D.  710.  The  Pope's  effigy 
first  occurs  on  a  coin  in  1480. 

The  ci3  libra,  in  the  time  of  SeiTius  Tullius  (550 
B.  c. ),  weighed  a  pound,  as  its  name  indicates  ;  by 
190  B.  c,  it  had  fallen  to  half  an  ounce.  Silver 
was  coined  269  B.  c,  when  the  denarius  weighed  90 
grains  ;  in  the  time  of  Vespasian,  A.  ti.  70,  it  had  fall- 
en to  53  grains.  The  aureus  was  first  issued  about 
204  B.  c,  and  weighed  166  grains,  but  had  fallen 
to  96  grains  in  the  time  of  Heliogabalus,  A.  D.  218. 

The  silver  coinage  of  Crotona,  600  B.  c,  was  pure, 
as  was  also  the  gold  coinage  of  Philip  of  Macedon, 
350  B.  c.  Under  Vespasian,  A.  D.  79,  the  silver 
money  contained  one  fourth  its  weight  of  copper. 
Under  Antoninus  Pius,  A.  D.  138,  more  than  one 
tliird.  Under  Commodus,  A.  D.  180,  nearly  one 
half.  Under  Gordian,  A.  D.  236,  more  than  two 
thirds  of  the  so-called  silver  coin  was  copper.  Under 
Gallienus,  A.  D.  361,  a  coinage  was  issued,  an  alloy 
of  copper,  tin,  and  silver,  of  which  the  latter  formed 
less  than  a  two  himdredth  part.  The  Republic  de- 
based the  coin  by  reducing  its  weight,  the  Empire 
by  allowing  it. 

Pieces  of  copper  and  of  tin,  of  known  weight  but 
irregular  shape,  were  used  in  Britain,  till  Cunobelin, 
King  of  the  Trinobantes,  who  had  been  educated  at 
the  court  of  Augustus,  imitated  the  Roman  coin  ; 
but  under  Claudius  the  British  mint  was  destroyed, 
the  Roman  coin  introduced,  and  continued  in  circu- 
lation till  the  anival  of  the  Saxons. 

Assajing  in  England  originated  with  the  Bishop 
of  Salisbury,  treasurer  to  Henry  I.,  about  1130.  It 
■was  practiced  by  the  Romans. 

In  the  reign  of  Edward  I.  the  penny  was  so  deeply 
indented  with  a  cross  that  it  was  easily  divided  into 
half-pence  and  fourthlings  (farthings). 

Henry  111.  issued  the  first  gold  coin  in  England, 
1257.  Edward  III.  i.ssued  gold  coin  in  1344,  and 
at  that  time  the  armorial  bearings  apjjear  on  British 
coins. 

Pounds  sterling,  crowns,  and  shillings  were  issued 
by  Henry  VIII.,  half-crowns  and  sixpences  by 
Edward  VI.     The  guinea,  so  called  from  being  made 


of  African  gold,  was  issued  in  1663,  and  stamped 
with  an  elephant.  The  name  "  sovereign  "  (Eng- 
lish  pound  sterling)  was  of  later  date,  reigu  of  James 
I.  The  screw-press  was  invented  by  Bucher,  a 
Frenchman,  in  1553,  and  was  established  ni  the 
English  mint  in  1602.  The  edge  was  grained  at 
first  to  prevent  clipping.  A  motto  was  placed  on 
the  edge  in  1651. 

The  first  coin  or  medal  with  milled  edges  is  .said 
to  be  that  of  George  Frederick,  Jlarquisof  Brandeu- 
burgh,  1589. 

The  "angel,"  value  6s.  8d.,  first  coined  A.  ]>. 
1430.  The  obverse  represented  Michael  the  Arch- 
angel with  his  left  foot  on  the  dragon. 

The  first  government  copper  coinage  in  England 
was  in  1620.  Copper  tokens  had  been  issued  pre- 
viously by  corporations  and  indiWduals. 

"At  my  goldsmith's  did  obsen'e  the  king's 
(Charles  II.)  new  medall,  where,  in  little,  there  is 
Mrs.  Stewart's  [afterwards  Duchess  of  Richmond] 
face,  as  well  done  as  ever  I  saw  anything  in  my 
whole  life,  I  think  ;  and  a  pretty  thing  it  is  that 
he  should  choose  her  face  to  represent  Britannia 
by." — Pefys's  DUiri/,  Feb.  25,  1667. 

The  alloy  (English)  of  gold  is  .silver  and  copjier, 
and  of  silver,  is  copper.  English  standard  gold  is 
22  carats  gold  to  2  of  alloy.  Standard  silver  is  1 1 
oz.  2  dwts.  silver,  to  18  dwts.  co])per.  The  American 
gold  coin  is  36  parts  gold,  3  parts  copper,  1  part 
silver. 

The  American  and  French  silver  coin  are  9  parts 
silver,  1  part  copper.     See  Standard. 

The  proper  weight  of  the  double-eagle  is  516  troy 
grains,  and  the  smaller  gold  coins  in  proportion. 
The  law  permits  a  variation  above  or  below  the 
standard  of  half  a  gi-ain.     See  Re.medy. 

The  series  of  operations  in  coining  is  as  follows :  — 

1.  The  ingot  is  assayed  and  alloyed. 

2.  A  number  of  ingots  melted  into  a  long,  flat  bar. 

3.  The  bar  is  re]ieatedly  rolled,  cut  into  pieces, 
annealed,  and  re-rolled  until  it  assumes  the  shape  of 
a  ribbon,  approximating  the  width  and  thickness 
of  the  required  coin. 

4.  The  ribbon  is  draion  througb  a  gage  to  bring 
it  to  exact  size. 

5.  The  ribbon  is  cut  into  blanks,  each  planchet 
being  of  the  weight,  and  approximately  the  size,  of 
the  coin. 

6.  The  planchet  is  tested  by  an  automatic  weigh- 
ing-machine, which  rejects  heavy  and  light,  and 
selects  those  of  proper  weight. 

7.  The  edge  of  the  planchet  is  milled,  that  is, 
rolled  smooth  and  circular  and  slightly  turned  over. 

8.  The  ^)^(?icA€<  is  heated,  cooled  in  water, 
cleansed  in  acidulated  water,  and  then  dried  in  hot 
sawdust. 

9.  The  blank  is  stamped  between  the  die  and 
counter-die,  the  nurliny  being  done  at  the  same 
operation. 

Coin-as-sort'er.  A  machine  which  separates 
different  kinds  of  coins  by  size,  or  coins  of  the  same 
kind  by  weight. 

In  one  form  of  the  first  mentioned,  the  coins  are  put 
singly  into  a  hopper  and  fed  edgeways  to  the  in- 
clined way,  in  which  they  roll  upon  their  edges  and 
lean  toward  the  open  side  of  the  way,  so  as  to  drop 
out  on  arriving  at  an  aperture  large  enough  therefor. 
The  distance  between  the  holding  lips  of  the  guides 
constantly  increases,  so  that  the  coins  will  drop  out 
at  different  places,  each  into  its  appropriate  tnlie. 
The  tubes  are  marked  by  a  scale,  to  indicate  the 
number  of  coins  by  the  depth  of  the  pile. 

In  another  form,  the  coins  pass  into  a  graduated 
series  of  rotary  cylindrical  sifters  or  sorting-barrds, 


COIN-COUNTER. 


592 


COKE. 


with  internal  spiral  divisions,  causing  the  coins  to 
.travel  thioiigh  and  between  each  spiral  thread  ;  cir- 
cular o|ienings  allow  all  the  coins  except  the  largest 
to  drop  through.  Tlie  largest  coins  are  delivered 
into  a  till,  but  the  remainder  pass  through  other 
barrels,  until  only  the  smallest  ones  remain. 

In  machines  for  sorting  gold  or  silver  coin  into 
full-weights  and  light-weights,  the  scales  are  ar- 
ranged so  that  the  coin  of  full  weight  in  a  lower 
position  is  pushed  off  liy  an  automatic  pusher  into 
one  bo.\,  but  the  light-weights  are  lifted  a  little 
higher  Ijy  the  rising  of  the  scale,  and  are  brought 
opposite  to  another  jiusher  which  sends  them  into  a 
liglit-weight  box. 

Coin-count'er.  An  arrangement  by  which  the 
process  of  hand  counting,  piece  by  piece,  is  dis- 
])ensed  with.  A  shovel  or  tray  has  shallow  depres- 
sions of  a  given  length,  wiilth,  and  depth  to  hold  so 
many  coins  of  a  given  kind.  The  coins  are  shoveled 
into  the  tray,  which  is  then  skillfully  agitated  until 
the  coins  have  snugly  occupied  all  the  spaces.  The 
remainder  are  brushed  off,  and  the  complete  ipiota 
is  thrown  into  a  scale  to  verify  the  count  by  weigh- 
ing. 

Coin'ing-press.  A  power  lever-screw  press  by 
which  the  jdanchct  of  metal  is  impressed  with  the 
design  or  legend. 

The  blanks  are  placeil  in  a  tube  at  the  front  of 
the  press,  and  at  each  motion  the  lower  blank  in 
the  pile  is  seized  by  fingers  and  di'awn  into  a  collar 
between  the  upper  and  lower  dies  ;  where  as  the 
lever  descend.s,  the  two  arms  of  the  toggle-joints  are 


Fig.  1383. 


Coining-Press, 

brought  into  line  perpendicularly,  imparting  a 
powerful  pressure  to  the  blank,  causing  it  to  fill  out 
the  collar  and  forming  at  the  same  time  the  face 
and  obverse  impressions,  as  well  as  the  (lutings  or 
nnrling  on  its  edge. 

The  piece  is  then  released  by  the  relaxation  of 
the  toggle-joint  allowing  the  upper  die  to  rise  ;  th,' 
lower  die  rises  snffii'ieutly  to  discharge  the  coin 
from  the  collar,  and  the  fiugers,  returning  with  a 
second  blank,  push  the  first  out  and  allow  it  to 
slide  into  a  box  below.  The  coins  are  then  ex- 
amined to  detect  defective  pieces,  as  Haws  .some- 
times occur  from  air-l)ul)bles  in  the  original  cast 
ingots  ;  and,  after  being  counted  by  means  of  a 
special  apparatus  for  the  purpo.se,  are  placeil  in  bags. 


The  lower  die  is  on  what  is  termed  the  die-stake, 
and  gives  the  reverse  impression.  The  obverse  is  in 
the  ujiper  die. 

The  pressure  in  coining  double-eagles  is  about  75 
tons. 

Coin-weigh'ing  Ma-cbine'.  A  machine  for 
weighing  coin  and  assorting  them  accoriling  to  their 
full  or  light  weight. 

The  gold  coins  are  placed  in  a  pile,  and  the  bottom 
one  is  shifted  by  a  slide  along  n  channel  just  large 
enough  for  the  standard  gold  coin,  but  too  large  for 
a  counterfeit,  and  is  deposited  on  tlie  scale  sujiporteil 
by  a  knife-edge  upon  the  beam.  The  foireps,  which 
temporarily  detain  the  weight-scale,  are  then  let  go, 
and  if  the  coin  be  light  that  end  of  the  be.im  will 
rise  and  the  other  end  leaves  the  agate  point  wldch 
rests  upon  it  ;  a  bolt  then  advances  and  )iuslies  off 
the  coin  into  a  light-weight  receptacle.  If  the  coin 
be  full  weight,  tlie  scale  remains  ilown  ;  the  lower 
bolt  knocks  it  off  into  a  full-weight  box  at  a  lower 
level  ;  the  position  of  the  coin  at  a  lower  or  a  higher 
elevation  determines  which  of  the  bolts  .shall  strike 
it,  and  at  which  eduction  aperture  it  shall  depart. 

Coir.  The  prepared  fiber  of  the  husk  oi-  peiicarp 
of  the  cocoa-nut,  which  is  made  into  rope,  matting, 
bru.shes,  etc. 

The  nut  is  picked  a  little  before  it  is  ripe,  and 
the  jiericarp  stripped  from  the  nut  by  lorcing  it 
upon  an  iron  stake  fixed  in  the  ground.  The  rind 
is  then  soaked  in  water  for  several  months  to  soften 
the  substance  which  fills  the  interstices  between  the 
fibers.  It  is  then  beaten  upon  a  stone  with  a  heavy 
piece  of  wood,  and  then  rubbed  by  the  hands". 
Forty  cocoa-nuts  yield  six  pounds  of  coir. 

The  operation  of  twisting  it  into  yarn  is  similar 
to  that  pursued  with  hemp. 

Coir  cordage  is  lighter  than  hemp,  is  jiliable,  and 
has  a  strength,  compared  with  hempen  lope,  of  87  to 
108  with  large  rope,  and  60  to  65  with  small  rope. 

It  is  well  adapted  for  haw.sers,  as  it  is  light 
enough  to  float  in  sea-watei-,  and  also  for  running- 
rigging,  but  is  not  so  well  adapted  for  standing- 
rigging,  owing  to  its  contractibility. 

Coir  is  also  made  from  the  long,  fibrous,  black, 
cloth-like  coveiiug  of  the  Borassus  gonnutus. 

Coke.     Charred  jiitcoal. 

It  is  carbonized  in  heaps,  in  ovens,  or  in  the  re- 
torts of  the  gas  manufactory.  It  may  be  remarked 
that  the  prodm^tion  of  the  best  coke  and  the  best 
gas  from  the  same  coal  is  incompatible  ;  the  bulk 
of  the  mass  is  increased  by  coking,  the  weight 
diminished  from  30  to  55  per  cent,  according  to  the 
mode  of  conducting  the  process. 

As  the  distillation  of  wood  leaves  a  solid  residue 
of  charcoal,  so  is  coke  the  residue  of  the  distillation 
of  coal.  2,240  pounds,  a  long  ton,  of  bituminous 
coal  IS  .said  to  yield  8,000  to  10,000  cubu-  feet  of 
carbureted  hydrogen  gas,  and  1,100  to  1,300 
pounds  of  dry,  brittle  coke.  , 

Sir  .lohn  Hacket  and  Octavius  de  Strada  pro])osi'd 
in  1626  to  convert  coal  into  coke,  and  thus  make  it 
as  agreeable  a  fuel  for  chambers  as  wood  or  charcoal. 

In  1658  the  project  was  revived  by  Sir  J{)hn 
Winter,  who  constriu^ted  a  fire-cage  11  inches  high, 
and  a  box  below  with  an  ash-)nt  door,  w  Inch  was 
0]  ened  when  the  fire  was  to  be  urged. 

The  manufactuie  of  coke  in  heaps  is  thus  man- 
aged :  — 

Au  oblong  srpnirc  hearth  is  prepared  by  beating 
the  earth  to  a  firm,  flat  surface,  and  puddling  it 
over  with  clay.  The  pieces  of  coal  are  then  piled 
up  on  this,  leaning  against  each  other,  and  each 
with  its  aentest  angle  resting  on  the  hearth.  The 
piles  are  from  30  to  50   inches   high,  9   to   16   feet 


COKE-FURNACE. 


593 


COLLAR. 


broad,  and  contain  from  40  to  100  tons  of  coal.  A  | 
number  of  vents  are  left,  reaching  from  top  to 
bottom,  into  which  the  burning  fuel  is  thrown,  and 
they  are  then  closed  with  small  pieces  of  coal  beaten 
in  hard.  The  tire  creeps  along  the  bottom,  rises 
gradually  and  equally,  and  bursts  out  on  every  side 
at  once. "  If  the  coal  contain  pyrites,  the  combus- 
tion is  allowed  to  proceed  a  considerable  time  after 
the  disappearance  of  the  smoke,  to  e.\tricate  the 
sulphur.  If  it  contain  no  sulphur,  the  tire  is 
covered  up  soon  after  the  smoke  disajipears,  be- 
ginning at  the  bottom  and  proceeding  giudually  to 
the  top.  In  from  fifty  to  seventy  hours  the  heap  is 
covered  completely,  and  in  from  twelve  to  fourteen 
days  the  coke  is  ready  for  removal. 

The  coke  of  gas-works  is  obtained  from  the 
chaiTed  coal,  withdrawn  from  the  retorts  and 
quenched  with  water. 

Coke-fur'nace.  A  furnace  in  which  the  volatile 
matters  are  e.\pelled  from  pit-conl,  leaving  a  residual 
carbon  which  burns  without  flame  and  makes  an  in- 
tense heat.      A  coke-oven. 

Coke-ov'en.  An  oven  in  which  the  gas  is  ex- 
pelled from  coal,  leaving  the  coke  or  carbonaceous 
portion. 

A  heap  of  coal  enclosed  with  earth  so  as  to  limit 
the  aciTss  of  air,  and  provided  with  small  holes  to 
allow  the  escape  of  gases,  may  be  fired  and  will  pro- 
duce coke.  Coke-ovens  are  similar  in  principle, 
and  have  openings  above  for  charging  with  coal, 
openings  below  for  withdrawing  the  coke,  and 
means  for  graduating  the  adjnission  of  air. 

When  made  on  a  large  scale,  a  number  of  large 
ovens  are  placed  in  a  row,  and  a  railway  is  laid 


II 


Fig.  1384. 


H 


^^.   >^.    -.^   ^^    .-^ 


aj^^LJ'>iD'J0^J-d'^"-a'-^U'^:D'^O'-^ 


aR 


Coke-  Oven. 

along  the  top  for  the  coal-cars,  which  dump  their 
contents  into  the  ovens.  A  lower  railway  affords  a 
track  for  the  cars  which  receive  the  coke  from  the 
ovens. 

The  coke-ovens  of  the  London  and  Biimingham 
Railroad  are  eighteen  in  a  series,  with  flues  at  the 
back  leading  to  a  chimney  11  feet  internal  diameter, 
wall  3  feet  thick  at  the  base,  115  feet  high. 

Eaih  oven  is  elliptical,  about  11  x  12  feet.  The 
charge  is  6,720  pounds.  Forty  hours  sufEce  for  the 
coking.  It  is  then  withdrawn  and  watered.  The 
loss  in  weight,  20  per  cent.  It  gains  one  ruiarter  in 
bulk. 

Col'an-der.  A  strainer  formed  of  perforated 
sheet-metal. 

The  cnlum  or  colander  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans 
was  used  for  straining  the  must  from  the  pulp  and 
skins  of  the  grapes  ;  the  oil  from  the  amurca  ;  an<l 
tor  domestic  purposes.  They  were  made  of  per- 
forated bronze  or  silver  ;  of  hair,  broom  (xparlium), 
or  rushes. 

Several  were  found  at  Pompeii. 

A  beautiful  bronze  colanaer  was  e.xhumed  near 
Heliopolis,  and  is  in  the  Abbott  collection.  The 
holes  are  drilled  in  small  )nitterns.      It  has  a  handle. 

The  colander  for  pjuring  lead  in  the  making  of 
38 


shot  is  a  hollow  hemisphere  of  sheet-iron,  about  10 
inches  in  diameter,  and  perforated  with  holes  which 
are  free  from  burs. 

The  holes  have  nearly  the  following  diameters 
for  the  annexed  sizes  of  shot :  — • 

No.  0       .         .         .         .     j'ii  of  an  inch. 

1  ....        A 

2  .  .  .  .      sV 

3  ....         ^ 

4  .         .         .         .     lAr  " 
by  gradations  to  No.  9,  which  is  ^jj  " 

Instead  of  a  colander,  an  oblong  ladle  is  now  used 
in  some  towers,  the  edge  being  scallojed  lo  liu.ik 
the  overflow  into  small  streams. 

Col'an-der-shov'eL  One  of  wire  open-work, 
for  shoveling  salt  crystals  out  of  the  evaporating- 
pan. 

Col'ar-in.  {Architecture.)  The  space,  frequently 
ornamented,  between  the  astragal  and  the  annulets 
of  the  capital  of  the  Tuscan  or  Roman  doric  column. 

Col'co-thar.  A  red  oxide  of  iron,  obtained  by 
the  calcination  of  sulphate  of  iron,  and  used  for 
polishing.     See  Crocus  ;  Grinding  Mateki.^ls. 

Cold-blast.  (Metallurgy.)  Air  forced  into  a 
smelting-furnace,  at  a  natural  temperature,  in  con- 
tradistinction to  a  heated  blast,  which  is  more 
economical,  but  produces  an  inferior  ([uality  of  iron. 

Cold-chis'el.  -i  steel  tool  used  fur  cutting 
metals,  and  driven  by  the  blows  of  a  hammer. 

Cold-dra^n.  Oil  expressed  from  seeils  or  nuts 
without  preifious  heating  of  the  latter,  is  .said  to  be 
cold  drawn  ;  and  is  of  superior  quality  to  that 
yielded  by  previously  heated  seeds  or  nuts. 

Cold-iiani'mer-mg.  The  hammering  of  a  metal, 
without  fire-heat,  to  give  hardness  and  temper. 

Cold-short.  (Founding.)  A  void  or  seam  in  a 
casting  occasioned  by  the  too  rapid  congelation  of 
the  metal  which  failed  to  fill  the  mold  perfectly. 

Cold-short  Iron.  Iron  containing  phosphorous, 
which  may  be  forged  and  welded  while  hot,  but  is 
brittle  when  cold. 

Cold-shut.  A  term  meaning  that  a  link  is 
closed  while  cold,  without  welding. 

Cold-'wa'ter  Pump.  (Steam-engine.)  A  pump 
by  which  the  condenser  cistern  is  supplied  with  cold 
water. 

Col'lar.  1.  {Machinery.)  A  ring  or  round 
flange  upon  or  against  an  object.  Its  purpose  may 
be:  — 

A.  To  restrain  a  motion  within  given  limits, 
as  :  — 

a.  The  collar  or  hutting-ring  on  an  axle,  which 
limits  the  motion  inward  of  the  hub  on  the  axle. 

b.  The  ring  shrunk  upon,  or  an  annular  ]irojec- 
tion  or  enlargement  of  a  shaft  or  rod  which  keeps  it 
from  slipping  endwise. 

c.  A  short  sleeve  on  a  shaft. 

d.  The  neck  of  a  bolt. 

B.  To  hold  an  object  in  place  ;  as  :  — 

a.  The  plate  of  metal  screwed  down  upon  the 
stufhng-box  of  a  steam  or  pump  cylinder,  and  hav- 
ing a  hole  through  which  the  piston  pa.sses. 

b.  The  ring  inserted  in  a  lathe  puppet  for  holding 
the  end  of  the  mandrel  next  the  chuck,  in  order  to 
make  the  spindle  rnn  truly. 

2.  (Engineering.)  The  curb  or  steining  around 
the  top  of  a  shaft  to  restrain  the  friable  superficial 
strata  and  to  keep  loose  mattei-s  from  falling  in. 

3.  (Xautical.)  An  eye  formed  in  a  bight  of  a 
shroud  or  rope,  to  pass  over  a  mast-heail,  to  hold  a 
dead-eye  or  a  block,  or  for  other  analogous  jmrposes. 

4.  (Harness.)  A  roll  of  leather  stutt'eil  with 
i  straw,   etc.,   and  having  two  creases  to    hold    the 


COLLAR  AND  CLAMP. 


594 


COLLIMATOR. 


Brtast-  Collar. 


hanies.  It  is  placed  around  the  neck  of  the  hor.se, 
tits  against  the  shoulders,  and  forms  the  hearing 
against  wliich  the  hoise  presses  in  drawing  the  load. 
The  parts  of  the  collar  are  :  — 
The  withers ;  the  upper  bow  resting  on  the  neck 
of  tlie  horse. 

I'he  after-wale,  body-side,   or  pad;   the  portion 
behind  the  hames. 
Fig.  13S5.  The  forc-icalc,  or 

small  roll. 

The  housing ;  a 
covering  to  shed  rain 
from  the  collar  and 
shoulder. 

The  collar-strap ; 
at  the  upper  end. 

The  breast-collar, 
so  called,  is  a  breast- 
.strap,  forming  a  sulj- 
stitute  for  a  collar. 

5.  (Architecture.) 
a.  A  ring  or  cincture. 
An  astragal. 

b.  A  beam  staying 
two  opposite   rafters 
at  a  point  between  the  comb  and  the  plates.     See 

COI.L.IR-BEAM. 

6.  (Coining.)  A  steel  ring  which  confines  a 
jilanchet  and  prevents  lateral  spreading  under 
the  pressure  or  blows  of  the  coining-press.  When 
the  edge  of  the  coin  is  to  be  lettered,  the  letters  are 
sunk  in  the  collar,  which  is  in  three  pieces,  confined 
by  an  outer  ring. 

7.  (C  olhiii-j.)  A  band  around  the  neck,  or  the 
neck  pjrtion  of  a  body  gainient.  Sliirt-collars,  or 
wliat  are  made  to  ap])ear  as  such,  are  made  of  paper, 
paper  and  cloth  combined,  cloth,  leather,  metal. 
Tliey  are  made  reversible,  are  embossed  in  imitation 
of  lace,  linen,  stitching ;  printed  in  imitation  of 
various  kinds  of  figured  goods  ;  stained  to  resemble 
certain  kinds  of  fabrics.  Paper  collars  are  made 
couihined  with  bosoms  or  with  neck-ties,  or  both, 
with  peculiar  fastenings  or  with  reinforced  button- 
holes. 

Their  manufacture  involves  machines  for  cutting, 
punching,  folding,  molding,  shaping,  embossing, 
planishing,  burnishing,  and  bo.xing. 

The  process  of  making  paper  collars  is  briefly  as 
follows:  —  Sheets  of  paper,  preferably  16  x  36  inches 
and  weighing  125  pounds  to  the  ream,  are  enam- 
eled, dried,  embossed  to  imitate  cloth  by  roller  press- 
ure between  plates  on  which  cloth  has  been  tightly 
stretched  and  pasted.  The  sheets  are  polished  by 
revolving  brushes ;  cut  in  heaps  of  eighty  thicknesses 
by  steel  dies  of  the  shape  required  ;  reinforced  by 
patches  of  fabiic  at  the  button-holes  ;  the  button- 
holes cut,  stitches  impressed  on  the  border,  and  the 
size  stamped  on  them.  The  collar  is  molded  to  fit 
the  neck,  rolled  up  in  dozens,  so  called,  but  more 
often  only  ten  ;  put  in  a  box,  labeled  and  cased. 

CoPlar  and  Clamp. 
The  ordinary  form  of  dock- 
gate  hinge.  Also  known 
as  anchor  and  collar.  The 
anchor  c  is  let  into  the 
masonry,  and  the  collar  is 
formed  by  a  clevis  6,  whose 
legs  are  secured  by  fore- 
locks in  the  clamp,  a  is 
the  hole  for  the  pintle  of 
the  leaf 

Col'lar-awl.  (Sad- 
dlery.) A  form  in  which 
the  eye-pointed  needle  has 


Fig.  1386. 


been  used  for  many  years.  It  is  used  in  sewing 
collars,  the  wax-end  being  passed  through  the  ma- 
terial by  its  means,  and  drawn  tightly  by  tlie  hands. 

Col'iar-beam.     A  tie-beam  a  uniting  the  breasts 
of  a  pair  of  ratters  b  b, 
to    keep    them     from  Fig.  1387. 

sagging  or  spreading. 
It  acts  as  a  strut,  a 
tie,  and  often  as  a 
ceiling  joist  for  a  gar- 
ret story. 

Col'lar-block. 
(Saddlcnj.)  The  liar- 
ness-makei's  block  on 
which  a  collar  is 
shaped  and  sewn. 

Collar-check.    A  heavy  woolen  goods  made  for 
saddlei'v  pui-]>oses. 

Col'iar-har'ness.     Harness  with  a  collar  in  con- 
tradistinction to  brcast-hMrncs.1. 

Col'lar-plate.    An  auxiliary  puppet,  or  midway 
rest  in  a  lathe  for  turning  long  pieces. 

Col'lar-tool.    (Forging.)    A  rounding  tool  for 

Fig.  13S8. 


Collar-Beam. 


Collar  and  C.'utnp. 


Collar  Tools. 

the  formation  of  collars  or  flanges  on  rods  by  a 
process  of  swaging. 

a  represents  the  lower  half  of  the  tool  in  the 
Imrdij-hole  of  the  anvil. 

b  is  the  upper  or  fullering  tool. 

c  shows  the  collar  and  rod  in  the  grip  of  the 
pinchers. 

Col-lect'ing-bot'tle.    A  microscopist's  tank  for 
collecting  and  retaining  objects 
dipped  from  ponds.     The  fun-  Fig  1389. 

nel  c  fits  in  the  tube  a  when 
the  cover  of  the  latter  is  re- 
moved. The  tube  b  has  a  cover 
of  fine  muslin. 

Col'let.  1.  (Miichinery.)  A 
small  band  of  metal  ;  as  the 
ring  which  fastens  the  packing 
of  a  piston. 

2.  (Jewelry.)     a.  The  part  of 
a  ring  containing  the  bezel  in       ColUcting-Botltt. 
which  the  .stone  is  set. 

h.  The  flat  surface  which  terminates  the  culassc  or 
lower  faceted  portion  of  a  brilliant-cut  diamond.  It 
is  sometimes  called  the  lower  table  or  culet,  and  is 
one  fifth  of  the  size  of  the  upper  one. 

CoU'ier.  (Xautical.)  A  vessel  employed  in  car- 
rying coals  by  sea. 

Col-li-ma'tor.  A  telescope  arranged  and  used 
to  determini'  erroi's  of  collimation,  both  vertical  and 
horizontal.  (Nichol.)  A  collimating  eye-piece  has 
a  diagonal  reflector  for  illumination,  and  is  used  to 
detei-mine  the  error  of  collimation  in  a  transit  instru- 
ment, by  observing  the  image  of  a  cross-wire  re- 
flected from  mercury,  and  comparing  its  position  in 
the  field  with  that  of  the  same  wire  seen  directly. 


COLLISH. 


595 


COL-RAKE. 


The  error  of  collimation  is  the  deviation  of  the  line 
of  collimation  of  an  astronomical  or  geoJetical  in- 
strument from  its  normal  or  correct  position  with 
respect  to  the  axis  of  motion  of  the  instrument. 
(Webster.) 

Thefloatingand  the  vertical-floatingcolUmator  were 
invented  by  Captain  Kater,  and  are  two  instruments 
of  .similar  principle  and  of  not  very  ditt'erent  con- 
struction, designed  to  facilitate  the  adjustment  of 
circles.  The  former  is  used  for  determining  the  hor- 
izontal point,  and  the  latter  the  zenith  or  nadir  points, 
aa  the  case  may  be.  Each  kind  consists  of  a  tele- 
scope (with  a  system  of  cross- wires  in  its  field)  which 
is  made  to  rest  in  a  horizontal  position  on  a  plate  of 
iron  floating  on  a  .surface  of  mercury  ;  or  is  fixed 
verrically  in  a  frame,  at  the  lower  part  of  which  is 
an  iron  ring  whose  plane  is  at  right  angles  to  the 
axis  of  the  telescope,  the  ring  floating  on  mercury 
in  an  annular  vessel.  The  telescope  of  the  circle 
which  it  is  desired  to  adjust  being  duly  ]mt  in  posi- 
tion, the  observer  looks  through  it,  either  upward 
or  downward,  as  the  case  may  be,  to  the  telescope 
of  the  collimator,  which,  in  the  vertical  instrument, 
is  mounted  with  its  axis  coincident  with  the  axis  of 
the  ring.  The  adjustment  consists  in  bringing  the 
cross-wires  of  the  two  telescopes  to  a  mutual  inter- 
section by  the  screw  movement  of  the  circle.  G. 
Ch.\mbf.r.s. 

Col'lish.  {Shoe-making.)  A  tool  to  polish  the 
edge  of  a  sole. 

Col-lo'di-o-chlo'ride  Proo'ess.  A  photo- 
graphic printing  process  invented  by  George  H. 
Simp.son,  editor  of  the  Photographic  News,  about 
1863.  It  consists  in  holding  in  suspension  a  pre- 
cipitate of  chloride  of  silver  in  collodion,  which  is 
flo.ved  upon  glass  or  paper  —  in  a  manner  .similar  to 
preparing  a  jilate  for  the  negative  process  —  and 
dried  in  the  dark.  The  sensitive  surface  so  pro- 
duced blackens  on  exposure  to  light,  and  will  con- 
sequently give  a  picture  under  a  photographic  nega- 
tive. An  excess  of  free  nitrate  of  silver  is  necessary 
to  impart  sensitiveness  ;  an  addition  of  citric  acid 
and  other  organic  substances  is  used  to  produce 
the  desired  tints.  After  exposure  the  picture  is 
fixed  and  toned  as  usual. 

Col-lo'di-on-proc'ess.  A  process  in  photog- 
raphy invented  by  Archer.  An  iodized  collodion  is 
made  by  impregnating  a  solution  of  gun-cotton  in 
ether,  with  a  small  quantity  of  iodide  of  potassium 
or  cadmium.  A  Hlni  of  the  iodized  collodion  is 
spreail  on  the  glass,  which  is  then  immersed  in  a 
solution  of  nitrate  of  silver.  The  image  is  taken  in 
the  camera,  developed  by  a  weak  solution  of  pyro- 
gallic  acid  and  acetic  acid,  or  a  solution  of  proto- 
sulphate  of  iron.  Excess  of  iodide  of  silver  is  re- 
moved by  hyposulphite  of  soda  or  cyanide  of  potas- 
sium. 

This  gives  a  negilivc.  A  positive  is  obtained  by 
laj-ing  the  negative  on  prepared  paper  and  exposing 
tlieni  to  light. 

Col-lo'di-o-type.  {Plwtographij.)  Or  collodion- 
process.  A  name  applied  to  those  processes  in  which 
a  lilm  of  sensitized  collodion  is  used  on  a  plate  in 
obtaining  an  image.  In  the  n-et  collodion  process 
the  plate  is  exposed  while  moist ;  in  the  dry  collo- 
dion process  the  plate  is  lirst  dried. 

The  collodion  positives  nre  mclnnotypes  smA  ambro- 
types  ;  the  images  are  formed  on  the  collodion,  so  as 
to  be  viewed  by  reflected  or  transmitted  light. 
When  viewed  by  reflected  light  they  are  termed 
ambrofypes. 

Collodion  negntires  are  obtained  on  a  film  of  sen- 
sitized collodion  on  glass. 

Col-lu'-vi-a'ri-um.    An  opening  in  an  arjueduct 


to  allow  access  for  cleaning  or  repairs,  and  for  ven- 
tillarion. 

Col'on-nade'.  {Architecture.)  A  range  of  columns, 
whether  attached  or  insulated,  and  suiiporting  an 
entablature. 

Colon.  A  punctuation  mark  ("  :")  prescribing 
an  interval  greater  than  a  semicolon. 

Coror-doo'tor.  (Calica-printing.)  a.  A  roller 
of  gun-metal  or  steel  pressed  against  tlie  face  of  the 
engraved  roll  for  calico-printing,  and  receiving  a 
tremulous  motion  to  slightly  abrade  the  copper  sur- 
face and  enable  it  to  hold  the  color  more  ettectnally. 

b.  A  sharp-edged  ruler  of  gun-metal  presented  at 
a  tangent  upon  the  engraved  cylinder  of  the  calico- 
printing  machine.  The  doctor  acts  as  a  wiper  to 
hold  back  superfluous  color,  and  has  a  slight  recip- 
rocating morion  in  contact  with  the  surface  of  the 
cylinder.  A  lint-doctor  on  the  other  or  delivery  side 
of  the  roller  removes  fibers  of  cotton  from  the  cylinder. 

Col'ored  Fires.  Compositions,  generally  ba.'ed 
on  powder  or  its  components,  used  in  pyrotechny  for 
making  various  ornamental  fire-works,  known  as 
lancci.  starft,  lights,  icheel- fires,  sun-Jires,  etc. 

Col'ored  Light.  A  p\Totechnic  display  or  sirnal 
for  ett'ect  or  jireconcerted  purjiose.  One  formula  for 
their  composition  is  as  follows  :  — 

1.  White  light :  8  parts  saltjieter,  2  parts  sulphur, 
2  parts  antimony. 

2.  Red  light :  20  parts  nitrate  of  strontia,  5  parts 
chlorate  of  potash,  6h  parts  sulphur,  1  part  charcoal. 

3.  Blue  light  :  9  parts  chlorate  of  potash,  3  paits 
sulphur,  3  parts  mountain  blue  (carbonate  of  cop- 
l>er). 

4.  Yellow  light :  24  parts  nitrate  of  soda,  8  parts 
antimony,  6  (larts  sulphur,  1  part  charcoal. 

5.  Green  light :  20  parts  nitrate  of  baryta,  18 
parts  chlorate  of  potash,  10  parts  sulphur. 

6.  Violet  light :  4  parts  nitrate  of  stronria,  9  parts 
chlorate  of  potash,  5  parts  sulphur,  1  part  carbonate 
of  copper,  1  part  calomel. 

Col'ored  Glass.  A  glass  used  to  interpose  be- 
tween the  light  and  its  illuminated  field  ;  used  as  a 
signal  for  railways  and  ships  ;  also  in  lighthou.ses  to 
give  a  marked  peculiarity  to  the  light  by  which  it 
may  be  recognized  ;  al.'^o  for  purposes  of  display. 

Col'or-im'e-ter.  A  measurer  of  color.  For  va- 
rious form.s,  see  list  under  Meter. 

Col'or-print'iiig.  Printing  by  a  succession  of 
colors,  or  by  various  colors  occupying  parts  of  the 
sheet.  There  are  various  modes.  See  Chro-UAIIc 
Printing. 

Co-los'sns.    A  statue  of  gigantic  size. 

The  largest  statue  in  Egj-pt,  accordiiig  to  Diodorus 
Siculus.  was  that  of  Osyniandyas,  in  the  Rarnesion. 
It  is  the  Memnonium  of  Strabo.  The  pedestal  is 
still  standing  ;  the  court  around  is  filled  with  its 
fragments.  The  foot,  of  which  parts  remain,  mr.st 
have  been  11  feet  long  and  4  feet  10  inches  broad  ; 
the  breadth  across  the  shoulders  22  feet  4  inches  ; 
the  hight  is  calculated  at  54  feet,  the  weight  1 ,  985, 438 
pounds. 

The  statues  of  Memnon  are  60  feet  in  hight,  in- 
cluding the  pedestal.  The  latter  is  13  feet  high, 
but  is  half  buried  in  the  alluvial  soil.  The  material 
is  a  coarse,  hard  breccia,  with  imbedded  chalcedo- 
nies. The  southern  figure  is  in  one  block.  The  north- 
em  one  was  broken  before  the  Christian  era,  and  was 
repaired  with  sandstone,  in  five  pieces,  by  one  of  the 
Roman  enijjerors,  probably  Severus. 

The  colossi  of  autinuity  (Greek  and  Roman)  are 
enumerated  in  Smith's  "  Dictionary  of  Greek  and 
Roman  Antiquities,"  p.  322. 

Col-rake  A  shovel  used  to  stir  lead  ores  while 
being  washed. 


COLTER. 


596 


COLUMX. 


ColUr. 


Colt'er.  A  knife  or  shai-p-edged  bar,  usually  se- 
cured to  the  beam,  and  projec:tiiig  downward  in  front 
of  the  breast  of  a  plow.  Its  duty  is  to  make  the 
incision  in  the  soil  in  advance  of  the  share,  making 
a  vertical  cut  the  width  of  the  furrow-slicc  which  is 
to  be  cut  below  l)y  tlie  share  and  turned  over  by  the 
mold-board.  In  tlie  West  it  is  usually  termed  a  cut- 
ter, the  term  "  colter  "  being  applied  to  those  which 
extend  down  in  front  of  the  share  and  have  a  depres- 
sion in  the  rear  to  receive  a  lug  on  the  point  of  the 
share,  the  (bolter  being  continued  on  in  front  to  form 
the  entering-point.  The  colter,  in  this  case,  is  sup- 
ported in  the  rear  by  the  point  of  the  share  ;  in  the 
ordinary  mode  the  point  of  the  colter  projects  into 
a  notch  on  the  upjjer  edge  of  the  share,  and  is  sup- 
ported thereby.  Some- 
Fig  1390.  times,  instead  of  passing 
through  a  slot  in  the 
beam  and  being  secured 
by  a  wedge,  or  being  se- 
cured to  the  beam  by  a 
shackle,  the  colter  is  bent 
I  at  right  angles,  and  its 
shank  slips  into  staples  on 
th<i  sheth,  resting  parallel 
with  the  upper  edge  of  the 
land -side. 

The  ancient  plow  con- 
sisted of  a  beam  and  a 
colter,  the  latter  doing 
all  the  work,  instead  of 
being  merely  subsidiary  to  the  main  working  parts. 
The  colter  is  not  now  considered  a  necessary  pall  of 
most  plows,  except  for  plowing  sod,  when  it  is  use- 
ful in  cutting  the  roots  and  enables  the  plow  to  do 
clean  work. 

The  word  is  from  the  Latin  cuUer,  a  knife.     Not 

all  knives  were 
Fig.  1391.  known  by  that 

name,  but  a 
heavy  descrip- 
tion with  a 
straight  edge, 
curved  back, 
and  sharp 
point. 

In  Fig.  1390 
the  colter  is 
shown  as  se- 
cured by  a  side- 
bavand  shackle. 
The  wheel- 
colter  in  Fig. 
1391  is  mount- 
ed as  a  caster- 
wheel.  It  has 
long  been  employed  in  the  fen  lands  of  Englaml. 

Colt's  Fis'toL  A  revolving  pistol  tirst  patented 
by  Colt  in  1835,  and  perfected  in  1845.  See 
Kevdlver. 

Corum-ba'ri-um.  1.  A  hole  left  in  a  wall  for 
tlie  insertion  of  the  ends  of  a  timber  ;  named  from 
its  resemblance  to  a  niche  in  a  pigeon-house. 

2.  A  niche  in  a  mausoleum  for  a  funereal  urn 
was  also  so  cdled. 

Co-kim'bi-ad.  An  improved  gun  introduced  by 
Colonel  Bomford,  of  the  Ordnance  Corps,  United 
States  array,  about  1812.  It  was  made  proportion- 
ately thicker  at  the  breech  and  smaller  at  the  nnizzle 
than  the  guns  theretofore  in  use,  and  was  the  pre- 
cui'sor  of  the  Paixhan  gun  of  the  French  ainiy 
(introduced  in  1822),  the  Dahlgren,  and  the  Rod- 
man. 
Co-lum'bi-er.     A  size  of  drawiug-paper  measur- 


Wheel- Colter. 


ing  34J  X  23  inches,  and  weighing  100  pounds  to  the 
leam. 

Co-lumTji-luii.  A  rare  metal,  so  named  from 
having    been    tirst    di.scovpreil    in    America.     Now 

called  niobium.     Once  called  taiUii/uni. 

Col'umn.  1.  {Architecture.)  A  vertical  support 
of  tile  nature  of  a  pillar. 

It  usually  has  three  members,  —  the  cripilnl,  shaft, 
and  base.  The  capital  has  an  abacus,  tlie  ba.so 
frequently  a  plinth. 

Early  Egyptian  columns  were  fluted.  The  Ionic 
volute  was  from  Persepolis.  The  Doric  is  Egyptian. 
The  Corinthian  is  an  improvement  on  the  Egyptian. 
The  pediment  is  Grecian,  as  are  also  all  tlie  tine  and 
skillful  proportions  of  parts.  Oniamented  architraves 
are  from  the  land  of  the  Nile.  Figures  for  columns, 
resembling  the  Atlantes  and  Caryatides  of  the 
Greeks,  are  found  in  old  Egypt. 

2.  (I'rinling.)  A  perpendicular  set  of  type  or 
printed  lines  ;  usually 

said   of    matter  sepa-  Fig  1.392. 

rated  from  another  set 
or  bounded  by  a  ver- 
tical rule  or  line. 

3.  (Distilh'iuj.)      A 
vessel    containing    a 
verticalseries  of  cham- 
bers used  in  stills  for 
continuous       distilla- 
tion ;  such  as  Coffey's, 
in  which  the  two  col- 
umns  are    known    as 
the  analyzer  and   the 
rectifier.   In  Fig.  1392, 
it  consists  of  a  series 
of     chambers     placed 
one  above  the  other 
the  lower  one  commu 
nicating  with  the  ves-   £|^^ 
sel.  Steamisadmitted,  '-'-^' 
and  passes  up  through 
the    pipes     into     the    j 
chambers,  being  com-  iV^ 
pelled,   by   means     of  j — 
hoods,   to  descend  in 
its  passage,  and  enter 
the  chambers  beneath  the  surface  of  the  liquid  con- 
tained therein.  The  cham- 


Stitt  Column. 


bers  are  partially  filled 
from  above  with  the  liquid 
to  be  distilled,  the  pipes 
distributing  the  liquid 
from  the  top  to  the  bottom 
chamber  of  the  series. 

4 .  (Calico-prin ting. ) 
The  name  of  a  certain  de- 
scription of  steam  appara- 
tus by  which  steam  is 
applied  to  cloths  topically 
treated  with  a  mixture  of 
dye-extracts  and  mor- 
dants, in  order  to  fix  the 
cohirs. 

The  column  is  a  copper 
cylinder  44  inches  long 
and  5  inches  diameter, 
perforated  with  i^th  inch 
holes,  at  ilistances  of  J 
inch.  Round  it  are  lapped 
a  few  folds  of  blanket, 
then  of  white  calico  ;  the 
goods  are  tlien  wound  on, 
the  pieces  being  stitched 
together  ;  over  all  are  a 


Fig  1393. 


Column' Lathe. 


COLUMN-LATHE. 


597 


COMB-MACHINK. 


few  thicknesses  of  white  calico.  The  column  is  then 
placed  vertically,  aiiti  the  steam  admitted  to  its 
inside  is  emitted  through  the  holes,  satnrating  the 
cloth  and  fixing  the  colors.  The  process  takes 
twenty  or  thirty  minutes. 

Coi'umn-lathe.  A  dentist's  or  watch-maker's 
lathe  on  a  vertical  extensible  post  to  accommodate 
an  operator  in  a  sitting  or  standing  posture. 

Col'umn-rule.  (Pi-iiUiity.)  A  bi-ass  slip  to 
separate  culunins  of  type. 

Comb.  1.  {Toilet.}  An  instrument  with  a  row 
of  teeth  for  cleaning,  straightening,  and  adjusting 
the  hair. 

Fig.  1394. 


Egyptian  Comhx  {  Tkebes), 

The  combs  of  ancient  Egypt  were  made  of  wood 
or  ivory,  and  generally  douule,  one  side  having  finer 
teeth  than  the  other. 

The  Greeks  had  also  combs  with  two  rows  of  teeth 
like  our  fine-tooth  combs.  Such  have  been  found 
in  Pompeii.  They  and  the  Romans  used  combs 
ijicctcn)  of  bo.\wooil  from  the  shores  of  the  Euxine. 

The  women  of  China  wore  ivory  conibs  in  the 
ninth  century  A.  D.  The  comb  of  the  Patagonians 
and  Faegiansis  the  jaw  of  a  porpoise. 

Comhs  derive  their  names  from  purpose,  form,  or 
material,  as ;  — 


Horn-comb. 
India  rubber  comb. 
Ivory  comb. 
Metal-backed  comb. 
Kound-comb. 
Tortoise-shell  comb. 


Back -comb. 
Child's  round-comb. 
Diess-comb. 
Fine- tooth  comb. 
Folding-comb. 
Outta-pereha  comb. 
Hair-comb. 

A  comb  was  formerly  used  to  drive  up  the  woof- 
thread  to  compact  the  fabric  in  weaving.  It  remains 
in  the  modern  reed.  Combs  are  used  in  the  same 
manner  by  the  modern  Hindoos. 

Co;ubs  for  removing  the  grain  from  the  sti'aw 
(wliLMt  or  Hax)  were  used  in  Egypt  and  in  Rome, 
ijee  KiPPLE. 

2.  A  rake-shaped  implement  consisting  of  a  head 
with  two  or  three  rows  of  tapering  steel  teeth,  the 
rows  being  of  different  lengths. 

The  tool  is  used  in  comhiii/i  long-stapled  wool  for 
worsted  goods.  The  combs  are  used  in  paire.  Short- 
stapl  'd  wool  is  carded. 

Tile  combs  or  cards  for  wool-carding  are  shown  in 
til ;  illuminated  manuscripts  and  missals  of  the 
Midille  Ages,  .so  called.  (.See  Fig.  139.'i.)  A  pair  of 
cards  were  as  necessary  an  article  of  furniture  in  a 
hous  ■  as  a  distaff.  It  is  more  truly  a  pair  of  cmnls 
'than  of  c^rrds,  and  the  wool  is  evidently  long- 
stapled.  This  would  be  indicateil  by  the  pot  of 
hot  water  in  which  the  combs  are  placed. 

3.  The  seiTated  dofling-knife  which  removes  the 
Heece  from  the  dotling-cyliuder  of  a  carding-ma- 
chine. 


Fig.  1393. 


A  Lady  ranliitg  Wool. 

i.  {Kat-making.)  The  former  on  which  a  fleece 
of  fiber  is  taken  up  and  hardened  into  a  bat.  Prob- 
ably from  c«nc,  the  usual  shape. 

5.  A  steel  tool  with  teeth  corresponding  to  those 
of  a  screw,  and  used  for  chasing  screws  on  work 
which  is  rotated  in  a  lathe.     See  Chaser. 

6.  The  projection  on  the  top  of  the  hammer  of  a 
gun-lock. 

7.  The  notched  scale  of  a  wire-niicraraeter. 
Comb-broach.    The  tooth  of  a  wool-comb. 
Comb-brush.     A  brush  to  clean  combs. 
Comb-cut'ter's  Sa'w.     This  is  usually  a  double 

saw,  in  which  two  lilades  are  affixed  to  one  stock, 
one  jtrojecting  beyond  the  other,  and  the  less  salient 
acting  as  a  spacer  to  start  the  next  kerf. 

Another  comb-cutter's  saw  has  an  adjustable  slip, 
which  acts  as  a  gage  for  depth  of  kerf.  See  Comb- 
saw. 

Comb'er.  {XaiUicol. )  A  ledge  around  the  well 
or  jiassenger  |iortion  of  a  sail-boat  to  keep  back  spray 
and  waves  which  '*comb''  over  the  deck. 

Comb-frame.  A  four-sijuare  removable  frame 
like  a  slate-frame,  placed  in  a  hive  to  be  filled  with 
honeycomb. 

ComTji-na'tion  -at-tach'ment.  ( Scwuig  -  ma- 
chiiie.)  A  device  to  be  attached  to  the  sewing-ma- 
chine proper,  and  by  which  two  or  more  distinct 
classes  of  work  may  be  performed,  such  as  mnrking, 
folding,  and  c/nrsiMt/  atuck  ;  a  guidt,  liemmcr,  carder, 
and  quiltcr.  See  "  Sewing- Machine  Attachments," 
published  by  George  W.  Gregory,  Washington,  D.  C. 

Com'bi-na'tion-fuse.  A  fuse  combining  the 
principles  of  time  and  |iercus.sion,  so  tlat  if  the  time- 
fuse fails  to  explode  the  shell  after  the  proper  in- 
terval, the  percussion  device  will  produce  this  efiect 
when  the  shell  strikes. 

Comb'ing.  An  operation  in  the  worsted,  or 
long-wool  manufacture.  The  operation  of  straight- 
ening and  disentangling  wool  ;  corresponding  in 
purpose  with  carding  of  short  wool. 

In  hand-combing,  the  work  is  done  between  two 
combs,  one  held  stationary  and  the  other  drawn 
over  it,  to  comb  out  the  lock  of  wool  placed  between 
them.  The  combs  have  a  number  of  steel  spikes 
fixed  into  a  back,  and  are  occasionally  heated  in  a 
comb-pit.  The  short  fibers  which  are  combed  out 
are  called  noyh.     See  Fig.  ]395. 

In  m.ri chine-combing,  tlie  locks  are  fastened  to  two 
toothed  cylinders  wliieh  revolve  in  ap|u)sition  to 
each  other,  and  are  heate<l  bv  steam  within.  The 
teeth  of  one  ('ylinder  comb  the  fibci-s  on  the  other 
one. 

Comb-ma-chine'.  Bundy's  English  patent, 
October,  1797,  is  the  first  comb-making  machine  on 
record.  It  consisted  of  a  number  of  circular  saws 
on  a  mandrel.  The  comb-blank  is  mounted  on  a 
carriage  and  advanced  by  a  screw. 


COMB-POT. 


598 


COMB-SAW. 


A  mode  of  making  combs  with  economy  of  nia- 
toiial  was  invented  liy  Kicketts,  I^ondon,  some 
years  since,  and  has  become  common.  A  sliis  a 
little  wider  than  a  comb,  is  placed  in  a  machine 
which  has  a  descending  cutter  of  peculiar  conloi-nia- 
tion  adapted  to  cut  through  the  tortoise-shell  or  horn 
by  a  series  of  ta]iering  cuts  which  form  the  outlines 
of  the  teethof  ajiairof  combs,  as  in  the  figure  {iv),  the 
teeth  of  one  comb  occupying  the  interdental  spaces 
of  the  other. 

Kelly'.s  "  Machine  for  making  Parted  Combs  "  has 
a  beil-plate  p  which  is  secured  by  screws  to  a  bench  ; 
from  the  bed-plate  rise  standards  )*  which  supjjort 
an  a.xle  a  turned  by  a  winch  h.  On  the  a.\le  is  a 
crank  which  communicates  motion  by  the  collar  c  to 


, 

^ 

/ 

o 

c 

' 

3 

o 

0                       = 

^         /^ 

I 

Coynb' Making  Machine^ 

the  arm  6,  to  whose  lower  side  the  cutter  is  attached. 
As  the  bar  works  up  and  down  in  the  guide  /,  the 
cutter  makes  its  incisions  in  the  tortoise-shell  t, 
which  is  intermittingly  moved  so  as  to  be  advanced 
one  notch  between  each  descent  of  tlie  cutter. 

The  cutter  consist.s  of  two  sharp  blades  of  steel, 
diverging  from  each  other  so  as  to  give  the  required 
taper  to  the  tooth.  Each  blow  cuts  one  tooth,  and 
by  severance  leaves  a  tof)th  on  the  twin  comb,  the 
respective  combs  hemg  parted  by  a  slight  pull  when 
the  cuts  are  all  made. 

In  the  sliding  bed  there  is  an  opening  into  which 
a  heated  bar  is  put  to  keep  the  tortoise-shell  warm 
and  prevent  its  splitting. 

The  bed  is  advanced  between  each  pul- 
s.ition  of  the  cutter  by  a  feeil-screw  oper- 
ated by  a  s)inr-wheel  and  a  mutilated  gear 
on  the  winch-shaft. 

a  m  are  brush-makers'  combs.   See  p.  597. 

Comb-pot.  A  stove  at  which  the 
comljs  arr  warmed  in  the  oi)eration  of  pre- 
paring long-stapli'cl  wool  for  worsted. 

Comb-saw.  The  band-saw  of  the  comb' 
cuttei-  is  calletl  a  daddn,  and  has  two  blades 
one  ileeper  than  the  other  ;  a  gage  on  the 
saw-blade  determines  the  depth  of  cut. 
Some  of  the  saws  are  serrated  on  each  edge. 
The  blades  are  made  of  thick  steel,  and  are 
grounil  away  on  the  edges  as  thin  as  the 
notches  of  the  comb.  They  have  about 
twenty  points  to  the  inch.  Between  the 
blades  is  a  thin  sli]i  or  tongue  of  metal, 
called   a   lauyact,    which   determines   and 


jn'eserves  the  interval.  The  arrangement  of  the  tw  o 
blades  secures  the  regularity  of  the  intervals,  as  the 
shallow  tooth  keeps  in  advance  and  sinks  the  tooth 
half-way,  while  the  deeper  tool  completes  the  former 
kerf.  The  form  and  mode  of  action  are  shown  at  a, 
b,  c,  d,  e.  Fig.  1397. 
The  liles  of  the  comb-maker  are  called  by  specific 

6  Fig.  1397. 


Comb-Makers''  Saws  and  Files. 

names,  mostly  deriveil  from  the  French,  as  are  the 
operations.     They  are,  — 

/,  the  float ;  rj,  the  graille ;  h,  the  found ;  i,  the 
curlct ;  j,  the  topper. 

The  files  are  of  the  description  called  floats  ;  that 
is,  they  have  but  a  single  course  of  teeth,  and  in- 
cline forward  at  about  15°.  The  teeth  are  made 
by  a  file,  as  the  shape  is  not  readily  obtained  by 
chisel  and  hammer. 

The  floats  /c  I  m  n  are  used  by  ivory-carvers  for 
the  handles  of  knives  and  in  the  ]>reparatlon  of  works 
which  are  comiileted  by  scorpers  and  gravers. 

0  and  ;)  are  used  as  inlaying  tools. 

In  the  cond)-.sawing  machine  (Fig.  1398)  the  car- 
rier, with  the  stock  from  which  the  comb  is  produced, 
receives  a  succession  of  movements,  each  advamdng 
the  comb  the  ilistance  of  a  tooth's  width.  The  saws 
enter  and  recede  in  unison  with  these  movements, 

Fig.  1398. 


Comb-Sawing  Machine, 


COMET-SEEKER. 


599 


COMPASSES. 


and  the  pointers  cut  nicks  as  starting-points  for  the 
8UWS,  which  act  subsequently. 

Com'et-seek'er.  A  cheap  equatorial,  with 
coaisel\'  divided  circles,  and  a  large  field  in  com- 
jiarison  to  its  aperture.  Its  name  suggests  its  use, 
and  the  resultant  "find"  is  subjected  to  the  more 
accurately  graduated  and  more  powerful  instruments 
of  comparatively  limited  fields. 

The  comel-scckcr  of  the  Washington  Observatory 
was  made  by  Merz  and  Mahler,  of  Munich.  It  has 
an  object-glass  of  about  4  inches  in  diameter  and  a 
focal  length  of  32  inches.  Low  powers  are  used, 
that  it  may  embrace  a  large  field  and  collect  the 
greatest  possible  quantity  of  light.     It  cost  S  280. 

Com-mand'er.  ].  {Kautical.)  A  large  wooden 
mallet,  used  in  the  sail  and  rigging  lofts  in  driving  the 
splicing- (id. 

2.  (Hat-viakitu) .)  A  string  on  the  outside  of  the 
c  mical  hat-body,  pressed  upon  it  down  the  sides  of 
the  block,  t.o  bring  the  body  to  the  cylindrical  form. 
Com-menc'iag-ham'mer.  The  hammer  of  the 
gold-heatcr  which  he  first  uses  after  the  qnarliers  are 
placed  in  a  packet  with  interleaves  of  vellum.  It 
weighs  6  or  7  pounds,  and  has  a  slightly  convex  face 
4  inches  in  diameter. 

Com'mis-sure.  (Masonry.)  The  joint  between 
two  cout-.cs. 

Corn-mode'.    A  night  closet  containing  a  cham- 
FiK  1399  ^^'^  vessel  or  urinal, 

with  a  lid  and  means 
for  preventing  exha- 
lations of  fetid  odors. 
The  commode  has 
usually  a  seat,  lid, 
and  stench- tight 
joint.  In  the  illus- 
tration, the  covered 
pail  ha-s  a  pan  for 
feces,  and  one  for  a 
disinfectant  which 
deodorizes  the  me- 
phitic    vapors.      See 

E.4.HTH-rL(lSET. 

Corn'mon  Raf- 
ters. The  upper  raf- 
ters, holding  the  cov- 
ering ;  in  contradis- 
tinction to  the  prin- 
cipal rafters. 

C  o  xn-mu  n  i-c  a'- 

tion-valve.    {Skam.)   The  valve  in  the  steam-pipe 

leadi  n  g  from  the  boiler  to  the  cylinder  of  asteani-engine. 

Corn'mu-tator.     ( Telegraphy. )    An  instrument 

which  periodically  interrupts  an  electric  current. 

The  word  is  generally  used  as  a  synonyrae  of 
Mlicotropc. 

Sometimes  used  (in  England  especially)  as  a  name 
for  a  device  for  throwing  into  a  circuit  a  greater  or 
less  amount  of  the  force  of  a  battery. 

Occasionally  used  to  designate  a  device  for  direct- 
ing a  current  into  several  circuits  in  succession  ;  the 
current  being  through  only  one  circuit  at  a  time. 

It  seems  to  be  used  in  the  above  senses  by  various 
standard  electricians,  but  they  all  agree  in  one  point 
in  their  use  of  it ;  i.  e.  that  there  is  dmnge,  either 
of  direction,  strength,  or  circuit  of  the  current. 

Com-pan'ion.  A  wooden  covering  over  the  stair- 
case to  a  sliip's  cabin.  A  compan ion-hatch.  The 
stairiiase  is  the  companiait-laddcr  or  conipanimi-way. 
Com-par'a-teur.  A  Prussian  instrument  for 
accurately  acertaining  the  length  of  measures  after 
Bessel's  mode.  The  micrometers  are  placed  on  a 
strong  mahogany  beam  ;  and  the  slide,  which  carries 
the  two  measures  to  be  compared,  is  so  arranged 


that  it  moves  them  exactly  behind  one  another  in 
the  micrometer  line,  and  there  retains  them. 

Com 'pass.  1.  A  circumscribing  instrument,  or 
one  fur  describing  arcs  or  measurer's  lines. 

2.  An  instrument  for  determining  horizontal  direc- 
tion by  reference  to  a  poised  magnetized  needle. 
See  — 


Amplitude-compass. 

Azimuth-compass. 

Beam-compass. 

Bisecting-dividers. 

Bow-compass. 

Bow-pen. 

Bow-pencil. 

Bullet-compass. 

Calipers. 

Circuniferentor. 

Circumventor. 

Club-compass. 

Compass-board. 

Compass-brick. 

Compass- card. 

Compass-joint. 

Compass-needle. 

Compass-plane. 

Compass-roof. 

Compass-saw. 

Compass-timber. 

Compass-window. 

Cone-coni]>ass. 

Cutting-compass. 


Fluid-compass. 

Hair-dividers. 

Hanging-compass. 

Lengthening-bar. 

Magnetometer. 

Mariner's  compass. 

Millwright's  compass. 

Musical  compass. 

Napier's  compass. 

Oval  comp.ass. 

Pencil-compass. 

Pillar-compass. 

Plain  compass. 

Planchet. 

Proportional  compass. 

Quadrant-compass. 

Kack-compass. 

Scribing-compass. 

Self-registering  compass. 

Surveyor's  compass. 

Tell-tale  compass. 

Transit. 

Triangular  compass. 

Tube-compass. 


Diamond-cutter'scompass. Universal  compass. 
Di|  ping-needle.  Variation  compass, 

dividers.  Volute  compass. 

Double  compass.  Whole-and-half  comjiass. 

Drawing-compass.  Wing-compass. 

Com'pass-bar.  A  fixed  iron  ring  in  the  si've.r- 
from- lead-extracting  furnace,  which  supports  tlie 
test  or  cupel-hearth  in  place  in  the  reverberatory, 
where  the  process  is  carried  on.     See  SiLVER-FliO.M- 

LEAD-EXTHACTI.XG    FUIIXACE. 

Com'pass-board.  The  hole-hoard  of  the  loom 
for  fancy  weaving.  It  is  an  upright  board  of  the 
loom  through  which  pass  the  neck-twines. 

Com'pass-brick.  A  brick  with  a  curved  face, 
suital>le  for  wells  and  other  circular  work. 

Com 'pass-card.  The  card  of  a  mariner's  com- 
pass on  which  the  points  are  drawn.  It  is  usually 
attached  to  the  needle,  and  is  read  with  reference  to 
a  mark  which  represents  the  ship's  head. 

Com'pass-es.  A  two-legged  instrument  for 
measuring  distances,  or  for  describing  arcs  or  circles. 

The  compass  was  a  common  im- 
plement among  the  carpenters  and 
masons  of  ancient  times.  The  non- 
sense about  its  invention  by  Per- 
dix,  the  nephew  of  Dsedalus,  and 
the  consequent  hurling  from  the 
temple  of  Athena  by  his  envious 
imcle,  is  rather  absurd,  considering 
the  condition  of  austral  and  orient- 
al architecture  for  several  thousand 
years  then  past.  Nepoticide  was  I 
common  enough,  however. 

The  cut  is  from  a  Roman  tomb, 
and  shows  the  compass,  calipers, 
plumb,    rule,    square,    mallet   and 

That  the  compass  was  known  to  the  Egyptians 
cannot  be  doubted.  It  cannot  be  necessary  to  cite 
particular  instances  of  its  evident  use  in  architecture 
and  drawing.  The  tombs  of  Beni  Hassan,  about 
1706  B.  c,  and  Thebes,  about  1500  B.  c,  are  full 
of  illustrations,  both  in  their  own  construction  and 


Fig.  HOO. 


Roman  Toots. 
chisel. 


COMPASS-JOINT. 


600 


COMPENSATION  PENDULUM. 


tli'ir  mural  ornaments,  of  the  uses  of  the  compass. 
While  the  dates  of  the  Egyptian  monuments  have 
not  been  ascertained  beyond  2100  B.  c,  or  therea- 
bo.its,  all  will  admit  tliat  the  monuments  of  Osy- 
Inandyas  were  made  by  a  nation  that  had  been  in 
process  of  development  for  many  centuries.  So  the 
eonipa.'^s  was  in  use  in  Egypt  many  hundred  years 
b.'fore  Cecrops  and  his  brother  Egyptians  lelt  their 
native  country  and  gave  the  first  taste  of  arts  to 
ancient  Attica. 

Several  compasses  were  discovered  at  Hercula- 
ne'.un  (overwhelmed,  A.  D.  79),  and  among  the  num- 
ber was  a  pair  of  reducing-compasses.  See  Bow- 
I'KN  ;   DiviiiEUs  ;  also  list  under  Co.Ml"A.ss. 

Com'pass-joint.  A  form  of  joint  usual  in  com- 
jiasses  in  which  one  leg  has  a  circular  disk  or  two, 
clamped  between  other  disks  belonging  to  the  fel- 
low leg. 

Com'paas-nee'dle.  The  polarized  bar  which  is 
suspcniled  so  as  to  assume  a  direction  resulting  from 
the  earth's  magnetism.  There  are  several  ways  of 
su.spending  the  needle.  See  Marineii's  Compass  ; 
Dir-fOMi'Ass  ;   Maoxetomktkr. 

Com'pass  of  the  Fig'ure  8.  A  double  cali- 
pers, measuring  with  one  pair  of  branches  and  giving 
the  measure  with  the  other.     See  Calipeus. 

Com'pass-plane.  A  plane  with  a  curved  face, 
used  to  work  on  concave  sur- 
faces. The  illustration  shows 
several  forms,  and  also  some 
hollows  and  rounds  also  com- 
pass-shaped. An  ordiiuiry 
snioothing-plane  is  also 
shown,  whose  sole  is  non -con- 
formable to  the  surface  under 
treatment. 

Com'pass-roof.     A  bent 
rafter  or  curb  roof. 

Com'pass-savr.  A  saw 
witli  a  narrow  bhule,  adapted 
to  run  in  a  circle  of  moderate  radius.  I5y  a  rotation 
of  tlu'  hand  it  is  constantly  swerved,  and  its  &(/ al- 
lows it  some  play,  so  that  it  cuts  in  a  curve.  It  is 
usually  thick  enough  on  the  cutting-edge  to  run 
without  any  set.  The  blade  is  an  inch  wicle  ne.xt  to 
the  handle,  tapers  to  one  quarter  inch  at  the  point, 

Fig.  1402. 


Compasi- Planes. 


Compass-Saw. 

and  has  five  teeth  to  the  inch.  Otherwise  known  as 
a  Fui/r-.sAw  ;  LoeK-s\w  ;  Key-hole  Saw. 

Com'pass-tim'ber.  Naturally  crooked,  curved, 
or  arelu'd  timber  for  ships'  frames,  to  secure  deek- 
beanis  tit  the  frauLes,  etc. 

Com'pass-wrin'dov^.  { Carpentry. )  A  circular, 
bay,  or  oriel  wiiiibiw. 

Compen-sa'tion  Bal'ance.  A  balance-wheel 
for  a  watch  or  chronometer,  so  constructed  as  to 
make  isochronal  beats,  notwithstanding  changes  of 
teuiperatnre. 

It  was  invented  by  Harrison,  of  Foulby,  England, 
who  devoted  himself  for  a  long  series  of  years  — 
1728-1701  —  to  the  discovery  of  a  moile  of  ovi'reom- 
ing  the  change  of  rate  due  to  the  expansion  and 
contraction  of  the  balance. 

The  eompensation  penduhivi  requires  but  one  ad- 
justm"nt,  to  maintain  the  center  of  gravity  at  an 
eipial  distance  at  all  times,  from  the  axis  of  oscilla- 
tion. The  compeiLsatiun  balance  is  subject  to  two 
variations,  —  one  owing  to  the  expansion  and  con- 
ti'action,  by  variations  of  heat,  of  the  balance  itself, 
causing  it  to  go  slower  or  faster  as  the  case  may  be  ; 


the  other  owing  to  the  expansion  and  contraction  of 
the  biilancc  sprnKj,  which  is  rendered  more  rigid  by 
cold  and  less  rigid  when  expanded  by  heat,  thus  exert- 
ing a  variable  efieet  under  variations  of  temperature. 

Harrison  was  the  inventor  of  the  (p-vlirmi  com- 
jiensation  pendiduin  for  clocks,  which  depends  for 
its  action  upon  the  une(iual  exjjansion  and  contrac- 
tion of  ditl'erent  metals  by  given  degrees  of  heat. 
In  the  S('areli  of  a  mode  of  giving  an  even  rate  to 
the  balance-wheel  of  a  watch,  he  first  applied  his 
combined  steel  and  brass  to  the  curb  of  the  regula- 
tor, so  that  the  spring  became  lengthened  or 
shortened  in  a  degree  sufficient  to  compensate  for 
its  own  change  of  tension,  and  also  for  the  changed 
diameter  of  the  balance. 

The  curb  of  the  regulator  has  two  pins  which  em- 
brace the  hairspring  or  rccoil-sprinff  of  the  balance, 
and  determine  the  length  of  the  spring  involved  in 
the  action.  When  a  longer  portion  is  allowed  to 
play,  the  beat  is  slower,  and  conversely. 

The  English  government  in  1714  oilered  a  reward 
of  £20,000  for  the  discovery  of  a  correct  mode  of 
ascertaining  the  longitude  at  sea.  Harrison  made 
four  time-pieces  witlnn  the  years  above  cited,  and 
in  1764  and  following  years  received  £24,000  for 
his  improvements.  (See  Chronomf.tf.k.)  The  .special 
point  of  novelty  was  the  compensation  balance, 
which  was  constructed  to  run  at  au  equal  rate  under 
changes  of  temperature.  It  is  formed  of  two  metals, 
in  the  following  manner  :  —  (For  illustration,  see 
Chronometer.) 

A  ring  of  steel  is  made  with  a  bar  across  the 
middle  ;  outside  this  ring  is  a  ring  of  brass,  firmly 
brazed  to  it ;  both  rings  are  cut  through  at  points 
diagonally  opposite  each  other  on  op]iosite  sides  of 
the  cross-bar,  and  a  few  screws  with  heavy  heads 
are  set  in  various  places  near  the  end  of  each  portion 
of  the  cut  ring  ;  consequently,  as  the  elastii'ity  of 
the  chronometer  spring  is  diminished,  and  the  size 
of  the  balance  itself  is  increased,  by  an  increase  of 
temperature,  the  outei'  brass  ring  of  the  balance  is 
expanded  more  than  the  inner,  steel  one,  bending 
the  ends  of  the  two  combined  rings,  with  their  at- 
tached screws,  inward,  toward  the  center  of  gravity 
of  the  balance, .and  causing  it  to  make  an  equal  num- 
ber of  pulsations  with  a  les.ser  force  ;  the  object 
being  to  so  compensate  the  decreased  force  of  the 
spring  by  the  decreased  inertia  of  the  balance,  that 
the  number  of  its  vibrations  shall  be  equal  under  all 
variations  of  temperature  ;  the  balance  compensating 
for  its  own  contraction  and  expansion,  and  for  in- 
equalities in  the  effectiveness  of  the  balance-spring. 
The  peripheral  contraction  or  expansion  under  in- 
crement or  decrement  of  temjierature,  respectively, 
is  due  to  the  unequal  expansion  oi-  contraction  of 
the  metals,  steel  and  brass,  under  changes  of  tem- 
perature ;  the  same  ditl'erential  expansion  or  con- 
traction that  woidd  cause  them,  if  brazed  together 
.so  as  to  be  straight  at  a  given  ti-miierature,  to  bend 
in  one  direction  or  the  other  when  exposed  to  an  at- 
mosphere above  or  below  that  temperature. 

The  proper  adjustment  of  the  screw's  is  a  matter 
of  gi'eat  importance,  requiring  nnieh  nicety  ;  it  be- 
ing necessary  to  make  repeated  trials  at  diff'erent 
temperatures,  and  can  therefore  only  be  done  in 
w'inter  or  by  means  of  freezing  mixtures  ;  thus  ren- 
dering this  compensation  a  tedious  as  well  as  expen- 
sive operation.  The  ultimate  tests  and  rating  are 
usually  iierfoi-nied  at  government  obsei'vatories. 

Com'pen-sa'tion  Pend'u-lum.  A  pendulum  so 
arranged  as  to  pi-eserve  the  center  of  gravity  of  the 
bab  at  a  constant  distance  from  the  axis  of  .suspen- 
sion, notwithstanding  changes  of  temperature. 

The  principal  compensating  pendulums  are,  — 


COMPENSATOR. 


601 


COMPOUND  STEAM-ENGINE. 


The  giidirou,  by  Harrison. 

The  mercurial,  by  Graham.     See  Pesdulu.m. 

Com'pen-sa'tor.  1.  (Nautical.)  An  iron  plate 
placed  near  the  compass  ou  board  iron  vessels,  to  neu- 
tralize the  etfect  of  the  local  attraction  upoutheneedle. 

2.  (Gas.)  A  device  to  equalize  the  action  of  the 
exhauster  which  withdraws  the  gas  from  the  retorts. 
Should  the  e.xhauster  be  driven  so  fast  as  to  reduce 
the  pressure  on  the  retorts  below  the  desired  point, 
the  diminished  pressure  will  act  upon  the  elastic 
plate  and  cause  the  motion  of  a  valve  which  allows 
the  gas  to  pass  back  towards  the  retorts.  The  com- 
pensating device  is  similar  to  that  of  a  gas-regulator, 
but  the  application  is  special  for  the  purpose  stated. 

Com'po.    A  con- 


Fig.  1403. 


Composing-Frame. 


Crete  or  mortar. 

Com-pos'ing- 
frame.  The  stand 
on  which  the  print- 
er's ca,ses  rest. 

Com-pos'ing- 
ma-chiae'.  A  ma- 
chine in  which  type 
are  set  up.  See 
Type-settikg  Ma- 
chine. 

Com-pos'ing- 
stand.  -A.  frame 
holding  the  print- 
er's cases.  (Fig. 
E^  1403.)     See  Case. 

Com-poB'ing- 
stick.  A  metallic 
fi-atne  to  contain 
type,  with  one  open 
side  and  one  adjust- 


able end,  which  is  moved  out  or  in  to  adapt  it  to  the 
width  of  a  column.     In  it  the  type  are  composed 


Fig.  1404. 


CompoMng-Stick. 

and  justified,  and  from  it  they  are  transferred  to  the 
ga  !r,f. 

Com-pos'ite.  (Shipbuilding.)  A  vessel  having 
a  wooden  skin  on  an  iron  frame-work.  Jordan's 
system,  English  patent,  1849,  is  as  follows  :  — 

The  whole  outer  skin,  including  keel,  stem, 
stern-post,  and  planking,  is  of  wood,  arranged  as  in 
the  skin  of  an  ordinary  wooden  ship  ;  and  the  frame- 
work inside  the  skin,  including  frames,  beams, 
keelson,  stringers,  shelf-pieces,  water-ways,  hooks, 
transoms,  diagonal  braces,  etc.,  is  of  iron,  arranged 
nearly  as  in  an  ordinary  iron  ship.  Tables  of  rules 
for  sizes  of  the  different  parts  are  given  in  the  up- 
peiiiliv;  to  the  third  division  of  the  folio  work  on 
"Shipbuilding,"  by  Messrs.  Watt,  Rankin,  Barnes, 
and  N'upier.     JIackenzie,  London,  1866. 

Certain  variations  are  found  in  composite  building. 

Bettely  introduced  trough-shaped  or  "channel 
iro:i  "  for  the  frames. 

Mac  Liine's  system  consists  of  an  inner  .skin  of  iron 
and  outer  skin  of  wood,  on  an  ordinary  iron  frame. 

Heni's  system  :  an  inner  skin  of  iron  to  which  are 
riveted  transverse  iron  frames  of  a  Z-shaped  section. 
Tlic  ang'es  of  these  frames  are  filled  up  solid  with 
wooil,  and  an  onter  wooden  skin  covers  the  whole. 

Captain  Skinner's  .system  :  an  iron  frame  imbed- 
ded between  two  wooden  skins. 


Feather's  system  :  wooden  bottom  and  iron  top- 
sides.  The  iron  frames  terminate  at  their  lower 
ends  in  broad  forks  or  saddles,  which  sit  upon  and 
are  fastened  to  the  wooden  parts  of  the  sides. 

Com-pos'i-tor.    See  Tyi'E-seitixg  Machine. 

Com'pound  Arch.  An  arch  which  has  the 
archivolt  molded  or  formed  into  a  .series  of  square 
recesses  and  angles,  and  practically  consisting  of  a 
number  of  concentric  archways  succes.sively  placed 
within  and  behind  each  other. 

Com'pound  axle.  One  consisting  of  two  parts 
joined  by  a  sleeve  or  otlier  locking  device.    See  AxLE. 

Com'pound  Bat'ter-y.  A  Voltaic  battery, 
consisting  of  several  pairs  of  plates,  developing  a 
cumulative  effect.     See  Galvanic  BATfEUV. 

Com'pound  Mi'cro-scope.  A  microscope  made 
up  of  a  combination  of  lenses  arranged  in  a  tube. 
See  MlciiuscopE. 

Com'pound  Pier.    A  clustered  column. 

Com'pound  Rail.  A  rail  made  of  several  por- 
tions with  a  longitudinal  joint,  avoiding  the  trans- 
verse joint  across  the  rail  whereby  the  jarring  is 
occasioned.     A  continuous  raii. 

The  term  may  also  be  applied  to  several  forms  of 
rails  which  consist  of  a  number  of  portions  bolted 
or  keyed  together. 

Com'pound  Rest  (Lath/:.)  The  tool-carrier 
of  an  engine-lathe,  moved  longitudinally  (along  the 
work)  by  the  leading-screw,  actuated  by  the  feed  ; 
and  transversely  (to  or  from  the  work),  by  its  own 
feed-screw. 

Com'pound  Screw.  Two  or  more  screws  on 
the  same  axis.  When 
the  pitch  of  the  respec- 
tive screws  varies,  it 
forms  a  differential  screw 
(a)  ;  when  they  run  in 
different  directions,  it  is 
a  right  and  left  sci-ew  (b), 
Com'pound  Steam- 
en'gine.  (Uleain.)  A 
form  of  steam-engine 
originally  patented  by 
Hornblower  in  1781,  in 
which  steam  at  a  rela- 
rively  greater  pressure 
was  allowed  to  expand 
in  a  small  cylinder,  and  then,  escaping  into  a  larger 
cyliudei-,  to  expand  itself  against  a  larger  piston.  As 
steam  was  ajqdied  in  his  day  at  so  very  small  a  press- 
ure, the  particular  value  of  the  idea  was  not  developed 
until  Trevethick  and  Woolf  used  a  high  ju-essure  in 
the  first  cylinder  with  expansion  into  a  larger  one. 

Trevethick  applied  high-jiressure  steam  to  Watt's 
ordinary  single  cylinder  or  Cornish  engine,  while 
Woolf  revived  and  modilied  Hornblower's  engine, 
and,  by  working  it  with  high-pre-ssure  steam,  ob- 
tained results  far  beyond  those  of  the  original  in- 
ventor. Woolf's  first  engine  was  erected  at  Meux's 
brewery  in  1806.  He  took  up  his  residence  in  Corn- 
wall about  1813,  where  he  astonished  the  Coiiiish 
engineers  with  the  results  obtained,  but  ultimately 
they  found  that  high-pressure  steam,  applied  to  the 
single-cylinder  engines,  produced  equally  good  results 
at  the  ordinaiy  pressures  when  used  expansively. 

Compound  engines  are  of  two  classes,  which  may 
be  called  combined  and  indejiendent  com]iound  en- 
gines. The  former  are  those  in  which  the  cylinders 
are  near  each  other,  and  the  pistons  commence  their 
respective  strokes  simultaneously  or  nearly  so,  the 
steam  expanding  from  one  cylinder  direct  to  the 
other  through  as  small  a  pas.sage  as  convenient.  To 
this  class  belong  most  land  engines,  ami  the  com- 
pound marine  with  cranks  at  about  130°.     In  inde- 


Compound  Screxvs. 


COMPRESS. 


602 


COMPRESSED-AIR  ENGINE. 


pendent  compound  engines,  the  cylinders  need  not 
be  near,  and  the  pistons  need  not  —  generally  do 
not  —  make  tlieir  strokes  together  ;  their  distinctive 
feature  being  that  the  steam  passes  from  one  cylin- 
der to  a  receptacle  which  may  be  as  large  as  con- 
venient, and  that  from  this  the  large  cylinder  takes 
its  steam.  To  this  class  belong  many  condensing 
land  engines,  furnished  with  au.viliary  liigh-pressure 
cylinders,  and  the  compound  marine  engines  with 
cranks  at  right  angles.  See  DuuiiLiXJVLiXDER 
Steam-knciine  ;  Duplex  Stea.m-e.sgine. 

Com'press.  1.  A  pledget  of  tow,  folded  linen, 
or  lint,  to  press  upon  any  [iiirt  to  stop  bleeding, 
arrest  circulation,  or  for  other  [mrjjose. 

2.    A  inacliine  foi-  re-pressing  cotton  bales. 

Com-pressed'-air  En'gine.  One  driven  by 
the  elastic  force  of  compressed  air.  Its  construction 
is  usually  like  that  of  a  steam-engine,  the  force  of 
the  expanding  air  being  exerted  against  a  )iiston  in 
a  cylinder. 

An  air-compressing  machine  for  the  service  of 
such  an  engine  was  built,  previously  to  1856,  by 


Fig.  1406 


Compressed- Air  Engine. 

Randol[)li,  Eliot,  &  Co.,  of  Glasgow,  Scotland,  for 
Govan  Colliery,  near  that  city,  and  was  described  in 
the  proceedings  of  the  Institution  of  Mechanical 
Engineers  at  Glasgow.  It  was  used  to  conden.se  air 
to  work  an  ordinary  high-pressure  engine  at  the 
lower  shaft  of  the  mine.  It  was  held  by  those  who 
were  familiar  with  the  construction  and  working  of 
the  engines,  that  a  more  valuable  etfect  would  have 
resulted  from  working  the  air  exjiansively,  cutting 
olf  at  one  third  stroke  and  expanding  down  to  the 
atmosiiherie  pressure.  A  valuable  feature  developed 
in  this  connection  was  the  low  teinpei-ature  of  the 
escaping  and  expanding  air,  which  was  very  salu- 
brious in  a  mine  whose  temperature  varied  from  SO' 
to  90°  F.  The  apjiaratus  had  been  in  use  six  years 
without  requiring  any  repair  b;'yond  the  reidacement 
of  some  of  the  valve-eages. 

The  air-main  was  of  the  area  of  the  working  cyl- 
inder, and  the  dirterenee  in  (iressure  at  the  two  en- 
gines was  only  one  pound  in  favor  of  the  upper  one. 

Fig.  1406  is  a  vertical  section  of  the  compressing 
engine,  in  which  the  steam-cylinder  C  is  15  inches 


in  diameter,  with  a  stroke  of  3  feet ;  it  drives  two 
condensing  air-pumps  P  P  which  work  alternately, 
one  on  each  side  of  the  lieam  center,  delivering  the 
air  into  the  center  reservoir  A'  N,  from  which  it 
passes  into  the  main  pipe  M.  The  beam  is  connei.'ted 
at  the  other  end  to  a  crank  and  Hy-ndieel  F,  foi'  the 
purpose  of  equalizing  the  motion. 

The  air-pumjis  /'  P  are  21  inches  in  diameter, 
with  a  stroke  of  18  inches  ;  they  are  jilaced  inverted, 
with  the  piston-rods  passing  out  below,  where  the 
stuffing-boxes  are  not  exposed  to  the  pressure  of  the 
compressed  air,  and  are  worked  with  cross-heads, 
sliding  in  vertical  guides  by  means  of  side  rods  from 
the  beam.  The  air-pumps  are  fitted  with  ball- 
valves,  of  which  there  are  three  sets  to  each  pump, 
each  set  consisting  of  44  brass  balls,  2  inches  in 
diameter,  arranged  in  three  concentric  rings.  The 
balls  are  confined  by  separate  cages  to  a  lift  of  4 
inch.  A  stratum  of  water  supplied  by  a  pump  JK 
covers  the  piston  valves,  and  the  delivery  and  inlet 
valves,  through  which  all  the  air  has  to  pass.  The 
water  flows  from  the  central  reservoir  through  the 
small  pipes  0  0  into  each  of 
the  air-pumps  during  the 
periods  of  theii'  downward 
strokes.  The  surjilus  water  is 
discharged  at  each  upward 
stroke  through  the  delivery 
valves,  keeping  them  also 
covered  with  water. 

The  compressed-air  engine 
at  Ardsley  Colliery,  England, 
travels  upon  wlieels  and  is 
pushed  to  its  work  by  hand. 
A  steam-engine  at  the  surface 
compresses  air  to  a  pressure  of 
from  50  to  60  jiounds  to  the 
square  inch,  and  the  air  is 
conveyed  by  metallic  tubes  to 
the  bottom  of  the  mine,  and 
by  a  caoutchouc  tube  to  the 
engine.  It  nmlercuts  3  feet 
deep  and  150  feet  long  in  8 
hours. 

One    of  the    Mount    Cenis 
Tunnel    air -com  pressors,    in- 
vented   and    constructed    by 
Sommeilleur,    and    placed    at 
Bardouneche,  the   Italian  end 
of  the  tunnel,  is  represented 
by  a  vertical  longitudinal  sec- 
tion   on    the    page    opposite. 
The  description  is  condensed  from  the  report  of  Dr. 
F.  A.   P.   Barnard,  United  States  Commissioner  to 
the  Paris  Exposition. 

The  compressors  operate  by  applying  the  living 
force  of  a  large  column  of  water  descending  in  an  in- 
clined tube  A,  to  drive  a  body  of  confined  air  into  a 
receiver  B,  within  which  there  is  maintained  a  con- 
stant pressure  of  six  atmospheres  by  means  of  an  hy- 
draulic head.  Each  compressing-engine  is  an  invert- 
ed siplion,  having  the  long  arm  A  inclined  and  the 
short  arm  C  vertical.  The  puppet-valve  D  is  for 
the  purpose  of  regulating  the  periods  of  motion  and 
rest  of  the  contained  water  column. 

The  short  arm  0  of  the  siphon  is  the  chamber  into 
which  is  introduced  the  air  to  be  compressed.  At 
its  upper  extremity  it  communicates  by  a  valve  S 
with  the  receiver  B  of  compressed  air.  This  valve 
is  kept  closed  by  the  pressure  of  the  air  in  the  re- 
ceiver, so  long  as  the  pressure  beneath  it  is  less,  but 
when  the  air  beneath  attains  by  compression  the 
same  tension  as  that  already  in  the  receiver,  the. 
valve  opens  and  the  new  charge  enters. 


'"■ 


O    2 


a    a 
d     o 


COMPRESSED-AIR  ENGINE. 


603 


COMPRESSED-AIR  ENGINE. 


The  couipressiou-chamber  C  receives  its  successive 
charges  of  air  trom  tlie  atmasiiliere  by  valves  F 
opening  inward.  It  is  freed  from  water  after  each 
pulsation  or  act  of  compression,  by  means  of  another 
valve  (?,  which  opens  at  a  level  somewhat  above  the 
bend  of  the  siphon,  so  that  the  bend  itself  and  the 
long  arm  remain  always  full  of  water,  the  overflow 
at  F  being  discharged  through  tlie  canal  //. 

Tlie  action  of  the  machine  is  as  follows  :  —  The 
air-cluimber  0  being  full  of  air  at  the  ordinary 
density  of  the  atmosphere,  the  great  valve  D  in  the 
inclined  pips  A  is  opened,  and  the  water  rushes 
through  the  short  bend  into  the  chamber  C,  com- 
pressing the  air  before  it,  and  finally  driving  it 
through  pipe  S  into  the  receiver  B.  Tlie  water  then 
comes  to  rest,  the  supply  valve  D  closes,  the  dis- 
charge valve  <r  opens,  the  water  escapes  at  H,  and 
a  new  charge  of  air  enters  at  F. 

L  is  the  motive  lever  of  the  feed-valve,  M  the 
motive  lever  of  tlie  dischargiiig-valve.  P  is  the 
gearing  by  which  the  ])roper  correspondence  of 
motion  between  the  respective  valves  is  secured,  E 
is  the  engine  which  operates  the  gearing  P,  and  in- 
termediately the  valves  D  G. 

The  difference  of  level  between  the  head  of  the 
driving  column  of  water  and  the  point  of  discharge 
is  85.25  feet.  The  diameter  of  the  tube  is  23.56 
inches,  and  the  hight  of  the  air-cliamber,  measured 
from  the  level  of  discharge  at  bottom  to  the  valve 
o]  ening  into  the  recipient  at  top,  is  47.12  inches. 
These  measurements  would  give  for  the  total  ca- 
pacity of  the  air-clianiber  39.9  cubic  fi'et  ;  ami  this 
is  the  uia.ximum  charge  which  the  machine  is 
capable  of  compressing  at  a  single  im|iulse.  The 
charge  actually  compressed,  however,  is  less  than 
this,  and  is  determined  by  the  condition  that  the 
resistance  which  it  opposes  to  the  driving  force, 
during  its  compression  and  subseijuent  passage  into 
the  re.ipient,  shall  exhaust  tliis  force  exactly,  with- 
out excess  or  deticiency.  In  case  the  resistance  is 
in  excess,  a  portion  of  the  air  will  fail  to  pass  into 
the  receiver  and  so  be  lost.  In  case  it  is  in  defi- 
ciency, a  portion  of  the  motive-powei'  will  be  use- 
lessly expended,  and,  moreover,  the  column  of  water 
will  strike  the  top  of  the  air-i-hamber  with  violence, 
and  may  damage  the  machine.  The  practical  ad- 
just'.neiit  of  tlie  bulk  of  the  charge  to  the  power  of 
the  engine  is  attained  by  a  tent<»tive  process,  a  series 
of  small  valves  /  being  adapted  to  the  side  of  the 
air-chamber  in  a  vertic-al  row,  through  which  the 
air  can  escape,  but  which  the  air  by  its  inertia  closes 
successively  as  it  rises.  If,  in  a  series  of  experi- 
ments, these  valves  he  secured  one  after  another, 
beginning  at  the  top,  the  charge  of  air  will  be 
gradually  increased,  until  at  length  it  is  fouud  to 
have  the  volume  required. 

There  were  at  Bardonneche  ten  of  these  compressors 
constantly  at  work,  each  one  making  three  impulses 
per  minute,  or  4,320  per  day.  If  the  charge  at  each 
impulse  were  equal  to  the  capacity  of  the  air-cham- 
ber, the  total  volume  of  air  compressed  daily  would 
be  1,723,204  cubic  feet.  It  appears  that  the  volume 
actually  compressed  amounted  to  only  826,020  cubic 
feet,  so  that  the  charge  in  the  compressor  was  but 
about  19  cubic  feet  at  each  impulse. 

The  power  of  such  a  compression  machine  is  equiv- 
alent to  that  which  would  be  generated  by  the 
descent  of  a  vertical  column  of  water  85.25  feet  in 
length  and  23.56  inches  in  diameter  through  a 
space  of  47.12  inches  three  tunes  per  minute  through 
the  day.  The  calculation  shows  that  this  would  a 
little  exceed  IS-horse  power.  The  whole  ten  of 
the  compressors  furnished,  accordingly,  ISO-horee 
power. 


The  power  employed  is  actually  capable  of  com- 
pressing 1,195,258  cubic  feet  daily,  to  a  bulk  under 
the  pressure  of  sLx  atmospheres  of  305,350  cubic 
feet,  becoming  by  subsequent  contraction  201,210 
cubic  feet.  But  the  amount  a(^tually  compressed  was 
only  826,020  cubic  feet  daily,  giving  ultimately 
137,670  cubic  feet  of  compressed  air  at  the  normal 
temperature.  This  represents  a  compressing  force 
of  only  125-horse  power,  being  less  by  55  than  the 
theoretic  force  of  the  comjiressors. 

The  137,670  cubic  feet  at  the  pressure  of  six  at- 
mospheres are  capable  of  producing  an  amount  of 
work  hardly  equivalent  to  75-liorse  power.  There 
was  therefore  a  loss  at  Bardonneche,  fiom  causes 
known  and  unknown,  equal  to  seven  twelfths  of  the 
hydraulic  force  employed. 

The  same  hydraulic  power,  or  an  equivalent  steam 
power,  would  probably  be  applied  more  effectually 
in  compre.ssing  air  by  means  of  pumps,  than  in  the 
method  above  described.  This  the  engineers  them- 
selves appear  to  have  tacitly  adnutted,  by  intro- 
ducing pumps  at  the  northern  entrance  of  the 
tunnel. 

The  success  of  the  Jlont  Cenis  tunnel  and  the 
progress  of  the  Hoosac  have  settled  the  i[Uestion  oL^ 
the  availability  and  economy  of  the  system  of  trans-^ 
mission  of  compressed  air  by  pipes.  The  coo'iug 
and  ventilation,  as  has  been  already  remarked,  are 
important  auxiliaries.  The  Hoosac  Mountain  is 
being  daily  pierced  at  either  end  about  five  feet,  by 
means  of  rock  drills,  using  coni])re.ssecl  air  as  a  mo- 
tor. The  practice  at  Mont  Cenis  carried  air  at  50, 
60,  and  70  pounds  to  the  square  inch  4  miles  iu 
pipes  of  S  and  10  inches  diameter,  and  at  Hnosac 
tunnel,  Massachusetts,  air  was  carried  at  60  ai.d  65 
pounds  to  the  square  inch  If  miles  with  little  or 
no  loss.  There  are  other  instances  of  long  con- 
ducts, in  pipes  from  1  inch  to  8,  9,  and  10  inches. 
Near  Mauch  Chunk,  Pennsylvania,  a  railroad  tun- 
nel is  being  driven,  or  has  been  completed,  under 
a  mountain  by  the  same  agency. 

The  piers  for  Roebling's  East  River  Bridge,  and 
those  for  Eads's  Illinois  and  St.  Louis,  are  sunk 
by  the  aid  of  compressed  air  conveyed  in  tubes. 

Locomotives  have  been  diiven  by  means  of  air 
compressed  into  reservoirs,  and  are  brielly  referred 
to  in  the  article  on  Au;-engixe.  One  of  these  was 
invented  by  BoMr.\s  (English  patent,  1828).  On 
the  frame  of  the  locomotive  were  two  tanks  which 
were  charged  with  compressed  air  by  stationary  en- 
gines at  the  depots  and  way-stations.  The  air  oper- 
ation was  substantially  similar  to  that  of  a  steam- 
engine,  the  air  being  admitted  from  alternate  reser- 
voii-s  to  the  sides  of  the  pi-stons  with  which  the  .--aid 
reservoirs  respectively  communicate.  The  piston- 
rod  is  connected  in  the  usual  manner  with  the  c'laiik 
and  driving-shaft.  An  engine,  similar  in  most  ma- 
terial respects  to  the  above,  was  made  by  Baron  vo;i 
Rathlen,  in  1848,  and  was  driven  by  its  air  motor 
from  Putney  to  Wandsworth  (England),  at  the  late 
of  ten  or  twelve  miles  per  hour. 

P.ir.sEY,  in  1847,  invented  an  engine  of  this  clar- 
acter  in  which  a  large  reservoir  A  was  secured  to  a 
frame  mounted  on  wheels.  In  this  reservoir  the  air 
was  compiessed  to  as  great  an  extent  as  was  compat- 
ible with  safety,  and  was  emitteil  gradually  into  the 
chamber  /?,  where  it  expanded  to  its  working  jin-ss- 
ure.  This  emission  is  regulated  automatically  by  a 
plunger  in  a  tube  passing  through  the  I'oof  of  the 
chamber  B.  Above  the  plunger  is  a  spring  h  hich 
yields  to  the  normal  or  working  pressure  of  the  air 
in  the  chamber  B  ;  but  when,  owing  to  the  withdraw- 
al of  air  to  the  working  cylinder,  the  jiressure  in  the 
chamber  is  relaxed,  the  spring  depresses  the  plunger 


COJIPKESSING-MACHINE 


604 


CONCENTRATOR. 


b.  A  device  for  compressing  h  gun-car- 
riage to  its  slide  or  platform  during  recoil ; 
the  cairiage  is  again  set  free  for  running 
up. 

3.  {Microscopy.)  A  device  to  flatten 
microscopic  objects    under  examination, 

Fig.  1408. 


PoTsey^s  Compressed-Air  Engine. 


and  the  connections  of  the  latter  turn  a  faucet- 
valve  in  the  pipe  C,  and  allow  the  pas.sage  of  air 
from  the  reservoir  A  to  the  chamber  B,  to  restore 
the  working  pressure  in  the  latter.  The  compressed 
air  passes  by  the  pipe  D  to  the  cylinder  E,  where  it 
acts  in  the  manner  usual  with  the  double-acting 
steam-engine,  and  exhausts  into  the  atmosphere, 
/'is  the  sup[ily  aperture  through  which  the  reser- 
voir is  charged,  and  G  the  safety-valve.  The  piston- 
rod,  cro.ss-liead,  and  pitman  connect  in  the  usual 
way  with  the  crank  and  driving-shaft. 

The  project  has  lately  been  revived  for  impelling 
strcet-cai's. 

Under  "Air  as  a  Means  of  Transmitting  Power," 
has  been  noticed  the  attempt  of  Dr.  Papin  of  Blois 
to  run  a  pumping-engine  by  com|)ressed  air  con- 
ducted by  jiijies  from  a  condensing  engine  situateil 
at  the  distance  of  a  mile  and  driven  by  a  fall  of 
water.  For  some  reason,  friction  and  leakage 
probably,  the  doctor  failed. 

For  the  application  of  compressed  air  as  a  water 
elevator,  see  "  .iir  as  Water  Elevator,  C'ompressed." 

In  the  city  of  New  York,  in  1858  or  1859,  Cap- 
tain Ei'icsson  arranged  a  power  to  run  sewing-ma- 
chines for  a  clothing  firm  in  that  city.  A  caloric 
engine  in  the  cellar  compressed  the  air  ;  it  was  car- 
ried to  the  upper  story  in  pipes,  and  there  moved 
little  en;^ines,  which,  in  turn,  operated  sewing-ma- 
chines to  the  number  of  some  eighty.  The  act  of 
compressing  air  throws  off  its  heat,  and  then  when 
it  is  again  exhausted,  it  takes  up  that  heat  again 
from  the  surrounding  atmos]ihere,  doing  two  things, 
condensing  and  precipitating  the  vitiated  air,  and 
furnishing  one  of  the  best  possilde  means  of  ven- 
tilation. These  machines  worked  successfully  for 
years. 

H.  H.  Day  now  proposes  to  transfer  the  power  of 
the  Niagara  Falls  to  BuH'alo,  minus  certain  admitted 
losses  in  working,  which  would  leave  a  handsome 
sur]iUis.  Also  the  lower  falls  at  Rochester,  N.  Y., 
to  that  city.      A'ous  rerrmhi. 

Com-press'ing-ma-chine'.  A  machine  for  mak- 
ing conipres.sed  buUct.s. 

Com-pres'sion-oast'ing.  A  mode  of  casting 
bronzes,  etc.,  in  molds  of  potters'  clay  under  a  press- 
ure which  causes  the  metal  to  How  into  the  delicate 
tracery  left  by  the  pattern.  The  work  approaches 
nearly  the  work  of  the  graver  and  chisel.  It  is  es- 
pecially used  in  casting  liouse-buililers'  hardware, 
letters  anil  nnnilicrs  for  houses,  stamps,  etc. 

Com-pres'sion-cock.  One  containing  an  india- 
rubber  tulle  which  is  collapsed  by  the  pressure  of 
the  end  of  a  screw-plug  turned  by  the  key. 

Com-preas'or.  1.  {Snrgknl.)  An  instrument  to 
compress  the  femoral  artery  ;  a  substitute  for  a  tour- 
nicpiet. 

2.  {N'nvlicnJ.)  a.  A  lever  arm  to  press  on  the 
chain-cable  and  keej)  it  from  veering  away  too  fast. 


in  order  to  make  out 
tlieir    structure.      The  Lever-Compressors. 

ring  <■  and  the   base- 

]iiece  beneath  it  are  glazed,  and,  while  not  obstruct- 
ing the  light,  form  surfaces  between  which  the  ob- 
ject  is  Battened,  or  merely  held.     A  compressoiium. 

Compressors  for  the  microscope  are  of  various 
kinds;  as,  leva;  reversible  cell,  parallel  plate,  Wen- 
haiiis,  etc. 

4.  [I'licmnatics.)  A  machine  for  compressing  air. 
See  Air-pump;  CoMPnE.ssED-AiR  Kngine  ;  Air- 
COMPRESSING  Machine. 

Com'rade-bat'ter-y.  One  of  a  pair  of  joint 
batteries. 

Con'cave.  The  curved  bed  or  breasting  in  which 
a  cylinder  works,  as  in  the  ca.se  of  a  thrasher.  Fig. 
1409,  tlie  examjde,  shows  a  concave  in  which  each 

Fig  1409. 


Cylinder  and  Concave, 

slat  rests  upon  a  spring,  and  the  grain  escapes  through 
the  intervenin!:;  spaces. 

Con'cave  Brick.  A  brick  used  in  turning  arches 
or  curves.      A  criwi/jriss-brick. 

Con'cave  Plane.  A  compass-plane  for  smooth- 
ing curved  surfaces. 

Con-ca'vo-con'vex  File.  A  file  with  curved 
faces,  resiiectively  concave  and  convex,  made  by 
cutting  a  Hat  Hie  and  then  bending  it  into  sbajic  be- 
tween dies.  The  mode  is  the  invention  of  Sir  John 
Robison,  President  of  the  Scottish  Society  of  Arts, 
and  is  designed  to  enable  the  convex  side  to  be  cut 
like  a  Hat  file  by  a  chisel  which  reaches  across  the 
edge,  instead  of  by  cntting  numerous  courses,  which 
usually  cover  the  convex  surfaces  of  files. 

Con-ca'vo-con'vex  Lens.  .\  lens  whose  sides 
are  resjiectively  concave  and  convex,  the  latter  face 
having  a  curve  of  the  greater  radius,  so  that  the  lens 
is  thicker  at  the  margin  than  elsewheie. 

It  differs  from  a  m.em'.icus  in  that  the  concave  face 
of  the  latter  has  the  larger  radius,  and  the  margin 
is  an  edge  where  the  two  faces  run  together. 

Con'cen-tra'tor.    An  apparatus  for  the  separa- 


CONCENTRATOR. 


605 


CONCRETE. 


tioii  of  dry,  comminuted  ore,  according  to  the  grav- 
itj'  of  its  particles,  by  exposing*  falling  sheet  of  ore- 
dust  to  intermittent  putls  of  air.  The  action  has  been 
compared  to  that  of  the  jigger  which  acts  in  a  water- 
cistern,  the  body  of  ore  in  the  sieve  being  jerked  up 
and  down  in  the  water,  and  thereby  separated  into 
strata  of  varying  gravities  and  consequent  richness. 
The  analogy  is  not  perfect,  for  in  the  jigg'r  the  ores 
all  lie  in  the  sieve,  but  the  upper  layer  is  poor  and 
is  raked  off  as  refuse,  while  the  succeeding  layers 
are  progressively  richer  down  to  the  best  at  the  bot- 
tom, the  dirt'erent  grades  being  scraped  off  in  suc- 
cession, and  either  reworked  or  laid  aside  for  smelt- 
ing, as  the  case  may  be. 

The  action  of  Krom's  concentrator  is  more  like 
that  of  a  fanning-niill,  in  which  the  richer  portions 
(the  grain)  with.stand  the  blast  and  fall  into  the  re- 
ceiver, while  the  lighter  jiortions,  which  have  but  few 
metallic  particles,  are  blown  over  and  correspond  to 
the  tailings  of  the  grain-winnowing  machine. 

A  form  of  concentrator  analogous  to  the  smut-mills 
might  be  contrived,  the  ore  passing  through  a  trunk, 
the  lighter  being  carried  the  farthest,  a  separation 
into  grades  of  comparative  gravity  being  thus  ef- 
fected. 

Krom's  concentrator  has  an  arrangement  in  which 
the  ore  passes  from  a  hopper  on  to  a  sieve,  upon 
which  it  forms  a  bed.  This  bed  of  ore  is  intemiit- 
tingly  lifted  by  a  pulsating  blast  Iwneath,  so  that  it 
Vcoraes  sorted  into  layers  of  comparative  gravities. 
Tlie  upper  is  the  lighter  portion  or  refuse,  and  falls 
over  the  end  of  the  sieve  as  tailings  ;  the  heavier 
portion  passes  through  the  meshes  of  the  sieve,  and 
is  collected  in  a  receptacle  beneath. 

In  the  comparison  between  the  jifigcr  and  the 
concentrator,  it  will  be  found  that  in  the  heavier 
medium,  water,  the  material  will  sink  slowly,  and 
thus  the  particles  will  tend  to  sort  themselves 
effectually.  In  the  coHccyitralor,  the  medium  being 
lighter,  the  ore  will  fall  more  quickly.  As  it  is 
necessary  that    the    ore,   between    each  pulsation, 

either  in  the  jigger 
Fig.  IHO.  ox  in  the  concentra- 

tor, shall  have  time 
to  fall  again  on  to 
the  sieve  after  each 
saltation,  the  ore 
in  the  cmiccnlroJor 
may  be  more  rap- 
idly pulsated  than 
it  can  be  in  the 
jigger. 

Water  is  .said  to 
admit  of  from  50 
to  80  lifts  per 
minute,  ami  air 
from  300  to  400  in 
the  same  space  of 
time.  Whether 
the  more  rapid 
action  in  air  be 
more  effectual  than 
the  more  perfect 
suspension  and 
gradual  subsidence  in  water,  is  a  matter  to  be  deter- 
mined by  experiment  and  persistent  trial.  It  is 
Dot  .safe  to  argue  the  question  on  general  grounds. 

The  machine  has  a  receiver  H  to  hold  the  pul- 
verised ore  ;  an  ore-bed  S  on  which  the  ore  is 
acted  upon  ;  the  gates  0  ff  to  regulate  the  flow  of 
ore  from  the  receiver  and  depth  of  ore  on  the  ore- 
bed  ;  pa-ssage  C  for  the  ore ;  and  roller  R  to  effect 
the  di.scharge  of  the  .same  ;  bellows  B  to  give  the 
pud's  of  air  ;  a  trip-wheel  and  spring  to  operate  the 


KtottCs  Ore- Concentrator. 


bellows  ;   a  ratchet-wheel  and  pawl  to  operate  the 
discharge-roller  R. 

It  is  operated  as  follows  :  —  Ore  is  placed  in  the 
receiver  H,  and  the  driving  pulley  set  in  motion. 
On  the  opposite  end  of  the  pulley-shaft  is  the  trip- 
wheel,  which  acts  against  a  lever ;  by  the  joint 
action  of  the  trip-wheel  forcing  the  lever  in  one  di- 
rection and  the  spring  carrjing  it  suddenly  back  in 
the  opposite  one,  the  bellows  B  is  made  to  swing  on 
the  shaft  /,  giving  at  each  upward  movement  a  sud- 
den puff  of  air  through  the  ore-bed,  and  lifting  the 
ore  lying  on  it. 

The  spring  is  adapted  to  produce  the  best  result, 
as  it  is  impoitant  that  the  puff  of  air  should  be  sud- 
den. On  the  trip- wheel  are  six  ]<rojections  ;  there- 
fore the  speed  of  .50  to  70  revolutions  per  miuute  of 
the  pulley  gives  300  to  400  upward  movements  of 
the  bellows. 

Other  forms  of  concentrators  for  comminuted  ore, 
amalgam,  auriferous  sand,  and  sulphurets  consist  of 
agitated  pans,  reciprocated  or  revolving  in  a  rotary 
path,  and  having  inclined  beds  over  which  the  ma- 
terial is  sorted  by  gravity  and  discharged  at  ditlerent 
outlets. 

Con-cen'tric  En'gine.  One  name  for  the  rota- 
ry engine  (which  see). 

Con'cer-ti'na.  An  instrument  with  a  bellows 
and  free  reeds,  on  the  princip  e  of  the  accordion. 
It  is  grasped  by  both  hands,  ami  the  keys  are  on 
each  of  the  heads.  An  instrument  of  sweetness, 
power,  and  compass.  Invented  by  Professor  Wheat- 
stone. 

Con'cha.  {Architecture.)  The  concave,  ribless 
surface  of  a  vault. 

Con-chom'e-ter.  An  instrument  for  measuring 
shells.      Conchiflcomcter. 

Con-clud'ing  Line.  {Nautical),  a.  A  small 
line  hitched  to  the  middle  of  the  steps  or  stem- 
ladders. 

b.  A  line  leading  through  the  middle  of  the  steps 
of  a  Jacob's  ladder. 

Con-crete'.  A  mixture  of  rubber,  stone  chip- 
pings,  gravel  or  broken  stones,  with  lime  and  water. 
It  is  used  in  foundations  and  in  filling  in  between 
masonry  facings  of  walls.  It  differs  from  pise  ma- 
terial in  having  lime  instead  of  clay  to  form  a  bond 
for  the  stones.     See  PisS-work  ;  Bj%T(in. 

The  ancients  used  concrete  very  largely.  In  wall 
building,  it  is  usually  made  by  dumping  the  ma- 
terials into  the  trench  dug  for  the  foundation,  the 
gravel,  sand,  lime,  and  water  being  thrown  in,  in 
proper  quantity  ;  or  the  materials  are  measured  into 
a  barrow,  into  which  water  is  poured,  and  the  whole 
dumped  into  the  hole  or  trench  where  it  is  required. 
The  proportions  of  saml  and  lime  are  those  suitable 
for  fonning  mortar.  The  mortar  forms  a  bond  for 
the  larger  stone,  constituting  a  matrix  of  hydrated 
silicate  of  lime. 

To  guard  against  the  filling  up  of  the  Said  eml  of 
the  Suez  Canal  by  the  deposits  of  the  Nile,  great 
blocks  weighing  twenty  tons  each,  of  a  composite 
stone,  formed  out  of  hydraulic  lime  giound  to  dust 
by  powerful  mills,  and  mixed  with  sand,  are  .sunk 
and  piled  in  the  harbor,  and  piers  constnicted 
thereon.  Three  hundred  thousand  tons  of  these 
blocks  have  been  used  at  Port  Said  alone.  See  BetoN. 
The  walls  of  the  fortress  of  Ciudad  Rodrigo,  in 
Spain,  are  of  concrete.  The  marks  of  the  boanls 
which  retained  the  semi-fluid  matter  in  their  con- 
struction are  everywhere  perfectly  visible  ;  and  be- 
sides sand  and  gravel,  there  are  large  quantities 
of  round  bowlder-stones  in  the  walls,  from  4  to  C 
inches  in  diameter,  procured  from  the  ground  around 
the  city,  where  they  abound. 


CONCRETE-PRESS. 


606 


CONDENSER. 


Fig.  1411. 


Schroder's  cement  :  coal-ashes,  100 ;  liydraulic 
ceinent,  16  ;  Portland  cement,  1  part.  Work  in  a 
{lUg-niill  and  mold.  Cooley's  :  coarse  pebble.s,  60  ; 
rough  sand,   25  ;  lime,   15.     Semple  ;  pelililes,  80  ; 

rough  sand, 
40  ;  lime,  10. 
The  mode  of 
building  con- 
crete walls  is 
indicated  by 
the  cut,  in 
which  the 
mass  of  mortar 
is  held  be- 
tween facing 
walls  of  brii:k 
and  inner 
boards,  the 
latter  being 
temjiorary. 
Con-crete'- 
press.  A  nja- 
chinein  which 
a  mass  of  con- 
crete is  pressed 
into  the  form 
of  a  building 
block.  The 
^concrete  is 
placed  in  the 
h  0  p  p  e  r  m, 
and,  when  the 
s'ide  n  and  the  lower  slide  are  withdrawn,  droiis 
into  the  bo.\,  which  has  divisional  partitions  k  k 
and  a  bottom  i.  The  slide  is  replaced  by  the  motion 
of  the  sector  w,  which  moves  the  rack  x.  The  press- 
uic  is  tlien  brought  beneath  the  follower  d  by 
means  of  the  lever  h,  cam  </,  and  toggles  c  c.  The 
li.l  of  the  press-bo-^c  is  then   withdrawn,   and  the 


Fig.  1413. 


X 


'^- 


?^ 


c'<^M 


:ro 


Concrete-  Wail  Building. 


^-^;i^(m^ii^:m^Mi^i 


Concrete-Press. 

b'ock  is  lifted  out  of  the  box  by  the  sector  and  rack 

f  '•• 

Con-cret'er.  A  fonii  of  apparatus  for  concen- 
tratin;;  sirup,  by  allowing  it  to  flow  in  a  boiling 
condition  over  the  suiface  of  a  heated  pan,  and  then 
subjecting  it  to  the  heat  of  a  copper  cylinder  re- 
volving over  a  fire,  and  having  an  internal  hot- 
blast.  The  simp  in  a  concentrated  condition  is 
discliarged  at  the  lower  end. 

Con-cus'sion-fuse.  A  fu.se  which  is  ignited 
and  explodes  the  shell  at  the  moment  of  impact,  by 
the  breakage  of  a  ca])sule  or  other  similar  internal 
arrangement,   containing  chemicals  which   explode  ;  sake  of  avoiding  the  great  waste  of  incoming  steam 


Concussion-  Fuse . 

by  the  force  of  the  blow.  The  figure  sTiows  a 
spherical  and  an  elongated  projectile  provided  with 
a  fuse  which  is  explodeil  by  the  jar  of  impact. 

Con-densed'-let'ter.  {Prhilinff. )  One  with 
a  narrower  face  than  usual  with  the  given  bight. 

Con-dens'er.  An  apparatus  for  cooling  heated 
vajiors  to  a  temjjerature  at  which  they  become  liq- 
uid ;  or,  fumes  to  a  temperature  at  which  they  are 
precipitateil  ;  or,  impure  and  heated  gases  to  a  more 
cleanly  and  cool  condition  ;  or,  a  heated  vegetable 
extract  or  juice  to  a  less  fluid  condition. 

Or  by  pressure,  bringing  a  sliver  or  film  of  fiber 
to  a  slightly  felted  and  more  solid  condition  ;  or,  a 
foil  to  a  more  compact  state ;  or,  an  elastic  fluid  into 
a  smaller  bulk. 

Or,  by  convergence  concentrating  the  heat  and 
light  of  a  pencil  of  rays  upon  a  relatively  small  area. 
Or,  a  means  of  absorbing  minute  electrical  eHects. 
1.  ( Steam-ell f/ine.)  A  means  of  reduc'ing  to  a 
liquid  form  the  steam  in  front  of  the  piston  so  as  to 
obtain  a  partial  vacuum  at  that  point,  and  thus  util- 
ize tlie  natural  pressure  of  the  atmosphere. 

Steam-engine  condensers  are  of  several  forms  :  — 
The  injection  condenser  was  in- 
vented by  Watt,  who  was  a  jihilo- 
sophical-instrument  maker  in  Glas- 
gow, when,  in  1764,  a  model  of  an- 
atmospheric  engine  (Newcomen's), 
belonging  to  the  Llniver.'^itv  of  Glas- 
gow, was  brought  to  him  to  repair  ; 
the  cylinder  of  this  model  was  2 
inches  in  diameter,  and  6  inches  in 
length.  Having  rejiaired  damages, 
whatever  they  were,  the  little  ma- 
chine was  put  to  the  proof,  but 
failed  to  work  satisfactorily. 

He  made  a  working  machine  on 
a  larger  .scale,  the  cylinder  being  6 
inches  diameter,  12-incli  stroke,  and 
was  made  of  wood  boiled  in  linseed- 
oil.     Still  the   little  machine  was 
obdurate,  and  he   failed   to   realize 
the  results  he  supjiosed  attainable. 
The  engine  working  on  tlie  at- 
mo.spheric  principle,   the   valuable 
effect  was  in   proportion  to  the  perfection   of  the 
vacuum   obtainable    below   the   piston.       But   here 
a   trouble    met    him.      If   he    injected    so   large   a 
fpiantity  of  water  as  to  obtain  a  good  atmospheric 
pressure,  the  cylinder  was  so  much  cooled  that  he 
lost  a  great  quantity  of  steam  in  warming  it  u]!,  and 
it  became  necessary  to   strike  a  mean.      Smcaton, 
who  had  probably  obtained  the  best  results  up  to 
this  time,  rarely  cooled  the  contents  of  the  cylinder 
below  180°,  at  which  temperature  the  steam  has  a 
pressure  equal  to  a  column  of  15  inches  of  mercury. 
Thus  he  lost  half  the  atmospheric  ]iressure  for  the 


CONDENSER. 


607 


CONDENSER. 


which  condensed  against  the  sides  of  the  cylinder 
until  the  latter  acquired  the  heat  of  the  steam,  all 
which  was  necessary  before  the  engine  could  make 
the  up-stioke. 

Watt  instituted  a  series  of  very  careful  experi- 
ments on  the  relation  between  temperatures  and 
pressure  of  steam,  and  brought  to  hear  upon  the  sub- 
ject careful  analysis  as  well  as  genius.  The  result 
was  the  separate  coruknser.  Instead  of  cooling  the 
cylinder,  he  connected  it  with  another  vessel  in 
which  the  refrigeration  was  accomplished,  a  valred 
communication  being  prorided  between  the  two. 

The  engine  was  thus  the  atmospheric  engine  with 
a  separate  condenser,  securing  economy  of  fuel  and 
time  with  increa-sp  of  power. 

If  the  inventor  had  stopped  at  this  point  he  would 

have       found 
Fig  UU.  that  the  con- 

densers would 
after  a  while 
become 
charged  and 
inoperative; 
so  he  con- 
trived a  pipe 
34  feet  long 
(Fig.  1414), 
which  led 
away  from  the 
condenser,  its 
lower  end 
being  sub- 
merged in  a 
tank,  and  in- 
asmuch as 
such  a  column 
is  gieater  than 
can  be  sup- 
ported by  the 
pressure  of  the 
atmosphere, 
the  water 
would  leave 
the  condenser, 
which  would 
then  be  occupied  only  by  steam  and  air.  The  steam 
enters  the  chamber  A  by  the  bent  pipe,  and  the 
water  the  chamber  E  by  the  other  pipe,  and  passes 
in  a  shower  through  the  perforations  in  the  chamber, 
condensing  the  steam  and  carrnng  it  down  the  dis- 
charge-pipe F  into  the  cistern  G.  The  pipe  is  so 
long  that  the  weight  of  the  column  of  water  makes 
an  almost  perfect  vacuum,  and  thus  dispenses  nnth 
an  air-pump  for  discharging  the  heated  water.  The 
device  is  also  used  in  vacuum-pans,  etc.  The  pipe 
F  is  shown  with  a  break  and  gap  to  indicate  that 
a  large  portion  is  removed  to  bring  the  de\'ice  with- 
in pro]iortions  convenient  for  display  upon  the  page. 
S;;e  ASPIIIATOR  ;  AiK-prMP  ^Fig.  lis; 

Fig  1415. 


Vertical  Column  Condenser, 


JlL 


f^ 


Worm-  Condenser. 


Surjace-  Condenser, 


The  SHr/«c'c-condenser  has  a  series  of  flat  chambers 
or  tubes,  usually  the  latter,  in  which  the  steam  is 
cooled  by  a  body  of  water  suiTounding  the  tubes. 
The  most  secure  way  of  fastening  the  tubes  in  the 
heads  is  Horatio  Allen's  wooden  thimble,  which 
swells  after  placing  in  position,  and  makes  a  tight 
joint.  Distilled  water 
for  ships'  use   is  ob-  Fig.  1416. 

tained  by  the  conden- 
sation of  steam  in  a  . 
surface  condenser.  To 
render  it  more  palat- 
able it  is  artiticially 
aerated  and  then  fil- 
tered through  animal 
charcoal. 

2.  {Distilling.) 
The  still-cmidcnscr 
is  generally  of  the 
worm-tub  form  ;  the 
coil  containing  the 
alcoholic  vapor  trav- 
ersing a  tub  which 
receives  a  constant  accession  of  cold  water,  con- 
densing the  vapor  in  the  coil.  The  liquid  escapes 
at  a  cock  below. 

In  the  example,  Fig.  1417. 

the  liquor  con- 
densed in  each 
coil  may  be  sep- 
arately with- 
drawn. 

I  n  Hadley's 
still  the  pipe  ris- 
ing from  the  still 
has  successive 
condensers  4  A  in 
ascending  series, 
the  liquid  in  the 
condenser 
jackets  being 
gi-adually  cooler 
as  they  recede 
from  the  still. 
The  object  is  to 
eliminate  by 
successive  stages 
a  liquid  of  given 
tenuity,  and  re- 
turn the  heavier 
condensed  va- 
pors. 

In  Liebig's, 
the  neck  of  the 
still  b  passes  through  a  water-jacket  e  to  the  receiver 
h.  The  jacket  is  furnished  with  a  constant  stream 
of  water  from  cistern  c,  by  pipe  d,  and  exit  /,  to 
waste-cup  (j.     a  is  the  lamp. 

In  Fig.  141S  is  shown  an  apparatus  for  preparing 
purified  ammonia,  from  the  ammoniacal  licjuor  of 
gas-works,  by  distillation,  cooling,  and  treating  the 
products  with  charcoal,  and  condensing  the  liquid. 

Fig.  1419  is  an  apparatus  in  which  a  condenser  C 
is  placed  between  the  vacuum -pan  A,  and  the  air- 
pump  G,  so  as  to  condense  any  alcoholic  spirit 
which  may  have  formed  in  the  sugar  or  molasses 
under  treatment. 

3.  {Metnllurijii.)  An  apartment  in  which  metal- 
lic or  deleterious  gaseous  fumes  are  condensed  to 
prevent  their  escape  into,  and  contamination  of,  the 
atmosphere. 

These  have  been  tried  with  more  or  less  success 
in  the  copper-works  of  Swansea,  the  lead-works  of 
England,  and  iu  various  other  manufactories.     The 


Still- Condnser. 


CONDENSER. 


608 


CONDENSER. 


Fi-    1413. 


Aynmonia  StiU  and  Condenser. 


general  feature  is  a  prolonged  duct  for  the  fumes, 
with  showers  of  water  to  condense  the  arsenical, 
enlphurous,  aud  other  fugitive  volatile  matters. 
The  same  devices  serve  an  euonornical  purpose  in  sav- 
ing fugitive  fumes  of  lead,  zinc,  mercury,  sulphur, 
antimony,  etc.     See  Ausenic-fuknace. 

Fig.  1420  is  »  furnacM  and  condenser  for  the  dry 
distillation  of  ore  of  metals  capable  of  assuming  vol- 
atile condition  with  a  moderate  heat.     The  broken 


ore  is  fed  from  the  hopper  C  into  the  rerolving-dnim 
J,  which  is  heated  by  the  furnace  Ji  and  saii|iUi'd 
with  air  under  pressure  by  the  pipe  i'  from  the  .-.ir- 
pump.  The  heated  ore  is  ground  by  the  rolling  balls 
G,  and  the  fumes  escape  by  the  bent  pipe  D  through 
the  succession  of  sealed  water-chambers  H  H  //"ami 
pipes  D'  D"  D'"  to  the  partitioned  chamber  J  ajid 
the  concluding  vessel  K  which  contains  mercury. 
What    remains   volatile  after  this  escapes  at   the 


Fig  1419 


H-:        - 

-■   n    1 

JI                                                                    ■..-■--,-■             ■     ■  -   7.       i 

1                                         _--.,; 

-^    1 

M                           -            -           .                                    _,      , 

1                                                                                                      rl      ' 

Cowiens^T  for  Alcoholic  Vapors  of  Su^ar. 


chimney  i.  The  post  ^1/ supports  one  tnuinion  of 
the  <lrum,  and  the  other  trunnion  is  a  sleeve  carry- 
ing the  cog-wheel. 

4.  {Gas-nud-ing.)  An  apparatus  in  which  the  crude 
gas  from  the  retort  is  cooled,  and  the  ammoniacallicpior 
and  tar  extracted  therefrom.     See  Oas-i-Mindensek. 

5.  (Sugar  Mdiiufacturc.)  The  Degrand  ( D'Mosne) 
condenser  is  in  the  train  of  sugar  ajiparatus,  ami  con- 
sists of  a  vertical  series  of  convoluteil  steam-pipes  C, 
over  which  trickles  the  sugar-caue  juice  from  the 
defecator.     See  Fig.  1421. 


Dry  Vtscillatiun  Furnace  ami  Condenser. 


6.  (  Wool  Mann/dcture.)  A  de\'ice  used  in  wool 
manufacture  to  compact  the  narro^v  slivers  from  a 
carding-machine  so  as  to  bring  them  into  the  condi- 
tion of  sliihs.  The  narrow  circumferential  cards  of 
the  doffing-cyliuder  deliver  naiTow  slivers  which 
pass  to  the  condenser. 

This  consists  of  a  pair  of  transverse   rollers   sup- 

fiorting  a  belt  as  wide  as  the  dofling-cylinder  is 
ong,  and  receiving  the  slivers  which  are  detached 
from  the  card-rings  of  the  said  cylinder  by  the 
dotling-knife.       As    the    slivers    pass    from    the 

doffer  they  run  be- 
neath an  upper  roll- 
er,  which,  in  ailili- 
tion  to  its  rotary 
motion,  has  an  end- 
ways motion  of  two 
inches,  back  and 
forth  in  the  direc- 
tion of  its  length. 
By  this  means,  each 
sliver  is  rolled  upon 
the  traversing  belt 
in  a  manner  similar 
to  that  of  rolling  it 
beneath  the  palm 
of  the  hand  upon 
a  table.    It  is  thus 


CONDENSER-GAGE. 


609 


CONDUCTOR. 


Fig.  1421. 


Derosne  Condenser. 

rounded  and  compacted,  the  fibers  becoming  some- 
what interlaced  and  closely  associated,  the  nature  of 
the  wool  tending  materially  to  assist  the  operation. 
The  endways  motion  of  the  roller  is  given  by  an 
eccentric  at  one  end.  The  slubbings,  as  they  are 
formed,  are  carried  forward  by  the  apron  and 
wound  upon  a  revolving  bar  ;  when  filled,  this  is 
removed  and  placed  in  the  mule,  which  draws  from 
it  as  it  would  from  bobbins  placed  on  skewers  on  a 
creel. 

7.  A  dentist's  tool  for  packing  foil  for  plugging 
teeth. 

8.  An  air-pump  for  filling  a  chamber  with  air  or 
gas  at  a  pressure  above  the  atmospheric.  The  con- 
densing air-pump  was  known  to  Ctesibus,  and  fig- 
ures largely  in  the  "  Spiritalia  "  of  Hero. 

9.  (Optics.)  A  lens  to  gather  and  concentrate  the 
rays  collected  by  the  miiTor  and  direct  them  upon 
the  object.  There  are  several  varieties,  known  as  the 
achromatic  condenser,  etc.     See  Condensixg-lf.ns. 

10.  (Electric itij.)  a.  An  instrument  for  concen- 
trating electricity  by  the  effect  of  induction.  It 
usually  consists  of  a  confolded  sheet  of  tin-foil,  whose 
layers  are  separated  by  a  thin  sheet  having  a  non- 
conducting surface. 

Volta's  electrical  condenser  is  attached  to  a  gold- 
leaf  electrometer,  and  consists  of  two  brass  plates, 
one  connected  to  the  cap  of  the  electrometer,  the 
other  supported  on  a  brass  pillar.  The  use  of  the 
instrument  is  to  render  apparent  such  portions  of 
electricity  as  are  too  weak  to  be  indicated  by  the 
electrometer  only. 

b.  With  induction  apparatus,  it  is  a  device  for 
absorption  or  suppression  of  the  extra  current,  in- 
duced by  the  rapid  breaks  in  the  main  current. 

c.  An  instrument  in  which  an  electric  spark  passes 
between  the  poles  in  a  closed  glass  cylinder,  so  as 
to  be  employed  in  burning  metals  in  an  atmosphere 
of  any  given  tenuity  or  specific  chemical  char.acter, 
to  obtain  the  spectra  of  metals  or  gases  free  from  ac- 
cidental characteristics  of  the  general  atmosphere  for 
the  time  being.     A  spark-condciiscr. 

Con-dens'er-gage.  A  tube  of  glass,  thirty-two 
inches  long,  open  at  both  ends,  the  upper  end  being 
fixed  to  the  condenser,  the  lower  end  dipping  into 
mercury.  It  is  to  ascertain  the  degree  of  exhaustion 
in  the  steam-condenser. 

Con-dena'ing-lens.  A  plano-convex  {bulVs  eye) 
or  double  convex  lens,  to  concentrate  rays  upon  an 
opaque  microscopic  object. 

Con-dens'ing-en'gine.  (Steam-engine.)  One 
39 


Fig.  1422. 


Condensing- LeTls. 


in  which  the  steam  below  or 
in  advance  of  the  piston  is  con- 
densed, in  order  that  a  power 
equal  to  the  cumulative  force 
of  steam  and  atmospheric  press- 
ure may  act  upon  the  effective 
side. 

In  contradistinction  to  the 
non  -  condensing  engine,  in 
which  no  provision  is  made  for 
a  partial  vacuum  in  advance 
of  the  piston. 

The  object  of  condensation 
is  twofold  ;  — 

To  avail  the  atmospheric 
pressure. 

To  economize  the  fuel  by 
making  effective  a  part  of  the 
otherwise  escaping  heat.  | 

Among  the  condensing-en- 
gines   maj'    be    cited  :  —  The 
Cornuth   and   marine    engines 
of  various  kinds.     Pumping  and  fcKtoi-y  engities  of 
large  size  are  usually  condcn.iing. 

The  engines  of  the  Eastern  rivers  and  Northern 
lakes  are  usually  condensing.  Those  of  the  Western 
and  Southern  rivers  are  usually  high-pressure  and 
non-condensing.  The  latter  of  a  given  power  are 
lighter  than  the  condensing,  and  the  depth  of  water 
often  determines  the  question,  which  kind  of  engine 
shall  be  adopted  in  a  country  or  district. 

Locomotives  belong  to  the  jum-condcnsing  class, 
securing  compactness  and  power  within  moderate 
limits  as  to  weight. 

Con-dens'ing-syr'inge.  A  syringe  whose  valves 
are  so  arianged  as  to  take  air  above  and  condense  it 
below  the  piston,  so  as  to  condense  air  into  any 
chamber  to  which  the  foot  of  the  syringe  is  se- 
cui-ed. 

Con-duct'or.  1.  (Electricity.)  A  term  applied 
to  a  body  capable  of  transmitting  an  electric  current. 
.Strictly  speaking,  all  bodies  are  conductors  of  elec- 
tricity, but  those  of  relatively  very  small  conduc- 
tivity are  known  as  non-conductors  ;  for  instance  :  — 

The  conductivity  of  copper  being  estimated  at 
40,000,000, 

That  of  water  is  as  1. 

Becquerel's  table  is  as  follows  :  — • 

Pure  copper  wire    . 

Gold  .... 

Silver     . 

Ziuc    .... 

Platinum 

Iron    .... 

Lead 


100 
93.6 
73.6 
28.5 
16.4 
l.'i.S 
8.3 


In  practice :  A  prime  conductor  collects  and 
transmits  the  frictional  electricity  of  the  electrical 
machine.     It  was  introduced  by  Bose  in  1741. 

A  lightning-conAwQtor,  for  conducting  the  static  or 
tension  electricity  of  the  atmosphere  harmlessly  to 
the  earth.  It  consists  of  a  wire,  rod,  or  slip  of 
metal  from  the  top  of  a  house,  tower,  steeple,  or 
mast,  to  the  ground,  or,  better  still,  a  ground-plate 
or  system  of  buried  iron  pipes. 

G  ray  and  'ttTieler,  in  1 7  20  - 1 736,  made  experiments 
to  ascertain  the  distance  through  which  electric  force 
could  be  transmitted,  using  insulated  metals. 

Gray,  in  1729,  discovered  the  properties  of  electric 
conductors.  "  He  found  that  the  attraction  and  re- 
pulsion which  appear  in  electric  bodies  are  ex- 
hibited also  by  other  bodies  in  contact  with  the 
electric."  —  Whewell. 

Dr.  Watson,  in  1747,  passed  transmitted  electricity 


CONDUIT. 


610 


CONFECTION-PAN. 


through  2,800  feet  of  wire  and  8,000  feet  of  water, 
using  the  earth  eireiiit. 

Benjamin  Franklin,  in  1748,  perfomieil  his  experi- 
ments on  the  banks  of  tlie  Schuylkill,  "concluded 
l)y  a  jiicnic,  when  spirits  were  tired  by  an  electric 
spark  sent  through  the  river,  ami  a  turkey  was  killed 
by  the  electric  shook,  and  roasted  by  the  electric 
jack,  before  a  fire  kindled  by  the  electrified  bottle." 
The  latter  was  the  Leyden  jar,  the  invention  of 
Muschenbroek  and  Kleist,  three  years  previous. 

Franklin  Hew  his  kite  in  Philadelphia  in  1752, 
and  proved  the  substantial  identity  of  lightning  and 
frietional  electricity.  He  then  invented  the  light- 
ning-rod for  th«  harmless  passage  of  the  electri- 
city. 

D'Alibard  erected  a  lightning-rod  in  the  same 
year. 

Richmanu  of  St.  Petersburg,  the  following  year, 
in  repeating  Franklin's  experiment,  was  killed  by 
a  stroke  of  lightning. 

Charles  ilarshall,  in  1753,  proposed  insulated 
wires,  suspended  by  poles,  as  electrical  conductors 
for  transmitting  messages. 

Lesarge,  in  1774,  used  twenty-four  electrized  wires 
and  a  pith-ball  electrometer  as  a  mode  of  signaling. 
Lomoud,  in  17S7,  nseil  one  wire  and  a  pith-ball. 

Reizen,  in  1794,  had  twenty-six  line  wires  and 
letters  in  tiu-foil  which  were  rendered  visible  by 
electricity. 

Cavallo,  in  1795,  had  one  wire,  and  talked  by 
sparks.     He  had  an  explosion  of  gas  for  an  alarm. 

2.  (Surgical.)  A  grooved  staff  for  directing  a 
penetrating  instrument  in  surgical  operations  ;  such 
as  the  forceps  in  extracting  balls  ;  lithoutriptic  in- 
struments, etc. 

Con'duit.     (Hydraulic  Engineering.)    A  pipe  or 

passage,  usually  cov- 

Fig.  142.3.  ered,  for  conducting 

^^ .^  water. 

Cone.    The  vent- 
plug  which  is  screwed 


Conduit  of  the  Pont  du  Gard. 


into  the  barrel  of  a 
fire-aim  (A,  Fig. 
1424).  The  outer 
end  is  the  stipple  for 
receiving  the  percus- 
sion-cap. 

a,  nipple. 

I,  square. 

c,  shoulder. 

d,  screw-thread. 

e,  vent. 

Cone-bit.  A  bor- 
ing -  bit  of  conical 
form. 

Cone-com'paaa-ea.  A  pair  of  compasses  with 
a  cone  or  bullet  on  one  leg,  to  set  in  a  hole.  A  bul- 
let-compasses. 

Cone-gear.  A  mode  of  transmitting  motion, 
consisting  of  two  cones  rolling  together. 

Cone-joint.  A  joint  (B,  Fig.  1424)  formed  by 
a  double  cone  of  iron  inserted  into  the  ends  of  the 
pipes  to  be  joined,  and  tightened  by  screw-bolts,  as 
shown  in  the  figure. 

This  joint  is  quickly  made  and  is  very  strong. 

Cone-plate.  The  conical  collar-plate  of  a  lalhc- 
he  III. 

Cone-pul'ley.  1.  An  arrangement  for  varying 
the  speed  of  the  bobbin  in  spinning-machines,  giving 
them  a  gradually  decreasing  velocity  as  the  roving 
is  wound  thereon,  so  as  to  keep  an  equal  strain 
on  the  roving  (6',  Fig.  1424).  The  lower  pulley 
is  driven  with  a  uniform  speed,  and  communicates 
motion  to  the  other  by  a  band  which  is  slipped  to- 


Cont-PutUy. 


wards  the  larger  end  of  the  ^'g'  1424. 

upper  roller  as  the   roving 

gradually  fills  the    bobbin. 

See  Fig.  751.     The  object  is 

to  obtain  an  equal  pull  on  the 

roving,  notwithstanding 

changes  in  the  diameter  of  the 

cop  as  the  winding  proceeds. 

2.  (Machinery.)  A  pulley 
with  several  faces  of  varying 
diameter,  so  a,s  to  obtain  va- 
rying speeds  of  the  mandrel. 
A  speed-\i\\\\iiY . 

Cone-valve.  A  hollow 
valve  having  a  conical,  per- 
forated face,  through  which 
water  is  discharged  when 
the  valve  rises,  without  im- 
pinging directly  upon  the 
valve-face  or  seat. 

Cone-vise  Coup'ling. 
A  mode  of  connecting  the 
ends  of  shafting,  consisting 
of  an  outer  sleeve  a  and  two 
inner  sleeves  b  b.  The  interior  surface  of  portion  a 
has  two  conical 

frustums,    and  I'ig.  1425. 

theinnersleeves 
have  gains  for 
the  bolts  c  c, 
which  draw 
them  together 
and  jam  them 
between  the  in- 
clines of  the 
outer  sleeve  and 
the  surfaces  of 
the  respective 
rods. 

C  o  n  e  - 
wheel.  The 
cone-wheel  has  several  applications  :  — 

1.  Two  frustums 
are  in  apposition, 
one  having  teeth  on 
its  face  and  the  other 
a  spirally  arranged 
row  of  studs.  The 
toothed  wheel  at  its 
small  end  acts  upon 
studs  on  the  larger 
portion  of  the  op-  ' 
posite  wheel  and  I 
conversely.  The 
effect  is  to  confer 
a  regular  variabil- 
ity of  rotation  to  the 
stud-wheel  from  a 
regular  rotation  of 
the  driving  -  frus- 
tum. 

2.  The  frustum, 
being  driven  by  the 
motor,  communi- 
cates motion  to  the  wheel  above  it.  This  is  not  in- 
termittent or  variable,  but  is  adjustable.  The 
nearer  the  upper  wheel  is  to  the  base  of  the  cone, 
the  faster  will  it  rotate,  and  conversely. 

Con-fec'tion-pan.  A  jian  for  making  comfits 
or  other  cout'ectious  which  require  to  be  rolled  upon 
one  anotiier  while  being  dried  by  heat.  In  the  ex- 
ample, the  shaft  of  the  pan  is  secured  to  a  ring  by  a 
universal  joint.  Its  lower  end  rests  in  a  socket  nmde 
on  the  upper  face  of  the  wheel,  which  is  rotated  by 


Cant-  Valve. 


Fig  1426. 


Cone-  Vise  Couplings. 


CONFORMATOR. 


611 


CONSOLE. 


Fig.  1427.  gearing,    and    carries    the 

shaft  around  vdih  it,  giv- 
ing a  wabbling  motion  to 
the  pan.  The  shaft  de- 
scribes two  cones  connected 
at  their  common  vertex, 
which  is  at  the  center  of 
oscillation  in  the  universal 
joint.  A  rolling  motion  is 
imparted  to  the  pan, which 
is  heated  by  steam  or  hot- 
air  pipes  beneath,  commu- 
nicating by  flexible  pipes 
with  a  furnace  or  boUer 
and  an  escape-pipe. 

Con-form'a-tor.  1.  A 
skeleton  frame  of  slats  and 
braces,  adaptable  to  the 
person,  and  then,  after  ad- 
justment, removable,  so  as 
Cone-Wheels.  to  be  laid  upon  cloth  and 

allow   the   pattern    to    be 

marked  thereon.     Or  an  elastic  jacket  with  points 

on  the  seams,  upon  which  a 


Con'i-cal--wheel. 

A  wheel  shaped  like 
a  frustum  of  a  cone, 
and  used  in  many 
ways :  as  a  roller 
for  turning  curves  in 
moving  heavy  bodies; 
the  cone-pulleys  are  LM;^ 
forms  of  wheels  for 
changing  speed;  used 
in  spiniuug-machines 
and  lathe-heads  ;  the 
fusee  is  a  conical- 
wheel  with  a  spiral 
track  for  the  chain. 

Co-nis'si-net.  The 
stone  which  crowns  a 
pier,  or  that  lies  im- 
mediately over  the 
capital  of  the  impost, 
and  under  the  sweep. 
Con-nect'ing- 
linlf.    A  Unk  which 


paper  maybe  impaled,  and, 
when  withdrawn,  answer 
as  a  pattern. 

2.  A  head-measurer  used 
by  hatters. 

Con'ge.  A  small  circu 
lar  molding  occurring  at 
the  junction  of  the  shaft  of 
a  column  with  its  base. 
The  echinus,  or  quarter- 
round,  is  a  sweltiiig  conge  ; 
the  caretto  is  a  holloic  conge. 

Con'greve.  A  phos- 
phorous match  ignited  by 
friction.      See    Lightikg- 

DEVICES. 


Fig.  142a 


Confection- Pan. 


Con'greve-rock'et.  The  Asiatic  rocket  im- 
proved and  employed  as  a  formidable  instrument  of 
war  by  Sir  William  Congreve,  1804.  See  Rocket  ; 
Gunpowder. 

Con'i-cal-gear'ing.  An  arrangement  of  gearing 
in  which  a  (lair  of  cogged  cones  transmit  through 
interposed  pinions  motion  of  the  required  speed. 

Con'i-cal-pend'u-lum.  A  pendulum  of  a  con- 
ical shape  suspended  by  a  wire  and  moring  in  a 
circular  path  in  a  horizontal  plane.  See  Pexdh- 
LI.M. 

A  term  sometimes  applied  to  the  rotating  ball 
governor. 

Con'i-cal-pulley.  ConicaJ-pulleys  are  used  in 
cotton  machinery  where  a  gradually  increasing  or 
decreasing  s]ieed  is  required.     See  Cone-pulley. 

Con'i-Ceil-valve.  1.  A  form  of  valve  for  water 
and  steam  engines,  a  is  the  valve-seat,  made  taper- 
ing so  as  to  tit  into  the  valve-chamber  of  a  pump. 
Upon  the  rim  of  this  is  fixed  the  bridge  b,  serving 
both  as  a  guide  and  a  stop  for  the  valve  c,  whose 
lower  stem  enters  the  sleeve  d. 

2  shows  a  conical  frastum  c  having  a  stem  in  the 
bridge-piece  c  and  a  seat  a. 

3  shows  Watt's  conical  valve  g  h,  with  a  stem  in 
the  bridge  /,  and  operated  by  a  lever  and  cord. 


Conical  Valves. 

has  a  movable  section  by  which  it  may 
be  made  an  intermediate  connection  be- 
tween two  links  of  a  broken  chain.  The 
open-ring  or  /njo-ring  is  a  form  of  con- 
necting-link used  in  attaching  a  single- 
tree to  a  double-tree,  and  the  latter  to 
the  plow-clevis. 

Con-nect'ing-rod.  (Machinery.)  a. 
The  rod  connecting  the  piston-rod  or 
cross-head  of  a  locomotive  engine  with 
the  crank  of  the  driving-wheel  axle. 

b.  The  coupling-rod  which  connects 
driving-wheels  on  the  same  side  of  a  lo- 
comotive. By  coupling  other  paire  of 
driving-wheels  to  the  pair  which  is  im- 
mediately actuated  by  the  engines,  slip 
is  avoided,  as  a  gi-eater  number  have  a  tiactive  ad- 
herence to  the  rails  and  are  not  mere  bearers. 

c.  The  rod  connecting  the  cross-head  of  a  beam- 
engine  with  that  end  of  the  working  beam  which 
plays  over  the  cylinder. 

The  rod  depending  from  the  other  end  of  the 

beam  is  the  pitman  or  pum)i-rod,  as  the  case  may  be. 

Con-nect'or.     1.    (Electricity.)    A    device    for 

holding   two  parts   of  a 

conductor,    as    the    two 


wires  for  instance,  in  in- 
timate contact.  A  bind- 
ing-screw ;  a  clamp. 

2.  The  English  term 
for  a  car-coupling. 

Con'science.  A 
plate  resting  against  the 
drill-head  and  enabling 
the  pressure  of  the  breast 
or  hand  to  be  brought 
upon  the  drill.  A  pal- 
ette. 

Con'sole.  (Building.) 
A  bracket  whose  sole  or 
shelf  is  supported  by  a 
pair  of  flowing  scrolls. 


Fig.  1430. 


CONSTANT  BATTERY. 


612 


CONVERTING. 


Con'stant  Bat'ter-y.  A  name  applied  to  the 
Voltaic  battiTy  of  Professor  Daniell,  in  which  the 
zinc  is  .separateil  I'roin  tlie  copper  by  a  porous  dia- 
phragm, such  as  bladder  or  iinglazed  porcelain,  two 
distinct  liquids  being  used.  The  part  of  the  battery 
containing  the  zinc  is  charged  with  dilute  sulphuric 
acid,  and  the  part  containing  the  copper  is  charged 
with  sulphate  of  copper.  See  Galvanic  Batteuy. 
Con-struc'tion-way.  (liailroading.)  As  dis- 
tinguished from  the  finished  or  pirnianeiil  way  of  a 
railroad.  It  is  a  temporary  way  used  in  trans)i(>rt- 
ini;  the  gravel,  etc.,  of  the  cuttings  to  the  Jills  or 
places  where  the  embankments  are  to  be  made. 
Also  iu  obtaining  gravel  from  other  points  where 
the  cuttings  for  the  track  do  not  furnish  it. 

Also  used  in  transporting  material  and  men  to  the 
point  at  which  tlie  work  is  progressing  and  in  car- 
jying  ballast  for  the  track. 

Con'tact-lev'el.  A  valuable  adaptation  of  the 
spiiit-level  used  by  certain  instrument-makers  for  the 
production  of  exact  divisions  of  scales,  and  generally 
for  the  determination  of  very  minute  ditferences  of 
length. 

Tills  device  was  invented  about  the  year  1820,  by 
Repsold,  a  celebrated  instrument-maker  of  Hamburg, 
whose  mechanical  genius  first  manifested  itself  in 
the  repairing  of  chronometers  while  he  was  mate  of 
a  vessel  at  sea. 

It  consists  of  a  vei-y  delicate  level  pivoted  at  its 
middle  and  across  its  length,  with  a  small  tilt-weight 
at  one  end,  whicli  tips  always  in  one  direction. 
From  the  center  of  the  level  downward,  a  short  rigid 
arm  extends  with  a  plain  polished  surface  perpen- 
dicular to  the  chord  of  the  level,  and  against  which 
the  contact  is  made.  The  carrier  of  this  arrangement 
is  either  fixed,  or  mounted  on  a  slide,  governed  by 
a  micrometer  screw.  If  now  the  end  of  a  rod  ter- 
minating in  a  hardened  steel  point  be  advanced  hor- 
izontally till  it  bears  against  the  contact-arm,  the 
level  will  gradually  assume  the  horizontal  position, 
and  the  movement  of  the  bubble  as  indicated  by  the 
scale  upon  the  glass  will  depend  upon  the  relation 
between  the  radius  to  which  the  level-tube  is  ground, 
and  the  length  of  the  contact-lever.  If  the  latter 
is  4  an  inch  long,  and  the  radius  of  the  glass  tube 
is  400  feet  (levels  for  astronomical  purposes  are 
ground  to  a  sweep  of  800  and  1,000  feet  radius),  we 
have  the  relation  bc-tween  the  lever  and  radius  as  1 
is  to  9,600,  and  as  /n  of  an  inch  can  readily  be  read 
from  the  level-scale,  jWninT  of  an  inch  (9,600  x  50) 
will  be  the  did'ereuce  in  length  which  each  division 
on  such  a  scale  indicates. 

When  it  is  remembered  that  such  a  determination 
of  leufth  can  be  repeateil  indefinitely,  and  that  the 
readings  are  nuide  without  the  aid  of  a  magnifying- 
gl.ass  or  artificial  illumination,  the  perfection  and 
beauty  of  the  nietliod  will  lie  appreciated. 

Con-tin'u-oua  Rail.  A  rail  made  in  .sections 
with  H  longitudinal  vertical  joint,  and  the  sections 
laid  together,  breaking  joint. 

The  continuous  rail  has  been  tested  on  the  New 
York  Central  Railroad  and  on  other  American  lines. 
Its  smoothness  of  action  left  but  little  to  be  desired 
while  it  was  new,  but  it  .soon  deteriorated.  The 
rail  is  made  in  sections  which  have  a  longitudinal 
vertical  joint  ;  the  parts  being  united  by  bolts  and 
nuts,  with  the  addition  of  Jish-plalcx  at  the  trans- 
verse joints.  The  sections  break  joint,  that  i.s,  the 
junetion  of  two  ]iieces  on  one  .side  comes  opposite  to 
an  unbriiken  suil'ace  of  the  rail  on  the  other  side. 
See  FisiiiNi;. 

Cont'line.  The  space  between  the  strands  on 
the  outside  of  a  rope.  In  worming,  this  space  is 
filled  up  with  spun  yarn  or  small  rope,  which  brings 


the  rope  so  treated  to  a  nearly  cylindrical  shape, 
either  to  strengthen  it  or  to  render  the  surface 
smooth  and  fair  for  serving  or  parceling. 

Con-tour'.  {Forlification.)  Nntvral  contour: 
the  form  of  the  ground  surface  with  respect  to  its 
undulations. 

Line  of  contour:  a  horizontal  plane  intersecting 
a  portion  of  ground. 

Con'tra-bas'so.  (Music.)  The  largest  and 
deepest-toned  of  the  series  of  stringed  instruments 
played  with  the  bow.      A  doubh'-bnss. 

Con-trac'tion-rule.  A  rule  in  excess  of  stand- 
ard measurement  used  by  pattern-makers,  to  allow 
for  the  contraction  of  the  east  metal  in  cooling. 

Con'tra-mure.  An  out-wall  built  about  the 
wall  of  a  city  or  fortification. 

Con'trate-'wheel.  A  crowm-wheel  or/acc-wheel, 
in  a  watch.  Also  known  as  the  fourth  wheel.  Its 
cogs  project  pei-pendicularly  to  the  plane  of  the 
wheel.  It  gave  a  name  to  the  old  vertical  or  verge 
movement,  in  clocks  and  watches,  where  a  crown- 
wheel is  placed  in  engagement  with  the  pinion  on 
the  arbor  of  the  escape-wheel,  in  order  to  bring  into 
horizontal  position  in  the  clock  the  arbors  of  all 
except  the  escape-wheel.  The  anchor  pallet  has  put 
the  eontrate-wheel  out  of  use  in  clock  escapements, 
and  the  lever  and  other  movements  have  superseded 
the  old  vertical  movement  in  watches. 

Con'tra-val-la'tion.  (Fortification.)  An  ad- 
vanced ofl'ensive  work  consisting  of  a  trench  and 
parapet  to  check  sallies  of  the  gan-ison. 

Con'tra-va'peur.  A  French  invention,  a  partial 
substitute  for  brakes.  It  consists  in  injecting  a 
small  stream  of  water  from  the  boiler  into  the  ex- 
haust-pipes or  passages  before  and  during  the  re- 
versal, so  as  to  bring  a  counter-pressure  of  steam 
upon  the  piston. 

Con-trol'ler.  (Naiitical.)  A  cast-iron  block 
having  depressions  on  its  upper  surface  adapted  to 
fit  the  Unks  of  the  cable  whiidi  passes  over  the  block 
on  its  way  from  the  locker  to  the  hawse-hole. 

Controllers  are  bolted  to  the  deck  at  various 
points  in  t-lie  line  traversed  by  the  cable.  The  lat- 
ter tends  to  drop  into  the  hollow  of  the  block  which 
then  arrests  the  motion.  The  cable  may  be  lifted 
out  of  the  hollow,  by  the  short  arm  of  a  lever  which 
rises  from  the  bottom  of  the  hollow  in  the  block. 

Con-ver'sion.  (Shipbuilding.)  The  cutting 
—  usually  with  the  saw  —  of  logs  of  timber  into 
pieces  nearly  of  the  shape  required. 

Con  ver-sa'tion-tube.  An  elastic  tube  with 
a  mouth-piece  about  two  inches  in  diameter,  and  at 
the  other  end  an  ear-piece.  The  neck  is  a  yard 
or  more  in  length,  made  of  spiral  wire  covered  with 
caoutchouc  and  overspun  with  mohair  or  silk. 

Con-vert'ing.  1.  (Fiix-arms.)  A  name  applied 
to  changing  muzzle-loading  arms  to  breech-loaders, 
and  which,  in  some  form,  has  taken  place  with  the 
small-arms  of  most  national  armaments. 

From  among  the  various  competing  plans  for  con- 
verting the  En- 


field rifie  of  the 
English  service 
into  a  breech- 
loader, that  of 
Snider  was 
adopted.  The 
cost  of  conver- 
sion is  about 
15^.  English  for 
each  rifle. 

The  method 
is  as  follows :  — 

About       two 


Fig.  1431. 


,-^7?->f^'"  -^. 


Snider^s  Converted  Enfield  tiijfe. 


CONVERTIXG-FUENACE. 


613 


CONVERTOR. 


inches  of  the  barrel  are  cut  away  at  the  breech,  and 
a  solid  breech-stopper  ^,  working  sideways  on  a 
liiiige,  is  placed  in  the  opening  thus  made.  Through 
this  stopper  passes  a  piston,  one  end  of  which,  B, 
wlien  tlie  breech  is  closed,  receives  the  blow  from 
the  liammer,  wliile  the  other  communicates  it  to 
the  center  of  the  cartridge,  thus  firing  the  latter. 
The  empty  cartridge-case  is  retracted  ixfter  each  dis- 
charge by  means  of  sliding  back  the  stopper  on  its 
pintle,  when  the  tilting  of  the  piece  tips  out  the  shell 
and  another  can  be  inserted.  It  weighs  9  pounds 
5^  ounces,  and  has  been  fired  fifteen  times  in  a  min- 
ute. 

The  Springfield  (U.  S.)  rifle  is  also  converted  into 
a  breech-loader.     See  Fire-.\km. 

2.  Biising,  or  reducing  a  ship  by  a  deck  ;  or 
otherwise  changing  or  degrading  it  into  a  battery- 
vessel,  or  a  receiving  or  prison  hulk. 

3.  Decarbonizing,  or  changing  cast-iron  into 
steel.     See  Con'vep.tou  ;  Bes.skmer  Process. 

Con-vert'ing-fur'nace.  One  for  converting 
wrought-iron  into  ste.-l.  Wrought-iron  is  iron  in 
its  greatest  purity,  though  it  is  seldom  that  all  the 
impurities  are  perfectly  eliminated.  Steel  contains 
a  portion  of  carbon,  more  or  le.^s,  and  is  a  carburet 
of  iron.  Cast-iron  contains  a  much  larger  amount 
of  carbim  Qualities  of  each  depend  upon  the  quan- 
tity and  nature  of  other  matters  whicli  are  combined 
wit'i  the  iron,  some  being  undesirable  but  difficult 
of  r.'uioval,  and  others  being  purposely  added  to 
confer  a  quality  or  to  neutralize  extraneous  matters 
which  are  present. 

Tlie  bars  of  iron  are  cut  by  sheai-s  to  the  requiied 
lengtli  and  are  placed  in  layers  in  a  flat,  narrow  fur- 
nace, with  intervening  layers  of  pounded  charcoal. 
Above  the  alternate  strata  of  iron  and  charcoal  is  a 
covering  of  ferruginous  earth.  The  mass  being 
he.ited,  the  carbon  is  in  some  way  absorbed  by  the 
iron,  whi^h  is  converted  into  steel.  This  is  known  as 
CKMExr.\Tii).N  (which  see). 

The  resulting  blister  steel,  so  called  from  the 
blisters  formed  by  bubbles  of  gas  which  was  elimi- 
n;ited  during  the  process  of  conversion,  is  then 
cut  up,  reheated  and  hammered,  and  becomes  sliear 
steel. 

Blister  ste?l,  cut  np,  heated  in  crucibles,  poured 
into  molds,  and  the  ingots  hammered  into  shape, 
becomes  C(«^-steel. 

Con-vert'or.    An  iron  retort  in  which  molten 


iron  is  exposed  to  a  blast  of  air,  the  oxygen  of  which 
burns  out  the  carbon  and  some  other  impurities  of 
the  iron  ;  a  subse([uent  addition  to  the  chai-ge 
makes  a  further  cheniicjil  change,  and  the  result  is 
a  grade  of  steel.     It  is  used  in  the  Bessemer  process. 

Condensing,  from  a  brilliant  description  by  Mr. 
R.  W.  Raymond  of  the  process  as  conducted  by  Jlr. 
Holley,  it  may  be  briefly  described  as  follows  :  — 

The  tive-ton  converter  is  an  iron  vessel  Ki  feet 
high  and  9  feet  in  diameter  externally,  of  a  bulbous 
shape,  and  hung  upon  trunnions.  The  lower  hemi- 
sphere is  truncated,  giving  a  flat  bottom,  five  or  six 
feet  in  diameter.  The  upper  hemisphere  terminates 
in  a  large  neck  inclined  sidewise,  so  that  a  Hame 
issuing  under  pressure  from  the  mouth  of  the  up- 
right convertor  is  obliquely  directed  into  a  chimney, 
guarded  by  a  hood.  The  whole  vessel  has  a  rude 
resemblance  to  a  pear.  It  is  sujiported  by  heavy 
trunnions  on  each  side  of  the  center,  and  revolved 
upon  these  by  hydraulic  power. 

This  huge  iron  bottle,  with  its  neck  awry,  is  lined 
with  a  foot  of  refractory  silicious  n:ateiial,  known  as 
ganistcr,  to  preserve  the  iron  shell.  The  tninnion 
is  hollow,  and  a  passage  from  it  runs  down  tlje  mit- 
side,  looking  like  a  strong  rib  in  the  iron  surtaci',  to 
the  bottom,  where  it  coninmnicates  witli  the  tuyeres. 
The  bottom  of  the  Holley  convertor  is  movable,  and 
when  taken  out  looks  like  a  great  plug  of  fire-brick, 
two  feet  high,  resting  upon  a  cast-iron  disk.  Tlie 
tuyeres,  or  nozzles  for  the  blast,  are  imbedded  ver- 
tically in  the  lining,  and  present  ten  groups,  each 
containing  a  dozen  tlnee-eigliths  inch  holes.  Tlie 
aggregate  area  of  these  openings  is  equal  to  that  of 
a  single  tuyere  4.1  inches  in  diameter,  but  the 
thorough  agitation  produced  by  dividing  the  blast 
secures  much  greater  useful  effect.  The  pressure  of 
the  blast  is  twenty-five  jiounds  per  square  inch. 

The  convertor  in  its  upright  position,  being  heated 
by  a  charge  of  coals  and  tlie  blast,  is  turned  mouth 
downward  to  vomit  out  the  glowing  coals,  then 
upon  its  side  to  receive  its  charge,  which  runs  from 
the  cupola  furnace  above,  along  a  trough,  and 
pluuges  into  the  mouth  of  the  convertor.  The 
position  of  the  retort  at  this  time  prevents  the 
charge  from  running  into  the  tuyeres  before  the  blast 
begins.  Afterwards  the  pressure  of  the  air  itself 
keeps  the  passages  clear.  Then  the  blast  is  let  on, 
and  the  convertor  swung  back  to  a  vertical  position. 
A  tongue  of  white  flame  comes  roaring  out  of  the 


Fig.  1432. 


mo'.ith.  The  silicon  of  the  pig  oxidizes  first,  with- 
out very  intense  flame  ;  but  as  the  gi-aphite  and 
especially  the  coinbiiii'd  carbon  begin  to  burn  also, 
the  lieat  rises  to  .some  5,000°  F.,  and  the  light  is  so 
brilUint  as  to  cast  shadows  across  full  sunsliine. 
In  fifteen  or  twenty  minutes  the  marvellous  illu- 


mination ceases  more  suddenly  than  it  began. 
Tlie  volume  and  brilliancy  of  the  flames  diniini.sh 
together  with  startling  vapidity.  This  change  of  the 
Bessemer  flame  marks  the  elimination  of  most  of  the 
carbon,  and  indicates  the  critical  moment.  "When 
it   arrives,   the  blast   is  stopped,   the  convertor  is 


CONVERTOK. 


614 


COOKING-EANGE. 


turned  upon  its  side,  and  600  pounds  of  melted 
spit'geleisen  are  turned  into  it,  as  the  pig  was  pre- 
viously charged.  The  reaction  is  instant  and  vio- 
lent. The  manganese  of  the  spiegeleisen  combines 
with  any  sulphur  that  may  remain  in  the  bath, 
forming  compounds  which  pass  into  the  slag.  It 
also  decomposes  in  the  slag  silicates  of  iiou,  taking 


Fig.  1433. 


Holley^s  Convertor. 

the  place  of  the  iron  and  returning  it  to  tlie  bath. 
Finally,  the  carbon  and  manganese  togethei'  reduce 
the  o.xide  of  iron  formed  during  blowing,  which  would 
destroy  the  malleability  of  the  iron.  This  is  iiuiokly 
accomplished,  and  now  the  gigantic  convertor,  like 
a  monster  weary  of  drinking  boiling  iron  and  snoit- 
ing  fire,  turns  its  mouth  downward,  and  discharges 
its  contents  into  a  vast  kettle  or  ladle,  brought  un- 
derneath for  the  purpose  by  one  of  those  intelligent 
cranes  that  stanil  around  so  silent  and  so  helpful. 
The  ladle  is  swung  over  the  molds  ranged  round  the 
side  of  the  semicircular  pit  below,  like  a  row  of  Ali 
Baba's  oil-jars,  each  capable 
of  containing  a  bandit.  The 
white,  one  would  almost  say 
transiiarent,  metal  is  drawn 
oil'  into  these  through  a  tap- 
hole  in  the  bottom  of  the 
laiUe,  retaining  the  slagwhich 
floats  on  the  surface  till  the 
last.  When  the  first  mold  is 
filled,  the  plug  is  closed,  the 
ladle  swung  round  to  the  sec- 
ond mold,  and  so  on  till  all 
the  steel  is  thus  cast  into  ingots,  the 
size  of  which  varies  with  the  kind  of 
work  for  which  the  steel  is  required. 
A  thin  steel  plate  is  placed  on  the 
top  of  each  casting  inmiediately  the 
mold  is  filled,  and  over  this  a  bed 
of  sand  is  jilaced,  and  speedily  and 
firmly  pressed  down. 

As  soon  as  tlie  ingots  have  solidi- 
fied, and  while  they  are  still  glowing, 
the  niolils  are  lifted  off  them  by- 
means  of  an  hydraulic  crane,  and  af- 
terwards the  ingots  are  picked  up 


by  tongs  attached  to  the  same  machinery,  and  are 
carted  away,  all  red-hot,  to  the  hammer-shops,  where 
they  are  thumped  and  rolled  or  otherwise  tortured 
into  their  reipiired  forms  of  rails,  tires,  and  jilates. 

Con'vex  Lens.    One  having  a  protuberant  form. 

A  j'iitno-conrcx  lens  has  one  llat  and  one  bulging 
side. 

A  coHcavo-amvex  or  convexo-concave  has  one  pro- 
tuberant and  one  depressed  side. 

A  convexo-convex  or  double-convex  lias  two  convex 
surfaces,  not  necessarily  of  the  same  radii.  Sec 
Len.s. 

A  mechanical  means  of  carrying 


Fig.  1434. 


V^^\ 


Con-vey'or. 

objects.  A 
term  applied 
usually  to 
those  adapta- 
t  i  o  n  s  of 
band-buck- 
ets or  spirals 
which  con- 
vey grain, 
chaff.  Hour, 
bran,  etc., 
in  thrashers, 
elevators,  or 
grin  ding- 
mills  ;  or  ma- 
terials  to 
upper  stories 
of  ware- 
houses or 
shops,  or 
buildings  in 
course  of 
erection. 

(See  Elevator.  )  Also  applied  to  those  arrange- 
ments of  carriages  traveling  on  ropes,  by  wdiich  hay 
lifted  by  the  horse-fork  is  conveyed  to  distant  parts 
of  a  barn  or  mow  (Fig.  1434)  ;  or  materials  to  a 
structure,  as  shown  in  the  full-page  cut  opposite  to 
page  49. 

Con'voy.  One  name  of  a  friction  brake  for  car- 
riages. 

Cook'ing-range.  A  cooking  arrangement  in 
which  the  devices  —  grate,  oven,  boiler,  etc.  — 
are  placed  in  a  row  (ranged),  and  set  in  brickwork 
within  the  fireplace,  so  called.  Poitable  ranges  are 
not  so  built  in,  but  are  cooking-stoves.     One  of  the 

Fig.  1436. 


Hay  Elevator  and  Conveyor, 


Coofci7ig-  Ranse. 


COOKING-STOVE. 


615 


COOPERING. 


latt<?r  kind,  for  hotel  or  steamboat  use,  is  sho»ii  in 
Fig.  1 435,  in  which  the  tire-chambers  h  h  k,  ovens 
i  i,  and  Hues,  are  so  arranged  that  the  range  has  two 
fronts  and  an  end,  so  that  attendants  can  have  ready 
access  to  all  parts  of  the  range.  The  products  of 
combustion  are  utilized  in  heating  closets  below  the 
evens  for  warming  plates  and  keeping  the  viands 
warm,  and  thence  dive  into  the  sub-floor  flue  /, 
which  connects  with  the  chimney  of  the  building. 
Cook'ing-stove.  A  structure,  usually  of  iron, 
containing  a  fuel- 
Fig.  1436.  , f     chamber  and  ovens, 

with  holes  into 
which  pots  may  be 
set  to  boil  the  con- 
tents. 

Stoves  are  com- 
paratively uncom- 
mon in  England. 
They  prefer  the 
open  fireplace  for 
apartments  and  the 
range  for  kitchens. 
Sec  R.4NGE. 

The  English  cook- 
stove  of  forty  years 
since  is  shown  in 
the  annexed  cut. 
"  The  front  of  the 
stove  is  a  grate  at 
which  joints  may 
be  roasted.  Between  the  fire-back  and  the  oven  is 
an  air-flue.  A  part  of  the  frout  may  be  lowered,  as 
shonn  in  dotted  lines,  to  form  a  shelf  for  stewing. 


English  Stove. 


Fig.  1 437  represents  an  ordinary  form  of  stove,  the 
doors  being  opened  and  lids  otf  to  expose  the  interior. 

I  Fig.  143S  is  an  attempt  to  secure  a  roasting-stove 
by  means  of  direct  radiation  from  the  fire-box  into 
the  oven  through  the  back  fire-plate  and  the  front 
oven-plate  for  roasting  or  broiling ;  but  this  direct  ra- 
diation is  shut 

off    when    the  Kg-  1439. 

oven  is  used  for 
baking. 

j  Fig.  1439  has 
an  elevated  ov- 
en and  a  coal- 

I  magazine,     be- 

j  iug  an  applica- 
tion of  the  base- 

I  burning  princi- 

I  pie  to  the  cook- 
ing-stove. The 
base  is  connect- 
ed by  vertical 
flues  to  the  up- 

j  per  part  con- 
taining the  ov- 
en.    There  are 

I  many  hundreds 
of  varieties; 
some  differ- 
ences being  ac- 
tual, some  im- 
aginary. 

Cool'er.    1. 
(Breiring. )      A 


Eifcaled-Ocen,  fiase-Bumin^  Cooking- 
Stoce. 


large  vat,  relatively  broad  and  shallow,  in  which  the 
beer  is  cooled.  Mechanical  appliances  are  sometimes 
used  to  expedite  the  process.  See  Liquid-cooler  ; 
Beer-cooler. 

2.  (Domfstic.)     a.  An  ice-chest  or  safe  for  viands 
in  hot  weather.     See  Refki(;er.\tor. 

b.  A  tin  vessel  with  lid,  faucet,  and  non-conduct- 
ing jacket,  for  containing  ice-water. 

3.  (Sugar.)     A  trough  in  which  condensed  ciue- 
juice  from  kettles  or  vacuum   j>ans  is  placed   to 

Fig.  1440. 


American  Cooking-Stove. 

A  plate  may  be  in  front  to  form  a  blower.  The  fire 
is  directed  above  or  below  the  oven  by  means  of 
dampers.    The  passage  between  the  fire  and  the  oven 

is  supplied  by 
^•g- 113S.   ij  p^  airfrom below, 

and  discharges 
into  the  oven,  i 
from  whence  a 
iW  pipe  dischai^- 


Rotuting'Stove^  uriJi  Reservoir. 


es  the  fumes  of 
the  cookingin- 
to  the  chim- 
ney. This  is 
said  to  have 
the  effect  of 
roasting  rather 
than  baking. 


Sugar-Cooler. 

crystallize.  In  Cuban  sugar-houses  each  cooler 
holds  H  hogshead.";. 

Cool'ing-floor.  A  large  shallow  tank  in  which 
tcort  is  cooled.  Horizontal  vanes  for  causing  a  cir- 
culation of  air  over  the  wort  are  called  flighttrs. 
Apparatus  for  bringing  the  wort  in  contact  with 
artificially  cooled  surfaces  are  Refrigekatdus 
(which  see). 

Coom.  A  terra  applied  to  refuse  matters,  such  as 
soot,  smoke-black,  coal-dnst,  the  mold  which  fonns 
on  some  liquids,  the  drip  of  journal-boxes,  etc. 

Coop'er-ing.  The  art  of  making  casks  and  bar- 
rels. 


COOPER'S  HAMMER. 


616 


COPE. 


Tlie  invention  is  ascribed  by  Pliny  to  the  people 
who  lived  at  the  foot  of  the  Alps.  It  seems  to  have 
attained  great  excellence  at  an  early  day. 

The  business  is  divided  into  several  kinds,  which 
may  or  may  not  be  carried  on  together. 

Dry  coopering  consists  of  making  barrels  for  flour, 
hams,  eggs,  grain,  sugar,  etc. 

IVel  or  tujht  coopering  is  for  whiskey,  molasses, 
pickled  meat,  cider,  vinegar,  etc. 

IVkUe  coopering  consists  of  buckets,  tubs,  churns, 
etc. 

BiKkct-making  and  barrel  ■•making  are  generally 
carried  on  in  factories,  special  machinery  being  em- 
ployed. 

The  accompanying  cut  gives  an  impression  that 
the  business  of  coopering  is  conducted  on  energetic 

Fig.  1441. 


Japanese  Coopers  f,fiom  a  Native  Picture). 

principles.  While  the  Hindoo  bricklayer  sits  at  his 
work,  and  the  blacksmith  of  some  other  country  — 
name  forgotten  —  holds  his  tongs  with  his  foot,  it 
appears  tliat  in  Japan  one  holds  the  driver  and 
another  climbs  upon  the  trussed  cask  to  use  the 
hamnicr. 

Coop'er's  Ham'mer.  A  hammer  with  a  narrow 
prcii,  whose  length  is  in  the  plane  of  the  motion  of 
the  hnnimer  ;  used  for  battering  and  flaring  an  iron 
hoop  to  ht  the  bulge  of  a  cask.     Also  called  a  fluc- 

Coop'er's  Plane.  A  long  plane  set  in  slanting 
position,  sole  upward,  upon  which  staves  are  jointed. 
A  jointer.  Planes  and  shaves  are  or  may  be  used 
in  smoothing  the  work.     See  list  under  next  article. 

Coop'er's  Tools:  — 


Doweling-machine. 

Drawing-knife. 

Driver. 

Klagging-iron. 

Flue-hammer. 

Frow. 

Gathering-hoop. 

Heading-circler. 

Heading-knife. 

Heading-machine. 

Hollowing  and  backing- 
machine. 

Hooj). 

Hoop-bending  machine. 

Hoop-cutter. 

Hoop-dressing  machine. 

Hoop-driver. 

Hoop-punching  machine, 

Hoop-riving  machine. 

Hoo]>-shaving  machine. 

Hoop  splaying  and  bend- 
ing machine. 

Howel. 

Inshave. 


Adze. 

Auger.     Taper 

Barrel-machine. 

Barrel-head  machine. 

Borer. 

Bucket-machine. 

Bung. 

Bang-cutter. 


Butt-howel. 

Chineing-machine. 

Cleaving-knife. 

Cooper's  hammer. 

Cradle. 

Cresset. 

Croze. 

Crozing-maehine. 


Jigger. 

Jointer. 

Overshave. 

Pack. 

Pail-machine. 

Raising-knife. 

Rounding-machine. 

Setting-up  machine. 

Shook. 

Spoke-shave. 

Stave. 

Stave-bender. 

Stave-cutter. 

Stave-dresser. 

Stave-jointer. 

Stave-machine. 

Stave-sawing  machine. 

Stave-setter. 

Tap-borer. 

Truss-hoop. 

Turrel. 

V-croze. 

Vyce. 


Coo-thay'.  {Fahric.)  A  striped  satin  made  in 
India. 

Cop;  Cop'pin.  1.  {Spinning.)  A  conical  ball 
of  thread  wound  upon  a  sjiindle  or  tube  in  a  spin- 
ning-machine, and  removable  by  slip])ing  there- 
from. 

The  copping-rccl  is  the  means  of  distributing  the 
roving  or  yarn  up  and  down  on  the  bobbin,  so  as  to 
wind  it  into  the  form  required.  The  form  (1,  Fig. 
1442)  is  the  result  of  a  scheme  for  giving  each  layer 
an  eijual  length  of  yarn,  so  that  the  length  of  the 
layer  on  the  bobbin  shall 
decrease  as  its  diameter 
inn'cascs. 

The  increase  in  diam- 
eter renders  necessary  a 
decrease  in  speed,  in  or- 
der that  it  may  wind 
ecpialyarnin  equal  times. 
This  is  accompli.'.hed  by 
a  device  called  a  cone- 
puUey  (which  see). 

The  cop  (2,  Fig.  1442) 
made  on  the  spindles  of 
the  mule  is  of  a  different 
form,  the  yam  being 
wound  in  a  double  cone 
as  a  foundation  abed, 
upon  which  the  rest  is 
built  upward  in  succes- 
sive layers,  which  are 
easily  unwound,  either 
by  the  reel  or  in  the 
shuttle.  The  conical 
spindlc-form  with  coni- 
cal ends  is  preserved  (a 
bee  /),  as  being  the 
most  compact  and  self- 
sustaining,  consideration 
being  had  to  the  form  of 
the  shuttle  in  which  it 
is  to  lie. 

2.  A  tube,  also  known  as  a  quill,  for  winding  silk 
upon  in  given  lengths  for  market  ;  a  substitute  for 
ski'ins.  Being  hollow,  it  may  be  placed  on  the 
spiniUe  or  skewer  of  any  winding-machine.  The 
silk  end  is  .secured  in  a  slit,  as  in  the  case  of  spools. 
Cope.  1.  (Foundinij.)  The  upper  part  of  a 
mold  ;  the  lower  is  the  drug.     It  may  consist  of 


Bobbin  and  Cop. 


COPE-CHISEL. 


617 


COPPER-BIT. 


several  [larts,  which  divide  by  a  vertical  joint  and 
mutually  rest  upon  the  drag.     See  Flask. 

It  is  also  kno\ni  as  the  aip,  coat,  top,  cnsc,  dome. 
Some  of  these  are  mere  S)-nouymes,  othere  refer  to 
specific  forms  of  the  object. 

2.  (Architecture.)  A  crown,  arch,  or  arched  lin- 
*      tel.     Tlie  root-raeaniug  is  the  same  as  cap  or  cover. 

Cope-cllis'eL  A  chisel  adapted  for  cutting 
grooves. 

Cop'ing.  (Masonry.)  The  top,  protecting  course 
on  the  top  of  a  wall.     It  is  of  three  kinds  :  — 

Parallel  coping,  level  on  top. 

Feather-edged  coping,  bedded  level  and  sloping  on 
top. 

Haddle-hack  coping  ha.s  a  curved  or  doubly  inclined 
top. 

The  under  edge  should  be  throated,  that  is,  gi'ooved, 
so  that  the  drip  will  not  run  back  on  the  wall,  but 
drop  from  the  edge. 

Cop'per.  1.  A  red  metal.  Equivalent,  31.7  : 
symbjl,  Ca.  (cuprum)  ;  specific  gravity,  8.7  to  8.9, 
according  to  density ;  fusing-point,  1996°  F.  A 
moderately  hard,  malleable,  ductile  metal.  A  good 
conductor  of  heat  and  electricity. 

Its  uses  are  very  numerous.  In  the  shape  of 
wire  and  sheets  its  employments  ramify  through  all 
the  uses  and  conveniences  of  commerce  and  the 
household. 

The  alloys,  brass  and  bronze,  are  the  most  use- 
ful of  that  interesting  class  of  compounds.  Besides 
these,  it  eutei-s  into  the  composition  of  albata,  bell- 
metal,  speculum-metal,  etc.     See  Alloy. 

Its  salts  are  usually  poisonous,  but  brilliant,  and 
are  extensively  ussd  in  the  arts. 

It  forms  the  material  for  the  lower  denomination 
of  the  coins  of  most  civilized  nations. 

Copper  was  known  and  used  long  before  iron. 
The  discovery,  so  fir  as  the  nations  depending  on 
the  Western  Asiatic  civilization  is  concerned,  is 
probably  due  to  the  Scythians.  Aristotle,  Pliny, 
and  others  give  the  nam's  of  the  supposed  discov- 
erers, and  carry  it  bajk  to  the  era  of  fabulous  divini- 
ties. The  first  alloy  of  copper  was  that  with  tin, 
making  a  bronze  ;  afterward  with  zinc,  making  a 
brass.  Th.'  same  name  is  ajiplied  to  both  in  the 
Greek,  also  in  the  Latin.  Tlie  tin  for  the  alloy  was 
found  in  the  islands  called  Cassiteris  or  Cassiterides, 
which  are  the  Seilly  Islands  and  the  promontory  of 
Cornwall.  "  Midacritus,"  says  Pliny,  "  was  the 
firet  who  hroii^ht  tin  from  thence,  and  the  islands 
received  the  Greek  name  of  the  metal."  Herodotus 
makes  the  same  statement  as  to  the  source  of  the 
m-ta',  an  I  the  .same  district  is  yet  rich  in  tin,  and 
is  worked  to  great  profit.  The  tin  brought  by  the 
Phoenicians  to  Solomon  to  alloy  the  copper  for  the 
vessels  of  the  Temple  at  Jerusalem  made  other  trips 
wh -n  it  was  cirried  to  Babylon,  returned  under  Cy- 
rus, was  retaken  by  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  and  was 
thence  scattered,  probably  in  the  form  of  coin. 

The  references  in  the  Bible  to  copper  are  very 
infrequent,  considering  it  to  be  the  commonest  metal 
they  had.  It  is  but  twice  mentioned,  while  brass 
(sj  trinslated)  is  mentioned  thirty-one  times.  It 
should  be  rendered  bronze,  its  alloy  being  tin,  and 
not  zinc. 

Copper  was  in  common  use  in  ancient  Assyria. 
No  iron  was  found  in  the  excavations  of  Khorsabad 
by  M.  Botta,  who  was  the  first  successful  explorer 
of  the  tumuli  on  the  Tigris.  Iron  armor,  inlaid 
with  copper,  was  found  by  L^iyard  at  Nimroud. 

Sheet -copper  was  made  in  ancient  Egypt, 

Hesiod  speaks  of  the  third  generation  of  men 
"  who  had  arms  of  copper,  houses  of  copper,  who 
plowed    with   copper,  and  the   black   iron  did  not 


fig.  1143. 


exist."     In  the  Homeric  poems,  knives,  spear-points, 
and  armor  were  still  made  of  copper. 

The  process  of  reducing  copper  ore  depends  upon 
its  character.  Swansea,  in  South  Wales,  has  the 
principal  part  of  the  work,  ores  being  brought  there 
from  Cornwall,  Devonshire,  Spain,  South  America, 
Australia,  Africa,  and  the  United  States,  and  there 
they  are  smelted  and  refined.    See  Copper-fcexace. 

The  Mansfield  (Prussian  Saxony)  process  Con- 
sists in  roasting  the  calcareous  ore  to  expel  the  sul- 
phur and  o.xidize  the  metal ;  the  ore  is  then  smelt- 
ed in  a  cupola,  the  slag  and  molten  metal  being 
drawn  at  two  tap-holes  into  separate  cisterns.  The 
■matte,  combined  sulphurets  of  iron  and  copper,  is  re- 
peatedly roasted,  and  the  resulting  sulphate  of  cop- 
per removed  bj-  lixiviation.  When  silver  is  present, 
it  is  removed  with  lead,  and  that  separated  by  cu- 
pellation. 

With  the  Longmaid  process  the  copper  pyrites  is 
roasted  in  the  presence  of  chloride  of  sodium.  A 
double  decomposition  ensues ;  sulphuric  acid  is  formed 
and  attacks  the  soda,  the  copper  becomes  a  soluble 
sulphate,  the  iron  is  in  the  form  of  peroxide  ;  the 
escaping  fumes  of  chlorine 
impregnate  lime,  which  be- 
comes bleaching-powder. 

The  wet  treatment  of 
copper  is  by  grinding  and 
roasting  ;  sulphuric  acid  is  -~~.^/t^ 
formed  and  attacks  the  ox- 
ide of  copper,  the  resulting 
sulphate  is  dissolved  away, 
anil  the  metal  precipitated 
by  peroxide  of  iron. 

In  making  sheet -copper 
the  plates  of  copper  from 
the  smelting  and  refining 
works  are  heated,  in  small  ovens  called  muffles,  to  a 
bright-red  heat,  and  then  repeatedly  rolled  ;  the  roll- 
ers, at  each  operation,  being  brought  nearer  together. 
The  plates  thus  produced  are  called  blanks,  which 
are  again  heated  in  the  muffle  and  rolled  again.  A 
repetition  of  the  process  makes  shccl-coppcr. 

2.  A  large  vessel  —  usually  of  copper  —  set  in 
brickwork,  and  used  by  launders,  coopers,  brewers, 
bleachers,  dyei-s,  and  on  shipboard ;  in  boiling 
clothes,  staves,  cloths,  etc.,  or  in  making  extracts  or 
decoctions. 

Cop'per  Al-loys'.  Copper  is  the  most  useful  of 
all  metals  for  alloys,  and  a  list  of  its  combinations 
is  given  on  page  61  ct  scq. 

Cop'per-bit.  A  pointed  piece  of  copper,  riveted 
to  an  ii'on  shank  and  provided  with  a  wooden  hau- 

Fig.  1444 


Brewcr^s  Copper, 


^3^:^ 


die.  It  is  used  for  soldering.  If  not  previously 
tiniied,  it  is  heated  to  a  dull  red  in  a  charcoal  fire  ; 
hastily  filed  to  a  clean  metallic  .surface  ;  then  rubbed 
immediately  upon  a  lump  of  sal-ammoniac,  and  next 
upon  a  copper  or  tin  plate,  upon  which  a  few  drops 
of  solder  have  been  placed.     This  will  completely 


COPPER-BOTTOMED. 


618        COPPER-PLATE  PRINTING-PRESS. 


coat  the  tool,  which  may  he  wii>ed  clean  with  a 
piece  of  tow,  and  is  ready  for  use.  a  b  show  dif- 
I'erent  positions  of  the  l)it  on  its  stock. 

c  is  a  device  by  which  a  gas-jet  is  applied  to  the 
back  of  the  copper-bit,  admitting  of  its  constant  use, 
without  continued  reference  back  to  the  furnace  for 
reheating.  The  gas  passes  through  the  elastic 
tube,  and  thence  through  the  hancile  and  shank, 
whence  it  issues  in  a  jet  upon  the  back  of  the  lilt, 
in  quantities  determined  by  the  stopcock.  The 
elastic  tube  allows  the  tool  to  be  moved  ri^adily  in 
any  direction. 

Cop'per-bot'tomed.  (ShipbuUdinrf.)  Having 
that  portion  of  the  outer  skin  which  is  e.\]iosed  to 
the  water  sheathed  witli  cop[ier,  as  a  iirotection 
against  tliat  great  bore,  the  Tcndu  navalis. 

Cop'per-cap.  The  copper  cajisule,  charged  with 
a  fulniiTiate  and  placed  on  the  nipiile  of  a  tire-arm, 
to  expliiile  thi*  cliarge  when  the  hammer  falls. 

Cop'per-faced.  ( Tape. )  Having  a  face  of 
coppiT  upon  a  sliank  of  type-metal. 

Cop'per-faat'ened.  {Shipbui/diufj.)  Having 
the  planks,  etc.,  fastened  with  copper  bolts,  in  con- 
tradistinction to  iron  ;  the  latter  being  liable  to 
rust,  especially  in  contact  with  oak  and  by  exposure 
to  wet. 

Cop'per-fur'nace.  Copper-smelting,  as  prac- 
ticed at  Swansea,  Wales,  consists  of  the  following 
processes  :  — 

1.  Calcination  of  llu:  ore.  This  is  conducted  in  a 
reverberatory  furnace.  (See  CALCiNiNG-FtriiNArE  ; 
CopPKK. )  The  charge  is  introduced  by  hopper  on 
to  the  hearth  of  the  furnace,  where  it  is  exposed  for 
IH  hours  to  a  flame,  which  disengages  the  sulphur 
and  arsenic  in  a  gaseous  shape. 

2.  Separaliim  of  the  copper  frmn.  gangiie  and  oxide 
of  iron.  This  is  accomplished  in  a  melting-furnace, 
whicli  collects  the  copper  in  a  tnatt,  consisting  of 
sulphuret  of  copjier  and  iron,  the  gangue  and  oxiiie 
of  iron  in  the  shape  of  scoria;,  and  drives  oH'  certain 
amounts  of  sulphur  and  other  volatile  matters. 

Each  charge  is  in  the  furnace  four  hours.  The 
matt  collects  in  the  basin  of  the  hearth,  and  is  run 
olf  into  a  cistern,  whereby  it  is  granulated.  The 
scoriie  is  run  off  into  sand-pits  of  small  size,  where  it 
forms  bricks,  which  are  examined  for  traces  of  cop- 
per and  the  richer  jiortions  retained  for  remelting. 

The  copper  is  in  the  condition  called  coarse  metal. 

3.  Calcination  of  tlw  coarse  metal.  This  is  per- 
formed in  a  reverberatory  furnace,  the  heat  being 
gradually  increased  for  36  hours.  The  copper  here 
reaches  the  condition  of  calcined  coarst:  metal. 

4.  Oxidation  and  removal  of  the  iron.  To  the 
product  of  the  former  operation  are  added  certain 
copper  ores  fiee  from  sulphuret  of  iron.  By  melting 
in  connection  therewith,  the  sulphuret  of  iron  is 
oxidized  and  passes  into  the  slag,  while  the  copper 
becomes  a  matt,  in  the  condition  of  white  metal. 
The  charge  is  six  hours  in  the  furnace. 

5.  Remelting  and  refining  tlie  matt.  By  the  ap- 
plication of  heat  in  a  furnace  the  reactions  of  the 
fornu-r  operations  are  repeated  ;  disengaging  sul- 
phurous acid,  setting  eop])er  free  to  unite  with  the 
matt,  and  removing  iron,  which  passes  from  the  con- 
dition of  sulphuret  to  an  oxide  and  passes  into  the 
scoriaj. 

The  product  is  known  as  blue  metal. 

6.  Remelting  of  slaij.'!.  The  slags  resulting  from 
operations  4,  7,  and  8,  are  mixed  with  certain  other 
ores  in  a  furnace,  and  several  chemical  reactions 
take  place,  which  result  in  two  metallic  products  for 
future  o))erations,  —  red  and  ivhite  metals. 

7.  Refining)  of  the  blue  metal.  The  blue  metal 
of  operation  5  is  slowly  calcined,  and  then  fused  at 


a  high  temperature,  the  first  part  of  the  operation 
taking  %\  hours,  and  the  second  2i  hours.  The  re- 
actions are  to  some  extent  repetitions  of  the  former, 
and  the  ]>roduct  is  white  metal. 

8.  Refining  of  former  metallic  products.  The 
white  metal  of  operation  7,  and  the  red  and  white 
metals  of  operation  6,  are  calcined  and  then  re/ined, 
producing  a  rich  regulus  of  co]iper,  a  rich  slag,  and 
bottoms. 

9.  Combining  and  refining  of  former  metallic  pro- 
ducts. The  while  metal,  regulus,  and  bottoms  of 
former  operations  are  calcined  and  fused,  some  rich 
ore  being  added.  The  product  is  metallic  copper 
and  a  rich  slag,  which  goes  back  to  the  operation  4. 
The  product  is  known  a-s  coarse  copper.  It  is  run 
into  pigs.     Time  required,  24  hours. 

10.  Converting  the  coarse  copper  into  malleable. 
The  coarse  copper,  in  the  form  of  Jiigs,  is  placeil  in  the 
furnace  ;  about  21f  hours  being  employed  in  iiritig- 
ing  it  to  that  condition  where  the  slag  on  the  sur- 
face containing  the  metallic  oxides  is  skimmed  olf. 
It  is  then  called  dry,  and  is  in  a  condition  which 
would  be  brittle,  were  it  withdrawn.  It  is  rendered 
malleable  by  carbonizing,  charcoal  and  green  wood 
being  thrown  on  the  surface.  It  is  then  ladled  out 
and  itoure(i  into  nioUls. 

Cop'per-plate  En-grav'ing.  A  very  ancient 
art ;  in  chasing  or  enc'hasing —  that  i.s,  carving  on 
metal  —  it  is  seen  in  all  the  regions  of  antiquity,  in 
the  ages  of  copper  and  bronze,  before  iron  was  used. 
Many  thousands  of  years  passed  before  the  plates 
omai'nented  by  the  graver  were  used  for  printing, 
and  even  then  it  was  suggested  by  taking  proofs  of 
inlaid  or  chased  work.  An  artist  wouhl  take  im- 
pressions of  his  work  for  purposes  of  transfer  or  ref- 
erence, and  from  these  came  the  suggestion  of 
making  the  engraving  in  such  a  manner  that  the 
impression  itself  might  be  beautiful  and  worth  keep- 
ing for  its  merits,  other  than  as  a  workman's  copy. 

In  copper-plate  engraving  the  lines  are  etched,  or 
cut  by  a  graver  in  a  plate  ;  then  filled  with  an  ink  ; 
the  surface  of  the  plate  wi]ied  clean  ;  the  pa]ier  laid 
upon  the  surface  of  the  plate,  ami  both  mn  through 
a  roller-press,  by  which  the  ink  is  transferred  to  the 
paper. 

Vasari  ascribes  the  invention  of  engraving  on 
copper  to  a  goldsmith  of  Florence  named  Maso 
Finiguerra,  about  1460.  The  oldest  engravers 
whose  names  and  maiks  are  known  were  Israel  de 
Mecheln,  of  Bokholt,  in  the  bislio])ric  of  Mnnster  ; 
Martin  Schoen,  of  Colmar,  in  .41sace,  where  he  died 
1486  ;  Michael  Wolgemuth,  of  Nuremberg,  the  pre- 
ceptor of  the  famous  Alliert  Durer. 

Cop'per-plate  Print'ing-press.  This  press  is 
for  obtaining  impressions  from  sunken  engravings  ; 
that  is,  those  in  which  the  design  is  cut  into  the 
copper  or  steel  plate,  in  contradistinction  to  such  as 
have  the  design  salient,  as  in  wood-engravings,  where 
the  part  which  is  not  designed  to  print  is  cut  away. 

In  copper  or  steel  plate  engraving,  lines  are  made 
in  the  plate  by  the  graver  ;  by  the  etching-point, 
followed  with  acid  ;  by  the  etching-point  alone 
(called  dry  point)  ;  and  by  the  diamond  point  of  the 
ruling-macdiine,  followed  with  acid. 

These  lines  in  the  plate,  whether  fine  or  heavy, 
are  filled  with  ink,  and  the  plate  is  then  passed 
through  the  pres,s,  delivering  the  imjiression  upon 
the  soft,  damp  paper  above  it,  the  ink  adhering  to 
the  paper  and  being  withib-awn  from  the  lines  of  the 
plate. 

To  describe  the  process  a  little  more  at  length  : 
The  plate  is  laid  on  a  small  metallic  table  heated  by 
a  brazier  beneath.  This  is  to  warm  the  ink,  which 
is  made  very  thick,  and  is  laid  on  with  a  dabber  or 


COPPIX. 


619 


COPYING-PRESS. 


roller  until  the  lines  are  all  full  and  the  surface  cov- 
ered. The  surface  of  the  jilate  is  then  wijied  off  with 
a  cloth,  leaving  the  ink  in  the  lines.  Tliis  requires 
dexterity,  and  the  plate  is  fii'st  wiped  in  one  direc- 
tion and  then  in  another.  The  bare  hand,  slightly 
dried  by  a  little  whiting,  is  then  applied  to  the  plate 
to  polish  the  surface,  and,  the  margin  being  wiped 
clean,  the  plate  is  laid  upon  the  traversing  bed  of 
the  press. 

The  paper  for  the  impression  is  then  laid  on  the 
plate,  and  the  workman  turns  the  roller  by  means 
of  the  spokes,  drawing  the  plate  and  paper  between 
the  bed  and  roller,  subjecting  it  to  heavy  pressure, 
and  causing  the  ink  to  adhere  to  tlie  paper  and  leave 
the  lines  of  the  plate.  Blankets  intervene  between 
the  paper  and  the  roller. 

When  an  "  India  proof"  is  to  be  taken,  the  sheet 
of  fine  India  paper  is  first  laid  on  the  inked  plate, 
and  the  backing  of  paper  is  roughened  by  dabbing  it 
with  the  bristles  of  a  stiff  brush.  It  is  then  laid  on 
the  India  paper,  and  the  pressure  causes  the  two 
papers  to  adhere. 

The  old-fashioned  copper-plate  press  has  a  roller 
moved  by  the  radial  handles,  and  a  bed  traversing  on 
anti-friction  rollers.     A  great  improvement  consists 

Fig  li45. 


Bate-Press. 

in  the  D-rolIer,  which  has  one  flat  side,  and  allows 
the  bed  and  plate  to  return  by  a  counter-weight  af- 
ter pa.ssing  beneath  the  periphery  of  the  roller.  A 
farther  improvement  is  the  heater  in  the  bed-jilate. 

The  Diitch,  Germans,  and  Italians  have  contend- 
ed for  the  honor  of  the  invention  of  this  press,  but 
it  has  been  awarded  to  the  Italian  sculptor  and  gold- 
smith, Tomasso  Finiguera,  a  Florentine,  who  lived 
about  1460.  It  is  stated  to  have  been  suggested  to 
him  by  tlie  appearance  of  the  impression  derived  by 
tlie  accidental  pouring  of  a  quantity  of  brim.ston'e 
upon  an  engraved  plate,  probably  engi'aved  for  the 
ornamentation  of  furniture  or  some  implement  or 
article  of  virtu.  The  first  copper-plate  ]iresses  were 
simple  pressure.  The  rolling-press  was  invented 
in  1545. 

Cop'pln.     {.^Dinning.)     A  cop  (which  see). 

Cop'ping-plate.  '{Spinning.)  Tlie  copping- 
rail  of  a  tlirostle-machine. 

Cop'ping-rail.  The  rail  or  bar  upon  which  the 
bobbins  rest  in  the  bobbin -nnd-f!.i:  or  the  throstle 
machine,  and   by  whose   up-and-down   motion   the 


rooving  or  yam  is  evenly  distributed.     See  Bobbin- 
AND-FLY  Fb.\me,  or  Throstle. 

Cop-tube.  {Spinning. )  The  tube  in  a  spinning- 
machine  on  which  the  conical  ball,  or  cop,  of  thread 
or  yarn  is  formed. 

Cop'u-la.  {Micsic.)  The  stop  which  connects 
the  manuals,  or  the  latter  with  the  pedals. 

Cop'y.  1.  A  size  of  writing-paper  measuring 
20  X  It)  inches. 

2.   Matter  for  printing. 

Cop'y-hold'er.  A  clasp  to  hold  matter  while 
being  set  up. 

Cop'y-ing-in'stru-ment.  A  tracing-instru- 
ment, or  oue  for  niulti]ilying  by  manifold  process. 

A  silhouette-machine  is  one  for  giving,  on  a  re- 
duced scale,  the  outline  of  a  shadow-portrait. 

A  photograph  is  used  for  copying  draw  ings  on  a 
changed  scale. 

Another  mode  is  by  taking  an  impression  on  a 
web  of  india-rubber,  and  then  stretching  it  to  the  de- 
sired e.\tent ;  or  else  stretching  it  and  taking  the 
impression,  and  allowing  it  to  contract  to  tlie  de- 
sired e.\tent.  In  either  case  the  impression  may  be 
transferred  to  the  stone  by  the  proper  proces.ses. 

Cop'y-ing-ma-chine'.  A  Copying- press  (which 
see). 

Cop'y-ing-pa'per.  Thin,  unsized  paper,  used 
damp,  for  taking  impiessions  from  writings  in  a 
copving-press. 

Cop'y-ing-press.  A  machine  for  taking  a  copy 
of  a  writing  by  pressure. 

The  usual  system  is  to  ^vrite  with  an  ink  having 
a  somewhat  viscid  character,  and  to  expose  the  writ- 
ten page  to  pressure  in  contact  with  a  leaf  of  bibu- 
lous paper. 

One  of  the  first  suggestions  in  this  line  was  bj' 
Benjamin  Franklin,  who  sanded  the  yet  wet  ink  of 
the  manuscript,  passed  it  between  rollers  in  contact 
with  a  polished  soft-metal  plate,  imbedding  the 
emery  in  the  pewter  so  as  to  leave  an  impression 
from  which  a  copy  may  be  obtained  by  the  copper- 
plate printing  process. 

James  Watt,  about  17S0,  adopted  the  plan  of 
pressure  of  a  page  of  bibulous  paper  against  the  damp 
manuscript,  the  writing  being  legible  through  the 
thin       copying- 


paper. 

Ritchie's  copy- 
ing-press A  has 
formed  the  model 
for  most  of  its 
class,  having  a 
bed,  a  platen, 
and  a  cam-lever. 

The  book  con- 
taining  the 
manuscript  in 
contact  mth  a 
damp  page,  is 
placed  on  the 
bed,  and  the 
platen  p  brought 
down  by  the  ro- 
tation of  the  nut 
h,  which  trav- 
erses the  screw 
s.  An  effective 
pres.sure  is  then 
brought  to  bear 
upon  the  screw 
and  platen  by 
the  o.scillation 
of  the  lever  I, 
whose     cam      c 


Fig.  1446. 


Cojiying-Presses. 


COPYING-TELEGRAPH. 


G20 


CORD-COVERING  MACHINE. 


bears  upon  the  upper  end  of  the  screw-shaft,  and 
gives  surtii'ieut  jiower  to  deliver  the  impression. 

Buu.nel's  cojti/iiig-pnss  li  acts  on  tlie  compound- 
lever  piinciple.  Tile  bottom  of  the  press  b  receives 
the  book,  and  the  )ilaten,  heing  laid  thereon,  is 
driven  down  by  the  pressure  of  the  central  stud  k, 
which  is  beneath  the  lever  hinged  at/. 

A  second  lever  /,  hinged  at  j,  and  liaving  a  cam  s 
at  the  end,  is  then  brought  to  bear  upon  the  former 
lever,  giving  a  force  equal  to  the  delivery  of  an  im- 
pre.ssion  from  the  damp  ink  of  the  manuscript  upon 
a  sheet  of  thin  bibulous  paper  laid  thereon  and 
backed  by  a  <lainp  slieet. 

Other  modes  of  copying  are  found. 

The  iiuinifuld  writer,  invented  by  Wedgwood, 
1806,  and  consisting  of  colored  sheets  alternating 
with  tliin  [laiier,  and  giving  a  number  of  identical 
iuipressions  by  the  action  of  a  stylus. 

Hawkins's poliigraph,  in  which  several  pencils  are 
carried  in  a  frame,  each  obeying  the  action  of  a  prin- 
cipal and  writing  ujion  its  own  particular  sheet  of 
pap^'r. 

Cop'y-iug-teVe-graph.  An  apparatus  for  auto- 
matic tek'grapliy  known  as  Ijonelli's  telegrapli. 
Tlie  apparatus  consists  of  a  dispatching  instrument 
and  a  receiver  at  the  respective  ends  of  the  line. 


A- 

Mflf  piling 


^ 


Copying-  Telegraph, 


The  message  is  written  with  a  non-conducting  ink 
on  a  sheet  of  foil,  wliich  is  then  la]iped  around  the 
roller,  and  a  sheet  of  white  paper  is  wrapjied  on  the 
receiving  roller  ami  covered  by  a  sheet  of  transfer- 
yiaper.  The  electric  circuit  being  established,  so 
long  as  the  point  of  the  lever  of  the  dispatcher  is  in 
contact  witli  the  metallic  surface  of  the  paper,  the 
arnjature  of  the  receiver  is  attracted  by  its  magnet, 
and  the  stylus  of  the  receiver  elevated.  When  the 
stylus  of  the  dispatcher  crosses  the  non-conducting 
ink,  the  circuit  is  broken,  the  stylus  of  the  receiver 
drops  upon  the  transfer-paper  and  imprints  a  mark 
upon  the  paper  beneath.  Bonelli's  had  live  styles 
and  as  many  wires  ;  the  former  trailed  over  the  line 
of  letters,  making  five  sinuiltaneous  impressions, 
which  gave  dotted  .skeletons  of  the  letters,  the 
points  being  sufficiently  uumerous  and  proximate  to 


Fig.  1448. 


enable  the  letters  to  be  readily  distinguished.  In- 
stead of  tlie  ink  of  transfer,  chemically  prepared  jia- 
per  luui  been  used,  which  was  acted  upon  by  the 
spark,  giving  visible  dots  at  the  points  of  chemical 
reaetiuii. 

Cor'a-cle.  A  form  of  canoe  used  in  Egypt  and 
in  Britain  from  the  earliest 
periods  of  history.  It  con- 
sists of  a  light  wooden  frame 
covereil  with  hides,  and 
capable  of  being  carried  on 
the  .shoulders.  The  coracle 
is  still  in  use  in  the  West  of 
England,  Wales,  and  in  some 
parts  of  Ireland. 

The  .same  kind  of  boat  is 
yet  Used  upon  the  river  Bo- 
7'chiiii,  in  Thibet,  as  men- 
tioned by  the  Abbe  Hue,  in 
his  "Travels  in  Tartary  and  ; 
Thibet,"  1844-46.  "It was 
composed  of  ox-hides,  solidly 
sewn  together,  and  kept  in 
sliape  by  some  light  triangles 

of  bamboo The  man 

thentook  his  boat  again  upon  Coracle. 

his  back,  and  rode  off." 

The  birch-bark  canoe  differs  mainly  from  this  in 
the  material  wherewith  it  is  covered.     See  C.\noe. 

Cor'bel.  (ArdiUeditre.)  Or  corbcillc.  A  form 
of  bracket  used  in  Gothic  architecture  to  supjjort 
the  ends  of  timbers,  arches,  parapets,  floors,  cornices, 
etc.  It  is  a  jirojecting  block  of  stone,  usually  carved, 
and  with  a  receding  face. 

Cor'bel-piece.  A  bolster,  a  wooden  support- 
ing piiMi'  or  lirai'kct.     A  corbel. 

Cor'bel-ta'ble.     A  cornice  supported  by  corbels. 

Cor-bond'.  (Milling.}  An  irregular  mass  or 
dropper  from  the  lode. 

Cord.  1.  A  string  or  small  rope  composed  of 
several  strands  twisted  together. 

2.  A  kind  of  stout  ribbed  fustian ;  corduroy. 

3.  In  fancy  weaving,  the  space  of  the  design- 
paper  conKned  by  two  vertical  lines,  also  the  string 
which  connects  the  7icck -twines  at  the  leaf. 

Cord'age.     See  Rorr,. 

Cord-cov'er-ing  Ma-chiue.      A  machine  in 

Fig.  1449. 


Cord-Covtrtfi^  Ulac/itjie, 


CORD-DRYER. 


621 


CORE. 


which  a  cord  (or  wire)  receives  a  covering  of  thread 
or  silk  ;  when  this  is  plaited  on,  it  constitutes  braid- 
ing. (See  Br.^idin'g-machixe. )  In  the  niai'hine 
represented,  the  yarn-bobbins  D  D  are  upon  carriers, 
and  the  yarn  proceeds  upwardly  through  the  spindles 
Cand  the  flyer-bobbins  F,  which  are  sleeved  there- 
on and  carry  the  silk,  which  is  twisted  by  the  flyer 
around  the  yarn  or  cord  from  the  spool  Z>  at  a  point 
below  where  it  issues  from  the  guide  G.  At  a  point 
above,  the  three  covered  yarns  are  twisted  into  a 
threefold  cord  or  bullion. 

Cord-dry'er.  A  machine  for  drying  sized  or 
dyed  cords,  webbing,  tapes,  etc. 

The  stuff  passes  beneath  rollers  submerged  in  the 
lii|uid  of  the  tank,  thence  beneath  pressure-rollers, 
which  remove  superfluous  moisture  ;  then  between 
flattening  rollers,  thence  to  the  dryer,  which  has  a 
series  of  parallel  pipes  placed  in  sliglitly  inclined 


Fig  1460. 


Cord-Drying  Machine. 

ranges  ;  the  material  to  be  dried  passing  up  and  down, 
being  interlaced  between  the  pipes.  Hollow,  heated 
cylinders,  around  which  the  fabric  passes,  are  placed 
between  the  ranges. 

Cord'ed  Fab'ric.  One  having  a  pile  which  is 
cut  in  ribs  in  the  direction  of  the  length  of  the 
warp,  as  corduroy. 

One  having  alternate  larger  and  smaller  threads, 
eitlier  in  the  weft  or  the  warp,  so  as  to  give  a  ribbed 
or  cordc'l  surface. 

Cord'er.  {Scwing-machitu;.)  A  device  for  lay- 
ing corils  between  fabrics,  or  cor<ls  or  braids  on  the 
surface  of  a  fabric.  See  "Sewing-Machine  Attach- 
ments," published  by  G.  W.  Gregory,  Washington, 

Cor-dillaa.     {Fabric.)     A  kind  of  kersey. 

Cord'ing.  (IP'eavmg.)  Tlie  cording  of  a  loom 
is  the  arrangement  of  the  heddles  so  that  they  move 
in  such  clusters  and  times  as  may  be  required  for  the 
jirod'iction  of  the  pattern.  (See  DitAFT.)  A  set  of 
lieddles  connected  with  a  given  shaft  is  called  a 
leaf.  Each  shaft  is  connected  by  a  cord  to  the 
treadle  wliereby  it  is  moveil. 

Cor'don.  1.  i^Fortificalinn.)  The  coping  of  the 
revetment  of  the  scarp,  which  is  the  inner  wall 
of  the  ditch.  At  this  point  the  /raise  is  placed,  if 
such  be  used.  1^ 

The  cordon  projects  a  foot  beyond  the  face  of  the 
scarp,  or  revetment. 

2.  The  edge  of  a  stone  on  the  outside  of  a  build- 
ing. 

Cor'do-van  ;  Cord'wain.  A  Spanish  leather, 
originally  of  goat-skin,  but  now  frequently  made  of 
split  hoi-se-hidcs.  It  is  finisheil  as  a  black  morocco, 
and  is  named  from  Cordova  (the  ancient  Cordaba), 
which  is  situated  on  tlie  Guadahiuiver,  in  Anda- 
lusia, and  was  founded  by  Marcellus.     It  was  the 


chief  emporium  of  Iberia.  The  Moorish  city  con- 
tained 300,000  inhabitants  in  the  eighth,  ninth,  and 
tenth  centuries.  It  was  the  great  seat  of  the  arts, 
sciences,  and  learning  in  the  days  of  liberal  Spain, 
when  the  people  were  worth  something,  before  the 
black  darkness  of  the  Pedros  and  Philips. 

Cor-du-roy'.  1.  {Fabric.)  A  stout,  ribbed  cot- 
ton fustian,  made  with  a  pile  so  cut  as  to  leave  a  sur- 
face ridged  in  the  direction  of  the  wai-p. 

2.  A  road  formed  of  poles  laid  transversely  and 
in  contact.  It  is  used  as  a  mud-bridge  in  swampy 
places. 

Core.  1.  (Founding.)  An  internal  mold  which 
forms  the  interior  of  a  cylinder,  tube,  pipe,  faucet, 
or  other  hollow  casting.  It  is  made  of  various  pro- 
portions of  new  sand,  loam,  and  horse-dung.  It  re- 
quires to  be  thoroughly  dried,  and  when  containing 
horse-dung  must  be  burned  to  a  red  heat,  to  consume 
the  straw.  This  makes 
it  porous  and  of  a  brick- 
red  color. 

The  core  is  made  in  a 
core-box;  and  has  pro- 
jecting portions,  known 
as  cc^rc-prixts,  which  rest 
in  the irrints  of  the  mold. 
The  model  from  which 
the  object  is  cast  is  solid, 
andmakesan  impression, 
partly  in  the  cope  and 
partly  in  the  drag.  When 
the  pattern  is  removed, 
the  core  is  laid  in  its 
place,  the  projecting 
portions  resting  in  the 
recesses  made  by  the 
prints  of  the  pattern. 
Touching  the  loam  of  the  mold  at  no  other  point,  it 
occupies,  m  the  case  of  a  pipe,  a  central  position  in 
the  space  which  is  to  be  run  full  of  metal.  When 
the  metal  has  been  poured  around  it  and  then  cooled, 
the  core  is  broken  out,  leaving  the  casting  hollow. 

Simple  cores  are  those  which  do  not  prevent  the 
delivery  of  the  cope  and  drag,  that  is,  which  have 


Fig.  1451. 


^/V 


t] 


-7^^4 


Cores. 

no  undercut  portion  which  would  prevent  the  por- 
tions of  the  flask  from  being  parted  in  the  usual 
way. 

In  the  first  of  the  examples  represented  (a),  the 
core  is  inserted  in  the  pattern  when  molding,  and 
is  pushed  from  the  pattern  so  as  to  remain  in  the 
mold  when  the  pattern  is  withdrawn. 

In  the  second  example  (b),  the  portion  of  the  core 
projectii'g  from  the  pattern  forms  a  print,  and  both 
pattern  and  core  are  molded  together.  When  the 
pattern  is  withdrawn,  the  core  is  detached  and  the 
print  inserted  in  the  impression  made  by  it  in  the 
cope.  That  part  of  the  core  which  was  imbedded 
in  t'-.e  pattern  then  projects  into  the  space,  and  the 
metal  is  cast  around  it.  The  core  thus  makes  a  hole 
in  the  casting,  but  not  through  it,  as  will  be  ob- 
served. 


CORE-BAR. 


622 


CORK. 


In  the  third  example  {c),  the  pattern  has  project- 
ing pieces,  called  prints,  on  one  or  both  sides  ;  when 
molded,  thiwe  projections  make  holes  in  the  loam, 
(.'ores  of  the  re(iuired  size  and  shape,  and  having 
jiicijections  to  tit  these  holes,  are  previously  made, 
and.  being  fitted  thereinto,  are  secured  thereby,  the 
jioitions  ijrojecting  into  the  open  space  being  sur- 
ro.inded  by  the  metal,  so  as  to  make  a  hole  in  the 
cisting  or  a  hollow  casting,  as  the  case  may  be,  when 
the  core  is  picked  to  pieces  and  broken  out  of  the 
metal. 

Tile  example  of  patterns  and  cores  shows  several 
arranged  in  one  tlask.  In  one  figure,  the  ingates  and 
runners  are  prepared  and  the  cores  in  their  places, 

Fig.  1«2 


Patterns  and  Cores. 

heing  shaded  for  <listinction.  In  the  upper  figure, 
the  articles  are  in  their  ultimate  shape,  with  holes 
in  them. 

The  group  includes  a  stopcock  with  a  cruciform 
core,  which  forms  the  duct  and  the  hole  for  the 
spigot.  A  piece  having  a  straight  and  a  curved 
mortise,  and  which  delivers  its  own  core.  One  hav- 
ing only  a  perpendicular,  square  core.  One  with  a 
round  core  parallel  with  the  face  of  the  tlask. 
One  having  two  rectangular  cores  crossing  each 
other  at  right  angles.  The  cap  of  a  double-acting 
)Himp,  the  core  for  which  is  shown  in  section  in 
the  small  figure  ;  the  shaded  portions  being  the 
metal. 

Sheaves  are  cast  with  annular  cores,  the  pattern 
being  divided  in  a  plane  perpendicular  to  its  axis, 
which  permits  one  half  the  pattern  to  be  with- 
drawn, then  the  core,  then  the  other  part  of  the  pat- 
tern. The  core  is  then  replaced,  and  the  mold 
clojed. 

When  a  core  is  made  on  a  large  scale,  as  in  the 
interior  mold  of  a  heavy  cylinder,  cistern,  tank, 
etc.,  it  is  called  a  noiuct. 

2.  A  central  piece  occupying  an  axial  position 
within  a  circular  aperture  at  which  clay  or  lead  ex- 
udes iu  the  process  of  making  earthenware  or  leaden 
pipes.     The  core  gives  the  inside  shape  to  the  pipe. 

3.  (Hope-making.)  The  central  strand  around 
which  four  other  strands  are  twisted  in  a  shroud 
h  vwscr-laid  rope. 

4.  {Hi/draiilic  Enyincerinif.)  A  wall  or  structure 
absolutely  iinpei-vious  to  water,  placed  in  an  em- 
b.uikment  or  dike  to  prevent  the  percolation  of 
wiiter,  which  may  penetrate  the  porous  material  of 
which  the  remainder  of  the  dike  is  composed.  The 
core  may  lie  of  puddle  or  a  wall  laid  in  hydraulic 
cement. 

Core-bar.  The  bar  or  spindle  which  supports 
the  core  of  a  shell. 

Cire-'jox.  A  divisible  box  in  which  clay  is 
lainiii  hI  tj  firm  cores.     For  cylindrical  cores,  as  in 


( ■ 


the  example  1,  it  divides  through  the  axis,  each  por- 
tion having  a  recess  which  is  equal  to  one  half  of  the 
core  to  be  molded  therein.  These  portions  are  united 
by  dowel-pins,  and  held  together  by  clamps  while 
the  sand  is  rammed 
into  them.  Fig.  1453. 

The  examples  (2) 
re)iresent :  — 

a  b  the  two  halves 
of  a  brass  or  lead 
cure-box  suitable  for 
casting  the  stopcock 
c  ;  d  shows  the  core 
itself  after  its  re- 
moval from  the  core- 
box  b,  in  which  it  is 
also  shown,  c  is  the 
model  from  which 
the  object  isniolded ; 
the  shaded  parts  rep- 
resent the  projec- 
tions or  core-prints, 
which  imprint  with-  6 
in  the  mold  the 
places  where  the  ex- 
tremities of  the  core 
d  are  supported 
when  placed  therein. 

C  ore-box 
Plane.  A  peculiar 
form  of  plane  which 
has  a  cutting  tooth 
projecting  below  the 
sole,  to  plow  gi'ooves 
in  the  parts  of  a 
core -box. 

Core-print.     A 
projecting  jiiece  on 
a  pattern  for  mold- 
ing, to  form  a  hole  in  the  mold  to  receive  the  end 
of  the  core  by  which  it  is  sustained  in  the  mold  in 
Iiroper  position  relatively  to  the  object  cast.     (See 
c.  Fig.  1453.) 

Cor'er  and  Sli'cer.  An  implement  for  cutting 
the  core  out  of  a  peeled  apple,  and  at  the  same  time 
cutting  into  pieces  for  cooking  or  diying.  (See  Fig. 
281.) 

Core-valve.  A  plug-valve  which  has  a  rotary 
reciprocation  in  a  cylindrical  or  hollow  conical  seat ; 
occupying  about  the  same  relative  position  to  its 
seat  as  the  core  of  a  faucet  does  to  the  casting  itself. 

Co-rec'tome.  Corelmnc.  An  instrument  fo( 
cutting  through  the  iris  to  form  an  artificial  pupil. 
An  iridcclomc  (which  see). 

Corf.  (Mining.)  1.  A  basket  to  carry  coal  oi 
ore.     A  corve. 

2.  A  square  frame  of  wood  to  carry  coals  on. 
.  3.   A  sled  or  low-wheeled  wagon  in  a  mine,  to  con- 
vey coal  or  ore  from  the  miners  to  the  bottom  of  the 
shkft. 

Cork.  The  bark  of  the  evergreen  oak  {QverciU 
mhcr).  It  grows  in  the  South  of  France,  iu  Tuscany, 
Siiain,  Portugal,  and  Algeria.  The  tree  sheds  its 
abund^l^t  bark  naturally,  but  this  produce  is  value- 
less commerciallv. 

The  cork-tree  "at  the  age  of  twenty-five  years  is 
barked  for  the  first  time.  A  circular  incision  is  first 
made  through  the  bark  near  the  ground,  and  another, 
also  around  the  tree,  close  by  the  branches.  These 
cuts  are  followed  by  others  equally  deep,  made 
longitudinally,  and  dividing  the  bark  into  broad 
planks.  The  tree  is  then  left  :  the  sap  has  been 
stoiqied  from  circnlatiou  ;  the  bark  begins  to  dry 
ami  curl  outward  ;  and  shortly  each  strip  is  peclej 


Core-Boxes. 


COKK-CLASP. 


623 


COKK-MACHINE. 


off  by  the  hanJ.  This  process  is  repeated  every 
ten  years.  Thus  gathered,  this  bark  is  prepared  for 
market  in  two  ways.  By  one  niethoil,  the  tables,  as 
they  are  called,  are  heaped  one  upon  another,  their 
concave  sides  being  undermost,  in  deep  trenches, 
and,  being  plentifully  moistened,  are  pressed  beneath 
huge  bowlders  till  thoroughly  flattened  out.  They 
are  then  dried  carefully  before  large  Hres,  and  turned 
constantly.  When  perfectly  flat  and  dry,  they  are 
complete. 

By  the  second  method  the  damp  pressure  in  the 
pits  is  disjiensed  with,  the  tables  being  simply  laid 
with  their  convex  sides  toward  the  Are,  and  sutt'ered 
to  remain  until  their  warp  is  lost  and  they  become 
flat.  This  tree  and  its  uses  were  known  to  the 
(Jreeks  and  Komans.  In  the  time  of  Pliny  it  was 
employed  for  nearly  as  many  purposes  as  at  present ; 
as  floats  for  fishermen's  nets,  waterproof  soles  for 
shoes,  buoys  for  anchors,  and  for  swiuiming-jackets. 
The  use  of  cork  for  stopping  bottles  was  not  entirely 
unknown  to  the  Romans,  being  mentioned  by  Cato 
and  Horace,  though  its  application  to  this  purpose 
does  not  seem  to  have  been  very  common,  as  we 
find  everywhere  directions  given  to  close  up  wine- 
casks  and  other  vessels  with  pitch,  clay,  gypsum,  or 
potter's  earth,  or  to  fill  the  upper  part  of  the  vessel 
with  oil  or  honey,  in  order  to  exclude  the  air  from 
those  liquors  which  they  wished  to  preserve. 

Stoppers  of  cork  seem  to  have  been  fii'st  introduced 
after  tlie  invention  of  glass  bottles,  and  these  do  not 
appear  to  have  come  into  use  before  the  fifteenth 
century.  When  Stephanus  wrote  (in  1553),  cork 
was  used  in  France  principally  for  soles ;  and  in  Ger- 
many wax  stoppers  were  used  by  the  apothecaries 
until  about  the  close  of  the  seventeenth  century. 

Where  the  tree  is  indigenous,  the  inhabitants  ap- 
ply cork  to  many  purposes.  In  Sjiain,  beehives  and 
kitchen  pails,  pillows  and  window  lights  ;  in  Mo- 
rocco, drinking-vessels  and  plates,  tubs  and  house- 
conduits  ;  in  Portugal,  roofs  for  houses,  lining  for 
garden-walls,  and  fences  for  poultry-yards  ;  in  Tur- 
key, cabins  for  the  cork-cutters  and  eotfins  for  the 
dead  ;  in  Italy,  images  and  crosses,  pavements  along 
the  via  crucifi,  and  buttresses  for  the  village  church- 
es ;  in  Algeria,  shoes  and  wearing-apparel,  saddles 
and  horseshoes,  annor  and  boats,  landmarks  and 
fortifications,  furniture  in  mansions,  racks  in  stables, 
and  steps  for  houses.  Its  use  for  floats,  shoe-soles, 
wads  for  howitzers,  bungs,  stoppers,  hat  foundations, 
life-boats,  models  of  architecture,  and  as  a  material 
for  Spanish  black,  are  familiar  to  most  of  us. 

Cork-clasp.  A  wire  attached  to  the  neck  of  a 
bottle,  and  holding  down  the  cork.  See  BoTTLE- 
sropi'F.R. 

Cork-cut'ter's  Knife.    The  knife  of  the  cork- 
cutter  has  a  vi'ry 
Fig.  1454.  thin    and    sharp 

blade  about  six 
inches  long  and 
tapering,  with  a 
truncatedend.  It 
is  constantly 
Cork- Cutlers  Kni/e.  whetteil  upon  the 

board  from  which 
rises  the  stake  on  which  the  cork  rests  during  cut- 
ting. 

Cork-fau'cet  One  adapted  to beinserted  through 
a  cork,  to  draw  the  contents  of  a  bottle.     See  BoT- 

TLF.-FAl'CKT. 

Cork'ing-ma-chine'.  One  for  driving  corks  into 
bottles.  ((  is  the  frame  ;  b  b,  two  vertical  guide- 
rods  connected  at  top  by  the  bridging-piece  c.  A 
cross-head  sliding  on  the  upper  ends  of  the  guide- 
rods  i  6  is  conuected  by  side-rods  tc  k  to  the  lever  g. 


the  branches  of  which  have  their  fulcrums  at  i,  and 
are  united  at  the  handle  h.  In  the  cross-head  are 
secured  three  metallic  plugs  e,  immediately  above 
the  holes  in  the  cross-piece  /,  which  is  firmly  se- 
cured to  the  guide-rods  b.  In  the  cross-piece  /  are 
three  conical  tubes  of  different  sizes,  so  as  to  suit  the 
varying    necks   of 


Fig.  1455. 


Masterman's  Corking-RIachine. 


bottles  of  different 
sizes.  The  upper 
ends  of  the  tubes 
are  larger  than  the 
lower  ends, 
through  which  the 
corks  are  forcibly 
driven.  »  is  a 
wedge-shaped 
piece  whose  upper 
surface  is  hoiizon- 
tal,  and  it  is  moved 
to  and  fro  in  slides 
by  means  of  the 
treadle  <  and  arm  m. 

The  operation  is 
as  follows  :  — 

The  workman 
seats  himself  at  the 
machine,  one  foot 
on  the  treadle,  and 
the  handle  h  in  his 
right  hand.  He 
places  a  bottle  on 
the  wedge  n,  with 
its  neck  beneath 
such  one  of  the  three  tubes  as  will  contain  a  cork  of 
the  size  he  sees  to  be  suitable.  Such  a  cork  being 
placed  in  the  tube,  a  motion  of  the  treadle  raises 
the  bottle,  and  the  depression  of  the  lever  h  g  drives 
the  cork  into  the  neck  of  the  bottle.  The  reverse 
motions  of  the  lever  and  treadle  release  the  bottle. 

See  BoTTLIXO-M.ilCHINE. 

Father  Penguin,  a  monk  of  the  monastery  of 
Hautvilliers  (died  in  1715),  seems  to  have  been  the 
inventor  of  sparkling  champagne.  The  wine  of  the 
country  had  been  celebrated  for  centuries,  but  the 
old  Benedictine  discovered  the  art  of  making  it 
ett'ervesceut,  and  secured  it  by  a  cork  and  string. 

Cork-fast'en-er.    See  Buttle-.stopper. 

Cork-jack'et.  A  jacket  lined  with  cork  for  the 
pui'pose  of  sustaining  the  wearer  on  the  surface  of 
the  water.  The  Roman  whom  C'amillus  sent  to  the 
Capitol  when  besieged  by  the  Gauls  is  reported  to 
have  supported  himself  by  a  cork-jacket  as  he  swam 
the  Tiber  with  his  clothes  on  his  head. 

Cork-ma-chine'.  Corks  are  made  by  hand  and 
by  machineiy.  The  former  readily  but  slowly  jiro- 
duces  the  perfectly  shaped,  somewhat  tapering  cork  ; 
the  latter  process  produced  a  cleanly  cut  cork,  usu- 
ally of  cylindrical  fonn,  the  tapering  foi-m  being  af- 
terwards given  by  pressure.  In  hand-making,  the 
workinan,  with  a  sharp  knife  in  his  hand,  and  a 
block  of  cork  in  his  left,  forms  the  cork  by  two  semi- 
circular cuts.  In  the  machine,  the  knife  cuts  a  per- 
fect arc  ;  the  machine  drops  the  cork  into  one  recep- 
tacle and  the  shavings  into  another,  and  the  hone 
instantly  sharpens  the  knife  for  farther  work. 

In  another  form  of  machine,  the  slabs  are  cut  into 
square  blocks  by  a  circular  knife  mounted  like  a  cir- 
cular saw.  The  square  pieces  are  then  held  by  the 
hands  of  boys  in  a  kind  of  lathe,  in  such  a  position 
that  the  sharji  and  thin  end  of  a  hollow  cylindrical 
cutter  will  cut  out  a  perfectly  round  cork  in  an  in- 
stant. Cutters  of  various  sizes  are  employed  to  cut 
corks  of  the  desired  size.  Each  cork  is  th^n  placed 
by  little  lingers  in  corresponding  recesses,  in  a  feed- 


CORK-PRESS. 


624 


CORNER-DRILL. 


wheel  of  an  automatic  machine,  where  the  corks  are 
taper.'d  by  the  removal  of  a  thin  shaving  from  the 
peiipliery  of  one  eml.  The  shaving  is  removed  by 
the  sharp  edjje  of  a  circular  cutter  over  two  feet  in 
diameter,  which  revolves  horizontally.  The  edge 
of  every  instrument  that  cuts  cork  is  brought  in 
contact  with  the  material  to  be  cut  with  a  very 
drawing  stroke,  as  such  spongy  material  could  not 
be  cut  satisfactorily  by  a  crashing  stroke.  Thick 
slabs  of  cork  are  cut  into  large  corks,  while  the  thin 
ones  aie  worked  into  corks  of  a  corresponding  size. 

Cork-press.  One  in  which  a  cork,  previously 
wettcil,  is  renilered  elastic,  to  enable  it  the  more 
readily  to  enter  the  neck  of  a  bottle.     In  one  form, 

Fig.  1456. 


Cork-Presses. 

the  cork  is  placed  between  the  serrated  .surfaces  of 
the  concave  and  the  eccentric  cam,  and  pressed  to  a 
less  or  greater  extent  by  a  partial  rotation  of  the 
latter. 

Another  form  is  a  lever  press  with  jaws. 

Cork-pull.  A  substitute  for  a  corkscrew,  hav- 
ing houks  or  fangs  which  clasp  a  cork  when  in  the 
bottle  and  draw  it  thence. 

The  jaws,  while  collapsed  by  the  slide,  are  passed 
through  the  neck  of  the  Ijottle  ;  and,  being  opened, 
are  tiien  clasped  around  the  cork  by  the  motion  of 
the  slide,  and  the  cork  with  its  retractor  is  drawn 
from  the  bottle. 


Fig.  14B7. 


Fig.  1458. 


Cnri  Plitl. 


Corkscreio. 


Cork'screvr.  The  double-screw  which  entered 
the  cork  by  rotation,  and  then  withdrew  it  by  a 
continued  or  reversed  circular  motion,  was  patented 
in  Engl.and  by  Thomason,  1802. 

Cork'BcreT!(r-stair'case.  A  winding  stairs  with 
a  solid  newel. 

Cor'lias-en'gine.  A  form  of  steam-engine  hav- 
ing a  variable  and  automatic  cut-off  of  peculiar  char- 
acter. (See  Cut-off.)  It  has  two  inlet  and  two 
exhaust  valves,  which  are  segmental,  and  vibrate, 
each  on  its  spindle,  within  a  bored  cylindrical  seat. 
The  valves  are  indejiendently  moved  by  rods  from  a 
vibrating  disk,  which  is  operated  by  an  eccentric 
and  rod.  The  mechanism  which  opens  the  valve  is 
thrown  out  of  gear  during  every  stroke  of  the  en- 
gine. When  this  disconnection  takes  pla('e,  the 
valve  is  instantaneously  closed  by  a  spring,  whicli  is 
cushioned  by  a  small  piston  closing  on  compressed 
air.  The  instant  at  which  the  steam-valves  are 
thrown  out  of  gear,  and  the  steam  thus  cut  olf,  de- 
pends on  the  position  of  the  balls  of  the  governor 
at  the  moment.  The  exhaust-valves  open  invaria- 
bly to  their  full  extent.     See  Cut-off. 

Corn-cake  Cut'ter.  A  stamp  or  form  which 
cuts  corn-cakes  from  the  sheet  of  dough  ;  or  a  ma- 
Fig.  1459. 


chine  having  a  roller  carrying  said  forms  and  cutting 
into  shapes  the  sheet  of  dough,  which  is  spread  upon 
the  table  passing  beneath. 

Corn-cov'er-er.  A  plow  or  pair  of  plows  to 
run  alongside  a  row  of  dropped  com  and  throw  earth 
upon  the  seed.  Sometimes  followed  by  a  roller  on 
the  same  stock  to  compact  the  earth. 

Corn-crib.  A  granary  for  com,  having  openings 
between  the  slats  forming  the  sides,  to  enable  the 
crib  to  admit  air  and  season  the  corn  without  mold- 
ing. 

Corn-cul'ti-va'tor.  A  plow  for  cultivating  corn 
in  hills  or  drills.     See  Cultivator. 

Corn-cut'ter.  1.  (Agrieallure.)  A  knife  or  a 
machine  for  cutting  corn.     See  Corn-knife  ;  Cokn- 

HAKVESTER. 

2.  {Surgical.)  An  instrument  for  removing  horny 
excrescences  from  the  feet. 

Corn-drill.     A  planter  for  sowing  corn  in  rows. 

The  corn -planter,  properly  s|ieaking,  j>la<'es  the 
seed  in  hills  in  a  row.  When  the  rows  aie  vhcclcd, 
so  called,  the  corn  may  be  worked  one  way  and  then 
across,  and  so  on.  Corn  in  drills  can  be  tended  but 
one  wnv.      See  CoRX-l'I.ANTEK. 

Cor'ner.  ( finnk-hinding. )  a.  Leather  corner- 
covering  to  a  half-bound  book. 

b.  A  triangular  tool  used  in  gold  or  blind  tool- 
ing. 

Cor'ner-chls'el.  A  chisel  with  two  edges  pro- 
jecting rectangularly  from  a  comer  ;  used  for  cut- 
ting the  eoi'iiers  of  mortises. 

Cor'ner-drill.  One  diiven  by  a  crank  and  bevel 
geai'ing,  being  thus  adapted  to  bore  in  places  where 


CORNER-PUNCH. 


625 


CORN-HULLEE. 


Fig.  1460.  the   surrounding    frame    or    ma- 

chinery \d]l  not  allow  the  rev- 
olution of  the  ordinary  brace- 
handle.  The  back-center  has  a 
rigid  support,  and  the  tool  is  ad- 
vanced by  the  occasional  rotation 
of  the  feed-.screw,  by  a  lever-pin 
in  the  transverse  hole  of  the  screw- 
head.  Also  called  a  French  drill. 
Cor'ner-punch.  (Machinery.) 
An  angular  punch  for  cleaning 
out  corners. 
|f  ■      J  Cor'ner-aaTW.     One     for    re- 

y-^  moving  the  corners  of  a  block, 

\\s^       ^""^^  gi^iig  it  ^ii  octagonal  shape.  The 
t^T^  saw -mandrel  is  mounted  in  a  head 

Comtr-DriU.        which  traverses  on  ways  parallel 
to  the  trough  in  which  the  block 
is  placed.    The  block  is  slid  in  the  trough,  bringing 
it  against  the  saw,  and  taking  off  the  corners  in 

Fig.  1*61. 


Comer- Saw. 


It  is  one  of  the  series  of  block-making 
a.   A  wooden  wind-in- 


snccession 
machines. 

Cor'net     1.    (Music.) 
strument  of  the  oboe 
class,  long  since  dis- 
used. 

b.  A  metallic  wind- 
instrument  resembling 
a  trumpet,  and  used 
in  bands.  The  coma 
of  the  Romans,  like 
the  instnunents  men- 
tioned in  Leviticus 
(XXV.  9),  was  curved 
and  formed  from 
horn.  It  was  after- 
wards of  metal,  prob- 
ably cofiper.  Its  in- 
vention is  credited  by 
Athenseustothe  Etrus 
cans.  It  differed  from 
the  tibia  in  being  lar- 
ger, and  from  the  tuba 
in  being  cnrved.  It 
had  no  keys  or  stop- 
ples. 

2.  An  auricular  instrument  which  does  not  pro- 
trude beyond  the  external  ear.  It  is  used  in  cases 
of  obstruction  of  the  meatus  auclitorius^  by  reason 
of  contraction,  or  the  presence  of  polipi,  and  is 
made  of  gold  or  silver. 

Cor'net-a-Pis'tons.  (J/ttsic.)  A  metallic  wind- 
instrument  of  the  trumpet  class,  furnished  with 
valves  and  stoppers.  These  instriinients,  under  the 
care  of  Sax  of  Paris  and  Distin  of  London,  have  at- 
tained great  excellence. 

40 


They  are  made  of  various  sizes  and  compass,  so  as 
to  embrace  different  parts. 

Com-grat'er.  A  roughened  sarface  for  rasping 
green  corn  from  the  cob. 

Com-harp.  A  Scottish  agricultural  implement, 
of  the  nature  of  a  sieve,  for  freeing  grain  from  the 
seeds  of  weeds. 

Com-har'vest-er.  A  machine  for  cutting  com 
in  the    field  ;     sometimes  delivering  the  com   in 

Fig.  1462. 


Com-Harvesur. 

shocks,  sometimes  merely  laying  it  in  gavels  upon  the 
ground,  or  in  a  cradle  on  the  machine,  from  whence 
it  is  taken  by  hand  and  shocked.  Fig.  1462  shows 
a  corn-harvester  for  cutting  two  rows  at  a  time. 
The  reels  L  are  set  obliquely,  so  as  to  gather  the 
com  to  the  knives  and  tilt  it  over  so  that  it  drops 
into  the  boxes  P,  which,  as  soon  as  a  sufficient 
amount  has  been  thus  collected,  are  tilted  up, 
to  discharge  the  gavel  in  a  heap  ujion  the  ground. 
The  sickle-knives  are  driven  by  the  wrist-wheel  £ 
and  pitmans  ff,  by  power  derived  through  gearing 
from  the  main  axle. 

Fig.  1463  is  a  machine  for  cutting  a  single  row, 
keeping  the  stalks  vertical,  collecting  them  into  a 

Fig.  1463. 


shock,  when  they  may  be  tied,  and  then  deposited 
butt  do^vn  upon  the  surface  of  the  earth.  The  stalks 
are  gathered  to  the  cutters  by  two  reels  G  G  nith  in- 
terlocking arms,  and  after  being  cut  are  forced  through 
a  narrow  passage  to  a  revoh-ing  circular  platform  H 
surrounded  by  hoops,  so  arranged  that  one  half  may 
be  opened  outward  for  the  discharge  of  the  shock  ; 
the  stalks  are  held  upright  in  this  receptacle  by  a 
semicircular  spring  upon  the  top  of  the  hoops.  To 
a  post  upon  the  main  frame  is  pivoted  a  lever,  which 
operates  a  clasping  device  by  which  the  shock  is 
lifted  for  discharge.  Two  small  reels  k  k  at  the 
front  of  the  frame,  revolving  in  perpendicular  planes, 
pick  up  broken  stalks. 

Com-hull'er.    A    machine    for   removing    the 


CORN-HUSKER. 


626 


CORNISH-ENGINE. 


hull  or  cuticle  from  grains  of  com,  without  powder- 
ing till'  .siinic.     Sto  Ho.miny-machine. 

Corn-husk'er.    A  machine  for  taking  the  ear 
of  corn  out  ol  its  enveloping  sheath  of  leaves.     Some 


Fig.  1464. 


Fig.  1167 


Corn-H>isker. 

machines  operate  upon  the  corn  in  the  field  to  husk 
it  olf  the  stalk  ;  in  others,  the  ear  is  simply  jerked 
from  the  stalk,  and  the  machine  tears  otf  the  liusks 
from  the  ears.  Fig.  14154  shows  one  in  which 
shocked  corn  is  husked.  The  unhusked  corn  in  the 
stalk  is  laid  uijon  the  table  at  the  top  of  the  nia- 
ehine.  and  pushed,  batt-ends  forward,  between  two 
feed-rollei-s  B  B,  whereuijon  the  ears  are  separated 
from  tlie  stalks  by  c-itters  A,  arranged  longitudinally 
upon  the  lowermost  of  the  feed-rollers.      The  severed 

Fig  146.5. 


House-  Cornice, 


ears  pass  down  upon  an  inclined  plane  0,  which 
directs  them  into  the  ti-ough-like  spaee  between  the 
two  individual  rollers  of  each  pair  of  husking-rollers 
/),  and  as  they  pass  longitudinally  down  such 
space  the  rapidly  moving  surfaces  of  the  rollers 
catch  the  husks,  giving  a  kind  of  rotary  movement 
to  the  ears,  stripping  away  the  husks,  which  latter 
are  carried  down  between  the  rollers  and  ejected 
uudcrneatli  the  machine.  The  ears  meanwhile  are 
tlirown  back  by  a  transverse  roller  ff,  and  fall  from 


Fig.  1466. 


Cornish  Boiler. 


Cornish-Engine. 

the    rear.     £   is    a    .smaller   lower   ; 
roller,  and  G  an  endless  apron  which 
leads  away  the  silk  and  husks. 

Corn-husk  Split'ter.  A  ma- 
chine to  tear  hu.sk  s  into  long  shreds 
for  stuffing  for  mattresses,  etc. 

Cor'nice.  A  projecting  molding 
con.sisting  of  several  members,  which 
crowns  or  finishes  an  entablature, 
the  top  of  a  building,  a  door,  win- 
dow, pedestal,  or  pier.  A  cornice  on 
a  pedestal  is  called  a  cap. 

Cor'nice-plane.  An  ogee  plane 
for  working  moldings. 

Corn'ing.  1.  The  process  of 
granulating  gunpowder.  The  place 
where  it  is  done  is  known  as  the 
coj-ju'j'ffdiouse. 

2.  the  process  of  curing  meat. 

Cor'nish-boil'er.  The  eylin- 
drii'al-tlue  boiler  of  Smeaton,  who 
did  so  nuich  to  increase  the  economy 
of  working  steam.  The  cut  shows  the 
modern  form  with  the  throttle  over 
the  steam -dome  b  ;  the  safety-valve  c, 
invented  by  Papin  ;  the  man-hole  d, 
gage-cocks,  steam-gage  c,  etc. 

Corn'lsh-en'giiie.  A  form  of 
single-acting  condensing  steam-en- 
gine used  especially  in  the  copper 
and  tin  mines  of  Cornwall,  but  also 
used  as  a  pumping-engine  for  water- 
supply  in  very  many  places. 

Steam,  being  admitted  above  the 
piston  at  the  commencement  of  the 
stroke,  follows  the  piston  to  the 
point  of  cut-off;  the  remainder  of 
the  stroke  is  completed  by  the  com- 
bined aid  of  expansion  and  tlie  mo- 
mentum acquired  by  the  mass  of 
material  set  in  motion  by  the  first 


COKN-KNIFE. 


627 


CORN-POPPER. 


impulse  of  the  steam.  On  the  completion  of  the 
stroke,  the  steam  is  allowed  to  pass  freely  from  one 
side  of  the  piston  to  the  other,  producing  an  equi- 
librium of  effect  during  the  out-stroke.  Before  the 
pi.ston  arrives  at  the  point  of  cominenoement  again, 
tlie  equilibrium-valve  is  closed,  shutting  in  a  ijuau- 
tity  of  steam  before  it.  By  means  of  this  cushion- 
ing, which  is  subject  to  the  nicest  adjustment,  the 
loss  from  clearance  and  steam-jjorts  is  rendered 
practically  nothing,  if  the  steam  so  compressed  be 
equal  to  the  initial  pressure.  The  piston  is  thus 
gradually  brought  to  a  neutral  state  at  the  end  of 
the  stroke,  when  the  exhaust-valve  opens  a  com- 
muTiication  by  pipe/  between  the  lower  eud  of  the 
cylinder  a  ami  the  condenser;/,  e  is  the  catamct; 
b,  beam ;    i,  pump-rod  ;   A",  pump-stock  ;    I,  sump. 


Fig.  1468  shows  a  corn-planter  used  like  a  plow  ; 
man    follows   and   operates  the  seed-valve   T  by 


A  rotating  pock- 
eted disk  in  the 
adjustable  hop- 
peris  rotated  at 
varying  speeds 
by  a  worm  on 
the  shaft  rotat- 
ed by  a  pinion 
engaging  with 
one  or  another 
of  the  gear- 
wheels on   the 


Fig.  U70. 


Crri 


Watkiiis-Phnter. 

The  great  care  and  systematic  mode  of  reporting  the 
duty  of  the  engines  of  Cornwall  has  enabled  a  more 
careful  review  to  be  made  in  respect  to  the  gradual 
iniprovcinent  of  the  steam-engine  than  has  been  af- 
fonli'il  by  any  other  description  of  engine.   See  Duty. 

Corn-knife.  A  blade  about  twenty  inches  long, 
attached  by  a  tang  to  a  handle,  and  used  for  cutting 
standing  corn.  It  resembles  the  cane-knife  or  ma- 
chete, and  is  used  for  a  similar  purpose. 

Corn-mill.  A  farm  or  plantation  mill,  usually 
of  iron  botli  as  to  its  runner  and  the  concave,  and 
used  for  rough-grinding  corn  on  tlie  cob  for  stock. 

Cor-no'pe-an.  {Music. )  A  kind  of  cornet  with 
valvi-5. 

Corn-plant'er.  A  machine  for  dropping  com  in 
hills,  pveviously  opening  the  ground  for  the  recep- 
tion of  the  seed,  and  suhsenuently  throwing  back 
the  earth  and  rolling  it  flat. 


Fig.  1469. 


Hand-Plttnter, 


^:^ 


main  .shaft.  The 
share  opens  the 
furrow,  the  roll- 
er y  covers  the 
seed. 

Fig.  1469  is  arranged  to  plant  two  rows  at  once, 
the  operator  riding  on  the  machine  and  working  the 
seed-slides  by  a  lever,  or  allowing  tliem  to  be  worked 
by  a  cam  driven  by  the  a.xle,  as  may  be  desired. 
The  sled-runners  F Fopen  the  furrow;  by  a  motion 
of  the  upright  lever  M  the  ]>Ianting  jiait  may  be 
lifted  clear  of  the  giounil,  resting  on  the  tongue  and 
wheels  in  going  from  field  to  held  or  turning  at  the 
ends  of  the  rows. 

Another  form  is  a  hand-planter,  which  is  thrust 
into  the  grormd.  The  downward  motion  of  the 
plunger  drives  the  seed  into  the  ground.  The  up- 
ward motion  operates  the  seed-slide  g  g  by  the  zig- 
zag H,  and  deposits  another  bunch  of  grains  in  the 
pocket  b,  ready  to  be  thrust  out  by  the  ne.xt  descent 
of  the  plunger. 

Com-plo'w.  A  shovel-plow,  double-shovel,  or 
other  form  of  plow  for  tending  crops  planted  in  hills. 
See  Cultivator. 

Corn-pop'per.     A  wire  basket  in  which  pop- 


Ridin^  Double-Row  Com-Ptantfr. 


Com-  Popper. 


CORN-ROW  MARKER. 


628 


CORPSE-COOLER. 


Fig.  un. 


corn  is  heated  till  the  hull 
cracks  open  and  allows  the 
starchy  follicles  to  expand. 

Corn-row^  Mark'er.  A 
sled  with  a  gaged  width  between 
the  runners  for  marking  out 
rows  in  which  to  plant  corn. 
It  has  an  outrigger,  which 
scratches  the  ground  at  another 
gaged  distance,  as  a  guide  for 
the  next  trip.  The  process  is 
repeated  at  right  angles  to  the 
former  markings,  and  the  in- 
tersections of  the  marks  are  the 
places  for  dropping  the  seed. 

Corn-shell'er.  The  mm- 
slidler,  for  rubbing  the  grains 
from  the  cob,  is  made  in  various 

foiTOS. 

1.  The  roughened  or  toothed 
disk  (Fig.  1472),  which  operates 
upon   the    ears   in    connection 
with  a  chute  or  obliciue  pressure-board,  which  holds 

Fig.  H73. 


Disk-Sheller. 


Corn-stalk  Fig.  1475. 

Cut'ter.  A  ma- 
chine for  gath- 
ering the  dry 
corn-stalks  of  a 
previous  year's 
croj)  into  rows, 
andcuttingthem 
into  short  pieces, 
so  that  they  may 
be  covered  in  by 
the  plow. 

The  hooks,  attached  to  hanging-posts,  are  in  the 
advance,  and  are  maintained  in  position  by  certain 
devices.  Their  duty  is  to  straighten  out  the  corn- 
stalks parallel  with  the  line  of  motion  of  the  ma- 
chine. The  rotating  cutter-wheel  has  its  bearings 
in  a  vertically  adjustable  frame. 

Fig.  U76. 


Com- Shock  Tj/er, 


Cylinder-Shelter. 


the  corn 
against  the 
rubber. 

2.  The  cyl- 
inder (Figs. 
1473andl4/'4) 
with  toothed 
periphery  act- 


ing upon   the  ears  in  connection  with  a  concave, 

which  aflords  a  gi-ailually  decreasing  throat  as  the 

ears   roll   and 
Fig  1474.  rub  and   part 

with      their 
grains. 

3.  An  ori- 
fice into  which 
the  ear  is  driv- 
en by  a  blow 
from  a  mallet, 
driving  the 
cob  through 
and  shelling 
off  the  grains. 
C  o  r  n  - 
shock  Ty'er. 
An  ini[)]enient 
for  straining  a 
band  around  a 
shock  of  corn, 
to  facilitate 
tying.        The 

jiin  is  thnist  into  the  shock,  and  one  end  of  the  band 

fastened  to  one  ]iart,  while  the  other  end  of  the  band 

is  wound  upon  the  axis. 

Corn-shock'ing   Ma-chine'.     A  machine   for 

cutting    corn    in    the    tield    and    binding   it   into 

shocks. 


Cam-Stalk  Cutter. 

Com-strip'ping  Knife.    A  knife  for  cutting 
green  corn  from  the  cob  for  cooking  or  canning. 
The  roasting  ear  is  erected  upon  a  spike  in  the 

Fig  1477. 


Cone-SMln. 


Corn-Stripping  Km/e. 


di.sh  ;  the  corn  is  stripped  from  the  cob  by  ahan<lled 
cutter  with  curved,  lapjiing  spring  blades. 

Co-ro'na.  (Archilccture.)  A  broad,  projecting 
face  forming  the  principal  member  of  a  cornice.' 
The  soffit  is  thmnled,  so  as  to  form  a  drip  edge. 

Corpse-cool'er.  A  temporary  coffin  or  shell 
in  which  a  corp.se  is  laid  to  delay  the  natural  decay 
liy  exposure  to  an  artificially  cooled  atmosphere. 
In  Fig.  1478,  the  metallic  case  has  an  interior  wire 
basket  to  receive  the  corpse.  Between  the  basket 
and  case  are  pipes  wliii'h  contain  a  freezing  mixture. 
The  cover  has  hollow  pockets  for  the  rirculation  of 
air,  which  jiasses  into  the  pans  to  which  the  tubes 
are  attached.  The  inner  cover  is  cooled  with  ice, 
and  the  outer  cue  incloses  the  interior  arrange- 
ments. 


CORRIDOR. 


629 


COESET-MAKING  MACHINE. 


Fig.  1473. 


C<frpst-  PreSfTvfr. 

Cor'ri-dor.  1.  (PorlijUation.)  The  covered  way 
forniint;  a  walk  around  the  whole  of  the  work. 

2.  (Ardiitecture.)  A  gallery  or  open  communi- 
catiou  to  the  (iitterent  apartments  of  a  house. 

Cor'ru-gat'ed  I'ron.  Sheet-metal  pressed  into 
wrinkles  or  folds,  so  as  to  give  it  greater  stiffness. 
It  is  used  in  many  ways ;  as  sheathing,  house- 
covering,  roofing,  etc. 

"  As  admirably  shown  by  Buckland,  the  partitions 
which  separate  into  chambers  all  the  whorls  of 
the  ammonite  except  the  outermost  one  were  ex- 
quisitely adapted  to  strengthen,  by  the  tortuous 
windings  of  their  outer  edges,  a  shell  which  had  to 
combine  great  lightness  with  great  powei-s  of  resist- 
ance. Itself  a  con- 
Fig.  U79.  tinuous  arch 
throughout,  it  was 
supported  by  a 
series  of  continuous 
arches  inside,  some- 
what resembling  in 
form  the  groined 
ribs  of  the  Gothic 
roof,  but  which, 
unlike  the  ponder- 
ous stone-work  of 
the  medieval  archi- 
tects were  as  light 
as  they  were  .strong.  And  to  this  combination  of 
arclies  there  was  addeil,  in  the  ribs  and  grooves  of 
th.'  shell,  yet  another  element  of  strength,  — that 
whtjh  ha.s  of  late  been  introduced  into  iron  roofs, 
wliich,  by  means  of  their  cornigations,  —  ribs  and 
gioovcs  like  those  of  the  ammonite,  —  are  made  to 
s|  an  over  mde  .■spaces  OTthout  the  support  of  beams 
or  niftei-s.  Still  more  recently,  the  same  principle 
ha.s  been  introduced  into  metallic  boats,  which, 
whi-u  eomigated,  like  the  old  ammonites,  are  found 
to  be  sufficiently  strong  to  resist  almost  any  degi-ee 
of  |iressure  without  the  wonted  aildition  of  an  in- 
teri.>r  framework."  —  Hroit  Millek. 

Cor'ni-gat'lng-ma-chine'.  A  machine  for  cor- 
rugating sheet-metal. 

Ill  one  form  it  is  a  rolling-mill  in  which  a  series 
of  parallel  grooves,  alternating  with  parallel  eleva- 

Fig.  1180. 


Ammonitts  kumpriesianus  ( Oolite). 


Corru§aiin^'MiU. 


tions,  is  cut  In  the  circumference  of  the 
central  roll,  and  counteqjart  grooves  and 
elevations  are  fonued  in  the  upjier  ami 
lower  roll,  so  that  the  iron  is  passed  con- 
H  secutively  between  the  rolls  in  opposite 
directions  ;  in  another  form  the  rolls  are 
grooved  longitudinally,  in  another  foim 
the  corrugation  is  by  simple  pressure  lie- 
tween  dies. 

Co-mn'dum.  A  hard  mineral  consist- 
ing of  crystalline  alumina.  The  sapjihire  and 
iTiby  are  allied  substances  of  different  colois.  Em- 
ery is  a  dark-colored,  gi-anular  vai'iety.  See  E.M- 
EKY. 

Corundiun  is  used  in  powder  of  varying  finene.ss  ; 
is  made  up  into  wheels  and  lajjs  with  gimis,  resins, 
glue,  etc.  ;  is  used  by  dentists  in  the  form  of 
cones,  cups,  files  (round,  taper,  and  oval),  slabs, 
wheels,  laps,  bobs,  points,  tape. 

It  is  made  into  various  gi-ades  by  pounding  and 
sifting.     Is  molded  in  forms  and  presses. 

Cor-vette'.  (Xautical.)  A  ship -rigged  man- 
of-war  with  a  flush  deck,  and  cam-ing  from  eighteen 

i  to  twenty-six  guns,  in  one  tier.    It  ranks  next  below 

I  a  frigritc. 

I      Cor'set-mak'ing     Ma-chine'.      A    loom    for 

I  weaving  fabrics  having  an  undulating  contour  of 
vai-ying  dimensions.     It   is  arranged  to  make  the 

,  tubular  spaces  for  the  introduction  of  the  whale- 
bones. In  the  machine  exhibited  at  the  French 
Exposition  in  1867,  the  principle  of  a  constant 
length  of  ti-avel  for  the  shuttle  was  adopted  for  the 
sake  of  simplicity  ;  but  as  it  is  neces.sary,  in  weav- 
ing the  gores,  that  the  weft-thread  should  pass 
through  only  a  part  of  the  breadth  of  the  warp,  the 

i  Jacquard  has  been  employed  for  the  purpose  of 
taking  up  the  poirion  of  the  wai-p  required  to  be 
woven  in  that  part.  As  the  shuttle  always  passes 
over  the  full  brea<lth  of  the  wai-p,  of  which  only  one 
portion,  say  one  third,  is  to  be  used,  it  unwinds  the 
full  length  of  weft  thread  from  the  bobbin,  but  only 
one  third  of  it  is  tied  in  the  waqi.  In  repassing 
the  shuttle  one  third  more  is  tied,  thus  leaving  one 
third  of  the  unem]doyed  weft-thread  in  the  form  of 
a  loop  upon  the  article  manufactured.  To  remove 
this  superiluous  thread,  the  thread-catcher,  which 
is  a  lever  with  an  elastic  finger,  pas.ses  from  behind, 
through  the  lay  on  each  side  of  the  reed,  and  pulls 
the  thread  out.  The  shuttle  is  conveyed  by  a  car- 
rier to  the  center  of  the  waqi,  where  it  is  taken  by 
the  other  carrier  and  jiassed  thi-ough  the  remainder 
of  its  course. 

The  most  difficult  part  of  the  work  is  performed 
by  the  ngulnlor  or  Uike-up  motion,  the  action  of 
which  is  to  take  up  the  woven  cloth  in  such  a  mau- 
ner  as  to  leave  a  straight  line  in  front  of  the  reed. 
As  the  cloth  is  woven  fii-st  only  on  one  side  ;  then 
for  the  whalebone  pockets,  where  the  cloth  is  double, 
evenly  over  the  full  breadth  ;  thirdly,  on  the  other 
side  only  ;  and,  finally,  for  the  full  breadth  at  the 
back  and  front  of  the  stay,  —  the  motion  of  the  regu- 
lator must  change  accordingly.  To  effect  this,  the 
cloth  passes  between  two  .sets  of  rollers,  the  njiper 
of  which  are  simple  pressure-rollers,  to  be  regulated 
by  springs  and  set  screws.  The  lower  rollei*s  are 
fluted  and  worked  by  a  system  of  levers  independent 
of  each  other.  The  levers  are  worked  conjointly  by 
the  Jacquard  and  lay,  so  that  the  lay  gives  only  a 
movement  to  those  levers  which  have  been  pre- 
viously acted  upon  by  the  .Jacquard. 

An  elastic-wai-p  tension  is  obtained  by  a  peculiarly 
constructed  lever  combined  with  an  elastic  brake,  so 
as  to  render  the  whole  machine  fit  for  flat,  convex, 
plain,  or  richly  ornamented  work,  according  to  the 


COSAQUES. 


630 


COTTON. 


cards  placed  upon  the  Jacquard,  and  the  material 

put  in  warp  and  shuttle. 

Cos'aques.  French  fancy  paper  for  wrapping 
swci'tnu-iits. 

Cos'mo-labe.  An  astronomical  instrument  re- 
sembling the  astrolabe,  and  formerly  used  for 
measuring  angles. 

Cos'mo-ra'ma.  A  pictorial  exhibition  in  which 
the  views  are  laid  horizontally  upon  a  semicircular 
table,  and  rellected  by  diagonal  mirrors  to  the 
lenses  at  which  the  eye  of  the  spectator  is  suc- 
cessively ajiplied.  Tlie  pictures  are  illuminated  by 
hidden  lamps. 

Cos'mo-sphere'.  An  apparatus  for  exhibiting 
tlie  relation  of  tile  earth  to  the  fixed  stars.  A  ter- 
restrial globe  is  placed  in  the  center  of  a  large,  hol- 
low glass  sphere  on  which  are  depicted  the  stars  and 
constellations. 

Cos'sas.    (Fahrk.)   A  kind  of  plain  India  muslin. 

Cos'teau-ing.  (Miniiig.)  A  Cornish  term  for  a 
method  of  jirospeeting  for  metallic  lodes.  Trenches 
or  pits  are  dug  in  the  superficial  strata,  and  uniteil 
by  a  drift  which  crosses  the  direction  of  the  vein,  if 
any  exist  ;  the  veins  in  the  vicinity  ati'ording  a  guide 
for  direction.     Oostecnuig. 

Cot.     1 .   A  sort  of  refuse  wool. 

2.  A  sheath  or  sleeve  ;  as  a  clothing  for  a  drawing- 
roller  of  a  spinning-frame  ;  a  cover  for  a  sore  finger. 

3.  A  rude  boat,  as  a  dug-out  or  canoe. 

4.  A  lieilstead. 

Co-til'lioa.  {Fabric.)  A  woolen  material  in 
bki;k  and  wliite  for  ladies'  skirts. 

Cot'tage-chalr.  A  form  of  chair  adapted  for 
comfort  ratliiT  tlrtii  show,  and  capable  of  being  car- 
ried on  to  the  lawn,  on  picnics,  etc.    A.  folding  chair. 


Fig.  1481. 


Cottage-  Chair.  Cotter. 

Cot'ter.  A  key.  A  wedge-shaped  piece  driven 
between  the  gibs  in  attaching  a  strap-head  to  a  con- 
necting-rod and  tightening  the  brasses  of  a  bearing. 
See  Key. 

1.  A  key  inserted  into  a  link  which  has  been 
passed  through  another  link  of  a  chain.  A  broken 
chain  is  thus  temporarily  mendeil.  This  mode  is 
adopted  in  fastening  a  log  on  the  .sled,  and  generally 
in  securing  an  object  by  a  chain  when  tlie  whole 
length  of  the  latter  is  not  rer|uired.  The  hook  at 
the  end  of  the  chain  usually  forms  the  cotter,  and  it 
is  much  better  than  making  a  running  noose  of  the 
chain  in  the  link,  as  the  latter  is  difficult  to  un- 
fasten, while  the  cotter  can  be  slipped  or  driven  out, 
leaving  all  free.     A  toggle. 

2.  X  wedge  which  is  driven  alongside  the  end  of 
the  tongue  in  the  mortise  of  the  sled-roller,  tighten- 
ing the  latter  against  tlie  gib.     See  Gin. 

The  cotter  used  for  teiniiorarily  holding  an  iron 
]ilate  to  the  lib  of  a  vessel  while  being  riveted  is 
sliown    at  2,   Fig.  1482.     The   cotter   has   a  slight 


spring,  and  the  taper  pin  has  a  wedging  action  u]icn 

tlie  nlate. 

Cot'ter-drill.  A  drill  for  boring  slots  ;  it  or 
the  work  having  a  lateral  motion  after  its  depth  is 
attained. 

Cot'ter-file.  A  narrow  file  with  straight  sides, 
used  in  filing  grooves  for  cotters,   keys,  or  wedf  es. 

Cot'ter-plates.  (Founding. )  The  flanges  or 
lips  of  a  mold-box. 

Cot'ton.  A  [dant,  or  the  fibrous  product  there- 
of, having  a  scientific  Latin  name  {gosnypivm),  but  an 
Arabic  common  name  (gotmi),  which  pleasantly  le- 
luinds  us  of  the  gi-eat  people  from  w  horn  we  deri\  ed  it. 

Herodotus  (Book  111.  c.  106)  refers  to  the  cotton 
of  India :  "The  wild  trees  of  that  countiy  bear 
fleeces  as  their  fruit,  surpassing  those  of  the  sherji 
in  beauty  and  excellence  ;  and  the  Indians  use  cloth 
made  from  this  tree-wool."  In  another  jilaee  be 
states  that  the  Indian  contingent  of  the  ainiy  of 
.Xerxes  w^ore  cotton  drawers  (Book  VII.,  Geiman 
Bauinwollc,  tree-wool,  c.  65). 

Theophrastus,  the  disciple  of  Aristotle,  derived 
farther  iiiforniation  from  the  expedition  of  Alexan- 
der, and  says :  — 

"  The  trees  from  which  the  Indians  make  clothes 
have  a  leaf  like  that  of  the  black  mull  erry,  but  tlie 
whole  plant  resembles  the  dog-rose.  They  set  tl.eiii 
in  the  plains  arranged  in  rows,  so  as  to  resrinlde 
vines  at  a  distance.  They  bear  no  fruit,  but  the 
capsule  containing  the  wool  is,  when  closed,  about 
the  size  of  a  quince,  and  when  ripe  it  expands  so  as 
to  emit  the  wool,  which  is  woven  into  cloths,  either 
cheap  or  of  great  value." 

Aristobulus,  one  of  Alexander's  generals,  mentions 
the  cottnn-]dant  as  the  "wool-bearing  tiee,"  and 
stated  that  its  capsules  contained  seeds,  which  weie 
taken  out,  and  that  what  remained  was  combed  like 
wool.  Nearchu.s,  Alexander's  famous  navigator,  also 
refers  to  it,  and  says  that  the  shirts,  mantles,  and 
turbans  of  the  peo]de  of  India  were  made  of  it. 
Strabo,  on  the  authority  of  Nearcbus,  lelers  to  the 
fabrics  of  cotton  as  being  fiowered  and  beautifully 
dyed. 

An  awning  of  cotton  was  spread  over  the  theater 
by  Lentulus  Siunther,  July  6,  63  B.  c.  Linen  had 
been  fonnerly  used. 

Pliny  mentions  cotton  in  four  places  in  his  Katn- 
ral  History  ;  two  refer  to  the  account  of  Theojl  ras- 
tns,  one  to  the  curbasa  (cotton)  of  Spain,  one  to  the 
cotton  of  Eg)'pt :  — 

"  In  U)iper  Egypt,  towards  Arabia,  there  grows  a 
shrub,  which  some  call  gossypiuni,  and  otlieis  rijlon, 
from  wdiich  the  stuff's  are  made  that  we  cnll  .lylinu. 
It  is  small,  and  bears  a  fruit  resembling  the  filbeit, 
within  which  is  a  downy  wool  which  is  sjnin  into 
thread.  There  is  nothing  to  be  preferred  to  tlie:c 
stuffs  for  softness  and  whiteness  ;  beautiful  gaiments 
are  made  from  them  for  the  priests  of  F.gypt." 

The  old  hatred  of  the  Egj'ptian  priests  for  wool 
and  preference  for  flax  would  not  militate  against  the 
cotton  when  they  found  it  to  be  vegetable  growth. 
Ill  the  earlier  periods  of  the  Nile  people,  nothing  but 
linen  was  used  by  priests  or  for  embalming. 

Arrian  the  hi.storian  (d.  A.  D.  140)  cites  the  im- 
portations from  the  East  to  Europe  of  cotton  goods, 
plain  and  ornamented.  The  muslins  of  Bengal 
were  then  called  GangUihi,  to  indicate  that  they 
came  from  the  Ganges.  The  Indian  names  yet  sur- 
vive in  the  words  muslin,  named  from  Moussol,  and 
calico  from  Calicut. 

Julius  Pollux,  in  the  Onomasticon  (a.  d.  170), 
refers  to  the  cotton  of  India,  which  he  terms  hyssus, 
and  compares  with  flax  :  — 

"  The  tree  produces  a  fniit  most  nearly  resembling 


COTTON. 


631 


COTTON. 


a  walnut,  but  three-cleft.     After  the  outer  covering,  ! 
which  is  like  a  waluut,  is  divided  and  dry,  the  sub- 
stance resembling  wool  is  extracted,  and  is  used  in 
the  manufacture  of  cloth  for  woof,  the  warp  being 
linen." 

Cotton  paper  used  by  the  gold-beater  is  men- 
tioned by  Theophilus  Presbyter  about  A.  D.  800. 

On  the  discovery  of  America  by  Columbus,  cotton 
formed  the  principal  article  of  clothing  among  the 
Mexicans.  They  interwove  it  with  fine-spuu  hair  of 
rabbits,  or  with  feathers  for  state  robes.  The 
cuirasses  of  thick  cotton  fabric  were  proof  against 
the  Indian  mis.siles,  and  were  adopted  by  the 
Spaniards.  The  nobles  wore  instead,  cuirasses  of 
thin  plates  of  gold  or  silver  with  surcoats  of  feather- 
work. 

Among  the  presents  stolen  or  purchased  by  the 
brutal  Cortez  and  sent  to  Charles  V.  were  "cotton 
mantles,  some  all  white,  others  nii.\ed  with  white 
and  black,  or  red,  green,  yellow,  and  blue  ;  waist- 
coats, counterpanes,  tapestries,  and  carpets  of  cot- 
ton ;  and  the  colors  of  the  cottons  were  extremely 
fine." —  Cl.wigf.ro's  Conquest  of  Mexico. 

The  Mexicans  had  indigo  and  cochineal. 

Columbus  found  the  cotton-plant  wild  in  Hispan- 
iola,  in  other  West  India  islands,  and  on  the  con- 
tinent of  South  .America,  where  the  natives  used  it 
for  dresses  and  tishing-nets. 

Magellan,  in  1519,  found  the  Brazilian  natives  re- 
posing on  beds  of  cotton  down. 

Cotton  goods  were  familiar  to  the  Arabs  in  the 
time  of  Mohammed,  A.  I).  627,  and  the  culture  was 
carried  by  his  followers  through  the  Slediterranean 
coa.st  of  -ifiica  into  Spain,  whence  the  fabric 
reached  the  less  civilized  parts  of  Europe.  Abder- 
rahman  111.  commenced  the  manufacture  of  cotton 
iu  Spain,  and  in  the  fourteenth  centuiy  it  was  in- 
troduced into  Italy. 

When  the  best  part  of  the  inhabitants  of  Spain 
were  expelled,  when  the  University  of  Cordova  be- 
came a  thing  forgotten  on  the  peninsula,  when  the 
memory  of  Alhazen  was  lost,  and  the  era  of  the 
Pedros  and  Philips  commenced,  then  the  cotton- 
plant,  too,  faded  away,  and  all  the  industries  grow- 
ing out  of  this  beautiful  staple  languished.  The 
culture  and  manufacture  revived  again  in  Spain  at 
Valencia  and  Barcelona  respectively. 

Fabrics  and  yams  were  largely  imported  from 
the  East  into  Europe  for  several  centuries  ;  but  the 
manufacture  of  the  cotton-wool,  as  it  was  long  called, 
gradually  crept  into  the  various  countries  of  Europe. 

The  earliest  notice  in  England  is  by  Koberts, 
1641,  who  describes  the  excellent  goods,  "  fusHayi.i, 
vermillioiis,  dimUies,  and  other  stuffs,"  made  by  the 
inhabitants  of  Manchester,  of  "cotton-wool  brought 
from  SmjTna  and  Cyprus."  Fii-st  made  by  ma- 
chinery by  Louis  Paul  in  1736-40.     See  Cottox- 

MACHIXERY. 

In  the  seventeenth  century,  cotton  fabrics  were 
so  largely  imported  into  England  from  India  as 
to  interfere  with  the  woolen,  linen,  and  silk  in- 
terests, and  the  importation  of  cotton  goods  was 
forbidden  in  1700. 

An  act  of  parliament  in  1721  imposed  a  fine  of  £5 
on  the  wearer  of  cotton  and  £20  on  the  vendor.  It 
was  thought  to  be  the  rain  of  England,  and  every 
depression  in  trade  was  charged  on  the  cotton, 
which  was  superseding  wool.  Thirty  years  after- 
ward the  annual  value  of  manufactured  cottons  was 
£200,000.  Inl860it  was  £52,000,000.  In  1823, 
Great  Britain  employed  10,000  steam -looms;  the 
number  in  1865  was  400,000,  driven  by  steam- 
power  estimated  eijual  to  294,000  horses,  and  direct- 
ly employing  1,000,000  persons. 


The  Parliamentary  Report  of  1851  states  the  num- 
ber of  pounds  of  cotton  worked  into  varn  per  day 

(neariy) 2,000",000  pounds. 

Spindles  in  operation  .  .  20,000,000 
Power-looms  ....  250,000 
Factories      ....  2,000 

Hands  employed  inside  the  walls  350,000 
Horse-power  (steam  and  water)  .  80,000 
Production   of  cotton  goods  in 

1850  per  day  ...     4,000,000  yards. 

Production  of  unwoven  cotton 

yam  per  day  .         .         .       500,000  pounds. 

Cotton-seed  was  brought  into  England  from  the 
Levant  ;  taken  thence  to  the  Bahamas,  and  thence 
to  Georgia  in  1786.  The  first  cotton-niiU  in  Amer- 
ica was  at  Beverly,  Mass.,  in  1788. 

In  the  following  Ust  are  associated  the  terms  used 
in  the  description,  manufacture,  and  products  of 
fibrous  material,  excepting  those  involving  pulp- 
ing, which  will  be  found  under  the  iudical  head  of 
Paper  (which  see).  The  following  list  includes 
cotton,  flax,  wool,  hemp,  silk,  etc.,  appliances. 
Sec  — 


Ageing. 

Balling-machine. 
Bat. 

Batting. 

Batting-machine. 
Beating-engine. 
Bier. 
Billy. 
Bink. 
Bleaching. 
Block-printing. 
Blower  and  sjireader. 
Blowing-machine. 
Bobbin. 

Bobbinet-machine. 
Bobbin-winder. 
Bobbin  and  fly  frame. 
Boon. 

Bott-hammer. 
Braiding-machine. 
Braid-sizing  and  polish- 
ing machine, 
ferake.     Flax  and  hemp 
Branning. 
Breaker. 
Breaking-frame. 
Breaking-machine. 
Bronze. 

Brushing-machine. 
Bucking. 
Bucking-keir. 
Buffalo. 
Bunch. 
Bundle. 

Bundling-press. 
Burling-iron. 
Burling-machine. 
Burr. 

Burring-machine. 
Cable-laid. 

Calendering-machine. 
Calico-printing. 
Can-frame. 
Can-roving  machine. 
Canvas-frame. 
Card. 

Card-clothing. 
Card-grinding. 
Carding-engine. 


Carding-machine. 

Card-machine. 

Card-setting  machine. 

Carriage. 

Carrier. 

Cask . 

Caudroy. 

Cham  Ijcr. 

Chemicking. 

Chenille-machine. 

China-blue  style. 

Circular  bolt. 

Clasp. 

Cleaning-machine. 

Clearer. 

Clearing. 

Cloth. 

Cloth-creaser. 

Cloth-crimping  machine. 

Cloth-cutting  machine. 

Cloth-dressing  machine. 

Cloth-drj'ing  machine. 

Cloth-embossing  machine. 

Cloth-finishing  machine. 

Cloth-folding  machine. 

Cloth-measuring  machine. 

Cloth-napping  machine. 

Cloth-press. 

Cloth-shearing  machine. 

Cloth-smoothing  machine. 

Cloth-sponger. 

Cloth-stretcher. 

Cloth-teaseler. 

C!oth-tenter-bar. 

Coiling  or  laying  slivers. 

Color-doctor. 

Colimm. 

Clouded-yam  machine. 

Comb. 

Comb-broach. 

Combing-macUine. 

Condenser. 

Cone-pulley. 

Cop. 

Copping-plate. 

Copping-raiL 

Cop-tube. 

Cop-winder. 

Cord. 


COTTON. 


632 


COTTON. 


Coid-covcring  machine. 

Cord-ilryer. 

Cot. 

Cot-roller. 

Cotton. 

Cotton-cleaner. 

Cotton-elevator. 

Cottou-gin. 

Cottonizing-liber. 

Cotton-jiaper. 

Cotton-picker. 

Cotton-press. 

Cotton-thread. 

Counterialler. 

Craping-machine. 

Creel. 

Creeping-sheet. 

Crisper. 

Crotting. 

Cross-shearing  machine. 

Cut. 

Cutting-engine. 

Damping-machine. 

Dasli-wheel. 

Decoloriug-style. 

Dent. 

Devil. 

Discharger. 

Discharge-style. 

Distatf. 

Doffer. 

Doffing-eylinder. 

Doffing-knil'e. 

Douliler. 

Doubling. 

Doubling  and  twisting 
machine. 

Drawing. 

Drawing-frame. 

Drawing-head. 

Dresser.     Copper 

Dressing-raachine. 

Drum. 

Drying-machine. 

Dumb-singles. 

Dunging. 

Dust-room. 

Dyeing. 

Embroidering-machine. 

Enleaviige-style. 

Eiiuational-box. 

Fabric  (see  list). 

Fallev. 

Faller-wire. 

Felt. 

Felting-machine. 

Fiber-cleaning. 

Fiber.  Separating  ani- 
mal and  vegetable 

Filling-engine. 

Fine-drawing. 

Finishing-card. 

Fishing-net  machine. 

Flat. 

Fla.\. 

Flax  and  hemp  brake. 

Flax-cleaning  machine. 

Flax-cotton. 

Flax-cutting  machine. 

Flax-drcsser. 

Fleece. 

Flock. 

Flock -duster. 

Flocking-machine. 


Floss  silk. 

Fluting-machine. 

Flyer. 

Fondu. 

Frame. 

Frizzing-machine. 

Fulling. 

Fulling  hat-bodies. 

Fulling-mill. 

Fulling-stock. 

Casing. 

Gig. 

Gigging-machine. 

Gill. 

Gill-frame. 

Gimp-machine. 

Gin.     Cotton 

Glossing. 

Grounding-in. 

Haheck. 

Hackle. 

Hackling-machine. 

Hair-rope  picker. 

Hand-spinning  machine. 

Hank. 

Harle. 

Harp. 

Hatchel. 

Hawser. 

Hawser-laid. 

Heck-box. 

Heckle. 

Heckling-machine. 

Heddle. 

Hemp. 

Hemp- brake. 

Hook -frame. 

Hot-Hue. 

Iron-man, 

Jack -frame. 

Jack  in  a  box. 

Jenny. 

Kemp. 

Knitting-burr. 

Knitting-machine. 

Knotting. 

Lace-machine. 

Lag. 

Lantern. 

Lap. 

Lap-frame. 

Lapping-machine. 

Lay. 

Laying-machine. 

Lea. 

Leaver-macliine. 

Lewis. 

Licker-in. 

Linen-prover. 

Lint-doctor. 

Loom  (see  Weaving). 

JIaddcr-style. 

Mangle. 

Marabout. 

Mordant. 

Mosaic-wool. 

Mule. 

Napping-cloth. 

Netting-machine. 

Noils. 

Oiling. 

Opening-machine. 

Organzine. 

Pad. 


Padding. 

Parroting. 

Picker.     Cotton 

Picking.     Cloth 

Pigment. 

Pile. 

Pirn. 

Planking-machine. 

Plaquage-style. 

Plucker. 

Polishing.     Yam    and 

thread 
Pouncing-machine. 
Printing. 
Prcsser-bar. 
Presser-flyer. 
Puffer-pipe. 
Quill. 

Quilting-frame. 
Rap. 

Raw-silk. 
Reed. 
Reel. 

Reeling-machine. 
Reentering. 
Reserve -style. 
Resist. 
Retting. 
Ribbon. 

Ring  and  traveler. 
Ring-spinner. 
Rinsing-machine. 
Ripple. 
Roll. 

RoU-hoiling. 
Roller-howl. 
Rongeant-style. 
Rope. 

Rope-making  machine. 
Rope-winch. 
Roving. 
Roving-frame. 
Scavenger-roll. 
Scouring. 

Scribbling-machine. 
Serimping-bar. 
.Scutcher. 

Scutching-machine. 
Shake-willy. 
Shearing. 
Sheeting-machine. 
Shives. 
Shove. 

Shroud.     Hawser-laid 
Shuttle. 
Silk. 

Silk-cleaning  knife. 
Silk-doubling  machine. 
Silk-filature. 
Silk-reel. 

Silk-sizing  machine. 
Silk-sorting  machine. 
Silk-stretching  machine. 
Silk-twister. 
Silk-winder. 
Singeing-machine. 
Singer. 
Singles. 
Sinker. 

Sizing-machine. 
Skein. 
Skewer. 
Skip. 


Slab. 

Sliver. 

Sliver-box. 

Slub. 

Slubbing. 

Slubbing-machine. 

Souring. 

Speeder. 

Spindle. 

Spinel. 

Spinning. 

Spinning-jack. 

Spinning-jenny. 

Spinning-machine. 

Spinning-wheel. 

Spirit-colors. 

Spool. 

Spooling-machine. 

Spool-labeling  machine. 

Spoon. 

Spreader. 

Spreading-frame. 

Spun-yarn. 

SquiiTel . 

Steam-chest. 

Steeping. 

Stocking-frame. 

Stocking-machine. 

Stop-tinger. 

Strand. 

Stretcher-mule. 

Stretching-frame. 

Strick. 

Suint. 

Sulphuring. 

Swift. 

Swimming-tub. 

Swingle. 

Swing-stock. 

Teaseling-machine. 

Tenter. 

Tenter-bar. 

Tewing-beetle. 

Thread. 

Thread-finisher. 

Thread-frame. 

Thread-machine. 

Thread-polisher. 

Thread-winder. 

Throstle. 

Throwing. 

Tlirown-silk. 

Thnim. 

Top. 

Top-Hat. 

Tow. 

Tram. 

Twilly. 

Twine-maehine. 

Twine-reeler. 

Twist. 

Urchin. 

Wadding. 

Wadding-sizer. 

Warp. 

Warp-dresser. 

Warp-frame. 

Warping-hook. 

Warping-jack. 

Warping-mill. 

Warp-machine. 

AVaste-picking  machine. 

AVater-frame. 

Water-laid. 


COTTONADE. 


633 


COTTOK-CLEAN  ER. 


Water-twist. 

Waxing. 

Wliirl. 

Whiilers. 

Willowiug. 

Willy. 

Wiucing-machine. 

WiuiUug-macliine. 

Wolf. 

Woof. 

Wool. 

Wool-burring  machine. 

AVool-eleaner. 

Wool-combing. 

Wocl-dryer. 


Wool-machinery. 

Wool-oiler. 

Wool-picker. 

Wool-press. 

Wool-sortmg. 

AVool-table. 

Wool-washer. 

Worker. 

Worsted. 

Yarn. 

Yarn-cleaner. 

Yarn-dryer. 

Yarn-printing  machine. 

Yarn-reel. 

Yarn-winder. 


Cot'ton-ade.     (Fabric.)     Cottou  check. 

Cotton-bale  Tie.     See  Bale-tie. 

Cot'ton-brush  Chop'per.  A  machine  with 
revolving  knives  to  cut  up  the  old  dried  eotton- 
stalks,  to  prepare  the  land  for  plowing  for  another 
crop. 

Cot'ton-chop'per.  An  implement  which  is 
drawn  over  a  drilled  row  of  cotton-plants,  and  chops 

Fig.  148a 


Cotton-  Chopper. 

gaps  in  the  row  so  as  to  leave  the  plants  in  bunches 
or  hills.  The  machine  is  supported  on  two  wheels, 
and  has  a  plow  to  run  on  each  side  of  the  row. 
Motion  is  communicated  from  the  rotary  a.xle  by 
bevel-wheels  to  a  revolving  head  haHng  oblicjue 
cutters,  winch  chop  gaps  in  the  row  of  plants  as  the 
machine  progresses. 

Cot'ton-clean'er.    A  machine    for  separating 


the  dust  and  dirt  from  cotton.  This  is  performed 
by  a  scutching  and  blowing  action,  the  tussocks  of 
cotton  being  torn  asunder  and  opened,  allowing  the 
dirt  to  fall  out.  The  heavier  portions  lall  through 
gratings,  and  the  lighter  are  carried  oil'  thiough  air- 
ducts  by  means  of  e.xhaust-fans. 

Machines  for  this  purpose  are  of  very  variable 
construction,  less  unilbmnty  existing  in  this  depart- 
ment than  in  any  other  of  the  series  of  operations  in 
cotton.  The  preliminary  processes  of  the  cotton- 
mill  are  unpacking,  sorting,  picking,  cleaning,  wil- 
lowing,  balling,  and  lapping. 

The  mtUjn-clcancr  (Fig.  1484)  has  a  long  series  of 
consecutive  operations.  Tlie  cotton  from  the  feed- 
ing-table is  passed  between  a  pair  of  Huted  rollers  B, 
then  between  smooth  rollers,  which  present  it  to  the 
action  of  the  toothed  scutcher  D,  which  revolves 
rapidly  and  wafts  the  loosened  filaments  towards  a 
wire  cylinder  d,  over  which  it  travels,  being  com- 
pressed by  a  fluted  roller  d'  in  its  passage,  and 
thence  between  a  pair  of  smooth  rollers  e,  which  con- 
dense it  into  a  bat  ready  for  a  repetition  of  the 
operation.  Passing  between  another  pair  of  rollers, 
the  web  of  cotton  is  presented  to  the  second  scutcher 
/,  which  has  finer  and  more  numerous  teeth,  and 
drives  the  fibei-s  forward  to  the  wire  cylinders  H  I, 
a  knife  C  keeping  clear  the  lower  roller  of  the  la,st 
feed-pair.  The  dirt  falls  between  the  bars  of  the 
gratings  m,  over  which  the  cotton  passes  successively 
as  it  conies  from  the  consecutive  scutchers,  and  the 
lighter  dust  passes  through  the  meshes  of  the  wire 
cylinders  H  I K  L,  an  exhaust-draft  of  air  operating 
from  the  periphery  of  the  cylinders  inward,  and  the 
dust  passing  off  by  ducts  to  the  case  in  which  the 
exhaust- fan  rotates,  and  thence  by  a  suitable  chute, 
to  the  open  air  or  cellar. 

A  deflector  F  prevents  the  passage  of  the  cotton 
upward  to  the  chute,  fomiing  a  wiper  for  the  cylin- 
der /.  The  bat  of  cotton,  by  passing  between  two 
wire  cylinders,  is  subjected,  on  its  ujiper  and  lower 
surfaces  respectively,  to  a  <lrawing  action,  which  re- 
moves the  dust,  and  is  believed  to  accomplish  it 
more  perfectly  than  when  the  operation  is  confined 
to  one  side  of  the  bat,  a  single  cylinder  being  em- 
ployed. 

The  bat  from  the  cylinders  H  I  is  subjected  to 
the  pressure  of  a  toothed  roller  n.  which  acts  as  a 
dofler  to  the  upper  cylinder,  and  thence  passes  be- 
tween a  pair  of  condensing  rollers,  which  compact  it 
previous  to  a  repetition  of  the  operation. 

A  third  set  of  feed-rollers  next  j)resent  the  bat  to 
scutcher  P,  which  delivers  the  filaments,  thus 
opened  for  the  third  time,  to  the  wire  cylinders 
K  L,  whence  it  issues  in  a  partially  compacted  wad, 
and  is  passed,  by  the  fluted  doffer  and  two  pairs  of 


Fig.  1484 


PUson^s  Qttton-Oianer. 


COTTONEE. 


634 


COTTON-MACHINERY. 


jii'Pssure-rolleis,  to  the  liip-ioller  J{,  on  whicli  it  is 
wound,  R'aily  for  tin;  operation  of  curding. 

Anothvr  machine  has  a  device  i'or  regnlating  the 
siieeil  of  the  feed-apron  by  tlie  wciglit  con.seiiuent 
ii])on  the  thickness  of  the  layer  of  cotton  jiresented, 
the  object  being  to  present  eriual  quantities  in  eijual 
times  to  tile  licker-bi.  The  concave  s  is  supjiorted 
oil  a  center,  and  its  oscillations  atfect  the  position  of 
the  baud  on  the  cone-pulleys  b  below,  so  as  to  vary 
the  speed  of  the  traveling  feed-apron  c. 

As  the  cotton  passes  beyond  the  roller,  it  is  struck 
by  the  arms  of  the  scutcher  rf,  and  delivered  on 
to  the  grid  s,  whose  bars  are  longitudinal  and 
oti'er  no  obstacle  to  the  motion  of  the  hbers, 
while  the  spaces  allow  the  dirt  to  fall.  The 
cotton  then  passes  between  the  surfaces  of  the 


rotating  brush-cylinder  B,  and  the  heavier  specks 
fall  upon  the  mote-board  A',  while  the  lint  and  dust 
pa.ss  to  the  chamber  li,  and  fall  upon  the  wire-gauze 
surface  of  the  cylinder  P,  the  dust  passing  through 
and  being  conducted  out  of  the  machine,  while  the 
lint  is  arrested  and  passes  to  the  doffing  and  com- 
pacting cylinders,  from  which  it  issues  as  a  bat. 

In  Fig.  1-487,  instead  of  saws  are  needle-pointed 
teeth.     The  teeth  are  set  obliquely  to  the   radial 


Fig.  1487. 


Xorrf'5  Cotton- CSeaner. 


wire  cylinder  c  h,  which  have  an  internal  exhaust 
to  remove  the  dust.  From  thence  the  bat  passes  to 
the  pair  of  coudensing-roUers  m,  and  then  to  the  lap- 
roller  H,  on  which  it  is  wound. 

Cot'ton-ee.  (Fabric.)  A  Turkish  fabric  of  cot- 
ton and  silk  satinet. 

Cot'ton-el'e-va'tor.  An  arrangement  in  a  cot- 
ton-mill of  a  tube  with  air-blast  or  spiked  straps 
for  lan ying  cotton  to  the  upper  stories. 

Cot'ton-gin.  A  device,  originally  invented  by 
Whitney,  17^4,  in  which  lint  is  picked  from  the 
seed  by  nu\ins  of  saw-teeth  projecting  through  slits 
in  the  side  of  the  chamber  in  which  the  seed-cotton 
is  placed. 

In  the  example,  the  cotton  occupies  chamber  F, 
where  the  picker-roll  A'  rotates,  .ff  is  a  grid  form- 
Pig.  1486. 


Cotton-  Gin. 


ing  one  side  of  the  chamber,  and  through  its  inter- 
vals pass  the  teeth  of  the  saws  l>,  which  are  aiTanjed 
in  a  row  upon  a  mandrel  driven  by  the  motor.  The 
fibeis  of  lint  being  drawn  by  the  teeth  between  the 
bars  of  the  grid  E  are  brushed  from  the  saw  by  the 


Cotion-Gin. 

lines  of  the  ginning-cylintier,  which  is  composed  of 
.';egnients  of  rings  which  admit  of  separate  removal. 
The  cotton  is  doffed  by  a  brush-cylinder,  and  received 
by  and  condensed  between  two  sniooth  cylinders, 
which  make  it  into  a  bat  and  allow  the  dust  to  pass 
off. 

Cot'ton-hook.  A  claw  with  a  handle,  by  which 
cotton-bales  are  moved  in  loading  and  shipping. 

Cot'ton-iz'iag  Fi'ber.  A  process  of  disinte- 
grating fiber,  adopted  with  ilax,  hemp,  jute,  cine, 
etc.,  so  as  to  reduce  them  to  a  short  .staple  resem- 
bling cotton,  which  can  be  worked  on  cotton-ma- 
chinery. 

P.  CLAn.ssEN'.s  patent,  1851,  No.  8134,  describes  a 
process  for  reducing  vegetable  fiber  to  a  condition 
for  being  spun  or  felted,  by  saturating  it 
with  a  .solution  of  carbonate  of  soda  and 
potash,  and  then  toasolution  of  sul]duiric 
acid,  so  as  to  generate  carbonic-acid  gas 
within  the  cellular  structure,  and  thus 
tear  it  to  pieces  and  di.ssolve  the  muci- 
laginous mattei's.     See  Fi..\x-cotton. 

Ly.man's  patent,  August  3,  1858,  is 
forwhat  is  called  the  "fiber-gun. "  Wool, 
flax,  hemp,  jute,  cane,  etc.,  are  confined 
in  a  cylinder,  and  charged  with  steam 
at  a  very  high  pressure.  By  a  sudden 
movement,  the  material  is  released 
and  ex]>lodes  into  a  chamber,  the  vio- 
lent expansion  rupturing  the  cells  and 
j-educing  the  material  to  a  disintegi'ated 
condition. 

There  are  many  modifications  of  the 
alkali  and  acid  treatment,  and  of  the 
resulting  washing,  bleaching,  and  dry- 
ing processes,   by  which  mucilage,  color,  and  silex 
aie  removed. 

Cot'ton-ma-chin'er-y.  The  progress  of  a  Kale 
of  cotton  to  the  condition  of  thread  or  yam  may  be 
briefly  stated  as  follows :  — 


COTTON-MACHINERY. 


635 


COTTOIf-PEESS. 


1.  Sorted  and  mixed,  to  give  uniform  quality  to  a 
given  lot.  The  cotton  is  jiiled  in  layers  in  a  bink, 
and,  in  taking  it  fi'om  the  side  of  the  heap,  the  cot- 
ton of  the  seveial  strata  is  an  average  of  the  whole. 

2.  Scutdiecl  or  willovcd,  to  tear  the  matted 
masses  apart  and  ojien  out  the  fibers. 

3.  Cleaned  and  batted  by  a  combined  tearing  and 
blowing  action. 

4.  The  bat  is  farther  treated  in  a  similar  manner, 
the  filaments  being  more  divided,  received  on  a  wire- 
gauze  drum,  pressed  into  a  thin  sheet,  and  delivered 
as  a  fa;;  upon  a  roller. 

5.  Carded,  to  straighten  the  fibers,  which  are  de- 
livered in  fleeces  or  slivers  by  the  doffcr  ;  that  is,  in 
broad  or  narrow  films  or  transparent  sheets  of  fiber; 
or  the  fleece  is  reduced  to  a  sliver  by  being  passed 
through  a  funnel  and  consolidated  by  rollers. 

6.  Doubled  and  drawn,  to  complete  the  parallelism 
and  elongate  the  ribbon.  By  the  repetition  of  this 
process,  the  possible  inequalities  of  separate  rilibons 
are  lost  by  throwing  them  together  and  re-drawing 
agaiu  and  again,  and  de]iositing  in  cans. 

7.  Kovinfi,  to  attenuate  and  slightly  twist  the 
spongy  cord  and  wind  it  on  bobbins. 

8.  FlM-rovini)  and  stretching  by  the  bobbin-and- 
fl(j  frame  or  the  streteticr-mule,  delivering  on  bob- 
bins. 

9.  Spinning  in  the  throstle,  which  continuously 
draws,  twlits,  and  winds  the  yarn  (for  war]i)  ;  or  in 
the  mnle,  which  draws  out  and  twists  lengths  of 
about  56  inches,  and  then  winds  upon 
the  spindles  (for  weft). 

10.  Winding,  doubling,  and  singeing 
the  yarns,  to  fit  them  for  the  weaver. 

11.  Packing. 

12.  Dressing. 

13.  War])ing. 

14.  Weaving. 
N.  B.    Tliere  are  many  varieties  and  differences  in 

machines  and  processes,  and  some  even  in  the  order 
of  details,  lluch  difference  also  exists  in  the  ma- 
chines for  finer  or  coarser  work,  so  that,  while  the 
above  list  is  substantially  accurate,  it  will  not  be 
found  to  agree  with  the  order  of  all  factories,  and 
perliaps  not  in  every  respect  with  any  one. 

The  inventions  involved  in  the  treatment  of  cot- 
ton by  machinery  arc  about  as  follows  :  — 

Fly-shuttle,  .lohu  Kay,  of  Bury,  1738. 

Carding-machine,  Lewis  Paul,  1738. 

Drop-bo.x,  Robert  Kay,  1760. 

Spinning  by  rollers,  Lewis  Paul  or  John  Wyatt, 
1738. 

Spinning-jenny,  Hargreaves,  1767. 

Water-frame,  Arkwright,  1769. 

Power-loom,  Kev.  D.  E.  Cartwright,  1785. 

Cotton-gin,  Eli  Wliitney,  1794. 

Dressing-machine,  Johnson  and  Kadclitfe,  1802- 
1804. 

Power-loom,  Hon-ocks,  1803- 1S13. 

Mule,  Samuel  Crompton,  1774-1779. 

Self-acting  mule,  Roberts,  1825. 

See  Cotton,  Flax,  Wool,  Hemp,  Silk,  etc., 
Applianxt.s,  p.  631. 

A  cotton-factory  cited  by  Ure  has  machines  in 
the  following  projiortions  :  — 

1  willow,  1  blowing -inachine,  1  lap-machine, 
capable  together  of  cleaning  and  lapping  9,000 
pounds  of  cotton  per  week. 

21   card"),  breakers,  and  finishers  ;  joint  capacity 
5,000  pounds  per  week  of  69  hours. 
3  drawing-frames  of  3  heads  each. 

2  coarse  bobbin-and-fly  frames. 
7  finp.  fly-frames. 

12  self-acting  jnuZes;  404  spindles  each. 


10  throstle-frames  ;  236  spindles  each. 

7  dressing-machines, 

236  poioer-looms. 

2  warping-miUs. 

300  warp-winding  spindles. 

The  rovings  have  four  lianks  in  the  pound,  and 
are  spun  into  yarn  No.  38  on  the  throstles  as  well 
as  by  the  mules. 

Cot'ton  Pa'per.  We  are  indebted  for  cotton 
paper  to  the  .Arabians,  and  it  is  surmised  that  they 
learned  it  of  nations  still  east  of  them.  The  use  of 
cotton  for  this  purpose  was  probably  derived  from 
"far  Cathay"  (China),  whence  we  received  gun- 
powder, porcelain,  the  mariner's  compass,  and  the 
art  of  glazing  earthenware. 

The  first  use  of  cotton  paper  in  Europe  was  among 
the  Saracens  in  Spain,  and  cannot  be  traced  liack 
beyond  the  tenth  centuiy.  In  Europe,  it  jireceded 
the  use  of  flax  fiber  for  that  purjiose.  The  ]iaper  of 
Xativa,  a  city  of  Valencia,  was  famous  in  the  twelfth 
century.     See  Paper. 

Cot'ton-pick'er.  1.  A  machine  for  scutching 
cotton  to  tear  apart  the  matted  masses  and  clean  it. 
See  Cotton-cleaner. 

2.  A  machine  for  picking  cotton  from  the  bolls 
of  the  plant.  One  form  consists  of  a  traveling 
tootheil  belt,  which  catches  the  cotton  fiber  and 
drags  it  into  a  receptacle.  This  form  is  .shown  in 
Fig.  1488,  which  has  a  toothed  wheel  working  into 


Fig.  14S8. 


Cotton-  Ficker. 

the  links  of  an  endless  chain  having  reflex  spines, 
which  stri]i  the  cotton  from  the  bolls,  and  carry  it 
to  the  other  end  of  the  machine,  where  it  is  thrown 
off'  into  a  receptacle  by  a  revolving  stripi)er. 

Other  machines  have  rotary  brushes,  and  still 
others  operate  by  blowers,  flexible  air-pipes,  and 
nets  which  catch  the  fiber. 

Cot'ton-press.  One  in  wdiich  cotton  is  baled 
for  transportation  and  storage. 

There  are  various  forms  of  cotton-presses,  known 
as  the  screw,  toggle,  beater,  revolving,  hydraulic, 
portable,  double-acting,  windlass,  rack-aml-pinion, 
re-pressing,  and  rolling-pressure  presses.  See  under 
those  heads  respectively. 

The  old  form  of  press  was  the  screw,  which 
ascended  vertically  from  the  follower  and  worked  in 
a  nut  in  the  upper  cross-beam.  It  was  rotated  by  a 
sweep. 

In  the  illustration  is  a  modem  form  of  the  screw- 
press,  which  leaves  the  upper  enil  of  the  box  open 
for  filling,  the  screw  working  from  beneath. 

The  cotton  is  confined  in  a  long  rectangular  chest 
that  revolves  on  a  vertical  axis,  engaging  a  screw 
that  drives  the  follower. 

The  bevel-wheel  k  is  driven  by  the  .shaft  and  band 
wheels,  and  engages  another  bevel-wheel,  which  is 
secured,  teeth  down,  beneath  the  sill-framing  of  the 
box,  which  runs  on  rollers  on  the  rim  of  the  curb 
G.  As  the  box  rotates,  the  screw  rotates  in  its  nut, 
and  elevates  the  follower  F. 


COTTON-SEED  CLEANER. 


636 


COUCH. 


Fig.  1489. 


Cot'ton-seed  Clean'er.  A  machine  for  tearing 
till'  ivniaiuiiij,'  liliiT  IVuni  the  cotton-seed,  or  one 
wliii/li  so  far  coniiiacts  the  liber  upon  the  seeil  that 
the  hitter  will  roll  upon  itself  without  making  a 
m  it,  anil  so  become  fitted  to  be  sown  by  an  ordinary 
marhhie. 

Cot'ton-seed  HuU'er.  A  machine  by  which 
the  li.ill  of  the  cotton-seeil  is  rasped  off  and  sifted 
from   the  farinaceous  and  oily   matters,  Avliich    are 

Kg.  1490. 


utilized  for  their  oil  and  the  refuse  for  manure. 
The  kernels  pass  through  the  screen,  while  the 
coarser  hulls  and  fibers  are  carried  along  and  dis- 
charged from  the  lip  of  the  screen.  The  hulled  seed 
is  then  received  into  the  box-screen  /,  which,  being 
shaken  by  suitable  mechanism,  separates  the  still 
remaining  lighter  portions  of  the  hulls  that  pass  the 
wire  screen,  carrying  these  portions  out  over  the 
apron  J,  while  the  cleaned  and  hulled  seed  passes 
out  through  the  chute  K. 

Cot'ton-seed  Mill.  One  for  grinding  the  seed 
of  cotton,  either  for  manure  or  for  obtaining  from 
the  meal  the  oil,  either  by  pressure  or  tlie  more 
iLsual  mode  of  treatment  l}y  bisulphide  of  carbon 
(Sim's  process)  or  hydrocarbon. 

Cot'ton-seed  Plant'er.  One  in  which  the  feed- 
motions  are  positive,  as  the  seed  adheres  by  the  in- 
terlacing of  its  fibers,  and  requires  to  be  torn  apart 
and  ilriven  down  the  chute  to  the  ground. 

In  Fig.  1491,  the  adjastable  teeth  are  arranged 
within  a  case  in  a  hopper,  and  are  operated  by  gear- 


Fig.  1491. 


Cotton-Seed  HutUng-Machine, 


Cotton-Seed  Planter. 

ing  in  connection  with  the  driving-wheel,  and  regu- 
lated  by  cams  secured  to  the  case,  whei-eby  the  cot- 
ton-seeil  is  projected  down  the  tube.  UotiUing  arms 
work  in  the  case,  preventing  chokiu<f  therein. 

Cot'ton  Thread.  Cotton  tlircad  for  sewing  is 
niaile  by  laynig  together  two  or  more  yarns  of  ei|ual 
i|uality  and  twisting  them.  Previous  to  the  doubling 
and  twisting,  the  yarn  is  passed  through  a  trough 
containing  a  thin  solution  of  starch.  The  twist  is 
given  in  an  opposite  direction  to  that  a|iplie(l  by 
the  spinning-machine,  as  in  the  case  of  organzine 
silk. 

Cot'ton-top'per.  A  machine  which  passes 
along  and  jiruncs  the  row  of  growing  cotton-plants, 
in  order  to  curb  its  rampant  hi.\urianee. 

Cot'trel.  A  hook  and  trammel  for  suspending  a 
cooking-vessel. 

Couch.  1.  (Malting.)  The  heap  of  steeped 
barley  on  the  floor  where  the  gi'ains  undergo  germi- 
nation, effecting  the  change  into  nmlt.  The  ojjera- 
tiou  of  couching  takes  about  fourteen  days,  and  the 
snbsefjueut  kiln-drying,  which  arrests  germination, 
takes  two  days. 

2.  {Paper-inaMng.)  To  take  the  flake  of  imper- 
fectly compacted  pulp  from  the  mold  or  apron  on 
which  it  has  been  formed. 

With  hand-laid  paper  this  is  the  business  of  the 
couchcr,  who  receives  the  mold  from  the  dipper  and 
couches  the  sheet  upon  a.fcH. 

In  papei'-machinery  the  operation  is  performed 
by  a  roller  called  the  conch  ing-roUer. 

3.  A  reclining  seat,  bed,  or  sofa. 


COUCHING-INSTRUMENT. 


637 


COUNTER-SCALES. 


The  Greeks  adopted  the  coueh  from  the  Persians. 

"  After  this  had  been  said,  Cymilcus  asked  for 
some  spiced  and  boiled  water  to  drink  ;  saying  he 
must  wash  down  all  those  salt  arguments  with 
sweet  drink.  [Salted  fish  had  been  the  subject  un- 
der discussion.]  And  Ulpian  said  to  him  with  some 
indignation,  and  slapping  his  pillow  with  his  hand, 
'  How  long  will  it  be  before  you  leave  otf  your  bar- 
barian tricks?'"  —  Dcipnosophists,  111.  94. 

i.  (In  painting,  etc.)  The  ground  or  base  on 
which  the  color  is  applied  ;  a  varni-sh  or  sizing. 
The  term  is  also  used  in  leather-gilding,  gold-wire 
drawing,  and  other  mechanical  arts. 

Couch'ing-m'stru-ment.  One  employed  in 
depressing  the  opaijue  lens  in  cataract  previous  to 
removal. 

Cou-lisse'.     1.  A  grooved  piece  of  timber. 

2.  A  pair  of  battens,  or  a  groove  lu  which  a  sluice- 
gate moves  up  and  down. 

Cou-lomb's  Bal'ance.  The  torsion-balance  ;  a 
form  of  Ei.ECTEOMF.TER  (which  see). 

Coun'ter.  1.  {Shipbuilding.)  That  part  of  a 
sliip's  stern  which  overhangs  the  stern-post.  The 
countcr-timheTs  spring  from  the  wing-l.ranso7n, 
which  extends  acrcss  between  the  fashion-pieces, 
crossing  in  front  of  the  sfcni-jmst,  near  its  head.  At 
the  top  of  the  counter-timbers  is  the  tajfrail. 

2.  A  bench  or  long  table  on  which  merchandise  is 
e.xhibited  or  money-affairs  transacted. 

3.  The  back  part  of  a  boot  or  shoe,  around  the 
heel  of  the  wearer,  and  to  wliich  the  boot-heel  is 
attached. 

4.  An  apparatus  attached  to  a  steam-engine, 
printing-press,  or  other  machine,  for  the  purpose  of 
counting  the  revolutions  or  pulsations,  as  the  case 
may  be.    A  game-scorer. 

5.  (}[in  ing.)     A  cross  vein. 
Coun'ter-bal'eince.     A  weight   in  a  driver  or 

fly-wheel  to  overcome  a  dead  point,  or  balance  the 
weight  of  some  object  whose  gravity  affects  the 
opposite  side  of  the  wheel. 

A  suspended  weight  to  counterpoise  the  weight 
of  a  drawbridge,  crane-jib,  bob,  or  working-beam. 

Coun'ter-bat'ter-y.  A  battery  at  the  crest  of 
a  glacis,  to  silence  the  fire  of  the  besiegers,  and 
cover  tlie  storming  party. 

Coun'ter-beam.  (Printing.)  A  beam  con- 
nected to  the  platen  by  two  or  more  rods,  through 
the  medium  of  which  the  reciprocating  motion  is 
communicated  to  the  platen. 

Coun'ter-brace.  [Xautical.)  The  brace  of  the 
foretopsail  to  leeward. 

Coun'ter-check.  A  plane  for  working  out  the 
groove  wliich  unites  the  two  sashes  of  a  window  in 
the  middle. 

Coun'ter-die.     The  upper  die  or  stamp. 

Couu'ter-draia.  (Hydraulic  Engineering.)  A 
drain  at  the  foot  of  a  canal  or  dike  embankment,  to 
catch  and  carry  off  the  water. 

Coun'ter-ex-ten'sion  Ap-pa-ra'tua.  For 
retaining  firmly  the  upper  part  of  a  limb  while  ex- 


tension is  practiced  upon  the  lower,  in  cases  of  frac- 
ture of  the  femur  or  the  neck  of  the  trochanter 
major,  to  enable  the  bony  parts  to  unite  without  a 
shortening  of  the  limb.  It  consists  of  coaction- 
splints  for  the  femur  (if  that  be  the  seat  of  the  ac- 
cident) ;  a  counter-extending  band  attached  to  the 
bed-head  ;  and  a  round  perineal  band  which  passes 
around  the  crotch  ;  an  extending  hand  fastened  by 
starch  bandage  to  the  lower  leg ;  a  wooden  block  on 
the  foot-sole,  connecting  the  band  to  an  extension 
cord,  which  runs  over  a  pulley  on  the  bed-foot. 

Coun'ter-faller.  (Cotlon-manufaeture.)  In  the 
mule-spinner,  a  counterweighted  wire,  which  is  de- 
pressed when  Xhe  faller-wire  lowers  the  row  of  yams 
to  wind  them  on  the  cop.  Its  duty  is  to  balance 
the  threads  after  they  are  depressed  by  the  faller- 
v;ire,  and  to  straighten  them  when  loose. 

Coun'ter-fort.  (Masonry.)  A  pier  or  buttress 
bonded  as  a  revetment  to  the  back  of  a  retaining 
wall,  to  support  and  also  tie  the  wall,  such  as  the 
scarp  of  a  fort,  to  the  bank  in  the  rear. 

The  buttress  is  sometimes  on  the  face.  Wben 
arches  are  turned  between  counterforts,  it  is  called  a 
counter-arched  revetment. 

Coun'ter-gage.  (Carpentry.)  An  adjustable, 
double-pointed  gage  for  transferring  the  measure- 
ment of  a  mortise  to  the  end  of  a  stick  where  a 
tenon  is  to  be  made,  or  vice  versa. 

Coun'ter-guard.  (Fortification.)  A  rampart  in 
advance  of  a  bastion  and  having  faces  parallel  thereto. 

Coun'ter-mine.  (Fortification.)  A  mine  by  the 
besieged,  to  meet  an  approach,  destroy  an  offensive 
position,  or  intercept  a  mine  of  the  attacking  party. 

Coun'ter-mure.  (Masonry.)  The  facing  of  a  wall. 

Coun'ter-pane.  A  coverlet,  sometimes  woven 
in  raised  figures.     A  quilt ;  a  spread. 

Counterpane-weaving  is  with  two  shuttles,  one 
holding  a  much  coarser  weft  than  the  other.  The 
coarser  is  thrown  in  at  certain  intervals,  and  the 
thread  is  picked  up  with  an  iron  pin,  rather  hooked 
at  the  point,  so  as  to  form  knobs  disposed  in  a  sort 
of  pattern. 

Coun'ter-poise.  A  balance-weight  upon  a  wheel 
or  beam,  as  on  the  driving-wheel  of  a  locomotive, 
etc.     A  counterbalance. 

Coun'ter-poise-bridge.  A  bascul e-hviAga ;  the 
platform  is  raised  by  machinery  or  otherwise,  the 
operation   being   assisted  by  counter-weights.     See 

BA.SCULE  ;    LiFTIXG-BRIDGE. 

Coun'ter-proof.  One  taken  by  transfer  from 
another  proof  just  printed.  The  object  is  to  furnish 
an  engraver  with  a  copy,  non-reversed,  of  his  plate. 

Coun'ter-punch.  (Clmsiiig.)  One  which  sup- 
ports the  metal  beneath  while  the  hammer  is  ap- 
plied above,  and  may  be  the  means  of  expanding  a 
dented  place  by  outward  pressure  while  blows  are 
given  on  the  outer  surface  around  the  spot  thus  sup- 
ported. 

Coun'ter-rails.  (Shipbuilding.)  The  ornamen- 
tal molding 

Fig.  1493. 


Counter-Exttnston  Apparatus. 


Counter-Scales. 


COUNTERSCARP. 


638 


COUPLING. 


n 


Countersinks. 


Coun'-ter-scarp.  {Fortification.)  Tlie  wall  on 
tlie  outer  siik-  of  tlie  ditch,  opposite  to  the  scarp, 
wliii'h  is  on  the  I'ort  side. 

Coun'ter-shaft.     An  opposite  and  parallel  shaft 
driven  liy  l.umd  or  gearing  from  the  former  one. 
Coun'ter-sink.     1.  An  enlargement  of  a  hole  to 

receive  the  head 
Fig.  1494.  PI        fl    of  a   screw    or 

bolt. 

The  sides  of 
the  hole  are 
merely  cham- 
fered (a  a)  when 
it  is  to  I'eceive 
the  head  of  an 
ordinary  wood 
screw. 

When  a  flat- 
head  screw  or  a 
bolt-head  is  to 
be  let  in  flush 
with  or  below 
tlie  surface,  a  flat  bottom  I  is  retiuired. 

2.  A  tool  for  making  a  countersinl;  depression. 
In  watch-making,  tlie  countersinks  c  c  are  of  the 
flat-bottom  class  ;  a  central  stem  passes  into  the 
hole  for  the  shank  of  the  screw,  and  acts  as  guide 
for  the  cutting  edge,  /is  a  tap '.ring  countersink 
formed  by  a  wing  twisted  into  a  spiral  cutting  edge. 
Coun'ter-siak-bit.  A  boring-tool  having  a 
conical  or  cylindrical  cutter,  which  makes  a  depres- 
sion to  suit  the  head  of  a  screw.  See  c  d  c  f  g,  Fig. 
14!I4. 

Coun'ter-sunk-head'ed  Bolt.  A  bolt  having 
a  beveled  head,  which  is  let  into  a  corresponding 
cavity  in  one  of  the  pieces  which  it  binds  together. 
See  BoI.T. 

Coun'ter-sunk  Nail.  A  nail  with  a  conical 
head  like  a  wood-screw. 

Coun'ter  Swallow-tail.  (Fortification.)  An 
outwork  in  the  form  of  a  single  tenaille,  with  a 
wide  gorge. 

Coun'ter-tim'ber.  (Shipbuilding.)  One  of  the 
timbers  in  that  part  of  a  ship's  stern  which  over- 
hangs the  stern-post. 

Coun'ter-trench.  (Fortification.)  A  trench 
made  by  the  garrison  to  intercept  that  of  the  be- 
siegers. 

Coun'ter-val-la'tion.      (Fortification.)      Lines 
or  earthuorks  around  a  fortress  to  repel  sorties. 
Coun'ter-vault.     An  inverted  aich  or  vault. 
Coun'ter-works.     (Fortifimtion.)     Works  un- 
dertaken lor  tlu'  pui'pose  of  destroying  or  rendering 
useless  tliosi'  of  the  enemy. 

Count'eas.    A  size  of  slate.     See  Slate. 
Coun'try.     1.   (Mining.)     The  rock  or  strata  in 
whiuli  a  metaflic  lode  is  found. 

2.  (Furtificntioii.)  The  region  outside  of  a  fort 
down  to  whii.di  the  glacis  slopes. 

Couut-wheel.  (Horologij.)  A  wheel  with 
peripheral  notches,  whose  intervals  are  spaces  whose 
proportions  are  1,  2,  3,  np  to  12,  The  wheel  governs 
the  striking  so  far  as  to  regulate  the  number  of 
blows.  The  knife-edge  detent  being  lifted  out  of  a 
notch,  the  hammer  vibrates  so  long  as  the  edge 
rests  on  the  portion  of  the  wheel  between  the  notches. 
These  spaces  are  gi'aduated  in  length,  so  as  to  allow 
the  hammer  to  make  1,  2,  3,  etc.,  vibrations  up  to 
12,  when  it  has  completed  a  revolution  and  begins 
again.  Seventy-eight  blows  are  struck  in  a  com- 
plete revolution.  It  is  superseded  in  some  clocks 
by  the  mck  and  snai,  invented  by  Tompion. 

Cou-pe'.  1.  A  four-wheeled  close  carriage  with 
a  single  inside  seat  and  a  jierch  for  the  driver. 


2.  The  front  apartment  of  a  French  diligence  or 
an  English  railway-car. 

Coup'er.  A  lever  on  the  upper  part  of  the  loom, 
to  raise  the  harness. 

Coup'le.  (Electricity.)  A  voltaic  couple  is  a  pair 
of  plates  forming  a  battery,  or  a  part  of  one. 

Coup'led  Col'iunna.  Columns  arranged  in  pairs, 
where  the  nature  of  the  openings,  doors,  windows, 
or  niches  precludes  the  usual  intercolunmar  distance. 

Coupler.  1.  (Music.)  A  connection  between 
the  corresponding  keys  of  different  banks  or  ranks  of 
keys,  so  that  they  act  together  when  one  is  played 
upon.  When  a  key  of  the  lower  bank  is  touclied,  it 
actuates  the  one  above  ;  but  the  action  is  not  recip- 
rocal. The  coupler  is  thrown  into  action  by  a  draw- 
stop  or  pedal. 

Octaves  in  the  same  bank  are  sometimes  coupled, 
to  avoid  the  necessity  of  striking  octaves  by  stretch- 
ing the  hands.  Similarly,  the  g rcal-o\ga.n  may  be 
coupled  with  the  c/icx'r-organ  or  the  swell. 

2.  The  ring  which  slips  upon  the  handles  of  a 
crucible  tongs,  or  a  nipping-tool  of  any  kind.  Also 
calleil  reins. 

Couples.  (Carpentry.)  Rafters  framed  together 
in  pairs  by  a  tie,  which  is  generally  fixed  above  the 
feet  of  the  rafters. 

Main  coujiles  ;  the  roof-trusses. 

Coupling.  A  device  for  uniting  adjacent  parts 
or  objects.     See  under  the  following  heads  ;  — 


Axle-coupling. 

Bale-tie. 

Ball  and  socket. 

Band-coupling. 

Bayonet-joint. 

Belt-clasp. 

Belt-coupling. 

Belt-fastener. 

Binding-screw. 

Bol  ster-coupling. 

Buckle. 

Car-coupling. 

Carriage-coupling. 

Carriage-shackle, 

Chain-coupling. 

Clasp. 

Claw  for  suspendingtackle 

Clevis. 

Clinch-ring. 

Clip. 

Clutch. 

Clutch-rope. 

Coat-link. 

Connecting-link. 

Connector. 

Coupler. 

Coupling-box. 

Coupling-link. 

Coupling-pin. 

Coupling-pole. 

Cramp. 

Difl'erential  coupling. 

Draft-bar. 

Draw-bar. 

Draw-link. 

Expansion-coupling. 

Felloe-coupling. 

Fetter. 

Fish-bar. 

Fish-joint. 

Flexible  coupling. 

Friction-clutch. 

Friction-coupling. 

Gimbal. 


Gimmal. 
Gland. 

Grappling-iron. 
Gripes. 
Gyves. 

Hame-fastening. 
Hand -clamp. 
Hand-cuff. 
Harness-snap. 
Hasp. 
Hinge. 

Hook  (varieties,  see  HoOKb 
Hopjile. 
Hose-coupling. 
,lew's-harp-shackle. 
Joint  (varieties,  see  Joint). 
!.Joint-cou]iling. 
Key-coupler. 
Knuckle-joint. 
Lap-ring. 
Lengthening-rod. 
Link. 
Manacles. 
Oldham's  coupling. 
Open  ring. 
Parral. 
Perch. 

Pipe-cou|ding. 
Pitman-coupling. 
Kail-coupling. 
Reach. 
Reins. 
Ring. 

Rod-coupling. 
Screw-coupling. 
Shackle. 
Shaft-coupling. 
Shank-coupling. 
Snap-hook. 
Snap-link. 

Spiral-spring  coupling. 
Split-pin. 
Split- ring. 
Spring-coupling. 


COUPLING-BOX. 


639 


COAV-CATCHER. 


Swivel. 

Tliill-LonpUng. 
Tool-cou[jling. 
Tree-coupling. 


Truss. 

Turn  buckle. 
Uuivei-sal  joint. 
Wagon-coupling. 


Coup'ling-box.  A  metallic  box  into  which  the 
ends  of  two  shafts  are  fastened,  to  couple  them  in 
line. 

Coupling-link.  .A.n  open  or  split  link  for  con- 
necting two  objects,  or  forming  a  detachable  section 
in  a  chain. 

Coup'ling-pin.  {Vehicle.)  A  bolt  which  fastens 
the  hind  hounds  to  the  coupling-pole,  which  is  at- 
tached to  the  fore-geai-s  by  the  king-bolt. 

Coup'ling-pole.  {Vehicle.)  A  pole  connect 
ing  the  fore  and  hind  gear  of  a  wagon. 

Coup'ling-strap.  A  strap  connected  to  the  off 
bit-i'ing  of  the  otf  horse,  thence  through  the  near 
bit-ring,  and  leading  back  to  the  harness  of  the  near 
horse.  Used  with  artillery  horses,  and  also  for 
resti%'e  horses  iu  ordinarj'  service. 

Cou-pure'.  {Fortification.)  A  passage  cut 
through  the  glacis  in  the  reentering  angle  of  the 
covered  way,  to  facilitate  sallies  by  the  besieged. 
They  are  sometimes  made  through  the  lower  curtain, 
to  let  boats  into  a  little  haven  built  in  the  reenter- 
ing angle  of  the  counterscarp  of  the  outworks. 

Course.  1.  iMdsonri/.)  One  row  or  tier  of 
bricks  or  stones  in  a  wall. 

Plinth-coarse  ;  a  lower,  projecting,  square-faced 
course. 

B'ocl-ing-coarse  ;  laid  on  top  of  the  cornice. 

£oiiding-co\iTse  ;  one  in  which  the  stones  lie  with 
their  length  across  the  wall. 

Heading-coarse  ;  being  all  headers. 

Stretching-coarse  ;  consisting  of  stretchers. 

Springi)ig-coarse  ;  upon  which  an  arch  rests 

String-coarse  ;  a  projecting  course  in  a  wall. 

Rows  of  slates,  tiles,  ami  shingles  are  also  termed 
courses.  The  barge-coarse  is  one  projecting  over  the 
gable  of  a  building. 

2.  {.Viisic.)  A  set  of  strings  of  the  same  tone 
placed  alongside,  and  struck  one,  two,  or  three  at  a 
time,  according  to  the  strength  of  sound  desired. 
The  adjustment  in  a  piano  is  made  by  the  soft  pedal, 
which  shifts  the  bank  of  keys. 

3.  {File-cutting.)  A  row  of  parallel  teeth  on  the 
face  of  a  file.  One  coarse  makes  a  single-cut  tile.  A 
course  crossing  the  former  at  right  angles  consti- 
tutes it  a  double-cut  file. 

Eight  courses  o(  cuts  are  required  for  a  square  tile, 
double-cut  on  each  side. 

On  the  half-round  files  for  gulleting  saws  as  manv 
as  twenty-three  courses  are  required  for  the  convex 
side,  and  only  two  for  the  straight  side. 

i.   {Milting.)     The  direction  of  a  vein  or  lode. 

Coursed  Mi'son-ry.  As  distinguished  from 
pi:rre  p;rdiic,  in  which  the  stone  is  cast  in  at  ran- 
do;n  to  make  a  foundation,  as  in  the  Plymouth  and 
other  breakwaters,  the  Rip-raps,  etc.  Coursed 
masonry  cnnsists  of  blocks  lying  on  their  beds  in 
courses.  Wh?n  laid  beneath  the  surface  of  the 
w.iter,  they  are  directed  by  operators  in  the  div- 
ing-bell, as  practiced  by  Smeaton  at  Ramsgate  Har- 
bor. 

Coursed-rubble  masonry  is  laid  in  courses  with 
occasional  headers  ;  the  side  joints  are  not  neces- 
sarily %'ertical,  nor  the  stones  in  a  course  of  an  even 
thickness. 

Cours'es.'  {Xautical.)  The  sails  sustained  by 
the  lower  masts  ;  as  the  foresail,  mainsail,  and 
S[iinker. 

Cours'ing-joint  The  mortar-joint  between  two 
courses  of  bricks  or  stones. 


Court-plas'ter.    Silk  surfaced  with  a  solution 

of  balsam  of  benzoin. 

Cous'si-nef.  {Architecture. )  The  impost  stone 
on  the  top  of  a  pier.      C'ushcon. 

Cove.  1.  {Architecture.)  a.  A  hollow  fonning  a 
member  of  some  cornice-moldings  or  ceiling-orna- 
mentation. 

b.  The  concavity  of  an  arch  or  ceiling. 

2.  {Shipbuilding.)  An  arched  molding  at  the  foot 
of  the  tatirail.  An  elliptical  molding  sprung  over 
it  is  called  the  nrch  of  the  cove. 

Coved  Ceil'ing.  One  with  a  hollow  of  about  a 
quarter-circle  running  round  the  room,  situated 
above  the  cornice,  and  dying  into  the  flat  central 
portion. 

Cov'er.  1.  {Hoofing.)  That  portion  of  a  slate, 
tile,  or  shingle  which  is  hidden  by  the  overlap  of 
the  course  above.     The  exposed  part  is  the  margin. 

2.  (Machinery.)  The  cap-head  or  end-plate  of  a 
cylinder. 

3.  A  lid  or  hatch  for  a  coal-hole,  cistern,  or  vault- 
opening. 

4.  A  turret  or  cupola  on  a  kitchen  or  boiling- 
house,  pierced  at  the  sides  to  let  out  steam  or  smoke. 

5.  {Slcam-cngine.)  The  lap  of  a  slide-valve.  See 
Lap. 

Cov'ered  VTay.  {Fortification.)  A  sunken  area 
around  a  fortification,  of  which  the  glacis  forms  the 
parapet.  A  banquette  on  the  interior  slope  of  the 
glacis  affords  a  place  for  the  garrison  to  stand  on 
while  delivering  a  grazing  fire  over  the  glacis. 

Cov'er-ing.  {Bookbinding.)  The  clothing  of 
the  sides  and  back  of  a  book  with  cloth,  muslin, 
leather,  paper,  or  other  material.  The  cover  ready 
for  the  contents  is  a  case. 

Cov'er-ing-strap.  (Iron  Shipbuilding.)  A  plate 
beneath  the  two  meeting  jtlates  in  a  strake,  to  which 
they  are  riveted  and  by  which  they  are  connected. 

Co-vet'ta.  A  plane  used  for  molding  frame- 
work, called  also  a  quarter-round. 

Cov'ing.  {,4rchUect.ure.)  a.  The  overhang  of 
the  U]iper  portions  of  a  building  beyond  the  limits 
of  the  ground  ])lan. 

b.  The  splayed  reveals  or  inclined  jambs  on  the 
sides  of  a  fireplace.  These  jambs  were  square  in  the 
old  English  fireplaces.  In  some  of  the  Louvre  fire- 
places the  jambs  have  an  angle  of  about  45°.  These 
were  probably  erected  aljout  1750,  by  Gabriel,  under 
the  orders  of  M.  de  lla^igny.  Gauger  had  previ- 
ously (1715)  given  to  the  coving  a  parabolic  curve. 
Count  Rumford  invented  or  adopted  the  inclined 
coving,  having  an  angle  of  135°  with  the  fire-back, 
to  radiate  heat  into  the  room. 

Cow.  1.  {Mining.)  A  wooden  wedge  to  jam 
against  the  barrel  of  a  gin  or  crab,  to  keep  it  from 
revolving.     ( Prov.  Eng. ) 

2.  A  kind  of  self-acting  brake  formerly  used  on 
inclined  ]ilanes.     A  trailer. 

Co'vr'an.     A  Scotch  fishing-boat. 

Ccw-beck.    A  mixtme  of  hair  and  wool  for  hats. 

CoTV-catch'er.    An  inclined  frame  in  froid  of  a 

Fig.  1495. 


Cow-  Catciier. 


COW-HORN  FORCEPS. 


640 


CRADLE. 


locomotive,  to  throw  obstructions  from  the  track. 
ApUol.     Patented  in  England  by  Lindo,  1S40. 

Cow^-horn    Por'ceps.      A 

Fig.  1496.  dentist's  instrument  lor  e.vtract- 

ing  molars.  That  for  the  upper 
jaw  has  one  hooked  prong  like  a 
cow's  horn,  the  other  prong  be- 
ing gouge-shaped. 

The  cow-horn  forceps  for  the 

lower   molars    has    two    curved 

prongs,     which     hook    between 

Cow-horn  Forceps,     the    pairs    of    side-roots   of    the 

molar. 
Co'Wi.     A  chimney-cap  made  to  turn  around  by 
the  wind,  or  provided  with  ducts  by  which  the  wind 
is   made   an   accessory  in  educting  tlie  smoke  and 
other  volatile  products  of  combustion. 

A  wire  cap  or  cage  on  the  top  of  a  locomotive 
smoke-stack. 

Cowls  are  also  used  on  the  summits  of  ventilating 
shafts  for  public  buildings. 

rt(Fig.  1497).  Tlie  Hue  has  enveloping  side  passages 
which  assist  the  draft  by  induction. 

b.  The  spindle  of  the  cowl  is  stepped  in  a  socket, 
its  collar  revolving  in  Haiiges  upon  the  upper  side 
of  the  cap-plate,  which  is  anchored  to  the  brick- 
work of  the  chimney. 

c  is  a  cowl  or  hood  for  a  car-roof,  and  has  an  ad- 
justment by  which  its  mouth  is  presented  in  either 
direction  to  lead  in  vital  air,  or  by  induction  to  ex- 
pel foul  air. 

Fig.  1497. 


Omib. 


d  has  a  circular  series  of  openings  to  encourage 
upward  drnft,  a  deflecting  fnistuni,  and  conical  cap. 

i:  is  a  cover  for  a  marine  .stove-)iipe.  It  is  adjust- 
ed by  hand  so  as  to  present  the  ojiening  to  leeward, 
and  the  side-wings  are  held  open  by  the  top-shield, 
wliich  is  pressed  down  upon  them. 


In  /,  the  issuing  current  of  air  and  smoke  is  de- 
flected outward  by  the  cone,  and  impinges  upon  the 
obliijuely  set  plates  of  the  fan-cap,  causing  it  to  re- 
volve. 

Cowr-milk'er.    A  mechanical  device  for  milking 
cows.       The    usual    de- 
vices are  on  the  princi-  Fig.  1498. 
pie  of  the  breast-pump, 
with  cups   for  the   sev- 
eral teats.     The   elastic  I 
cups  communicate  with 
the   conical   cylinder  of 
the    diaphragm     pump,  ' 
the  piston    of  which  is 
worked  by  the  handles. 
The  milk   is  discharged 
by  a  spout   into   a  pail 
beneath. 

Cown'er.  The  arched 
part  of  a  ship's  stern. 

Crab.  1.  A  winch  on  a  movable  frame  with 
power-gearing,  used  in  connection  with  derricks 
ami  other  non-permanent  hoisting-machines. 

The  larger  gear-wheel  is  on  the  shaft  of  the  roller, 
and  is  rotated  by  the  spur-pinion  and  hand-cranks. 

Fig.  1499. 


/^ 


Coxa-Milker. 


Crab. 


2.  A  form  of  windlass  for  hauling  ships  into  dock. 

3.  A  machine  used  in  ropewalks  to  stretch  the 
yarn. 

4.  A  claw  for  temporarily  anchoring  to  the  ground 
a  portable  machine. 

Crack'er.  1.  (Pijrotcchnics.)  A  form  of  explosive 
fire-work.  Marcus  Grsecus,  in  the  eighth  century, 
speaks  of  a  composition  of  sulphur,  charcoal,  and 
saltpeter,  which  he  said  might  be  made  to  imitate 
thunder  by  folding  some  of  it  up  in  a  cover  and 
tying  it  tightly.     This  was  a  cracker. 

2.  A  hard-baked  biscuit.     See  Biscuit. 

3.  One  of  the  deeply  grooved  iron  cylinders  which 
revolve  in  pail's  and  grind  the  tough,  raw  caoutchouc, 
which  has  been  previously  cut  in  pieces  by  a  cir- 
cular knife. 

Cra'dle.  1.  A  baby's  bed  or  cot,  oscillating  on 
rockers  or  swung  upon  pivots. 

The  ancient  Creeks  nsed  cradles,  and  called  them 
by  names  indicating  their  forms,  such  as  little  bed, 
boat,  etc. 

Baby  cradles  were  used  by  the  Romans.  Tliey 
are  mentioned  by  Theocritus.  The  cradle  of  Henry 
V.  of  England  swung  between  two  posts. 

2.  A  thin  shell  or  case  of  wood,  acting  as  a  splint 
for  a  broken  bone  or  dislocated  limb. 

3.  A  framework  which  supports  the  bedclothes 
above  an  injured  limb. 

4.  A  frame  on  which  lo.am-molds  are  placed  in  an 
oven  to  be  burned,  after  the  spindle  is  withdrawn. 


CRADLE. 


641 


CKAMP. 


5.  (Hydraulic  Engineering. )  The  frame  in  which 
a  ship  lies  on  the  ways,  and  whieli  accoiiipauies  lier 
in  lauuching ;  or,  the  Irauie  in  which  a  vessel  lies 
on  a  way  or  sUp,  or  in  a  canal-lift. 

A  cradle  was  used  in  very  early  times  in  crossing 
the  Isthmus  of  Corinth,  from  tlie  Corinthian  to  the 
Cenchrean  Sea.  The  place  was  called  the  Diolcos, 
or  draw  ing-place,  and  was  live  miles  in  length. 
This  crossing-place  was  again  used  during  the  mari- 
time warfare  between  the  Genoese  and  the  Turks. 

At  a  number  of  places  in  Lombanly  and  Veuetia 
the  locks  are  insufficient  or  absent,  and  boats  are 
cradled  and  transported  over  the  grade. 

The  same  thing  takes  place  on  the  Morris  and 
Essex  Canal,  which  crosses  the  State  of  New  Jersey, 
uniting  the  Hudson  and  Delaware  Rivers.  See  Ix- 
CLIXED  Plaxe. 

In  its  simple  form,  the  cradle  consists  of  three 
longitudinal  timbers  united  by  ribs  or  cross-pieces. 
This  is  rtoated  beneath  the  ship,  which  is  lashed 
thereto  by  cables.  The  cradle  and  its  burden  are 
then  rtoated  to  the  inclined  ways  or  slip,  up  which 
it  is  hauled,  being  supported  by  rollers  which  in- 
tervene between  the  timbers  of  the  cradle  and  those 
of  the  slip. 

6.  {Metallurgy.)  A  rocking  apparatus,  used  in 
collecting  gold  from  soil  aud  sand  by  agitating  the 
auriferous  earth  in  water. 

The  earth  is  shoveled  into  the  sieve,  and  washed 
through  its  meshes  by  water,  which  also  carries  otf 


Fij.  1500 


Fig.l60L 


British  Cradle. 


if'itn^  t  rtrnf. 


the  lighter  earthy  particles  in  .suspension.  The 
coarser  matters,  which  do  not  pass  the  meshes  of  the 
sieve,  are  thrown  out  and  the  operation  repeated. 
After  a  large  quantity  of  earth  has  been  thus  dis- 
posed of,  the  contents  of  the  cradle  are  washed  in  a 
pan  and  the  gold  obtained  from  the  settlings. 

7.  A  tool  Hseil  by  »if;ro^i«^engi-avers.  It  consists 
of  a  steel  plate  with  a  proper  tang  and  handle,  and 
has  angular  grooves  on  its  under  surface,  so  that 
when  the  rounded  end  is  obliquely  ground,  it  will 
form  a  row  of  points  by  which  a  multitude  of  burrs 
are  raised  upon  a  plate.  This  is  the  mode  of  pro- 
ceeding in  Mezzotint-f.xgraving  (which  see\  the 
cradle  bc-ing  rocked  back  and  forth,  and  retreating, 
making  a  zigzag  series  of  burrs.  This  is  crossed  at 
41 


right  angles,  and  then  several  times  diagonally,  un- 
til the  whole  surface  of  the  plate  is  roughened,  so  as 
to  hold  the  ink  of  the  copper-plate  printer.  The 
burnisher  and  scraper  remove  the  burr  in  parts,  ac- 
coixling  to  the  desired  graduation  of  lights. 

8.  A  suspended  scatfold  used  by  minei-s. 

9.  (CarjKutry.)     The  rough  fi-amework  or  brack- 
etiug  forming  ribbing  for  vault- 
ed ceilings  and  arches  intended 
to  be  covered  with  plaster. 

10.  {Husbandry.)  a.  A  set 
of  fingers  projecting  from  a  post 
which  is  mortised  into  the  snath 
of  a  grain-scrthe. 

b.  A  grain-scythe. 
The  American  grain-cradle  is 
a  superior  implement.  The 
English  cradle-scythe,  judging 
by  the  representations,  is  a  far 
inferior  tool ;  nothing  in  its 
execution  comes  up  to  the  rate 
and  ijuality  of  work  as  seen  in 
the  American  harve.st-field  be- 
fore cradles  were  superseded. 

Cra'dle-scythe.    {.Agricul- 
ture.)   A  broad  scythe  to  be  fitted  in  a  grain-cradle, 
as  distinguished  from  a  grass  or  mmcing  scythe. 

Cra'dUng.  1.  {Coopering.)  Cutting  a  cask  in 
two  lengthwise,  in  order  to  allow  it  to  pass  through 
a  doorway  or  hatchwaj-,  the  parts  being  afterwards 

united     and    re- 
hooped. 

2.  {Carpentry.) 
The  framework  in 
arched  or  coved 
ceilings  to  which 
the  laths  are 
nailed. 

Cramp.  1.  (J/a- 
sonry.)  A  bar  of 
iron  with  bent 
ends,  usedtounite 
adjacent  blocksof 
stone  in  situations 
w  here  they  ai-e  ex- 
jiosed  to  WTench- 
ing,  as  in  piers, 
wharves,  light- 
houses, breakwa- 
ters, etc. 

Thestonesform- 
ing  the  piei-s  of 
the  bridge  of  Se- 
miramisacross  the 
Euphrates,  at 
Babylon,  were  se- 
cured together  by 
iron  cramps  fast- 
ened by  melted 
lead.     So  said  Diodonis  Siculus. 

Cramps  of  lead  for  fastening  together  the  stones 
of  masonrj'  were  found  by 
Layard  among  the  ruins  of  Fig.  1502. 

Xineveh.     Leaden  cramps  r 
were     simOarly     used     in  r_ 

I  The  blocks  included  in 
,  one   layer   of   ma.sonr}'   in 

Smeaton's  Eddystone  light- 
j  house  were  united  by  iron 

cramps,   with  melted  lead  ^ 

poured    around    them. 

Wooden  dowels  united  the 
!  layers.  H  Oamps 


O 


If  ^ 

yj  Orampa.  [ 


CRAMP-DRILL. 


642 


CRAXE. 


The  stones  in  the  Coliseum  of  Vespasian  weie 
united  by  bionze  eranips. 

2.  (Carpcntrij.)  a.  A  rectangular  frame  with  a 
tightening  strew,  by  which  carpenters  compress  the 
joints  of  framework,  as  in  making  doors  and  other 
panel-work,  and  for  other  purposes.  Its  office  is  some- 
what similar  to  tliat  of  a  clamp. 

b.  A  bench-hook  or  hold-fast,     (a,  Fig.  1503.) 

3.  {Hoottnaking.)    A  piece  of  board,  shaped  like  the 
front  of  a  boot,  over 


.Fig.  1503 


Craiyip- Drills. 


which  leather  is  bent 
to  form  the  upper  of  a 
boot  or  shoe.  See 
CuiMP. 

Cramp-drill.  A 
portable  drill  liaving 
a  cutting  and  a  feed- 
ing motion.  In  one 
of  the  e.xarnples  the 
feed-screw  is  in  the 
lower  member  of  the 
cramp-frame,  and  in 
the  other  one  it  is  in 
the  upper  portion 
and  forms  a  sleeve 
around  the  drill-spin- 
dle which  rotates 
within  it. 

Cramp-i'ron.  An 
iron  binding  two 
stones  together  in  a 
course.  It  has  usual- 
ly turned-over  ends 
which   penetrate  the 


respective  ashlars.     See  Cramp. 

Cramp-joint.  One  in  which  the  parts  are 
bound  ti>getlier  by  locking-bars.     See  Cramp. 

Cram'poous.  1.  A  clutch  formed  like  a  pair  of 
calipers,  used  in  raising  olijects. 

2.  Iron  spikes  worn  on  the  boots,  to  assist  the' 
foothold  in  climbing  the  slopes  of  earthworks. 

Cran'ber-ry-gath'er-er.  An  implement  shaped 
like  a  rake,  ami  adapted  to  catch  below  the  berries 
on  the  stalk,  and  collect  them  in  a  bag  or  bo.\  at- 
tached to  the  rake-head. 

Crane.  1.  A  machine  for  hoisting  and  lowering 
heavy  weights,  it  consists  of  a  vertical  post  or 
frame,  which  is  rotatable  on  its  axis,  and  a  jib  or 
projecting  arm  over  which  the  chain  or  rope  passes 

Fig.  l.»t. 


Old  Dutch  Crnne. 


on  its  way  from  the  winch  at  the  foot  of  the  post  to 
the  load  to  be  lifted. 

The  carvus  of  the  Romans,  which  has  been  trans- 
lated crane,  was  a  boarding  device,  consisting  of  a 
ladder  attached  to  a  vertical  spar  and  so  pivoted  as 
to  bring  the  outer  end  over  the  deck  of  the  ship  to 
be  boarded.  A  grappling-hook  was  suspended  from 
the  end  of  the  staging.  I?y  this  means  of  ap- 
proach the  Romans  boarded  the  Carthaginian  ves- 
sels, and  achieved  success  in  several  naval  engage- 
ments. A  corvus  was  also  used  as  a  true  crane  for 
]iicking  off  soldiers  garrisoning  a  city  wall,  and 
setting  them  down  outside.  It  is  described  by 
Tacitus  :  — 

"The  stones  of  the  pyramids  were  raised  by 
making  mounds  of  earth  ;  cranes  and  other  engines 

Fig.  1505. 


not  being  known  at  that  time. "  —  Diodorus 
Sirrtrs  (60  n.  c). 

The  old  Dutch  crane,  which  was  also  in  use  in 
England  till  the  early  part  of  the  present  century, 
was  operated  by  a  tread-wheel,  around  which  the 
rope  was  wound  ;  the  rope  then  passed  over  guide- 
rollers  to  the  jib  of  the  crane,  which  projected  over 
the  hatchway  of  the  ship  and  turned  upon  a  pivot, 
so  that  it  could  move  round  about  three  fourths  of  a 
circle,  and  so  ileliver  the  goods  upon  the  quay. 

In  order  to  lower  the  goods  the  men  walked  back- 
ward ;  but  as  it  sometimes  happened  that  they  were 
overbalanced  by  the  descending  weight,  a  bar  or 
pole  of  wood  wa,s  sus))ended  from  the  axle,  so  that 
in  such  case  they  might  lay  hold  of  it,  and  save 
themselves  from  being  whirled  round  in  the  wheel. 

The  gi-eat  wheel  and  the  framing  which  supported 


CRANE. 


643 


CRANE. 


it  were  contained  in  a  wooden  bui'.diug,  to  the  comer 
of  which  the  jib  was  attached. 

The  essential  featiues  of  a  crane  may  be  com- 
bined in  a  machine  of  simple  construction  (Fig.  1505), 
the  central  pillar  being  sustained  by  a  frame  of  timber 
a,  by  a  planted  pillar  b,  or  by  guys  c,  as  in  the 
three  examples  of  cranes  of  simple  construction. 
The  operation  is  suflScieutly  plain  without  entering 
into  detail. 

The  ordinarj'  warehouse  or  foundry  crane  (d,  Fig. 
1505)  is  usually  stepped  in  the  floor,  and  has  its 
upper  bearing  in  a  joist  or  beam.  Its  size,  pro- 
poi-tions,  and  to  some  extent  its  construction,  de- 
pend upon  its  place  and  application. 

The  application  of  iron  in  the  construction  of  the 
crane  causes  some  change  in  the  appearance  c, 
apparent  lightness  and  compactness  being  gained. 

The  double  crane  (/,  Fig.  1505)  has  two  jibs;  one 
of  which  is  employed  in  raising  a  load,  while  the 
other  is  depositing  its  load  in  position.  The  crane 
is  mounted  on  a  carriage  traversing  on  rails  or 
rollers,  and  in  the  illustration  is  shown  as  applied 
to  lajing  stones  on  a  breakwater.     Each  jib  lias  a 


concave  side  has  a  cellular  structure  to  resist  com- 
pression. 

Cranes  were  worked  by  hydraulic  pressure  as  early 
as  1846,  at  Newcastle,  England  ;  subsecjuently  the 
lock-gates  and  cranes  of  the  Albert  Dock,  Liver- 
pool, and  those  of  the  Grimsby  Dock,  were  worked 
by  water,  derived  eitlier  from  the  town-reservoirs 
or  from  elevated  reservoirs  into  which  it  was  pumped 
for  that  special  purpose. 

These  sources,  being  fluctuating  or  expensive,  gave 
rise  to  the  adaptation  of  machinery  for  the  purpose. 

Armstrong's  hydraulic  crane,  English,  1S54  {h, 
Fig.  1506),  con.sists  of  one  or  more  hydraulic  jircsses, 
with  a  set  of  sheaves  used  in  the  inverted  order  of 
blocks  and  piUleys,  for  the  purjiose  of  obtaining  an 
extended  motion  of  the  chain  from  a  comparatively 
sl.ort  stroke  of  the  piston. 

In  the  illustration,  the  motion  is  multiplied  three- 
fold, each  block  having  two  sheaves. 

Swinging  the  jib  is  eU'ected  by  means  of  a  rack  or 


Fig.  1507. 


CrtjnfS. 

sliding  carriage  over  which  the  chain  pa.sse.s,  so  that 
the  stones  may  be  deposite<l  either  near  to  or  farther 
from  the  shaft  of  the  crane.  This  carriage  is  worked 
by  a  sheave  and  rope  which  passes  over  the  jx)iiit  of 
the  jib  and  down  by  the  side  of  the  spindle.  The 
crane  rotates  horizontally  on  an  axis,  to  bring  the 
jibs  over  the  places  for  receiving  and  depositing  the 
stones  respectively. 

Peronnet's  crane,  French,  (g.  Fig.  1506,)  was  used 
by  him  in  constructing  the  bridge  of  NeuOly.  It 
was  constructed  of  wood,  and  worked  by  two  large 
wheels  which  had  hand-pins  whereby  they  were 
turned.  The  spindle  or  verrical  shaft  was  journaled 
and  stepped  in  a  movable  frame,  and  the  hoisting- 
wheels  formed  a  partial  counterpoise  for  the  load 
suspended  from  the  end  of  the  jib. 

Fairbaim's  tubular  crane  (lower  figure  9)  is  made 
of  wrought -iron  plates  riveted  together,  and  arranged 
so  as  to  give  the  convex  back  and  upper  sides  a  suf- 
ficient degree  of  strength  to  resist  tension,  while  the 


chain  operating  on  the  base  of  the  movable  part  of 
the  crane,  and  connected  either  with  the  cylinder 
and  piston,  ha\-ing  alternate  motion  like  that  of  a 
steam-engine,  or  with  two  presses  applied  to  produce 
the  same  effect  by  alternate  action. 

Armstrong's  accumulator  is  intended  to  store  the 
power  exerted  by  the  engine  in  charging  it,  and 
consists  of  a  reservoir  giving  pressure  by  load  in- 
stead of  by  elevation.  It  is  a  Wge,  cast-iron 
cylinder  fitted  with  a  plunger,  from  which  a  heavy 
load-case  is  suspended.  Water  is  injected  by  the 
engine,  raising  the  idunger  and  the  load,  the  effec- 
tive weight  of  which  is  utilized  in  ejecting  the  water 
as  it  may  be  occasionally  called  for. 


CRANE. 


644 


CRANK. 


Tlie  power  tlms  exerted  in  the  ejection  of  water 
from  tile  eiifjirie  i.s  usually  e(|ual  to  a  column  of 
water  1,500  tcet  high.     See  ArcUiMUL.vniR. 

A  form  of  crime  (i,  Fig.  1507)  traveling  upon  a 
wide-gage  railroad,  and  bearing  its  load  suspendeil 
from  a  beam  above,  has  been  adopted  in  some  yards 
where  heavy  timber,  stone,  or  ii'on  requii'e  to  be 
moved,  loaded,  and  unloaded.  The  hoisting-chains 
are  worlci'd  liy  winches  on  each  section,  and  ]iass 
over  a  truck  above,  which  has  traverses  on  the  beam, 
so  as  to  bring  the  hook  over  a  load  nearer  to  or 
farther  from  the  rails.  By  means  of  the  traveling 
motion  of  the  machine  on  the  rails  ami  the  travers- 
ing motion  of  the  truck  above,  the  hook  of  the 
chain  may  be  lnought  over  any  ))art  of  the  si)ace 
within  the  rails.  If  both  windlasses  be  turned  at 
once,  the  load  rises.  If  one  be  unwound  while  the 
other  is  winding,  the  hook  does  not  rise,  but  the 
truck  traverses. 

Fairbairn's  traveling  crane  {j.  Fig.  1507)  is  adapted 
for  a    wrecking-crane    for   railroad   use.      A    crane 


Fig.  150S. 


Foundry-  Crane. 


adapted  for  lifting  fifteen  tons  wilt  have  a  counter- 
weight of  ten  tons  in  the  rear.  In  the  example  from 
which  the  illustration  is  derived,  the  jib  swept  over 
a  circle  of  25  feet  diameter,  and  was  capable  of  lift- 
ing the  load  18  feet  above  the  rails  on  the  beam 
above;  towards  the  winding  side.  By  turning  or 
untuniiug  the  respective  windlasses  at  the  necessary 
speeils  relatively,  a  compound  motion  may  be  at- 
tained, towards  or  from  either  rail  upward  or  down- 
ward. 

One  form  of  trn/cendnrj-crnne  consists  of  a  crab 
upon  a  carriage  traveling  upon  rails  on  the  beams 
overhead  in  a  fbnndry.  By  the  rotation  of  the  roller 
of  the  crab,  the  chain  or  rope  is  wound  on  and  the 
load  lifted,  and  by  the  motion  of  the  carriage  is 
transpoi'ted  to  any  place  within  the  range  of  the 
rails.     It  is  known  as  an  overhead  crane. 

The    foundry-crane  has  a  traversing   carriage  on 


the  jib,  which  permits  the  point  of  suspension  to 
be  moved  out  or  in  from  the  central  post  ;  the 
range  being  from  the  outer  eiul  to  the  mid-length  of 
the  jib.  The  traversing-cai'riage  is  moved  by  an 
endless  chain  descending  to  the  Hoor  of  the  foun<lry. 

In  Morrison's  steam-crane,  the  crane-post  forms 
the  steam-cylinder,  and  is  fitti'd  with  a  piston 
having  a  tlexililc  piston-rod  of  wire  rope,  which 
works  steam-tight  through  a  .stutting-bo.x  at  the 
top,  and  passes  over  two  pulleys,  itself  forming  the 
chain  for  lifting  the  load. 

The  downward  stroke  only  of  the  piston  is  util- 
ized in  lifting,  and  the  .steam  induction  and  eduction 
arc  governed  by  sli<le-valves  operatecl  liy  hand-levers. 

In  Evans's  steam-ciane,  a  vertical  boiler  forms 
the  crane-po.st  and  revolves  «ith  it.  The  cast-iron 
top  of  the  boiler  has  lugs  for  the  attachment  of  the 
tension-rods.  An  oscillating  cylinder  is  attached 
and  furnishes  the  power. 

The  pi'ojecting  arm  or  beam  of  a  crane  is  t\\£Jib, 

The  ])ost  and/i'J  collectively  are  sometimes  known 
as  the  gibbet. 

The  diagonal  is  the  stay. 

2.  {Kantieal.)  a.  A  forked  post  to  support  a 
boom  or  spare  spar  on  deck. 

b.  A  projecting  bracket  to  support  spars,  etc. 

3.  An  overhanging  tube  for  supjilying  a  tender 
with  water.     A  water-crane. 

4.  A  contrivance  to  hold  a  stone,  and  present  it 
to  the  slicer  of  the  lapidary. 

It  consists  of  a  clamp  which  moves  horizontally, 
having  its  bearings  on  a  vertical  post  rising  from 
the  bench  of  the  lapidary.  A  weighted  string  is 
attached  to  the  lever-arm,  and  keeps  the  stone  con- 
stantly pressed  u]i  against  the  slicer.     See  Sliceu. 

Crane,  Der'rick.  A  form  of  crane  having  spars 
for  jib  and  jiost.      See  DEUItlcK. 

Crane's-bill.  {Surgical.)  A  pair  of  long-nosed 
jiinchcrs. 

Cra'ni-om'e-ter.  An  in-strument  for  measuring 
sizes  of  .skulls. 

Dr.  Morton  gives  the  following  as  tlie  average  re- 
sult of  numerous  measurements  of  skulls  :  — 


European 

.    .     87  cubic  inches 

Malay 

85     " 

Negro    . 

.     83     " 

Mongol 

82     " 

Ancient  Egyptian  . 

.     80     " 

American  . 

79     " 

Ancient  Peravian  . 

75  to  79     " 

Professor  Hu.xley  says  that  the  most  capaeioui 
Euro])ean  skull  has  a  capacity  of  114  cubic  inches  ; 
the  smallest,  55  inches.  Schaafl'hausen  finds  Hin- 
doo .skulls  of  46  cubic  inches. 

Cra'ni-o-tome'.  A  ■  cutting  instrument  for 
opening  the  fetal  head,  to  assist  delivery. 

Crank.  An  arm  (called  the  web)  at  right  angles 
to  an  a.xis  by  which  motion  is  imparted  thereto  or 
received  therefrom.  The  crank  on  the  axis  of  a 
grindstone  or  a  fanning-mill  is  a  familiar  instance. 

The  crank  is  also  a  valued  device  in  converting  a 
rotary  into  a  reciprocating  motion,  or  conversely. 
An  example  of  the  former  is  found  in  the  saw-mill  ; 
of  the  latter,  in  the  .steam-engine.  Watt  is  the  in- 
ventor of  the  latter  application  of  it. 

3  (Fig.  1509)  shows  the  sj'«jjZc-crank  ;  4,  the 
rfo)ti7('-crank  ;   5,  the  if?^crank. 

1  (Fig.  1509),  a,  wrist  or  pin  ;  J,  shaft  ;  c,  web ; 
(I,  boss. 

James  Watt — no  mean  judge  —  remarks  that  "the 
true  inventor  of  the  crank  rotative  motion  was  the 
man,  whose  name,  unfortunately,  has  not  been  pre- 
served, who  first  contrived  the  common  foot-lathe. 


CRANK. 


645 


CRAPE. 


Cranks. 


The  applying  to 
the  steaiii-eiigine 
was  merely  taking 
a  knife  to  cut 
cheese  which  h  .d 
been  made  to  cut 
bread."  It  was  a 
nieritoriousappli- 
cation,  however, 
devised  by  Watt, 
to  turn  the  recijj- 
rocating  action  of 
the  piston  into 
a  rotary  motion, 
and  was  stolen 
from  him  by  a 
man  who  spied 
out  the  design 
from  a  sketch  and 
conversation  of 
Watt's  n'orknien. 
Watt  invented 
the       SlTN       AND 

Pl.ynet  Motion 
as  a  suljstitute 
(which  see).      See 

also    PL.iN'ET-WHEEL    AND     EPICYCLCIUIAL    WlIEEL. 

If  the  foot-lathe  were  the  earliest  form  of  lathe, 
which  is  not  certain,  and  James  Watt's  idea  were 
correct,  which  is  ijuite  probable,  we  may  agree 
with  one  authority  that  the  crank  is  as  old  as  Ta- 
lus, the  grandson  of  Diudalus,  about  1240  D.  c.  ; 
or,  according  to  Pliny,  Theodoras  of  Sanios,  about 
600  B.  c.  It  must  be  recollected,  however,  that 
among  the  oldest  Egyptian  paintings  is  the  repre- 
sentation of  Thoth  forming  man  upon  the  potter's 
wheel. 

The  crank  was  first  used  with  the  steam-engine 
on  board  the  paddle-wheel  steamboat  of  .lonathan 
Hull  (English  patent,  December  21,  1736,  No.  .556). 
It  did  not  revolve,  but  reciprocated,  anil  formed  an 
intermediate  between  the  rope,  which  was  pulled  by 
the  descent  of  the  piston,  when  a  vacu\nn  was  created 
in  the  Newcomen  atmospheric  engine  and  the  leg 
of  the  propeller,  which  seems  to  have  acted  some- 
what like  the  leg  of  a  grasshopper. 

A  fonr-tlirow  crank  was  employed  on  each  end  of 
the  axis  of  the  wallower  or  lantern-wheel,  which 
was  driven  by  the  water-wheel  under  the  north 
arch  of  London  Bridge,  as  described  by  Beighton, 
1731.  This  m.ichiini  supplied  a  part  of  London 
with  water.  The  water-wheel  was  first  placed  there 
by  Morice  in  1582,  but  it  is  not  stated  by  what 
device  the  rotary  motion  of  the  wheel  was  convertetl 
into  the  reciprocating  motions  of  the  pistons  in  the 
six  pumps  which  were  operated  by  it. 

2  (Fig.  1509)  .shows  a  combination  of  crank  and 
eccentric.  The  bo.ss  <t,  on  which  turns  the  .spur- 
wheel  b,  is  fixed.  The  crank  c  turns  with  the 
spindle  d,  which  is  fitted  eccentrically  in  the  boss  a. 
The  pin  e  witli  the  block  /  are  ti.xed  to  the  spur- 
wheel,  which  is  set  in  motion  by  the  pinion  (/.  In 
revolving  round,  this  wheel  carries  with  it  the 
crank  ;  but,  owing  to  the  eccentricity  of  the  two 
centers,  the  block  /  slides  down  the  slot  in  the 
crank,  and  in  so  doing  approaches  nearer  to  the 
center  on  which  the  latter  revolves.  This  has  tlie 
fiffect  that,  as  the  angular  velocity  of  the  spur-wheel 
is  constant,  it  will  cause  dift'erent  points  in  the 
radius  of  the  crank  coiisecutivehj  to  revolve  with 
the  same  linear  velocity  ;  or,  in  other  words,  will 
cause  the  angnlar  velocity  of  the  crank  grailually  to 
increase  during  one  half  of  the  revolution,  and 
gradually  to  decrease  during  the  other  half.    The 


Fig.  1510. 


Crank:  il  Tool. 


stroke  of  the  crank  may  also  be  varied  by  shitting 
the  crank-pin  in  the  slot  h. 

A  two-throw  or  Ihrce-t/iroiv  crank-shaft  is  one  hav- 
ing so  many  cranks  set  at  dill'erent  angles  on  the 
shaft. 

Crank-ax'le.  1.  An  axle  bent  down  between 
the  wheels,  in  order  to  lower  the  bed  of  the  wagon 
and  make  loading  more  easy. 

It  has  been  introduced  in  England  for  country 
and  city  wagons,  and  also  in  the  Uidted  States. 
It  is  credited  to  Baddeley,  an  early  contributor  to 
the  London  "Mechanic's  Magazine." 

2.  (Steam-engine.)  The  driving-axle  to  which  are 
connected  the  piston-rods  of  a  locouiotive  engine. 
This  is  the  usual  English  form  :  in  America  we  con- 
nect to  wrists  on  the  diive-wheels. 

Crank-brace.  The  usual  form  of  brace,  which 
has  a  bent  shank  by  which  it  is  rotated. 

Cranked  TooL     (Iron-turninfj.)     A  tool  which 
is  made  to  embrace  the  rest  f/,  by 
which  it  is  prevented  from  slip- 
ping away  from  the  work.     A  pin 
is  inserted  in  one  of  the  holes  in 
the  rest,  to  prevent  the  escape  of 
the    tool    si(leways.       The    direct 
penetration   is   obtained    by   de- 
pressing the  handle  ;  the   lateral 
motion  by  rotating  the  tool  by  its 
transverse  handle,  which  may  be  a  hand-vise  tem- 
porarily screwed  upon  the  shaft,  or  a  shoulder-rest 
handle,  as  in  tlie  illustration  of  heel -tool. 

CreUik-hook.  The  bar  connecting  the  treadle 
and  crunk  in  the  common  foot-lathe. 

Crank-pin.  A  pin  connecting  the  ends  of  a 
double  crank  or  projecting  from  the  end  of  a  single 
crank.  In  either  case  it  is  for  the  attachment  of  a 
pitman  or  connecting-rod.     (See  a,  1,  Fig.  1509.) 

Crank-pull'er.   A  machine  for  pulling  the  crank 
olf  an   axle   or 
shaft.  a  Fig.  15U. 

Fig.  1511 
shows  a  hy- 
draulic crank- 
puller  which  is 
portable,  and 
therefore  appli- 
cable io  Avork 
m  situ.  It  is 
shown  as  con-  rf 
structed  with  a  |y 
4-inch  ram,  and 
capable  of  ex- 
erting a  force 
of  forty  tons. 
Crank-shaft. 
A  shaft  driven 
by  a  crank,  such  as  that  of  the  grindstone. 

Craiik-'wheel.  A  wheel  having  a  wrist  to  which 
a  pitman  or  connecting-rod  is  attached,  and  acting  as 
a  crank,  while  the  peripheral  jiortion  may  act  as  a  fly- 
wheel, or  may  constitute  a  pulley  or  a  traction-wheel. 

Cran'ny.  (Glass-mannfaetarc.)  A  tool  for  form- 
ing the  necks  of  glass  bottles. 

Crape.  (Fabrie. )  A  gauzy  fabric  made  of  raw 
silk,  and  woven  without  crossing. 

Uncolored,  or  gayly  dyeil,  it  is  a  rich  shawl-stuff. 

Colored  black  and  crimped,  it  is  a  mourning- 
goods.  Smooth  crape  is  used  in  ecclesiastical  habits 
of  a  certain  order,  not  ([uite  so  elevated  as  the  cam- 
bric lawn  of  a  bishop. 

"A  saint  in  ei-apc  is  twice  a  saint  in  faicn." 

The  latter  is  the  superlative  degree  of  ecclesiasti- 
cal habiliments  in  reformed  churches. 

Crisped  crape  denotes  a  poignant  grief ;  the  change 


Cra?ik- Puller. 


CRAPE-MORETTE. 


646 


CREEPER. 


to  a  smoother  class  of  goods  imlicates  that  the  mer- 
ciful luiiid  of  Time  has  burnished  out  the  wrinkles 
and  lilies  of  care. 

Silk  intended  for  crisp  crape  is  more  twisted  than 
that  for  the  smooth.  The  twist  of  the  thread,  espe- 
cially that  of  the  warp,  is  what  gives  the  wrinkled 
appearance  to  the  goods  when  taken  out  of  the  loom. 

Aerophanes  and  gauze  are  goods  of  a  similar  de- 
scription, either  white  or  colored. 

C'niiie  is  .said  to  have  beini  made  by  S"  Badour, 
Queen  of  France,  A.  ii.  680.  It  was  lirst  made  at 
Boulogne. 

Crape-mo-rette'.  {Fubric.)  A  gauzy  woolen 
fabric  of  tine  texture,  thi'  warp  being  light  and  open, 
and  the  weft  relatively  heavy  and  Heecy.  White  or 
colornl. 

Crap'ing-ma-chine'.  A  machine  by  which  silk 
is  cra]iiMl,  i.  e.  i-rinkled. 

Crap-leath'er.  Leather  made  from  thin  cow- 
hidi's.     L'sfd  fur  iium[is  and  light  shoes. 

Crare.     A  kind  of  coasting-vessel,  now  disused. 

Crash.  (Fabric.)  A  heavy,  coarse,  plain,  or 
twilled  linen  toweling  or  ])acking-cloth. 

Crate.  .V  large  wicker  hamper  with  wooden  sup- 
ports, in  which  crockery-v/are  is  packed  for  trans- 
portation. 

Crntcs  among  the  Romans  corresponded  to  the 
English  hardks.  They  were  of  wicker-work,  and 
were  used  for  screens,  for  leveling  gro\ind  after 
rough-raking  {raslrum)  ;  also  as  flakes  for  drying 
fruit.  The  latter  were  sometimes  made  of  sedge  or 
straw. 

Large  crates  were  used  in  bridging  fosses,  protect- 
ing military  engines,  etc. 

Crawl.  A  pen  of  stakes  and  hurdles  on  the  sea- 
side, for  lish. 

Cray.     A  small  sea-vessel. 

Cray'on.  1.  A  colored  pencil  consisting  of  a 
cyliudi'r  of  tine  pipe-clay  colored  with  a  pigment. 

Black  crii)/o»s  are  colored  with  plumbago,  or  made 
of  Italian  black  chalk. 

A  white  erai/oii  is  a  cylinder  of  chalk,  common  in 
England  and  France.     Red  chalk  is  found  in  France. 

The  holder  is  a  portc-crayon. 

Crayons  are  said  to  have  been  made  in  France  in 
1422,  and  imported  thence  into  England  in  1748. 
It  is  hard  to  say  how  long  ago  charcoal,  chalk,  and 
ochrenus  earths  were  used. 

Hans  Holbein  drew  portraits  in  crayon  in  1540. 
Sir  Thomas  Lawrence  e.voelled  in  this  style  of  por- 
trait-painting, 1800-1830. 

2.  iLithoijraphy.)  A  composition  formeil  as  a 
pencil,  and  used  for  drawing  upon  lithographic 
stones.  It  is  of  a  soapy  nature,  consisting  of  soap, 
wax,  resins,  and  lamp-black,  melted,  ami  sometimes 
burned,  together. 

Craze-mill.     A  grinding-mill  for  tin  ore. 

Craz'iug.  The  cracking  of  the  glaze  upon  articles 
of  iiottcry  or  porcelain. 

Cream-freez'er.  A  domestic  machine  in  which 
crcuii  is  stirn-il  in  a  ves.sel  plunged  in  a  freezing 
mixture,  usually  of  pounded  ice  and  salt. 

Cream-slice.  A  wooden  knife  for  dividing  and 
ser\'ing  fm/cn  cream. 

Creas'er.  1.  A  toolu.seilformaking.singleordouble 
lines  on  leather-,  to  form  guides  or  crea.ses  to  sew  by. 

II,  the  adjustable  double  ci-easer,  has  two  spring 
jaws,  which  are  set  open  by  means  of  a  screw,  so  as 
ti>  make  the  guide-lines  at  any  required  distance 
apart. 

i  is  a  double  creaser  without  adjustability. 

c  is  a  single  creaser. 

They  are  also  used  for  lining  leather,  to  give  it  a 
finished  appearance. 


Fig.  1512. 


Creasing-  Tools. 

2.  d  is  used  by  sheet-iron  workers  for  rounding 
small  beads  and  tubes.  Its  shank  has  a  tang  by 
which  it  is  secured  in  a  square  socket  of  the  work- 
bench. 

Tup  and  bottom  a-easinij  tools  c,  of  any  suitable 
size  and  pattern,  may  be  set  in  the  jaws  of  a  creasing- 
swage,  tfic  lower  end  of  whose  frame  has  a  tang  to 
set  in  the  work-bench,  while  the  upper  hinged 
portion  carries  the  top  tool  and  is  struck  by  a  ham- 
mer. 

The  lower  figure  is  a  tool  similar  to  the  chisel,  but 
having  a  blunt,  rounded  edge,  employed  by  black- 
smiths for  making  grooves  in  hot  iron. 

3.  {Book-binding.)  A  tool  for  making  the  band- 
impression  distinct  on  the  back. 

4.  {Seiinng-maehinc.)  An  attachment  which  makes 
a  mark  in  a  line  parallel  with  the  work  in  hand,  to 
indicate  the  place  for  the  next  seam  or  tuck. 

Creas'ing.  A  layer  of  tiles  forming  a  corona  for 
a  wall. 

Creas'iug  Ham'mer.  A  narrow,  rounded-edge 
hanuner,  used  for  making  grooves  in  sheet-metal. 

Creaze.  {Mining.)  The  tin  in  the  middle  part 
of  the  huddle. 

Creel.  1.  {Spinninij.)  The  bar  which  holds  the 
pay ing-otf  bobbins  in  the  bobbin-and-fly, 
the  throstle  machine,  or  the  mule.  In 
the  first  machine  the  bobbins  hold  the 
slircr,  whiidi  is  to  be  spun  and  twisted 
into  a  roring :  in  the  latter  machines, 
by  a  substantially  similar  operation,  the 
roving  is  converted  into  yaiii.  The 
creel  may  have  several  bars  with  rows  of 
skewers,  upon  which  the  bobbins  are 
placed  to  unwind  their  contents. 

2.   A  fish  or  root  basket. 

Creep.  {Mining-engineering.)  The 
curving  upward  of  the  Hoorof  a  gallery, 
owing  to  the  pressure  of  superincum- 
bent strata  \ipon  the  pillars.  Opposed 
to  thrust,  which  is  a  depression  of  the 
roof. 

Creep'er.    1.  A  four-clawed  grapnel 
or  diag,  used  in  dragging  the  bottom  of 
a  harbor,  pond,  or  well,  to  recover  any- 
thing which  has  been  lost  overboard,  or  Creel  of  Mule. 
the  body  of  a  drowned  person. 

2.  a.  An  iron  bar  connecting  the  andii'ons. 

b.  Small  dogs,  with  low  necks  or  none  at  all,  used 
between  the  usual  andirons  to  .support  brands  above 
the  hearth. 

3.  An  endless,  moving  feeding-apron,  or  a  pair 
of  aprons  arranged  one  above  the  other,  having 
motion  to  feed  fibers  to  or  from  a  machine  ;  e.  g. 
the  creeper  which  feeds  the  sliver  or  sheet  of  fibers 
from  the  doffer  of  a  carding-machine.     See  Lap. 


Fig.  1513 


CREEPING. 


647 


CRIMPER. 


4.  A  small  sole  or  piece  carrying  spurs,  which  may 
be  attached  to  the  boot,  to  prevent  slipping  on  ice. 

Creep'ing.  (Nautical.)  Dragging  by  grapnels 
for  the  recovery  of  a  lost  cable  or  rope. 

The  most  remarkable  instance  on  record  is  the 
recovery  of  the  Atlantic  cable,  broken  in  mid-ocean. 

Creep'ing-sheet  The  feeding-aprou  of  a  card- 
ing-mai  hine. 

Cre-mail-lere'.  (Fortification.)  An  indented 
horizontal  outline. 

Cre-mo'na.  A  violin  of  fine  quality,  named 
from  Cremona,  Italy. 

Not  to  be  confounded  with  the  cromorna  stop 
of  an  organ  ;  named  from  the  resemblance  of  its 
timbre  to  the  German  k-rt'm.m-hvrti,  a  crooked  horn. 

Cren'e-lat'ed  Mold'ing.  A  kind  of  molding 
in  wliich  the  beads  have  rectangular  dentations. 

Cre-nelle'.  {Fortification.)  A  loop-hole  in  a 
parapet  wall  or  stockade  through  which  to  discharge 
musketry. 

Cre'o-sote-ap-pli'ance.  A  dentist's  instru- 
ment intended  to  prevent  fluid  caustics,  such  as 
creosote  or  solution  of  nitrate  of  silver,  from  run- 
ning down  and  cauterizing  the  lips  when  being  ap- 
plied to  the  gums.  A  spiral  platinum-wire  carries 
the  sponge,  and  a  glass  tube  attached  to  the  handle 
and  surrounding  the  wire  catches  any  of  tlie  caustic 
which  may  run  down  the  wire. 

Cre'o-soting.  A  mode  of  preventing  decay  of 
timber  by  saturating  with  creosote.  This  is 
said  to  coagulate  the  albumen,  absorb  the 
oxygen,  resinify  in  the  pores  of  the  wood  and 
exclude  air,  and  act  as  a  poison  to  prevent 
fungi,  aeari,  and  other  parasites. 

Cre'pon.     {Fabric.)    A  thin  stufi" resem- 
bling i-mpe,  made  of  wool,  silk,  or  mi.ved. 

Cre-quil'las.     (Fabric.)     A   light,   low- 
priced  ciitton  fabric. 

Cres'cent.  A  musical  instrument,  consisting  of 
a  statT  with  arms  and  suspended  bells,  used  in  a  band. 

Cres'set.  1.  A  basket  of  open  iron-work  in 
which  wood  or  coal  is  burned  as  a  beacon.     It  was 

Fig.  1514. 


beacon-fire  is  kept  burning  is  shown  in  the  illustra- 
tion B.  The  pivots  of  tlie  cresset  c  are  above  its 
center  of  gravity,  so  that  it  swings  level,  whatever 
may  be  the  position  of  the  mast.  The  mast  itself  is 
so  pivoted  as  to  swing  120°  in  a  vertical  plane,  being 
operated  Viy  a  winch  and  ropes.  It  is  brought  down 
within  convenient  distance,  that  the  fire  may  be  re- 
plenished, and  is  again  elevated  for  service. 

2.  (Coopering.)  An  iron  basket  or  cage  A  to  hold 
fire,  char  the  inside  of  a  cask,  and  make  the  staves 
flexible. 

Crest.  1.  The  vidge  of  a  roof  ;  hence  cresi- tiles, 
which  lie  on  the  comb  of  the  roof  and  shed  water 
both  ways. 

2.  The  top  of  a  parapet,  embankment,  slope,  or 
wall.     (See  Fig.  2.) 

Crest-tile.  A  saddle -tile,  one  having  a  double 
slope,  on  the  ridge  of  a  roof. 

Cre-vasse'-stop'per.  A  kind  of  floating-dock 
which  is  brought  broadside  against  the  bank   and 


Fig.  1515. 


'\        \ 


S 


■Wc 


4 


Cresset. 

formerly  used  where  lighthouses  are  now  erected, 
and  its  modern  use  is  principally  at  wharves  and 
boat-landings. 

A  hoisting  arrangement  for  a  cresset  in  which  a 


Crevasse- Stopper, 

sunk  in  place,  to  act  as  a  dam.     When  it  is  fairly 
anchored,  the  .sheet-piling  is  driven  down  into  the 
bed  both  on  the  chord  and  arc  side  of  the  stnic-44 
ture.  k*7:- 

Crev'et    A  crucible  or  melting-pot. 

Crib.     1.   A  child's  cot. 

2.  The  rack  or  manger  of  a  stable. 

3.  A  granai-y  with  slatted  sides  for  ear  corn. 

4.  A  reel  for  winding  yarn  (Scotland). 

5.  A  small  raft  of  timber  (Canada). 

6.  A  structure  of  logs  to  be  anchoi-ed  with  stones. 
Cribs  are  used  for  bridge-piei"s,  ice-breakers,  dams, 
etc.     See  Dam. 

CribTjing.  Internal  lining  of  a  .shaft  with  frame- 
timbers  and  jilank-backing,  to  prevent  caving,  stop 
percolation  of  water,  etc.  The  different  styles  are 
known  as  spiking -cribs,  wcdging-cribs. 

CribTjle.     (Mining.)     A  sieve. 

Crib-strap.  (Menage.)  A  neck-throttler  for 
crib-biting  and  wind-sucking  horses. 

Cric.  The  inflecting  ring  which  turns  inward 
and  condenses  the  flame  of  a  lamp. 

Crick.     A  small  jack-screw. 

Crick'et.  1.  An  ancient  English  national  game, 
said  to  be  identical  with  the  "  club-ball  "  played  in 
the  fourteenth  century. 

2.  A  low  stool,  or  a  low  table  or  portable  shelf  for 
kitchen  uses. 

Crimp'er.  1.  (Shoeinaking.)  A  curved  board  over 
which  the  upper  of  a  boot  or  shoe  is  stretched,  to 
give  it  the  required  shape. 

In  the  common  form  the  wetted  leather  is 
stretched  by  the  pincers  and  by  rubbing,  and  tacked 
on  the  edges  to  hold  it  till  dry.  Many  patented 
boot-crimps  have  been  introduced  to  expedite  the 
process,  as  in  the  apparatus  (Fig.  1516)  which   is 


CUIMPER. 


G48 


CROCUS. 


Fig.  1516. 


Bout-  Crimp. 

applied  to  the  bench  bj'  a  swivel-device,  whicli  per- 
mits the  whole  to  be  turned  to  the  right  or  left  as 
the  work  proceeils.  Tlie  curved  Ijar  which  supports 
the  form  upon  which  the  leather  is  crimped  has  its 

groove       lined 
Kg.  1517.  ivith       rubber, 

which  prevents 
thewrinklingof 
the     -leatlier 
while      under- 
going      the 
stretching  pro- 
cess.    A  spii-.d 
spring    is    em- 
ployed to  hold 
^^  ^   together      the 
X^  two  parts  of  a 
Hair-Cnrnper.  clutch,       and 

thus  retain  the 
work  rigidly  in  any  position,  but  adapts  tlie  clutch 
to  be  disengaged  to  allow  the  shaft  to  be  turned  to 

bring  the  work  in 
Fig.  1518.  convenient    posi- 

tions for  the  ojier- 
ator.  The  yoke 
which  clanijis  the 
form  to  its  sup- 
port can  be  ad- 
justed at  will, 
without  interfer- 
ing with  its  hold 
upon  tlie  Ibrm. 

2.  {ToiM.)  A 
fork,  a  pair  of 
needles,  or  a 
pinching  device 
in  which  hair  is 
braided  to  acipiire 
K  wavy  appcar- 
aoth-Crimper.  ance. 

The  hair-crimp- 
er (Fig.  1517^  has  a  catcli-bar  pivoted  to  tlie  bow  of 
the  liair-pin.  The  hair,  being  wound  upon  the  two 
legs  of  the  hair-pin,  is  pressed  by  the  bar,  and  the 
latter  clasped  to  the  legs  of  the  pin. 

3.  A  niacliine  for  crimping  or  ruffling  textile 
fabrics  has  usually  a  pair  of  lUitcil  rollers  between 
whicli  the  article  is  jiassed,  as  in  tile  iUustration,  in 
which  are  two  tinted  cylinders,  tlie  lower  in  fixed 
bearings,  the  npper  vertically  adjustable ;  one  or 
both  being  hollow  for  the  reception  of  a  heated  iron. 

4.  (U^ire-U'orl-iiit].)  A  niaeliine  in  which  wire  is 
given  a  sinuous  furm,  to  adapt  it  the  more  readily  to 


take    its    posi-  Fig.  1519. 

tion    in  woven 

wire-work. 

A  machine 
in  whicli  wire 
elotliisciiniped 
by  iiressure  be 
tween  dies,  each 
of  whicli  has 
projecting  teeth 
which  come  op- 
posite the  interdental  spaces  of  the  other  die. 

5.  {Haddlcnj. )  A  press  or  break  in  wliich  leather 
is  molded  into  form  between  dies,  as  in  tlie  iUustra- 
tion, in  which  leather  for  a  saddle-pad  is  iilaeed  on 
tlie  bulbous  jiortion  B,  and  the  hinged  jiortion  is 
brought  down  over  it  and  locked  in  position  till  the 


^Vire-Cloth  Crimper. 


Pad- Crimp. 

leather  is  sufficiently  dried  to  retain  permanently  its 
new  shape. 

Crimp'ing-ma-chine'.    See  Crimper. 

Crimp'ing-i'ron.  An  in.strument  for  pinching, 
purkeriiig,  or  fluting  cap-fronts,  frills,  skirts,  etc. 
See  CitiiMi'KK. 

Crin'gle.  (Nautical. )  A  rope  made  into  a 
gromiiiet  and  containing  a  thimble,  and  worked  into 
the  bolt-rojie  of  a  sail  for  the  attacliment  of  a  bridle 
or  other  rope.  The  head-cringle  is  lashed  liy  the 
head-earing  to  the  strops  on  the  yard-.aim.  The 
cringles  on  the  leech  are  for  the  attachment  of  the 
rccf-tnfk/e. 

Crin'o-line.  (Fabric.)  Originally,  a  horse-hair 
and  cotton  fabric  for  setting  out  a  lady's  skirts. 
The  term  is  now  commonly  applied  to  the  hoop-skirt, 
which  has  its  periods  of  revival.  Hoops  were  worn 
in  1740  three  feet  across  the  hips. 

Crip'pler.  A  board  with  a  corrugated  under-sur- 
face  and  a  stra]i  above  to  hold  it  to  the  hand,  used 
in  bonrtliiiij  ov  gniiniiif/  leather,  to  give  it  a  granular 
aiiiiearanee  and  render  it  supple.  The  leather  is 
folded  with  the  grain  side  in  contact,  and  rubbed  on 
the  Hcsh  side  with  the  poimnd,  which  is  another 
name  for  the  crtji/iicr. 

Crip'ple-tiin'ber.  Studding  or  Scantling  used 
in  iiarriiwiiig  situations,  where  they  are  necessarily 
sliorter  than  their  tVllows,  as  the  crippk-sliulilinij 
from  the  rafters  to  the  Hoor-joists  in  attics  finished 
with  a  iv)?/rt7'-i!ic«?«  ceiling.     A  jack-timber. 

Crisp'er.  An  instrument  for  crixpinij  the  na]i  of 
cloth  ;  i.  e.  covering  the  surface  with  little  curls, 
such  as  with  jH'tershum  or  chinchilla.  A  cri.tpiiig- 
iron. 

Cris'tale.     (Fabric.)     A  white  worsted  fabric. 

Cro-chet'-lace.     Hand-knitted  lace. 

Cro-chet'-nee'dle.  A  needle  with  a  hooked 
end,  used  for  catching  the  thread  and  drawing  it 
through  the  loop  in  crochet-work. 

Cro-chet'-type.  Type  with  fancy  faces,  to  set 
up  in  iuiilati >f  lace,  crochet,  or  worsted  work. 

Crock'er-y--ware.  See  Potteuy  ;  Eauthen- 
w.iRr,  ;    l'iiR(EI,.\lN,  etc. 

Crock'et.  (Airhilcdure.)  An  upwardly  project- 
ing carved  iiruameiit  on  a  Gothic  gable  or  flying-but- 
tress. 

Cro'cus.     .\  polishing  powder  composed  of  {ler- 


CROFTIXG. 


649 


CKOSS-HANDLE. 


oxide  of  ii-on.  It  is  prepared  from  crys- 
tals of  sulphate  of  iron,  calcined  in  cnici- 
bles.  The  portion  at  the  bottom,  which  has 
been  exposed  to  the  gi'eatest  heat,  is  thehard- 
est,  is  purplish  in  color,  and  is  called  crocus. 
It  is  used  for  polishing  brass  or  steel.  The 
upper  portion  is  of  a  scarlet  color,  and  is 
called  ro)'<ie.  It  is  used  for  polishing  gold, 
silver,  and  speculum  metal.  Homjc,  the 
cosmetic,  is  made  from  satilower,  or  from 
carmine,  which  is  a  preparation  of  cochineal. 

Croft'ing.  Exposing  linen  on  the  grass 
to  the  inlluenee  of  air  and  sunshine,  after 
being  hiickcd  or  soaked  in  an  alkaline  lye. 

Cro-mor'ua.  (.l/«SiV. )  The  cromorna  or  krunnn- 
Iwrn  is  a  reed-pipe  stop  of  an  organ,  tuned  in  uni- 
son with  opcii-diap<Jsoii,  and  depending  for  the  pecu- 
liar timbre  or  quality  of  its  tone  upon  the  shape  and 
proportions  of  the  tube  through  which  the  sound  of 
the  tongue  is  emitted.     See  Stop. 

Croom.     A  husbandman's  fork  with  long  tines. 

Crop.  {.Uiniiig.)  1.  Tin  ore  of  the  first  quality, 
after  it  is  dressed  or  cleaned  for  smelting. 

2.  The  appearance  of  a  vein  or  seam,  as  of  ore  or 
coal,  at  the  surface.     The  strike. 

Cropped.  (Bookbind- 
ing. )  A  book  cut  so  se- 
verely a.s  to  reduce  the 
margin  too  much.  When 
cut  into  the  ])rint,  the  book 
is  said  to  blccxl. 

Cross.  1.  (Telegraphy.) 
Accidental  metallic  connec- 
tion between  two  wii'es  on 
a  line.  —  Pope. 

2.  (Surivtjing.)  An  instrument  for  laying  offlines 
perpendicular  to  the  main  coui-se. 

Cross-axle.  1.  A  shaft,  windlass,  or  roller 
worked  by  opposite  levers ;  as  the  copper-plate 
printing-press,  etc. 

2.  (Uailroad Engineering.)  A  driving-axle  with 
cranks  s  't  at  an  angle  of  90'  with  each  other. 

Cross-bar  Shot.  Shot  which  folds  into  a  sphere 
for  loailiug,  but  on  parting  from  the  muzzle  expands 
to  a  cross  with  sections  of  the  shot  at  the  extremities 
of  the  arms. 

Cross-beam.  A  beam  in  a  frame  laid  cross- 
ways.  In  a  ship,  a  piece  laid  across  he^avy  posts 
called  bitt-^,  and  to  which  the  cable  is  fastened  when 
riding  at  anchor. 

Cross-bear'er.  The  transverse  bars  supporting 
the  grate-bars  of  a  furnace. 

Cross-bond.  A  form  of  bricklaying  in  which 
the  joints  of  one  stretcher-course  come  in  the  middle 
of  the  courses  above  and  below. 

Cross-bo'w.  A  weapon  foi-med  of  a  bow  cross- 
wise upon  a  stock.  It  is  similar  in  kind  to,  but 
smaller  than,  the  ballista,  wldch  it  doubtless  sug- 
gested. It  was  used  by  the  Normans  at  the  battle 
of  Hastings.     The  arbalest  was  a  form  of  it. 

Cross-chap  Vise.  A  vise  in  which  the  jaws 
close  towards  each  other  in  a  line  conti'ary  to  their 
usual  direeticiu. 

Cross-chock.  {Shipbuilding.)  A  piece  fayed 
across  the  dead-wood  amidships,  to  make  good  the 
deficienrics  of  the  lower  futtocks. 

Cross-coiirse.  (Mining.)  Anon-metalliferous 
seam  cvussiug  at  right  angles  thereto. 

Cross-cut.  (Milling.)  A  drift  from  a  shaft,  to 
intersect  a  vein  of  ore. 

Cross-cut  Chis'el.  A  chisel  with  a  narrow  edge 
and  con.-ideialile  depth,  u.sed  in  cutting  a  groove  in 
iron,  especially  in  cast-iron,  where  a  portion  is  to 
be  cut  or  broken  off. 


Pig.  1521. 


Croa-Cia  Saw. 

Cross-cut  Saw.  A  saw  adapted  for  cutting  tim- 
ber across  the  grain. 

Hand-saws  are  made  and  set  for  the  purpose.  The 
ordinary  saw  for  cutting  tunber  into  lengths  has  a 
handle  at  each  end  and  cuts  each  way. 

Fig.  1522. 


Drag- Sato. 

The  drag-saw  is  for  cross-cutting,  but  only  cuts 
on  the  pill/  motion,  being  stocked  at  one  end. 

Crossed  Belt.  (Machincri/.)  A  belt  crossed 
between  pulleys  so  as  to  revolve  them  in  opposite 
directions.  (See  Belting.)  To  prevent  the iiibbing 
of  tlie  belts,  rollers  may  be  interposed. 

Crossed  Lens.  (Uptics.)  A  form  of  single  con- 
vex lens  liaving  the  least  spherical  aberration.  The 
refractive  index  of  the  glass  should  be  1.5,  and  the 
radius  of  the  posterior  surface  six  times  that  of  the 
anterior  surface,  both  surfaces  being  convex. 

Crossed  Out.  When  the  web  of  a  wheel  is 
.sawed  and  Hied  away  so  as  to  leave  a  cross  of  four 
spokes  Or  arms,  it  is  said  to  be  crossed  out.  This  is 
common  in  watch  and  clock  wheels. 

Cros-sette'.     {Building.)     A  projecting  piece  on 
a  roussoir,  as  a  b  b,  which  gives  it  a 
bearing  ujmn  the  next   voitssoir  on        Fig.  1523. 
the  siile  towards  the  springing.  ^  r- -,  * 

Cross-file.     A  file  used  in  dress-  \J\A1-lILj 
ing  out  the  arms  or  crosses  of  fine         Crosstttt. 
wheels.     It  has  two  convex  faces  of 
dift'erent  curvatures.     It  is  also  known  as  a  double 
half-round  file. 

Cross-frog.  An  arrangement  of  crossing  rails 
at  a  rectangular  intersection  of  roads.  Each  track  is 
notched  for  the  passage  of  the  flanges  of  the  wheels 
traversing  the  other  track.     A  cro.s$ing. 

Cross-gar'net  A  cross-shaped  hinge  made  like 
the  letter  f  on  its  side  (\—).  The  cross-portion  is 
fastened  to  the  jamb  or  post,  and  the  strap  is  hinged 
to  the  vertical  leaf  and  secured  to  the  door  or  gate. 

This  is  an  ancient  form,  and  many  very  elaborate 
examples  are  found  in  ecclesiastical  and  feudal  archi- 
tecture. 

Cross  Half-lat'tice  I'ron.  A  kind  of  angle- 
iron  with  four  radiating  flanges.  Double-f  iron, 
with  a  section  like  a  Greek  cross. 

Cross-han'dle.     A  handle  attached  transversely 


CROSS-HEAD. 


650 


CROWN-GLASS. 


Fig.  1524. 


to  the  axis  of  the  tool,  as  tliat  of  the  anger..     One 
form  of  iliieliiif!-l)istols  had  a  cross-handle. 

Cross-head.  (SIcamenghu.)  A  bar  moving 
between  parallel  and  straight 
slides.  It  is  driven  by  the 
piston-rod,  and  by  means  of  a 
connecting-rod  imparts  motion 
to  a  beam,  or  to  the  crank  of 
an  axle  or  shaft.  On  its  ends 
are  the  cross-head  blocks,  which 
slide  between  two  parallel 
guides. 

The  sliding  journal-box  (Fig. 
1.524)   is   adapted   to   occupy   a 
Sliding  Journal-Boxes.  slot  in  a  cross-head  to  which  it 
imparts  motion.     The   box  has 
two  taper-cheeks  a  a  and  two  taper-gibs  b  b  adjust- 
able by  screws,  so  as  to  set  \ip  the  boxing  to  the 
wrist  and  the  cheeks  to  the  guides  in  the  cross-head. 
Cross'ing.     {Railway. )     A  ca.sting  placed  at  the 
rectangular  intersection  of  two  railways,  where  the 
rails  of  each  track  are  ]iartly  cut  away  to  allow  pas- 
sage to  the  flanges  of  the  crossing  wheels. 

Cross-jack  Yard.  (X'aulical.)  a.  The  yard 
of  a  sipiare  sail  occasionally  carried  by  a  cutter  in 
running  before  the  winil. 

b.  The  lower  yard  on  the  mizzen-mast. 
Cross-lode.     (Mining.)    A  cross- vein  ;  one  in- 
tersecting the  princi|ial  lode. 

Cross-mouth  Chis'el.  A  boring  -  chisel  of  a 
cylindrical  form  with  a  diametrical  blade. 
Cross-pawl.  See  Cross-spall. 
Cross-piece.  {Shipbuilding.)  a.  A  flooring- 
piece  resting  upon  tlie  I'cel  and  placed  between  the 
half-Jloors  which  form  the  lower  sections  of  the  ribs 
on  each  side.  The  half-floors  make  a  butt-joint  on 
the  middle  line  of  the  vessel  between  the  keel  and 
keelson. 

b.  A  bar  running  athwartship  between  the  knight- 
heads,  and  to  whicli  the  running  rigging  is  belayed. 

c.  A  bar  connecting  the  bitt-heads. 
Cross-rule  Pa'per.     Paper  ruled  off  in  squares, 

affording  a  nutans  of  drawing  a  pattern  for  weaving 
or  Wtirsted  work. 

Cross-shed.     The  upper  shed  of  a  gauze-loom. 

Cross-sill.  A  railroad  sleeper  or  tie  lying  trans- 
versely beneath  the  rails. 

Cross-som'er.     Or  summer.    A  beam  of  timber. 

Cross-spall.  {Shipbuilding.)  A  temporary 
horizontal  timber-brace,  to  hold  a  frame  in  position. 
Vertical  or  inclined  braces  are  called  shores. 

Cross-spalls  hold  the  position  afterwards  occupied 
by  the  deck-biams,  ' 

Cross-spriug'er.  [Architecture.)  In  a  groined 
arch,  the  rib  that  springs  from  a  pillar  in  a  diagonal 
direction  at  the  intersection  of  the  arches  forming 
the  groin. 

Cross-staff.  A  surveyor's  instrument  for  meas- 
uring ■  ■ll'-srts. 

Cross-straln'ing.  {Saddlery.)  Canvas  or  web- 
bing stretched  transversely  over  the  first  straininq. 
The  two  are  stretched  over  the  tree,  and  united  form 
the  foundation  for  the  seat  of  the  saddle. 

Cross-tail.  {Steam-engine.)  A  bar  connecting 
the  rear  ends  of  the  side-bars  of  a  back-action  steam- 
engine.  The  side-bars  proceed  from  the  cross-head 
on  the  end  of  the  piston-rod,  and  receive  motion 
from  the  piston  ;  from  the  cioss-tail  proceeds  the 
pitman,  which  is  connected  to  the  crank  of  the  pro- 
pell. r-shaft. 
Fig.  1525.  Cross-tail   Gud'geon.      {Ma- 

chinery.)      A    gudgeon    having    a 
winged  or  ribbed  siiank. 
Cross-Tail  Gutlgeon.     Cross-tie.    (Railroad  Engineer- 


ing. )  A  cross-sill  beneath  the  rails,  to  support  them 
and  keep  them  from  spreading  apart. 

Cross-tim'ber.  (Shipbuilding.)  One  of  the 
Jloor-limbcrs  of  a  frame,  resting  at  its  middle  upon 
the  keel.  Butted  against  its  heads  are  the  heels  of 
t\w  first  futtocks.  .ilongside  of  it  are  htilf-ftoor  tim- 
bers, whose  liccls  butt  against  each  other  over  the 
keel. 

Cross'-trees.  (Nautical.)  Timbers  athwartship 
in  the  tops,  resting  on  the  trestle-trees,  to  spread 
the  shromls  of  the  mast  above  and  support  the  frame 
of  the  top. 

Cross -vault'ing.  (Architecture.)  A  ceiling 
formed  by  the  intersection  of  two  or  more  simple 
vaults  of  arch-work. 

Cross-weav'ing  Loom.  A  loom  for  weaving 
with  a  crossed  warp. 

Cross-webTaing.  (Saddlery.)  "Webbing stretched 
transversely  over  the  saddle-tree,  to  strengthen  the 
foundation  for  the  saddle-seat. 

Cro'ta-lo.     A  Turkish  musical  instrument. 

Cro'ta-lum.  (Music.)  An  ancient  Castanet,  used 
in  the  rites  of  Cybele. 

Crotch.  (Nautical.)  A  forked  post  for  support- 
ing a  boom  or  horizontal  spar. 

Crotch'et.  1.  [Surgical.)  (Yv.  crochet,  a.  hook.) 
Ap]>lied  to  surgical  and  other  instruments  of  a 
hooked  form  derived  from  the  French  ;  as  the  era- 
niotomy  or  placenta  hooks. 

Specifically,  a  curved  instrument  for  extracting 
the  fetus. 

2.  [Printing.)     A  bracket  ("[   ]"). 

3.  (Nautical.)     A  forked  support.     A  crotch. 

4.  {Fejrtificalion.)  An  indentation  in  a  covered 
way,  o]i]iosite  to  a  traverse. 

Croud.     A  crypt,  or  under-croft  of  a  church. 

Crew.     1.   An  iron  bar  used  as  a  lever;  it   had 
usually  a  bent    end,  which    was    fre- 
ipiently  forked,  and  may  have  been       Fig.  1526. 
named  fiom  its  fancied  resemblance 
to  a  beak. 

2.  Formerly,  the  beak  or  rostrum 
on  the  stem  of  a  war-galley.  Also  a 
device  formerly  used,  consisting  of  a 
jiivoted  lever  and  chain  with  hooks 
for  engaging  an  enemy's  vessel  or 
picking  oH'  her  men.     A  corvus. 

CroTV-foot.  1.  (Nautical.)  A 
contrivance  for  suspending  the  ridge 
of  an  awning.  It  consists  of  a  num- 
ber of  cords  depending  from  a  long 
block  called  an  euphroc  or  nph7'oe. 

2.  (Fortification.)  A  avw's-foot  or 
caltrop.     See  Caltoop. 

Cro'wle.  An  old  English  wind- 
instrument. 

CroTwn       1.    (Architecture.)     a.         Crows. 
The  vertex  of  an  arch. 

b.  The  corona  or  upper  member  of  a  cornice. 

2.  The  dome  of  a  furnace. 

3.  A  size  of  paper,  15  x  19  inches. 

4.  The  hub  or  canon  of  a  bell. 

5.  The  upper  surface  of  a  hat  body. 

6.  An  English  silver  coin  ;  value,  5  shillings. 

7.  The  part  of  a  cut  gem  above  the  girdle. 

8.  The  part  of  an  anchor  where  the  arms  join  the 
shank. 

0.   The  steel  face  of  an  anvil. 

Crown-gate.     The  head-gate  of  a  canal-lock. 

Crown-glass.  Glass  made  by  Idowing  and 
whirling,  changing  the  ball  of  glass  into  a  globe  and 
eventually  into  a  disk  attached  to  the  end  of  the 
pimty.  Window-glass  is  made  in  this  manner. 
Crown-glass  is  a  finer  variety,   a  compound  of  sili- 


CKOWX-GLASS. 


651 


CEOWX-WHEEL. 


cate  of  potash,  or  soda,  and  silicate  of  lime,  —  silica, 
63  ;  pota-sh,  22  ;  liine,  12';  alumina,  3.  It  is  miuli 
harder  than  the  glass  into  whose  composition  lead 
enters,  and  which  is  called  ^i/i/-glass. 

Bohemian  glass,  in  its  composition,  is  similar  to 
the  above  in  respect  to  the  absence  of  lead  in  nota- 
ble quantities.  It  is  a  silicate  of  potash  and  lime, 
with  a  little  silicate  of  alumina.  It  is  very  hard, 
transparent,  and  difficult  to  fuse. 

Crown-glass  is  made  in  round  disks  by  the  follow- 
ing process :  — • 

The  materials  are  fritted  in  a  reverberatory  fur- 
nace, and  then  melted  in  a  pot.  A  lump  of  glass 
sufficient  to  make  a  tabk  of  nine  pounds  weight  is 
extracted  at  the  end  of  a  blowing-tube,  and  is  dis- 


Fig.  1527. 


G!a 


tended  into  a  pear  shape 
b)'  blowing  through  the 
tube  and  rolling  on  the 
marirr,  which  is  a  cast- 
iron  slab  on  a  stand. 
Being  softened  by  heat 
at  the  mouth  of  a  small 
blowing-furnace,  it  is 
rolled  on  the  niarvcr  and 
blown  till  it  assumes  a 
more  spherical  shape, 
but  has  a  conical  end, 
which  is  removed  as  the 
^^  glass  approximates  a 
-»*'  spherical  forai,  being 
blown  as  it  is  roller!  on 
the  bullion-bar.  Being 
again  heated  at  the  blowing-furnace,  rotation  and  blow- 
ing being  persevered  in,  it  becomes  spherical.  It  is 
then  presented  at  a  larger  furnace-hole  called  the  to- 
toming-hnle,  and  being  rapidlyrotated  becomes  oblate. 
A  ponlil  tipppil  with  molten  glass  is  then  applied 
to  the  center  of  the  Hat  portion,  and  the  Ijlowing-tube 
is  detached  by  touching  the  neck  of  the  globe  with 
a  cold  wet  iron.  This  leaves  a  hole  in  the  end  from 
which  the  blowing-tube  was  detached,  and  the  arti- 
cle appears  as  shown  at  the  right-hand  upper  comer. 
Heat  and  rotation  being  still  apfilied,  firet  at  a 
furnace-opening  of  moderate  size  called  the  iwsc-lwlc, 
and  then  at  a  much  larger  one  calleil  a  Fl.^suixo- 
FiruN'.\CE  (which  see),  the  hole  becomes  more  and  I 
u)ore  enlarged  as  the  article  becomes  more  and  more  , 
oblate.  Finally  it  flies  open  «-ith  a  sharp  rustling 
noise,  and  appears  as  a  Hat  plate,  called  a  tnble,  ad- 
hering at  its  central,  thicker  portion,  the  bnlf's-ei/e, 
to  the  poiitil,  by  which,  during  the  later  portions  of 
the  process,  it  was  rested  on  the  hook  in  the  half- 


wall  before  the  furnace,  which  formed  a  partial  screen 
for  the  workman. 

When  it  has  cooled  .sufficiently  to  be  rigid  and 
not  liable  to  bend  or  collap.se,  it  is  placed  on  a  fork, 
the  potUil  detached  b)'  the  application  of  a  cold  iron, 
and  the  fable  placed  in  the  annealing  arch  or  kiln, 
where  it  rests  on  its  edge  for  perhajis  twenty-four  hours, 
gradually  cooling.  The  anne.aling-arch  is  termed  a 
leer,  and  this  is  often  made  continuous  ;  the  trays 
holding  the  ware  traveling  from  the  hot  to  the  cool 
end,  being  pushed  along  as  the  trays  of  recently 
made  glass-ware  are  received  at  one  end,  while  the 
contents  of  the  trays  at  the  discharge-end,  haWng 
cooled  sufficiently  to  bear  handling,  are  removed. 

The  size  of  a  table  or  disk  of  crown-glass  is  about 
52  inches,  and  a  pot  holding  one  halS-ton  ^vill  make 
about  lOO  tables. 

Crown  ing.  1.  (Hachinery.)  The  central  bulge 
or  swell  of  a  band-pulley. 

2.   Convex  at  top  ;  oppo-sed  to  dishing. 

CrovsTi-pa'per.  Paper  which  formerly  had  the 
crown  for  a  water-mark.     Its  size  is  lo  x  19  inches. 

Cro'w^n-piece.  X  strap  in  a  bridle,  head-stall, 
or  halter,  which  passes  over  the  head  of  a  horse,  its 
ends  being  buckled  to  the  cheek -straps. 

CroTwn-post.  (CarjKntnj.)  jV  vertical  jxist  in 
a  trass,  supporting  the  crown-plate  in  a  king-jiost 
trits.it.     A  king-post. 

Cro'WTi-sa'wr.  A  saw  of  cylindrical  shape,  with 
teeth  on  the  end  and  operated  by  a  rotative  motion. 
The  trephine  was  the  first  of 
the  class.  It  is  used  for 
making  buttons  and  mark- 
ers, sawing  staves,  brush- 
backs,  chair-backs,  etc. 

Crown-saws  of  large  size 
are  made  in  sections,  riveted 
to  the  outside  of  a  strong 
ring,  and  carefully  ham- 
mered, so  that  the  plates 
constitute  one  continuous 
cylinder  ;  the  edges  of  the 
plates    making    butt-joints 

with  each  other.     The  ring  is  fixed  to  the  surface- 
chuck  of  a  lathe-mandrel,  by  means  of  hook-bolts  h, 
and   the    work    is    grasped    in  a  slide-rest,  which 
traverses  within  the  saw  and 
parallel  with  its  axis. 

Smaller  cylindrical  saws 
are  made  of  a  single,  bent 
steel  plate,  rolled  to  form, 
and  brazed  at  the  joint. 
They  are  used  in  ban-el- 
making  machines,  to  saw 
staves  from  the  bolt. 

Fig.  1529  shows  a  crown- 
saw  and  bit  by  which  the 
sheaves  for  blocks  are  cut  out  Sheave-Saw. 

and  bored  simultaneously  ; 

b  is  the  stock  to  which  the  cylindrical  saw  and  the 
center-bit  are  attached. 

Crown-sheet  The  upper  plate  of  a  locomotive 
fire-box. 

Cro^^n-tile.  A  common, 
flat  tile.     A  plnnt-tile. 

Crown-valve.  X  dome- 
shaped  valve  which  is  vertically 
reciprocated  overa  slotted  box. 

Crown-wheel.  One  in 
which  the  cogs  are  perpendicu- 
lar to  the  plane  of  motion  of 
the  wheel.  It  is  also  called  a 
eontmlt  or  face  wheel.  (Em- 
irate is  a  term  applied  to  this  Coj-.!-  VMve. 


Crown- Saw. 


CROWN-WHEEL  ESCAPEMENT. 


652 


CRUCIHLE. 


wh.'i-l  in  horology,  /ticc-wlu'el  imlii-ates  tliat  the 
ti-eth  [pi-oject  tVom  the  cireuUir  face,  as  distinguished 
fruin  tile  iieri|iliery  oi'  lini. 

Ciovra-v^heel  Es-cape'ment.  One  so  named 
beeaiise  tlie  eseupe-wlieel  is  a  Clown  ratchet-wlieel 
whose  teetli  escape  from  the  pallets  of  the  verge. 
A  vertical  cacftpcmi'nt. 

Crown-'work.  (Fortification.)  An  e.xtension  of 
the  main  w.nk  Lunsi.-.ting  of  a  bastion  between  two 
curtains,  wliiih  aie  terminated  by  hulf-bastions  and 
commandrd  by  tlic  main-work. 

Cro-w's-biil.     i^Sargiail.)     A  bullet  forceps. 
Crow's-foot.     1.   (U'eU-boruuj.)     A  bent  hook 
adapted    to    engage   the    shoulder   or 
Fig.  1531       collar    on    a    drill-rod    or    well-tube 
a  wdiile  lowering  it  into  a  well  or  drilled 

shaft,  or  tu  hold  the  same  while  a  sec- 
tion above  it  is  beint;  attached  or  de- 
A_^  tached  {a,  b.  Fig.  loa"!). 
T^Cj       In  well-boring  the  auger  or  drill-rod 
passes  through  a  liole  in  the  staging, 
but  th(*  crow's-foot  is  too  large  to  pa.ss 
Ctow's-Fooi.   through    the    hole,    and    is    thus    the 
means  of  holding  the  sections  of  rod 
or  tubing  which  are  suspendeil  therefrom. 

A  scotch  answers  the  same  purpose.  It  is  a  bent 
bar  which  sli[js  on  the  rod  and  forms  a  resting-place 
for  the  shoulder  or  collar. 

2.  (Fortification.)  A  ball  armed  with  spikes,  so 
arranged  that  one  is  always  presented  upwardly  ; 
such  are  strewn  on  the  ground  for  defence  against 
the  approach  of  cavalry.     A  caltrop. 

Crow's-nest.  A  tub  or  box  at  the  top-gallant 
mast-head,  tor  the  lookout-man  who  watches  for 
whales. 

Croy.  .\  mound  or  structure  projecting  into  a 
stream,  to  break  the  force  of  the  water  on  a  particu- 
lar ]iart  and  prevent  encroachments. 

Croze.  1.  (Cooper  inrj.)  A  tool  used  for  making  the 
gi-ooves  for  the  heads  of  casks,  after  the  ends  of  the 
staves  have  been  leveled  by  a  tool  called  a  san-pUme, 
wliich  is  like  a.  jack-plane,  but  of  a  circular  plan. 

Tlie  croze  resembles  a  gage,  e.\cept  that  it  is  verv 
nuich  larger;  the  head  is  nearly  semicircular,  and 
terminates  in  two  handles.  The  stem,  which  is  pro- 
portionally large,  is  secured  by  a  wedge  ;  the  cutter 
is  composed  of  three  or  four  .saw-teeth,  closely  fol- 

Fig.  1632. 


Cooper^.t  Croze. 

lowed  by  a  hooked  router,  which  sweeps  out  the 
bottom  of  the  groove. 

In  another  form,  it  is  a  circular  plane  with  a 
gouge-bit. 

2.  (Hiit-mal-ing.)  To  unroll  and  re-roll  a  hat-body 
so  as  to  change  the  surfaces  in  contact,  and  prevent 
their  felting  together  in  the  process  of  felting  hats. 

Croz'ing-ma-chine'.  (Coopering.)  A  machine 
for  cutting  on  staves  the  croze  or  groove  for  the  re- 
ception of  the  edge  of  the  head. 

Cru'oi-ble.  1.  A  melting-pot  of  an  earthen 
composition  or  of  refractory  metal,  adapted  to  witli- 
stand  high  temperatures.  They  are  mentioned  by 
the   Greek  authors,  and  are  shown  in  the  ancient 


Egyptian  paintings,  and  were  early  used  in  dociniastic 
operations,  and  were  made'  by  the  old  alchemists  for 
their  own  use.  Metallic  crucibles  are  of  platinum, 
silver,  or  iron.  See  Faraday's  "Chemical  Jlaiiipu- 
lations." 

Agiicola,  the  celebrated  metallurgist,  and  Glaulier, 
a  noted  chemist,  both  in  the  si.xteenth  centuiy, 
made  their  own  crucibles. 

Hessian  crucibles  are  made  of  the  best  fire-clay 
and  coarse  .sand.  They  are  the  chea|jest,  and  answer 
for  all  uses  where  a  single  melting  w  ill  suffice,  as  in 
refining  or  experiments.  They  come  in  nests  of 
sizes  from  two  inches  up  to  eight  inches  high.  They 
are  used  in  this  country  in  all  experiments  where 
lluxes  are  needed  ;  are  round  at  the  bottom,  but  aie 
furni.shed  both  round  and  triangular  at  tlie  top. 
Wedgwood  made  crucibles  in  his  time  of  a  close  and 
fine  texture,  but  liable  to  crack.  In  France  an  ex- 
cellent crucible  is  made  at  I'icardy  of  a  sort  of  kaolin 
and  fine  sand.  They  are  made  very  thin,  turned  up 
on  a  potter's  wheel  ;  are  tall  and  slim,  bend  easily 
at  a  high  heat,  and  are  liable  to  crack  in  cooling, 
but  are  used  largely  by  the  melters  of  bronze  and 
brass  in  I'aris.  The  Dutch  made  what  were  known 
as  "blue  pots,"  or  "black-lead  pots"  of  clay  and 
graphite  in  the  early  part  of  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury ;  and  in  their  day  these  were  the  safest  nieltiug- 
]  ots,  because  they  would  stand  four  or  five  meltings, 
and  submit  to  considerable  change  of  temperature, 
before  cracking.  The  graphite  was  known  by  them 
as  pot  loot,  or  potter's  lead,  from  the  use  of  it.  In 
England  many  kinds  of  clay  were  u.sed  ;  but  the 
chief  dependence  was  on  that  known  as  the  "  Stour- 
bridge clay,"  which,  when  mixed  with  (lulveiized 
coke,  made  a  useful  and  chea]i  nieltiiig-)iot,  but  it 
could  not  be  cooled  ofi"  and  used  again.  In  1827  the 
late  Mr.  Joseph  Di.xon  began  the  mamilacture  of 
crucibles  by  mixing  the  graphite,  otherwise  known 
as  jilumbago,  found  in  the  State  of  New  Hampshire, 
with  a  clay  used  by  the  glass-makers,  for  nielting- 
]iots  ;  and  these  were  much  better  than  the  Dutch 
jiots,  being  able  to  stand  very  great  and  sudden 
changes  of  temperature.  Mr.  Dixon  .saw  beautiful 
sjiecimens  of  foliated  grn]»hite,  brought  home  as 
curiosities  by  the  cajitaiiis  of  India  sliijis  that  had 
touched  at  Ceylon  ;  and,  finding  this  better  than  the 
New  Hamjishire  grajihite,  he  procured  a  shijiment 
in  1S2S,  being  the  first  lot  of  Ceylon  graphite  ever 
brought  to  the  United  States,  and  the  first  known 
use  of  loliated  gi-apliite  for  crucible  making.  About 
1S3U  Mr.  Dixon  adopted  the  "Dutch  piipc-clay  "  to 
nii.x  with  the  Ceylon  giajihite.  To  ten  iiounds  of 
ground  graphite,  seven  pounds  of  clay,  two  ]iounds 
of  fine  kaolin,  and  one  pound  of  fine  (piartz  sand, 
add  water,  to  make  the  mass  jilastic  enough  to  be 
turned  up  on  a  ptotter's  wheel  to  the  ilcsiied  shape. 
To  the  above,  for  steel  melting,  there  should  be  added 
half  a  jiouml  of  pulveiized  charcoal  or  coke,  as  may 
be  most  convenient.  The  pots  are  dried  carefully, 
burned  in  a  potter's  kiln  to  a  white  heat,  and  are 
then  lit  for  use.  In  use,  crucibles  should  be  placed 
in  the  fire,  and  not  on  it.  The  fire  should  surround 
the  ci-ucible  to  the  very  top,  and  a  blast,  if  used, 
should  not  strike  the  crucibles  direct.  They  should 
be  kept  ill  a  dry  place,  the  least  dampness  being 
fatal.  If  they  are  well  made,  no  annealing  is  needed, 
the  object  of  annealing  being  only  to  complete  the 
shrinkage  that  should  be  fully  accomplished  in  the 
"burning"  by  the  crucible-maker.  For  melting 
brass,  copper,  gold,  silver,  or  alloys  of  metals,  a 
Dixon  grajihite  crucible  should  run  from  twenty  to 
forty  meltings,  according  to  the  fuel,  draft,  care,  or 
other  circumstances.  For  melting  steel  they  will 
,  run   from    four   to   six   times,    and     longer     by   a 


CRUCIBLE-MOLD. 


653 


CKCCIBLE-JIOLD. 


Fig.  1533. 


systematic  cleauing  the  slag  from  the  suitace  after 
each  melting,  and  coating  the  crucible  witli  a  mix- 
ture consisting  of  tire-chi_v,  graphite,  charcoal,  and 
pure  fine  quartz  .sand.  In  handling  crucibles  the 
tongs  should  tit  so  as  not  to  bend  them  in  lifting 
from  the  tire,  as  the  freciuent  bending  will  crack  the 
crucibles  before  they  are    worn   out. 

Crucibles  are  made  at  the  Dixon  Works,  Jersey 
City,  Xew  Jersey,  of  all  sizes,  from  those  that  hold 
hut  two  ounces  up  to  six  hundred  pounds  capacity. 
Covers  are  made  for  all  sizes.  Ketorts  of  all  shapes 
and  chemical  ware  are  also  made  of  the  crucible 
mixture.  It  will  stand  a  very  high  heat,  but  is 
wasti'd  by  most  Muxes.  At  the  mints  large  crucibles 
are  used,  and  dippers  are  made  of  the  same  material, 
with  which  the  metal  is  ladled  out.  Slimrs  are 
also  made  with  which  to  stir  up  the  liijuid  metal. 
The  crucibles  are  sized  by 
figures  denoting  the  num- 
ber of  kilogrammes  of  brass 
they  will  hoM,  Xo.  1  hold- 
ing 21  pound.s,  No.  10 
holding  22  pounds,  and  so 
on   up   to   Xo.    300.     See 

Gli.iPHITE. 

Cracibles  for  glass-mak- 
ei-s  are  made  of  a  mixture 
of  burned  fire-clay  very 
coarsely  ground,  with  the 
raw  clay  and  a  portion  of 
the  olil  pots  gi-ouud  up. 

Several  forms  of  melting- 
pots  are    shown    in    Fig. 
1533.     a    and    b'  aie    re- 
_  tinei-s'  pots   for   gold    and 

C_]j  silver  ;  c,    a   fouudr)--pot  ; 

d,  a  steel  pot  ;  '/,  crucible 
Cruci'blts.  lid  and  stirrer  of  the  same 

intractable  material. 
2.   A  basin  at  the  bottom  of  a  furnace  to  collect 
the  molten  metal. 

Cru'ci-ble-mold.  Crucililes  are  molded  on  a 
wheel  or  in  a  press.  Different  materials,  qualities, 
and  sizes  require  different  treatment.  One  common 
ordinary  mode  of  forming  cracibles  for  melting  steel, 
in  the  proces.s  of  making,  is  showii  in  Fig.  1534,  1 

Fig  l.>31 


Cnicib'.e-MoU. 

and  2,  which  show  the  cast-iron  mold  with  a  hard- 
wood core  ;  the  larger  illustration  shows  a  mold  with 
handles  for  lifting.  The  lump  of  clay  is  placed  in 
the  mold  ",  the  core  c  is  forced  down  upon  it,  and 
driven  down  by  a  hammer  until  the  rod  in  the  cen- 
ter entei's  the  jiole  in  tlie  bottom  6  of  the  mold,  c 
is  the  circular  plate  which  molds  the  upper  edge. 
In  removing,  the  core  c  is  first  carefully  lifted  and 
the  hole  in  the  lx)ttom  closed  by  a  plug  of  clay. 
The  mold  a  is  then  lifted  from  the  bottom  i  and 
placed  on  the  jiost  shown  at  3 :  the  top  of  this  is 
somewhat  smaller  than  the  opening  in  the  bottom  of 


the  mold,  which  is  then  pressed  carefully  downward, 
leaving  the  molded  crucible  on  the  top  of  the  post. 
The  upper  margin  of  the  crucible  is  then  pressed  in 
by  hand,  assuming  the  form  represented  at  4  ;  the 
circular  cover  and  cylindrical  stand-piece  being  ' 
also  shown. 

Fig.  1535  shows  a  form  of  press  for  molding  cru- 
cibles, in  which  the  piston  forces  the  clay  from  the 


Fig.  1535. 


Crucible  Molding-Press, 


cylinder  into  the  mold  above.  The  bottom  of  the 
mold  corresponds  to  the  base  of  the  cnicible,  and  the 
core  is  held  in  place  by  a  locking-jilate  above.  The 
clay  in  the  mold  is  cut  off  from  the  mass  by  a  wire 
which  runs  between  the  cylinder  and  the  mold. 

In  the  molding  of  cnicibles  on  a  tlirowing-table 
the  latter  has  a  rim-base  tor  the  mold,  and  is  rotated 
by  power  applied  beneath.  The  plaster-of-paris 
mold  has  a  detachable  bottom,  and  its  circular  body 
is  dinsible  vertically  into  two  halves  secured  by  a 
hoop.     The   mass  of  material,  being  placed  in  the 

Fig.  :S36 


Crucible-Motdin^. 

mold,  is  fashioned  by  a  hinged  molding-blade,  which 
corresponds  in  shape  to  the  inner  surface  of  the  in- 
tended crucible,  and  by  pressure  builds  up  the 
plastic  material  against  the  inside  surface  of  the 
mold.  The  surplus  material  at  top  is  cut  off  with 
a  knife.  The  blade  is  withdrawn,  and  the  eracible, 
with  its  mold,  is  removed  to  drj'  and  harden,  pre- 
Wous  to  burning. 

One  other  mode  of  molding  is  sometimes  practiced  : 


CRUCIBLE-OVEN. 


65-4 


C-SPRIXG. 


t}ie  slip,  of  the  consistence  of  cream,  is  poured  into 
mollis  niaile  of  stucco,  and  allowed  to  stand  in  the 
mold  until  a  sutlicicnt  c[uantity  will  adhere  to  the 
mold,  when  the  remaining,'  liijuid  portion  is  poured 
■  out.     The  mold  and  its  inner  coating  of  slip  are  re- 
moved to  the  oven,  when  the  slip  contracts  antl  may 
be   removed.     When    dry,   the    biscuit   crucible    is 
ready  for  bakinj,'. 
Fig.  1537.        Cru'ci-ble-ov'en.    A  heater  for  cruci- 
bles, to  dry  them  before  burning  in  a  kiln. 
Plastic  clay  is  nioldeil  into  (jrrni  crucibles, 
assumes  the  bisruil  form  by  drying,  and  is 
bariiiil  to  constitute  a  crucible. 

Cru'ci-ble-tongs.  A  form  of  tongs 
for  lifting  crucibles  from  the  furnace. 

Cru'et.  A  jar  or  bottle  for  condiments 
or  flavors  nseil  at  table  upon  meats,  etc. 
A  easier.  A  cniet-sUiiul  holds  a  number 
of  such  little  laals. 

Cruive.     A  salmon-trap  of  the  nature 

of  a  weir.     It  has  stone  walls,  which  cross 

the  river,  and  an  intermediate  chamber  of 

ij-'  slats  or  spars  which  admit  the  hsh  but 

oppose  their  exit. 

Crumb-re-mov'er.  A  tray  for  re- 
cei^•ing  the  crumbs  swept  up  by  the  crumb- 
brush. 

Crucible-       Crup'per.     (Harness.)    A  loop  which 

Totigs.     passes  beneath  the  tail  of  a  horse,  and  is 

connected  by  a  strap  with  the  saddle,  to 

keep  it  from  riding  forward.    The  rounded  portion  E 

B  is  the  cruppcr-loop. 

Fig.  1538. 


Fig  1539. 


Crupper. 

Crup'per-chain.  (Xautieal.)  A  chain  for  lash- 
ing the  jili-boom  down  to  the  bowsprit. 

Crush'er.  A  mill  or  machine  for 
mashing  rock  or  ore.  See  Oi;E- 
ciirsMEK;  SroxE-cuusHER  ;  St.vmp. 

Crutch.  1 .  A  staff  with  a  cross- 
piece  to  support  the  per.son  beneath 
the  arm-pit.  The  foot  is  shod  with 
a  rubber  i)ad,  or  may  have  a  spur  to 
prevent  slipping. 

2.  (Horoloijii.)  The  fork  at  the 
end  of  the  arm  which  depends  from 
tlie  axis  of  the  anchor-escapement. 
The  [lendulum-roil  is  contained  with- 
in the  limbs  of  the  eritleh,  and  vi- 
brates the  anchor,  itself  also  receiv- 
ing a  slight  impulse  from  the  train. 

3.  {SiicU/crij.)  One  form  of  pom- 
mel for  a  lady's  saddle,  consisting 
of  a  forked  rest  which  holds  the  leg 
of  the  rider. 

4.  {.Shipu-n'ghtiiui.)  n.  One  of 
the  struts  or  stay-plates  in  the  prow 
or  stern  of  an  iron  vessel,  which  sup- 
ports the  sides  where  they  nearly 
approach  each  other.  They  occupy 
a  position  corresponding  to  that  of 
the  dfad-inood  in  a  timber  vessel, 
and  are  used  to  [u'event  the  crnshing 

Crutch.         in  of  the  plating. 


1 


b.  A  knee-timber  placed  inside  a  vessel  to  secure 
the  heels  of  the  cant-timbers  abaft. 

c.  A  support  upon  the  taffrail  lor  the  boom. 

d.  A  forked  row-lock  upon  the  gunwale. 

5.  (Finindlng.)  The  cross-handle  on  the  end  of 
a  sliank,  (a  founder's  metal-ladle,)  by  which  it  is 
tipped. 

Cr^th.  A  AV'elsh  musical  instrument  with  six 
strings,  played  npou  with  a  bow. 

The  liist  four  strings  are  conducted  from  the  tail- 
piece down  the  liiiger-board  ;  but  tin'  tilth  and  sixth, 
which  are  about  an  inch  longer  than  the  others, 
branch  from  them  laterally,  and  range  about  the  dis- 
tance of  an  inch  from  the  neck. 

Cry'o-lite-glass.  A  semi-trans]iarent  glass  made 
from  cryolite  and  sand,  and  sometimes  known  as 
fiisilt/c  jiorcrjnin  or  milk-glnss. 

Cry-oph'o-rus.  An  instrument  to  iliustrate  the 
process  of  freezing  by  evaporation.  Invented  by  Dr. 
Wollaston. 

It  consists  of  two  bulbs  and  a  connecting  tube,  air 
being  expelled  from  the  interior  by  heating  the  body 
of  water  inclosed  and  her- 
metically    closing     the  F'S  1540. 
o[)eniug.     The  water  be- 
ing poured  into  one  bulb, 
the  other  bulb  is  placed 
in  a  mixture  of  ice  and  Cryoplwrus. 
salt,  which  condenses  the 

vapor  and  causes  so  rapid  evaporation  from  the  for- 
mer bulb  as  to  freeze  the  water  therein. 

Crypt.  (Masonrtj.)  A  vault  beneath  a  church 
or  mausoleum,  and  either  entirely  or  partly  undei'- 
ground. 

Cryp'to-graph.     A  message  written  in  cipher. 

Crys'tal.  {Glass.)  A  ]ieculiai-ly  jiellucid  kind 
of  glass. 

Crys'tal-lized  Tin-plate.  Ov  moirc-metaUique. 
A  variegated  crystallized  a]ipearance  ]iroduced  on 
the  surface  of  tin-plate  by  ap[ilying  to  it  in  a  heated 
state  some  dilute  nitro-mnriatic  acid,  washing  it, 
drying,  and  coating  it  with  lacipier. 

Crys-tallo-ce-ram'ic.  A  kind  of  gla.ss  incrus- 
tation. It  consists  of  an  opatjue  substance,  im- 
bedded in  a  mass  of  colorless  glass.  A  medallion  or 
bas-relief  is  molded  in  a  peculiar  kind  of  clay,  and 
inclosed  between  two  pieces  of  soft  glass  in  their 
melted  state.  The  molten  glass  is  dropped  upon  the 
surface  of  the  medallion,  and  the  surface  afterwards 
polished.  The  white  clay  seen  within  the  clean  and 
highly  refractive  glass  presents  an  ajipearance  nearly 
resembling  that  of  unburnished  silver. 

Crys-tal'lo-en-grav'ing.  A  mode  of  orniiment- 
ing  glass-ware  by  taking  im|iressions  from  intaglio, 
and  impressing  them  on  the  ware  while  casting. 

The  die  is  first  sprinkled  over  with  Tripoli  jiowder, 
then  with  tine  dry  ))laster  and  brick-dust,  and  then 
with  coarse  powder  of  the  same  two  mateiials  ;  it  is 
placed  under  a  press,  and  at  the  Siime  time  exposed 
to  the  action  of  water,  by  which  the  sandy  layers 
become  solidilied  into  a  cast.  This  cast  thus  ob- 
tained is  placed  in  the  iron  mold  in  which  the  glass 
vessel  is  to  be  made,  and  becomes  an  integral  ]iart  of 
the  vessel  so  produced  ;  but  by  the  ajipliratiou  of  a 
little  water  the  cast  is  separated,  and  leaves  an  in- 
taglio impression  upon  the  glass  as  sharp  as  the 
original  die.  The  cake  thus  used  seldom  suffices 
for  a  second  impression. 

Crys-tal'lo-type.  A  jihotographic  pictureon  glass. 

C-spiing.  (Vchides.)  A  spring,  in  form  like 
the  letter  V,  and  employed  in  close  carriages  of  old 
style,  and  some  modern  ones.  It  is  jdanted  on  the 
fraine  of  the  carriage,  and  to  its  ui>per  pliable  end 
the  suspension-straps  are  fastened. 


CUBE  SUGAR-MACHIXE. 


655 


CULINARY  BOILER. 


Fig.  IMl. 


Cube  Su'gar-ma-chine'.  A  machine  for  cut- 
ting U|i  loaf-sugar  into  little  cubes  for  table  use  con- 
sists of  a  set  of  circular  saws  which  reduce  it  to  the 
form  of  long  square  sticks.  These  are  dropped  into 
upright  grooves  in  the  machine,  of  which  there  are 
a  number  side  by  side,  and  of  which  the  bottoms  are 
removable  plates.  These  form  stops,  and  at  the  regu- 
lated distance  above  are  a  pair  of  knife-edges  which 
move  inward  toward  each  other  and  divide  all  the 
columns  of  sugar  simultaneously.  As  the  knife- 
edges  close,  the  supporting-plates  open  and  allow  the 
cubes  to  drop. 

Cuck'oo-clock.  One  in  which  the  hours  are 
sounded  by  wind  proceeding  through  reeds  which 
simulate  the  voice  of  the  bird  after  which  it  is 
named. 

Cuck'old's-neck.  A  knot  by  which  a  rope  is 
secured  to  a  spar,  the  tno  parts  of  the  rope  crossing 
each  other  and  seixed  together. 

Cu-cur'bit.  .\n  earthen  or  glass  vessel  used  in 
distillation,  and  having  a  rounded  shape  like  a  gourd  ; 
lience  the  name.  It  contains  the  lii|uid  to  be  dis- 
tilled, and  is  crowned  by  the  ahmbic.    See  Alembic. 

Cu'cur-bit'u-la.     A  cupping-glass. 

The  cucurbilula  craeiita  is  designed  to  draw  lilood. 

The  cucurbilula  sicca  is  for  dry  cupping,  and  is  a 
local  vacuum-apparatus. 

The  cucurbitula  cum  fcrro  is  armed  with  iron. 

Cud'dy.  1.  (Nautiail. )  a.  The  cook-house  or 
galley  of  a  vessel.  ^ 

b.  A  small  double-decked  portion  of  a  canal-boat 
or  lighter,  forming  a  cabin  for  the  crew. 

2.  A  lever  mounted  on  a  tripod  for  lifting  stones, 
leveling  up  railroad-ties,  etc.     A  hrer-jaclc. 

Cue.  A  staff  with  whose  end  the  billiard  ball 
is  struck.  It  is  usually  shod  with  vulcanite  or 
leather.     This  end  is  known  a.s  the  tip. 

Cui-rass'.  An  armor  for  the  body  ;  formerly  of 
leather,  but  now  of  metal.  It  consists  of  a  bieast 
and  a  back  plate,  lapping  on  the  shoulders  and 
buckled  together  beneath  the  arms. 

It  succeeded  the  hauberk,  or  coat-of-mail,  and  the 
hacqucton,  or  padded  leather  jacket,  about  1350.  It 
has  survived  all  other  forms  of  defensive  armor  for 
the  body,  being  yet  in  use  in  the  heavy  cavaliy  of 
some  European  armies. 

The  surcoat  or  jupon,  which  usually  covered  tl;e 
former  styles  of  armor,  was  laid  aside  about  the 
time  the  cuirass  was  adopted,  say  the  reign  of  Ed- 
Avard  III. 

The  early  cuirass  of  the  Greeks  was  of  linen,  which 
was  afterwards  covered  with  plates  of  horn  or  scales 
of  horse-hoofs. 

The  Roxalani  wore  leather  with  thin  plates  of 
iron.  The  Persians  wore  a  similar  cuirass.  The 
Romans  introduced  flexible  bands  of  steel,  folding 
over  one  another  during  the  flexure  of  the  body. 

The  Roman  hastati  wore  chain-mail  (hauhcrhs). 
The  same  nation,  as  well  as  the  Greeks,  used  the 
back  and  breast  plate. 

Cuisse.  Plate-armor  for  the  thigh.  Cuish ; 
cuissot  ;  cuissart. 

Cu-lasse'.  {Diamond-cutting.)  The  lower,  fa- 
ceted portion  of  a  lirilliant-cut  diamond,  which  is 
imbedded  in  the  setting,  or  is  below  the  girdle.    The 


Cuti  tiary- Boiler. 


culasse  has  twenty-four  facets,  which 
occupy  the  zone  between  the  girdle 
and   the  coUet  or  culct.     See   Bkil- 

LUNT. 

Cu'li-na-ry-boil'er.     A  cooking- 
vessel  for  holding  w  ater  in  which  Act- 
uals are  boiled.       Its  form  and  ap- 
purtenances are  adapted  to  the  cus- 
tomary uses  of  peoples, —  to  be  swung 
over  a  fire,  .stand  on  a  hearth,  lest  on  the  bars  of  a 
grate,  set  within  a  pot-hole  of  a  store.      In  Fig. 
15  42,  the  kettle  is 

l>laced  in  an  open-  Fig.  1542. 

bottomed  shell  of 
similar  shape,  but 
of  size  sufficient 
to  allow  the  calor- 
ic current  circu- 
lation between 
them.  A  valve  in 
the  kettle-lid  al- 
lows escape  of 
steam  beneath  the 
lid  of  the  shell. 

Another  form 
has  a  duct  for 
leading  off  steam 
and  effluvia.  The 
lid  has  a  hinged 
poi-tion  with  a  spout  which  conducts  the  steam  to  a 
pipe  which  leads  it  to  the  fire-chamber. 

The  boilers  of  nations  unacnuainted  with  metal  or 
pottery  were  usually 

plaited     vessels     of  F'S- 1543. 

roots   or    rushes   so  ^^ 

closely  worked  as  to 
be  water-proof,  or 
treated  with  some 
water-resisting  sub- 
stance. The  latter 
varied  with  different 
nations  and  tribes, 
accoi'ding  to  the  ma- 
terials at  hand. 

Some  of  the  Xorth 
American  Indians 
made  their  boilers 
of  long,  tough  roots 
wound  in  plies 
around  a  center,  and 

shaped  like  an  inverted  beehive.  The  water  in  all 
such  vessels  was  heated  by  tlie  introduction  of  hot 
stones  from  a  fire  kindled  on  the  giound  in  the  Vi- 
cinity . 

"  if  the  Scythians  do  not  happen  to  possess  a 
caldron,  they  make  the  animal's  paunch  hold  the 
flesh,  and,  pouring  in  at  the  same  time  a  little  wa- 
ter, lay  the  bones  under  and  light  them By 

this  plan  j'our  ox  is  made  to  boil  himself."  —  He- 
KonoTUs,  IV.  61. 

The  Dacotah  Indians  sometimes  boil  animals  in 
their  own  skins,  taking  the  skin  off  whole,  suspend- 
ing it  at  tlie  four  corners,  and  making  use  of  boiling- 
stones  as  usual. 

The  plan  was  commonly  used  in  the  stone  age  of 
Europe,  and,  no  doubt,  of  other  regions.  The  "boil- 
ing-stones "  are  familiar  objects  with  archaeologists, 
and  are  found  with  flint  tools  and  weapons. 

Several  tribes  of  Polynesia  ami  Oceaniia  have  been 
discovered  entirely  destitute  of  any  knowledge  of 
boiling  water.  It  occivsioned  the  lucst  intense  won- 
der.    Says  Wallis  :  — 

"  It  is  impossible  to  describe  the  astonishment 
expressed  by  the  Society  Islanders  when  they  saw 


Boiler. 


GULLET. 


656 


CULTIVATOR. 


the  gunner  dress  liis  pork  and  poultry  by  boiling 
them  in  a  pot.  Having  no  vessel  that  would  bear 
the  fire,  they  had  no  idea  of  hot  water." 

Captain  Cook  says  they  had  but  two  modes  of 
cooking,  —  broiling  and  baking. 

Cul'let.  1.  A  small  central  plane  iu  the  back  of  a 
cut  gem. 

2.  (','/(iss.)     Broken  glass  for  remelting. 

Cul'lis.     A  gutter  in  a  roof  or  elsewhere. 

Cul'ti-va'tor.  This  term,  iu  a  broad  significa- 
tion, ineUules  harrows,  drags,   grubbei's,  scaritiers, 

Fig   1544. 


CuUivators. 

scufflers,  pulverizers,  spiked  harrows  and  rollers, 
hor.se-hoes,  shovel-plows,  and  .some  other  imple- 
ments. Tlie  essential  idea  of  cultivation  is  of  course 
broader  still,  as  it  comprehends  all  the  means  of 
lil'agc,  which  would  include  plows,  the  dominant 
implement  in  the  art  of  husbandry. 

The  term  cuUirnlor,  in  the  United  States,  em- 
braces imjdements  which  are  used  in  tending  grow- 
ing crops.     These  are  :  — 

1.  The  implement  specifically  known  as  a  cultiva- 
tor,   having  a  triangular  frame  set  with   teeth  or 


shares,  and  drawn  by  one  horse,  which  walks  in  the 
balk  between  the  rows  of  corn,  potatoes,  or  other 
plants.  The  animal  is  hitched  to  the  apex  of  the 
Ira  mi',  and  the  implement  is  guided  by  a  pair  of 
liandles  at  the  rear. 

2.  Single  and  double  shovcl-p^oioSj  which  are  used 
for  precisely  the  same  purpose,  but  are  known  as 
plows.     See  Shovel-pi.uw. 

The  cultivator  is  an  improved  harrow. 

The  course  of  improvement  is  not  difficult  for  a 
farming  mechanic  to  imagine. 

The  ordinary  harrow,  we  may  say,  is  dependent 
for  its  course  .solely  u])on  the  direction  of  draft. 

A  good  harrow,  especially  f'oi-  new  ground  and  in 
fields  where  there  are  occasional  obstructions,  is  that 
of  an  A  form  (o.  Fig.  1544).  The  rear  corners  may 
be  readily  raised  by  a  hooked  stick,  so  as  to  allow  it 
to  Jiass  a  stump  without  swerving  the  team,  lietter 
still  is  a  bow  of  hickory,  as  in  the  next  figure  {!>)  ;  by 
this  it  may  be  lilte<l  one  side  at  once,  or,  by  swinging 
back  on  it,  the  whole  harrow  is  lifted,  to  clear  it  of 
accumulated  weeds,  etc.  This  harrow  is  for  regular 
service  in  initting  in  crops. 

A  smaller  size,  with  a  bow  handle,  is  made  to  go 
between  two  rows  of  corn,  potatoes,  beans,  etc.,  the 
handle  affording  the  means  of  swaying  it  towards  or 
from  the  row,  to  suit  any  iriegularitv  in  the  line  of 
plants,  and  also  to  keej)  it  to  its  duty  if  the  horse 
swerves  from  the  exact  path. 

Another  mode  of  affixing  handles  is  shown  in  the 
next  figure  {<:),  and  this  brings  the  subject  to  such 
close  relationship  to  the  cultivator  as  to  render  it 
unnecessary  to  trace  the  steps  farther. 

In  connection  with  the  subject  we  nmst  not  for- 
get the  author  of  "Horse-hoeing  Hu.sbandry." 
Jethro  Tull  introduced  his  system  of  drilling  crops 
in  1701,  with  the  object  of  cultivating  the  plants  by 
marhinery.  He  published  his  book  1731.  His  sys- 
tem rendered  the  cultivator  jio-s-sible. 

The  English  cultivators  and  liorse-hoes  may  be 
classed  together,  as  no  line  of  demarc.ition  exists 
between  them.  The  horse-hoes  are  designed  to  tend 
dri/h'd  crops,  the  prongs  or  shares  passing  along  the 
balks  between  the  rows  of  plants, —  wheat,  barley, 
oats,  rye,  turnip.s,  beans,  etc.  This  renders  it  neces- 
sary that  the  shares  should  have  the  same  gage  of 
width  as  the  drills  ;  but  this  is  all  that  is  ]ieculiar 
about  them,  and  is  a  question  of  proportion,  not 
principle. 

The  tendency  in  all  economical  farming  on  an  ex- 
tended scale  is  toward  reducing  manual  labor.  Cul- 
tivators and  shovel-plows  have  to  a  great  extent 
su])erseded  the  lioe  in  corn-culture,  and  the  English 
horse-liuc  is  designed  to  do  the  same  in  the  culture 
of  smaller  drilled  grain.  A  man  can  kill  more 
weeds  in  a  day  with  a  double-shovel  plow  or  culti- 
vator than  he  can  in  a  week  with  a  hoe,  cccteris 
paribus. 

Wilkie,  of  Teddington,  Scotland,  is  the  inventor 
of  the  cultivator.  He  invented  the  plurality  of 
sh.ares,  the  expanding  frame,  and  the  caster-wheel. 
His  cultivator  (.shown  at  d.  Fig.  1544)  has  a  frame 
of  triangular  form.  The  apex  is  supported  on  a 
caster-wheel,  and  the  rear  of  the  frame  ujion  a  pair 
of  wheels.  The  share-frame  is  so  suspended  from 
the  traction-frame  as  by  a  parallel  movement  to  be 
raised  bodily,  or  lowered,  by  means  of  a  single  lever 
projecting  at  the  rear.  The  lever  catches  in  notches 
in  the  segment-bar,  so  as  to  maintain  the  desired 
ailiustment. 

The  teeth  are  curved  prongs  which  enter  the  soil 
obliquely  and  raise  weeds  to  the  surface  ;  the  trash 
passes  up  the  incline,  and  falls  over  the  rear  ends  of 
the  teeth,  which  are  thus  self-cleaning. 


CULTIVATOR. 


657 


CUXETTE. 


Finkyson's   cultivator  c  (British,   1826)  is  made 
of  iron,  and  the  piongs  are   arranged  on  pai'allel, 


curved,  flat  share,  whose  dejith  is  regulated  by  a 
crank  and  screw. 

Fig.  1546  shows  one  American  form  of  cultivator, 
in  which  the  plows  are  managed  by  levers  in  driving 
and  riding,  and  by  the  handles  when  walking  be- 
hind the  machine.  The  plow-beams  are  gimbal- 
joiuted  to  standards  depending  from  the  axle,  and 
have  vertical  and  lateral  movement  by  two  hand- 
levers. 

Fig.  1547  shows  a  form  in  which  the  plow-frames 
are  attached  by  an  arched  yoke,  which  permits  in- 

Fig.  1547. 


En^litk  Cultioators 

tran.sverse  bars  of  the  frame,  which  is  supported  on 
a  caster-wheel  in  front  and  two  wheels  at  the  rear. 
The  depth  of  tilth  is  regulated  by  a  lever,  which  is 
connected  to  the  carriage  of  the  caster-wheel  so  as 
to  raise  the  apex  of  the  frame  when  the  lever  is  de- 
pressed, and  conversely.  The  regulation  for  depth 
at  the  rear  end  is  by  set  screws.  The  prongs  are 
self-cleaning,  having  the  archeil  foiTn  of  Wilkie's  ; 
the  rear  set  split  the  balks  left  by  those  preceding. 

Finlayson's  cultivator  is  shown  at  /'. 

Wilkie's  horse-hoe  and  drill-harrow  q  (.Scotland, 
1820)  has  a  central  fixed  share  and  adjustable  side 
shares,  which  are  expanded  or  contracted  according 
to  the  state  of  the  crop  or  the  width  of  the  balk. 
Following  the  shares  i.s  a  frame  with  harrow-teeth. 
Either  the  share  or  the  harrow-teeth  may  be  re- 
moved, and  the  remainder  used  ."ieparately.  The 
depth  is  adjusted  liy  the  caster-wheel  in  front. 

h  shows  another  form,  somewhat  modified. 

In  Fig.  1545,  a  is  Colman's  cultivator,  and  that 
below  it  is  known  as  a  skim-cultivator,  with  a  long. 

Fig.  1516. 


dependent  motion.      Their    clevises  embrace   posts 
shackled  to  the  carriage. 

Cul'ti-va'tor-plow.  A  plow  useil  in  tending 
crops,  such  as  shuvcl-plow,  a  double  shuvd-ploic,  etc. 

See  Cfl.TIVATOR. 

Cul've-rin.  (Ordnance.)  A  cannon  of  the  six- 
teenth century  ;  from  9  to  12  feet  long,  5i  inches 
bore,  and  carrying  IS-pound  round-shot.  A  denu- 
cuherin  was  a  9-pounder. 

Cannon  in  those  times  were  named  after  reptiles 
and  rapacious  animals ;  as,  for  instance,  — 

Cuhcrin  {coulcuerine.  Ft.),  serpent,  from  the 
snake  (coluber),  which  was  Jbrmed  u]ion  it  to  consti- 
tute handles. 

Musket  (mosquct,  Fr. ),  sparrow-hawk. 

IJruijon  (Fr.)  was  the  name  of  a  certain  form  of 
rmtsquct,  and  survives  in  the  word  dragoon. 

Falcon  was  an  ancient  name  of  a  certain  grade  of 
ordnance. 

Cul'vert.  A  drain  or  water-way  of  masonry  be- 
neath a  road  or  canal.  It  is  a  bridge  or  viaduct  on 
a  small  scale. 

Cul'ver-tailed.  Dovetailed.  (Culver,  Anglo- 
Saxon,  pigeon.) 

Curn'ming.  (Brewing.)  A  vessel  for  holding 
wort. 

Cu-nette'.  (Fortification.)  A  small  ditch  in  the 
middle  of  a  dry  ditch,  to  drain  the  water  ofl'  the 
place. 

Fig  1548. 


42 


Cup-Surjactti  Loner. 


CUP. 


CUPOLA-FURNACE. 


Cup.     1.   The  step  of  the  capstan-spimlle. 
2.   A  hollowed  portion  or  object,  to  hold  a  liquiil. 
'6.   A  gla.ss  placed  above   a  scaritied   ])lace,  to  e.\- 
tract  blood  ill  cupiiing. 

4.  One  of  a  series  of  little  domes  {A)  attached  to 
a  boiler-plate  and  serving  to  extend  the  hi'e-surfaee. 
In  Fig.  154S  the  device  is  sliown  as  attached  to  a 
Cornish-boiler,  the  cups  projecting  into  tlie  water, 
and  tubes  B  passing  through  the  water-chamber. 
C  are  pipes  connecting  the  jacket  on  the  interior 
water-space.  B,  the  outer  water-space.  A',  passage 
to  admit  air  to  the  fire-bridges  e,  air-induction  valve. 
Cu'pel.  A  porous  vessel,  usually  made  of  pul- 
verized bone-ashes,  and  employed  in  assaying  for 

separating    the 
Fig.  1549.  ,„  precious  metals 

from  their  oxy- 
dizable  alloys. 
Cupelsaremade 
in  a  mold  with 
a  die  having  a 
boss-like  pro- 
jection forform- 
ing  the  cavity 
for  containing 
the  specimens 
to  be  assayeil. 
Cupel-Mold.  Those    used    in 

the  liritish  mint 
are  made  of  the  cores  of  ox-horns  burned  and  pul- 
verize.!. 

Cupels  of  bone  earth  are  described  by  the  great 
.Araliian  chemist  Djal'ar,  wlio  lived  about  A.  D.  87o. 
He  was  the  discoverer  of  nitric  acid  and  aqua-regia. 

■  See  .\l.EMr.ir. 

Cu'pel-Ia'tion.     An   alloy  of  silver  and  lead   is 

■  exposed  to  a  red  heat  on  the  Hoor  of  a  niutfle,  where 
■a  current  of  air  plays  over  i's  surface.  The  lead  is 
converted  into  the  protoxide,  melts,  and  runs  oil', 
leaving  the  rejini-d  silver. 

In  assayin;^  silver  it  is  purified  in  a  small  cupel 
•subjected  to  an  oxydizing  lieated  blast.  This  leaves 
it  pure  silver,  the  lead  passing  into  the  porous  vessel. 

The  assay  of  gold  is  more  complex.  The  copjier 
ami  other  oxydizable  metals  are  removed  by  cupel- 
lation  with  lead.  A  large  excess  of  silver  is  tlien 
added  to  the  alloy,  which  is  rolled  into  a  sheet  called 
a  cornet.  The  silver  is  ilissolved  out  with  nitric 
acid,  which  leaves  the  gold  as  a  .sponge.  This  is 
called  jmrtimj. 

The  process  of  refining  silver  with  lead  in  a  fur- 
nace is  described  by  Ezekiel,  and  is  regarded  by 
Napier  as  substantially  coincident  with  the  modern 
ciipellation. 

Cu'pel-lo.     A  small  furnace  for  assajnng. 

Cu'pel  Py-rom'e-ter.  .4nalloypyrometerwhich 
indicates  the  heat  by  inciiiieiit  or  total  lir[uefaction. 

Cu'po-leL  1.  (Arcliilictiirc.)  a.  A  lantern  or 
small  apartment  on  the  sunnuit  of  a  dome. 

b.  A  spheiic-al  or  splieioidal  covering  to  a  build- 
ing or  any  part  of  it. 

2.  (Mctullunjy.)  a.  A  furnace  for  melting  metals 
for  casting.     See  Ccpol.v-fuuxai'E. 

b.  A  furnace  for  heating  sliot  to  be  fired  at  ship- 
jiing  and  other  inflammable  objects. 

Cu'po-la-fur'nace.  A  fuinace  for  melting  iron 
in  a  foundry. 

The  name  is  derived  from  a  cupola  or  dome  lead- 
ing to  the  ehimney,  which  is  now  IVei[uently  omitted. 
A  cupola  of  ordinar}'  size  may  be  thus  described  :  — 

At  the  base  is  a  pedestal  of  brickwork  20  to  30 
inches  high,  upon  which  stands  a  cast-iron  cylinder 
from  30  to  40  inches  diameter,  and  5  to  8  feet  high  ; 
this  is  lined  with  fire-clay,  brick,  or  other  refractory 


matter,  wliich  contracts  its  internal  diameter  to  from 
18  to  24  inches.  The  furnace  is  open  at  the  top  lor 
the  escape  of  the  flame  and  gases,  and  for  the  admis- 
sion of  the  charge,  consisting  of  pig-iron,  waste  or  old 
metal,  coke,  and  lime  in  due 
proportion.      The   lime   acts  F'g- 1550 

as  a  llux,  and  much  assists 
the  fusion  ;  chalk  or  oyster- 
shells  are  used  where  con- 
veniently accessible. 

At  the  back  of  the  furnace 
are  several  tuyere-holes,,  one 
above  another,  through  which 
the  air  is  urged  by  a  blower. 
.■\s  the  fluid  metal  collects 
below,  the  air  is  admitted  at 
a  higher  aperture,  and  the 
lower  blast-hole  is  stopped. 

The  front  of  the  furnace 
has  a  large  opening  at  which 
clinkers,  slag,  and  uncon- 
sumed  fuel  are  removed  when 
cleaning  the  furnace.  This 
aperture  is  closed  by  a  guard- 
plate,  fixed  on  by  staples  at- 
tached to  the  iron  case  of  the 
furnace.  In  the  center  of  the 
guard-plate  is  the  tapping- 
hnlc,  which  is  closed  during 
the  melting  by  a  ramming 
of  sand. 

Some  furnaces  ai'e  maderec- 
tangular  or  cylindrical,  with 
separate  ])lates  like  staves, 
bound  by  hoops,  so  that  the  Cupola-Furnact. 

furnace  may  be  taken  down 

if  the  charge  should  accidentally  become  solidified 
therein. 

Cujiolas  are  built  on  a  scale  much  exceeding  the 
one  just  described  ;  the  capacity  of  such  may  be 
gathered  from  the  articles  C'ANXox,  Anvii,, 
ST.\Tr.\i:Y,  I'ell,  etc.  A  large  cupola  for  anvil- 
casting  is  74  inches  in  diameter,  lined  with  tire- 
brick,  and  having  a  melting  capacity  of  twelve  tons. 
It  has  three  tuyeres,  9  inches  area  at  the  mouth,  and 
situate  on  three  sides  of  the  circle.  The  holes  are 
in  four  .series.  The  blast,  for  this  and  three  other 
furnaces,  is  from  two  revolving  fans,  5  feet  diameter, 
and  making  1,000  revolutions  per  minute. 

In  Fig.  1551  is  shown  a  combination  of  the  re- 
verberatory    and    smelting-furnace,  in    which    the 

rig.  1651. 


Rfverberalory  and  Cupola. 


CUPPED. 


659 


CURB. 


cliari^e  is  first  heated  on  the  hearth  of  the  former, 
aiul  from  thence  runs  or  is  jwled  into  the  uuiiola. 
The  licat  passing  from  the  latter  is  utilized  in  the 
preliminary  heating  of  the  charge. 

Cupped,  [iladiiiunj . )  Dejuessed  at  the  center. 
Dislied.  The  depression  around  the  eye  of  a  mill- 
stone is  called  the  bosom. 

Cup'ping  In'stru-ment.  The  most  ancient  form 
of  cu|i[iii]g  was  a  sucking  action  hy  means  of  the 
mo'.ith.  Job  refers  to  sucking  the  poison  of  asps  ; 
fr.i;u  a  wound,  doubtless.  Wachaoii  "sucked  forth 
the  blooi  "  from  the  wounds  of  Menelaus.  Eleanor, 
the  nuecn,  drew  the  poison  from  the  wounds  of  her 
husb.md,  the  English  king.  Tubes  were  early  sub- 
stituted for  the  lips,  to  avoid  contact  of  the  purulent 
matter  with  the  mouth.  Blood-letting  is  still  per- 
formed by  the  Hindoos,  Chinese,  and  Malays,  by 
means  of  a  copper  cup  and  tube,  the  mouth  being 
ajiplied  to  the  latter. 

In  the  late  Dr.  Abbott's  museum  of  Egyptian  An- 
tii[iiities.  New  York  City,  are  three  of  tlie  ancient 
cupping-horns,  similar  to  those  useil  through  the 
East  at  the  present  time.  The  operator  exhausts 
the  air  through  a  small  hole  at  the  point  of  the  horn, 
to  which  he  applies  his  mouth,  and  then  covers  it 
with  a  piece  of  leather,  which  is  attached  to  it  for 
that  purpose.  They  were  found  in  tombs  at  Sak- 
karah. 

Cupping-instruments  are  described  by  Hippocrates 
413  B.  c,  and  by  Celsus  20  B.  c. 

Hero  of  Alexandria  states  that  the  instrument  is 
intended  to  be  used  without  fire,  referring  to  the 
practice  then  in  vogue  of  rarefying  the  air  within 
the  tube  as  a  means  of  obtaining  a  partial  vacuum. 
The  cupping-glass  (A,  Fig.  1552)  described  liy  Hero, 
has  an  outer  chamber  with  an  open  mouth  ((,  and  an 
inner  chamber  b,  divided  from  the  fonner  by  a 
diaphragm/;  vi  is  a  valve  which  governs  the  open- 
ing e  in  tile  diaphragm  ;  the  \-alve  d  governs  the 
opening  c  by  which  the  chamber  b  is  connecteil  with 
the  external"  air.  The  valve  d  being  opened  and  the 
valve  7)1  closed,  the  moutli  is  applied  to  the  opening 
c,  and  a  powerful  ins|iiratiiii  is  taken,  rarefying  the 
air  in  chariiber  b.  This  i^  repeated  until  the  vacuum 
in  b  is  as  perfect  as  can  be  obtained  by  means  of 
human  inspiration  an  1  the  muscles  of  the  mouth. 
The  opening  of  n  is  then  applied  to  the  .skin  of  the 
patient,  and  the  valve  m.  being  turned  "into  the 
void  thus  created  [in  '(]  both  tlie  Hesh  and  the  mat- 
ter about  it  will  b_-  ilrasvn  up  through  tlie  interstices 
of  the  Hesh,  which  we  call  invisible  spaces  or  pores." 
Contrary  to  common  opi  lion,  glass  was  well  known 
in  Egypt  1500  ye.u-s  before  Hero. 

In  the  cupping-apparatus  B  (Pig.  looiK  the  glass 
cylinder  has  a  lip  attacheil  suitable  for  application 
to  the  skin,  or  to  the  nipple  when  used  as  a  breast- 
pump.  A  central  rod  a  has  a  disk  with  lancets 
which  act  as  scariliers,  ami  the  air  is  exhausted  from 
the  cylinder  by  means  of  a  piston  in  the  tul)e  b  at- 
tached. Detached  from  the  blood-receiver  c,  the  air- 
pump  may  be  used  as  a  syringe. 

In  the  cupping-iuitrument  C  the  receivers  is  con- 
nected by  a  flexible  )uiie  b  with  the  nozzle  of  an 
ordinary  syringe  c.  The  sides  of  the  concentric 
chamber  afford  an  extended  bearing  for  the  cup,  and 
prevent  its  being  driven  into  the  body  by  the  pres- 
sure of  the  atmosphere. 

In  the  instrument  D  the  glass  has  an  elastic  bulb 
6,  by  which  the  partial  exhaustion  is  etfedted,  and 
has  also  an  adjustalile  disk  provided  with  punctur- 
ing points  to  lance  or  irritate  the  skin. 

£(Fig.  15521  is  a  puncturing  and  cupping  ap- 
paratus, in  which  the  scarifier  is  ])laced  axially 
v.ithin  the  hollow  piston-rod  e,  which   woiks  in  a 


stuffing-box  on  the  cylinder  g.  In  using,  the  air  is 
exhausted  from  g  by  the  motion  of  the  piston  «, 
operated  bj-  the  handle  d.     To  puncture,  the  needla- 


Citpjiiit^-Inslrumfnts 


bar  b  receives  a  quick  downward  thrust,  forcing  the 
neeilles  on  K  into  the  protul>erant  flesh  within  the 
cup.  The  spring  returns  the  needle-bar  and  di.sk  to 
position. 

Dry  cupping  is  the  application  of  air-exhausted 
cups  to  an  unscarified  place  to  excite  the  part,  and 
on  an  extended  scale  is  known  as  a  DEPUK.vroR 
(which  see).  This  was  patented  in  England  by  N. 
Smith,  1S02.  The  cup  is  a]iplied  to  the  patient 
topically,  or  an  arm  or  leg  may  be  ])laced  within  a 
suitably  shaped  chamber,  a  Hcxible  india-rublier  lip 
adhering  to  the  person  and  exclmling  outer  air  when 
the  air-pump  is  worked.  In  tlie  larger  form  the 
patient  is  inclosed  in  the  chamber  all  but  the  head, 
or  entirely,  as  in  the  Ain-B.\TH  (which  see).  The 
action  of  the  .skin  in  each  case  is  excited  by  the  par- 
tial removal  of  external  atmospheric  pressure. 

Cup-valve.    (Steam-engine. 
or  conical  valve,  which  is  guid- 
ed by  a  stem  to  and  from  its 
flaring  seat. 

b.  A  form  of  balance-valve 
which  opens  sinjultaneously  on 
top  and  sides. 

c.  A  valve  formed  by  an  in- 
verted cup  over  the  end  of  a 
pipe  or  opening 

Curb.     A  for 
confine  or  jirotect  an  object,  or  maintain  its  shape 
against  exti'rnal  or  internal  pres.sure. 

1.  (Hydraulic  JSngiiiccring.)  a.  A  stoned  or 
boarded  structure  around  a  well,  to  keep  back  the 
surrounding  earth.  In  Fig.  155i  is  shown  the  curb 
of  the  pumping-well  of  the  Chiciigo  ^Vater-^Vorks, 
which  w;is  sunk  29  feet,  mostly  through  ijuicksand. 


a.   A  cup-shaped 
Fig.  1553. 


m 


r 


Cup-  Vaive. 
A  fortified  edge  or  marginal  structure,  to 


CURB. 


GGO 


CURB-PLATE. 


Fig.  1654. 


Cylindrical  Well -Curb  of  adcago  Water-Works. 

It  was  3U  fi'Pt  internal,  37  feet  external,  diameter, 
built  (if  hard  briek  laid  in  hydraulic  mortar,  and 
plastered  iii.side  and  out.  It  was  banded  evei-y  three 
feet  with  liand-iron,  and  weighed  440  tons.  It  wais 
conatrueteil  upon  a  shoe  of  32  tons  weight,  made  in 

eight  segments 
Fis  1.555.  bolted  togeth- 

er, and  the 
interior  was 
dredged  out 
without  re- 
moving the 
water,  to  avoid 
the  unsettling 
of  the  engine- 
foundations  in 
the  vicinity. 

In  sinking 
the  c  u  r  Ij 
through  dry 
strata  or  those 
in  whirli  the 
water  may  be 
removed  by 
pumping,  the 
earth  is  ex- 
cavateil        by 


work  pro- 
ceeds, and 
buililing  up  as 
the  structure 
descends.  In 
sinking  wells 
by  sections 
w  h  i  c  h  are 
curbed  before 
another  sec- 
tion is  exca- 
vated, the 
earth  is  re- 
moved from 
the  central 
part  and. struts 
inserted,   to 


hold  the  upper  section  while  the  other  is  built  be- 
neath. 

Iron  curbs  are  of  boiler-iron  or  of  cast-iron  seg- 
ments bolted  together,  rings  being  added  at  the  top 
as  the  structure  descends.  The  well  at  Southampton, 
England,  was  some  hundreds  of  feet  in  depth,  and 
curbed  in  this  way.  It  was  intended  to  be  artesian, 
but  the  water  did  not  thus  respond. 

1.  A  boarded  structure  to  contain  concrete,  which 
hardens  and  acts  as  a  pier  or  foundation. 

c.  The  outer  casing- wheel  of  a  turbine.  It  is  a 
cylinder  inserted  into  the  floor  of  the  forebay,  inclos- 
ing the  wheel  which  rotates  within. 

(/.  A  curved  shrouding  which  confines  the  water 
against  the  lloats  or  buckets  of  a  Scoop-wheel  or 
BiiEAST-wiiEr.i,  (which  see). 

f.  The  indosure  which  leads  water  from  a  forebay 
to  a  water-wheel.     Also  called  a  mnntlc. 

2.  A  breast-wall  or  retaining  wall  to  hold  up  a 
bank  of  earth. 

3.  The  edge-stone  of  a  sidewalk,  pavement,  or 
trottoir. 

4.  (Carpentry.)  a.  The  wall-plate  at  the  spring- 
ing of  a  dome. 

b.  Tile  circular  plate  at  the  top  of  a  dome  into 
which  the  ribs  are  framed. 

c.  The  wall-plate  on  the  top  of  the  permanent  por- 
tion of  a  windmill,  on  which  the  cap  rotates  as  the 
wind  veers. 

5.  An  inclined  circular  plate  around  the  margin 
of  a  soap  or  salt  kettle,  to  return  what  boils  over. 

6.  {Himicss.)  A  chain  or  strap  behind  the  jaw  of 
a  horse,  connected  at  its  ends  to  the  rings  on  the 
upper  ends  of  the  branches  of  a  stitl-bit,  and  form- 
ing a  fulcrum  for  the  branches,  which  act  as  a  lever. 
See  Bit. 

Curb-beam.  A  beam  of  a  wooden  bridge  to  con- 
fine tlic  ni;id  material. 

Curb-bit.  A  stitt'-bit  having  branches  by  which 
a  leverage  is  obtained  upon  the  jaws  of  a  horse. 
The  lower  end  has  rings  or  loops  for  the  reins,  and 
the  upper  end  has  loops  for  the  ciirb-chnin  and  the 
chctk-straps  of  the  head-stall.  The  eurl^-chain  has 
usually  twisted  links,  and  is  fast  by  one  end  to  the 
loop  of  the  iiff  branch,  and  is  hooked  to  the  loop  of 
the  near  liranch.  It  forms  the  fulcrum  for  the  lev- 
erage of  the  branches.     See  Bit. 

Curb-pins.  (Horologij.)  The  pins  on  the  lever 
of  a  watch-regulator  which  embrace  the  hair-spring 
of  the  lialanee  and  regulate  its  vibrations. 

Curb-plate.  The  wall-plate  of  a  circular  or 
elliptical  tlunie  or  roof. 


-'  ■  ■•^**^v^- 


Mi 

:x 

^ 

Hx 

X 

Ciirb-Rnof 


CURB-ROOF. 


661 


CURRENT-METER. 


Curb-roof.  (Buihliitq.)  A  roof  with  cauted 
slojics  ;  having  two  sets  of  rafters  with  diH'ereut  in- 
clinations. Otherwise  called  a  Mansard-roof,  after 
the  French  architect  who  frequently  adopted  it  ;  or 
a  yainbrel-roof,  from  its  crooked  shape,  like  the  hind 
leg  of  a  horse. 

The  view  on  the  left  represents  a  section  of  roof. 
A  is  the  rafter,  the  foot  of  which  projects  over  the 
])late  B.  C  is  the  cornice,  in  which  is  bnilt  the  gut- 
ter, the  metallic  liniug  of  which  extends  nearly  to 
the  top  of  the  plate  B.  E  is  a  bed-mold  covering 
the  ends  of  the  rafters.  F,  slates  or  shintjles  run- 
ning over  the  edge  of  the  bed-mold  E.  The  view  on 
the  right  shows  an  elevation  of  one  of  these  roofs 
witli  dciniipr-winiiow. 

Cur-cu'lio  Trap.  A  tray,  or  a  cincture  of  fiber, 
attached  to  the  trunk  of  a  plum,  ajiricot,  or  other  cur- 
culio-ravaged  tree,  to  intercept  the  insects  which 
climb  up  tlic  bark. 

Curd-break'er.  A  frame  of  wires  or  slats  which 
is  worked  to  and  fro  in  a  vat  of  cheese-curds,  to 
break  the  latter  into  small  pieces  and  enable  the 
whey  to  drain  off.     A  curd-cutter. 

Curd-cut'ter.  A  spindle  with  revolving  knives 
on  an  a.\le,  for  cutting 
the  curd  to  expedite 
the  separation  of  the 
whey.  (4,  Fig.  1557.) 
Another  form  of  curd- 
cutter  (a)  is  a  hoop 
with  a  diametric  knife 
having  an  arched  stem 
and  wooden  handle. 
It  is  used  by  an  up- 
and-down  motion,  the 
curd  being  in  a  tub. 

Curl'ing-i'ron.  A 
heated  rod,  or  a  tube 
with  an  internal  heat- 
er, around  which  hair 
is  bent  and  pressed  to 
curl  it. 

Curd-Cutter'.  The  curling-iron  of 

the  Romans  was  hol- 
low, and  named  calamustrum,  from  its  resemblan(!e  to 
a  reed  {cnlai/tus).  The  use  was  common  among  both 
sexet  in  the  imperial  city.  It  was  the  dnty  of  the 
slaves.  The  same  practice,  there  is  no  doubt,  obtained 
in  Egypt.  The  ladies  of  the  latter  land  prided  them- 
selves in  magnificent  coiffures,  as  we  .see  in  the  works 
of  Lepsius,  Rossellini,  Champollion,  etc. 

The  beards  of  the  kings  of  Nineveh  and  other 
kingdoms  of  the  basin  of  the  Euphrates  anil  Tigris 
were  no  <loubt  indebted  to  the  curling  iron  or  tongs ; 
their  beards  fell  in  splendid  ringlets  over  the  throat 
and  chest. 

Curl'ing-tong3.  A  tongs  having  one  round 
memliiT  and  one  semi-tubular,  between  and  around 
whicli  liair  is  wound  to  curl  it. 

Cur'reut.  The  fall  or  slope  of  a  platform  or 
sheet-metal  roof,  to  carry  off  the  water.  Gutters 
usually  Iiave  a  current  of  J  inch  to  the  foot. 

A  flow  of  water.  The  direction  is  the  set  of  the 
current  ;  the  rate  is  the  dri/'t  of  the  current. 

Cur'rent-fend'er.     A  structure  to  ward  off  the 
cunen  tfinn]  a  li.iuk  which  it  may  otherwise  undermine. 
Cur'rent-gage.     See  CuRUF.Nr->[F,TF.i;. 
Cur'rent-ms'ter.    An   instrument  for  measur- 
ing the  velocitv  of  currents. 

1.  The  Pilot  tube  {a.  Fig.  1568^  which  acts  by  the 
ascension  of  water  in  a  bent  pipe  whose  lower  orifice 
is  presented  squarely  to  the  current,  the  indication 
being  read  by  a  float  or  graduation  in  or  upon  the 
vertical  part  of  the  tube. 


Fig.  1558. 


Currenl-Mftii 


Ikj: 


2.  One  (b)   which  acts  as  a  dy-  t}.m 
namometer,  by  opposing  a  resisting  f^][i 
body  to  the  action  of  the  current, 
and  indicating  the  force  of  the  ac- 
tion by   a  dial  or  graduated  bar. 
This  is  Boileau's. 

3.  The  dynamometer  current-gage  of  Woltmann, 
1790,  is  a  light  water-wdieel  operated  by  the  current, 
and  having  on  its  axis  an  endless  screw,  which  op- 
erates toothed  wheels  and  a  register,  the  rate  or 
force  being  deduced  from  the  rotations  in  a  given 
time. 

The  velocimetcr  is  a  similarly  consti'ucted  instru- 
ment with  a  converse  application,  being  a  spiral 
wheel  attached  to  a  ship  and  showing  by  its  revolu- 
tions the  rate  of  progression  of  the  vessel  through 
the  water. 

The  technical  language  in  which  the  flow  of  water 
and  its  channels  are  known  and  described  is  as  fol- 
lows :  — 

Bed:  the  water-course,  having  a  bottom  and  two 
sides  or  shores.  AVhen  the  latter  are  described  as  right 
or  left  hand,  going  down  stream  is  assumed. 

The  transverse  section  is  a  vertical  plane  at  right 
angles  to  the  course  of  the  current.  The  perimeter 
is  the  length  of  this  section  in  the  bed. 

The  longitudinal  section  or  profile  is  a  vertical 
plane  in  the  course  of  the  flowing  water. 

The  slope  or  declivity  is  the  mean  angle  of  inclina- 
tion of  tlie  surface  of  the  water  to  the  horizon. 

IXw  fill  is  the  difference  in  the  bight  at  any  two 
points  of  determinate  distance  apart ;  as,  for  instance, 
8  inches  to  the  mile. 

The  line  of  current  is  the  point  of  maximum  ve- 
locity. 

The  mid-channd  is  the  deepest  part  of  the  bed. 
The  velocity  is  greater  at  the  surface  than  the  bed. 
The  surface  is  higher  in  the  current  than  at  the 
shore  when  the  river  is  nsing,  lower  than  at  the 
shore  when  the  river  is  falling. 

Herodotus  (II.  4,  5)  reports  the  Egyptian  priests 
assaying,  that  in  the  time  of  Men  [Menes]  "all 
Egypt,  except  the  Thebaic  canton,  was  a  marsh,  none 
of  the  land  below  Lake  Mceris  then  showing  itself 
above  the  surface  of  the  water.  This  is  [now]  a  dis- 
tance of  seven  days  sail  from  the  sea  up  the  river. 
What  they  said  of  their  country  si'emed  to  me  very 
reasonable  ;  for  any  one  who  sees  Egj-pt,  without 
having  heard  a  word  of  it  before,  must  perceive,  if 
he  have  only  common  powers  of  observation,  that 
the  Egypt  to  which  the  Greeks  go  in  their  ships  is 
an  acquired  country,  thegiftof  the  river."  Wilkin- 
son contradicts  the  statement,  very  unreasonably. 

In  this  connection  it  may  be  remarked  that  the 
alluvial  plain  at  the  mouth  of  the  Jleander,  in  Asia 
Minor,  has  been  advanced  toward  tlu^  sea,  in  the  his- 
toric times,  a  distance  of  twelve  or  thirteen  miles. 

At  Ephesus  there  is  now  a  jilaiii,  of  three  miles 
width,  between  the  tem]ile  and  the  sea,  which  has 
been  entirely  created  since  the  days  of  Herodotus. 

Ostia,  the  former  port  of  Rome,  is  now  many  miles 
inland. 


CURRENT-MILL. 


662 


CURRENT-WHEEL. 


Henidotus  refeiTt'd  (450,  D.  c.)  to  the  action  of  tht- 
riviT  .Meander,  and  also  stated  that  "the  river 
.\l1ic1iius,  wliieh,  alter  passing  through  Acarnania, 
enii>ties  itself  into  the  sea  opposite  to  the  islands 
Eeliinades,  has  already  joined  one  half  of  them  to 
ihe  eontinent."  —  Book  11.  ch.  10. 

The  volume  of  water  ]ioured  during  twenty-four 
houi's  into  the  Mediterranean  by  the  Nile  is,  — 

When  low       .  .      150, 5oti, 392,308  cubie  meters. 

When  high         .         7O5,514,eti7,4i0       " 

The  Nile  at  the  first  catariiet,  at  Assouan,  is  300 
feet  above  its  level  at  Cairo  ('i73  miles),  and  365 
feet  above  the  Mediterranean  (u7SflJ4  to  the  Ro- 
setta  month  =  732  miles).  The  fill  from  Assouan 
to  Cairo  is  therefore  aliout  0..54  fei-t  per  mile  ;  from 
Cairo  to  the  Daniietta  month,  about  .31  feet  per 
mile.  From  Assouan  to  Damietta  mouth,  an  aver- 
age of  0.524  feet  per  mile. 

The  Nile  depo.sit  is  estimated  liy  Wilkinson,  at 
Elephantine,  as  equal  to  nine  feet  in  1700  years  ;  at 
Thebes,  seven  feet  in  an  equal  period. 

According  to  Herodotus,  a  rise  of  the  Nile  equal 
to  8  cubits  overflowed  all  Egypt  below  ilemphis, 
in  the  time  of  Moeris  :  "  Now  Jberis  had  not  been 
dead  900  years  when  1  heard  this  of  the  priests, 
yet  at  the  present  day,  unless  tlie  river  rise  15  or  16 
cubits,  it  does  not  overflow  the  land."  —  Hekodo- 
Tu.s,  n.  13.     See  Nilometer. 

The  mean  annual  discharge  of  the  Mississippi  i.^ 
calculated  at  19,500,000,000,000  cubic  feet,  carry- 
ing down  812,500,000,000  pounds  of  sedimentary 
matt.'T-,  equal  to  one  square  mile  of  deposit  241 
feet  in  depth. 

The  riveradvanees  into  the  G  ulf  262  feet  per  annum. 

'i'he  fall  of  the 

Lower  Mississippi  pi-r  mile  is    .         .  .32  of  a  foot. 

Ohio  ]ier  mile  is  .  .  .  .  .43     "      " 

Mi.ssonri  below  Fort  Union  per  mile  is  .95     "     " 
Ujiper  Mississippi  below  St.  Paul  per 

mile  is  .  .  .  .  .  .42     "      " 

Cur'rent-miU.  A  mill  driven  by  a  current- 
wheel,  and  usually  on  board  a  moored  vessel  with 
stream-driven  paddles. 

Tile  first  notice  of  current -mills  is  the  account  of 
the  recourse  had  to  them  by  Beli.sarius,  ,\.  D.  536, 
when  the  Romans  were  besieged  by  Vitiges  the 
Ostrogoth,  who  had  cut  the  fourteen  aqueducts 
which  brought  water  to  the  imperial  city.  The 
.surplus  water  of  the  aipieducts  drove  the  grain- 
mills  of  the  city,  and  tlie  recourse  had  by  IJelisarius 
to  moored  twin-vessels  provided  with  ]iaddles,  and 
the  mills,  enabled  the  people  to  eat  bread  in.stead  of 
parched  wheat  and  frumenty. 

Tlie  German  crusaders  in  the  eleventh  century 
burnt  seven  floating  mills  on  a  stream  in  Bulgaria,  — 
a  pretty  fair  specimen  of  tlie  crusading  rabble. 

The  current-wheel  of  Belisarius  was  patented  by 
Hawkins  in  England  in  1802,  and  by  several  other 
parties  before  and  since,  both  there  and  here.  See 
Cri:i:ENT-\viiEKL. 

Ciir'rent-reg'u-la'tor.  (Tclcrirnjihy.)  A  device 
for  determining  the  intensity  of  the  current  allowed 
to  pass  a  given  point.  It  usually  consists  of  inter- 
posed coils  of  greater  or  less  resistance. 

Cur'rent-wheel.  Tlie  ciirrcnt-irhcel  is  perhaps 
the  first  application  of  the  force  of  water  in  motion 
to  driving  machinery.  Tlie  iinrin-  has  been  in  use 
for  thousands  of  years  in  Egypt,  Persia,  Arabia, 
and  Syria,  ami  was  introduceil  by  the  Romans  or 
Saracens  (probably  the  lattei-)  into  Spain. 

The  noria,  as  a  water-wheel,  has  radial  floats, 
which  are  sufficiently  submerged  in  the  current  of 


the  river  to  be  acted  upon  by  the  water  and  give  ro- 
tation to  the  wheel  on  its  horizontal  axis.  On  the 
side  of  the  wlieel  near  its  periphery  are  pivoted 
buckets,  which  till  as  they  dip  beneath  tile  water, 
and  are  ti|iped,  on  reaching  their  highest  elevation, 
by  contact  with  a  fi.xed  obstacle,  thus  discharging 
their  contents  consecutively  into  a  chute  which  con- 
veys it  to  a  reservoir.  Hundreds  of  these  wheels 
are  working  day  and  night  the  year  round  in  the 
rivers  and  streams  of  Syria  and  Palestine.  The 
noria  lias  many  modifications  which  do  not  come 
witliin  the  denondnation  of  cuiTenl-wJi-cel.  The 
term  Na  '  Ura  is  applied  in  Syria  and  Palestine  to  any 
device  which  has  pots  or  buckets  attached  to  a 
wheel  or  to  a  rope  ]iassiiig  over  a  wheel,  filled  with 
water  at  the  lowest  portion  of  their  revolution,  and 
discharging  into  a  chute  at  their  liigbest  elevation, 
whether  worked  by  the  current  or  otherwise.  See 
Nor.iA. 

The  ti/mpanum  is  another  form  of  currcnl-vliccl, 
and  like  the  noria  has  an  Eastern  origin.  It  is 
frequently  called  the  Persian.  Unlike  tlie  noria,  it 
is  only  capable  of  lifting  water  to  a  height  about 
equal  to  its  radius,  wliile  the  noria  lifts  water  to  a 
height  nearly  equal  to  its  diameter.    See  Tym  I'ANIJm. 

In  the  first  century  B.  c.  water- wheels  for  driving 
mills  were  used  in  Asia  Minor  ar.d  on  the  Tiber. 
In  file  former  case  we  suppose,  and  in  the  latter  case 
we  know,  that  these  were  current-iihcch. 

Strabo,  Vitruvius,  Pliny,  and  Procojiius  have 
described  them  at  various  times  from  70  B.  c.  to 
A.  D.  555.  They  were  used  on  the  Tibi-r  on  a  large 
scale  by  BelLsarius,  during  the  siege  of  Rome,  when 
the  supply  by  the  aqneilucts  was  cut  olf  liy  the 
Goth  Vitiges,  in  the  reign  of  Justinian,  A.  D.  536. 
See   CtTi;i;ENT-MII,L. 

The  tide  and  current  wheel,  erected  fiist  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  north  end  of  London  Bridge,  and 
subsequently  under  its  northern  arch,  was  erected 
by  Peter  Morice,  a  Dutchman,  in  1582,  and  rperated 
force-pumps  which  supplied  a  part  of  London  with 
water.  The  stand-])iiie  from  the  pump  was  120  feet 
high,  and  conducted  the  water  to  a  cistern  at  that 
height,  where  it  was  distributed  to  the  dwelling- 
houses  in  the  vicinity,  and  by  four  lead-pipes  to  cis- 
terns at  Bisliopsgate,  Aldgate,  the  Bridge,  and 
Wall-brook.  The  amount  raised  was  about  216 
gallons  per  minute.  The  wheel  worked  sixteen 
]uinips,  each  7  inches  in  diameter,  and  having  a 
stroke  of  30  inches.  Several  other  similar  machines 
were  erected  at  other  points,  and  were  similarly 
driven. 

The  axle  of  the  trundle  w&i  prolonged  at  each  end, 
and  had  quadruple  cranks  which  connected  by  rods 
to  the  ends  of  four  walking-beams  24  feet  long, 
whose  other  ends  worked  the  piston-rods  of  the 
pumps.  The  axis  of  oscillation  of  the  lever  sup- 
porting the  wheel,  and  by  which  it  was  adjusted  to 
tlie  state  of  the  tide,  was  coincident  with  the  axle 
of  the  trundle,  so  that  the  latter  engaged  with  the 
8-feet  cog-wheel  in  any  condition  of  vertical  adjust- 
ment. Each  end  of  the  walking-beam  was  made 
ett'ective. 

During  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries 
the  works  were  extended  from  time  to  time,  and  oc- 
cujiied  one  after  another  of  the  arches. 

In  the  first  arch  of  the  bridge  was  one  wheel 
working  .sixteen  force-]mmps.  In  the  third  arch 
were  three  wheels,  working  fifty-two  pumps.  The 
united  efiect  was  2,T)52  gallons  per  minute,  raised 
120  feet  high, 

In  1767  Smeaton  added  wheels  in  the  fifth  arch. 
Steam-engines  were  added  about  this  time  to  assist 
at  low  water  and  at   neap-tides.     Thus  the  matter 


CUUKENT-WHEEL. 


663 


CUBRY-CARD. 


reiuiiiiu'd   tOl  1S21.     The   present  daily  sujiply  of  I  i^  feet  in  diameter  and  having  20  rounds,  and  whose 
water  to  Loudon  is  ec^ual  to  a  lake   of  50  acres,  3    iron  axle  revolved  in  brasses 


feet  deep. 

Stow,  the  antiquarian  and  historian,  describes  the 
works  in  1600;  and  Beightou  in  1731  gives  an  ac- 


1559. 


Ctirrertt-W/teel^  London,  1731. 

count  of  them  at  that  date.  The  water-wheels  at 
that  time  were  placed  under  several  of  the  arclies. 
The  axle  of  a  wlieel  was  19  feet  long,  3  feet  diameter. 
The  radial  arms  supported  the  rings  and  tweuty-six 
floats,  14  feet  long  and  13  inches  wide.  The  axli-s 
turneil  on  brass  gudgeons  supported  in  counterpoised 
levers,  which  permitted  the  vertical  adjustment  of  the 
wheel  as  the  tide  rose  and  fell.     On  the  axis  of  the 


Fig.  liiiO  is  an  illustration  of  a  floating  frame  in 
which  an  undershot  wheel  is  journaled  ;  the  frame 
as  represented  consi.sts  of  two  scows  connected  by 
beams  and  having  a  skeleton  plow  to  ward 
off  driftwood.  The  prows  of  the  barges 
are  wedge-sliaped,  to  direct  the  .'•tream  into 
the  space  between  them  cccupied  by  the 
water-wheel. 

A  curved  gate  tonfoiming  to  tlie  circum- 
ference of  the  wheel  regulates  the  amount 
of  water  impinging  on  the  Imckets  and 
conseijuentlj'  the  speed  of  the  wheel,  and 
also  stops  the  wheel  bj'  cutting  ofl'  the 
stream  from  the  buckets.  The  main  or 
wheel-shaft  carries  on  the  shore  end  a  bevel- 
gear  that  drives  a  sijnilar  gear,  from  the 
shaft  of  which  power  is  (.anietl,  by  means 
of  puUej-s  and  belts  ir  shafting,  to  the  mill 
standing  upon  the  lank.  The  receiving 
pulley  and  sliaft  are  hung  in  a  fianip,  one 
end  of  which  is  hinged  or  pivoted  to  the 
shore-side  float  or  scow,  and  the  other  to 
the  mill-building.  Thus,  whether  the  water 
lie  high  or  low,  the  Udt  is  always  kejit 
"  taut."  Chains  or  roj  es  moor  the  floating 
scows  to  the  shore,  ami  the  pivoted  frame 
holds  them  in  position. 

Cur'ri-cle.  A  t\vo-wheel  chaise  with  a  pole  for 
a  pair  of  Lorses. 

Ctir'rier's  Knife.  A  laige,  two-handled  knife, 
with  a  recurved  edge,  enijiloyed  by  cuirieis  to  shave 
or  jiare  the  flesh  side  of  hides. 

The  knife  is  about   12  inches  long  and  5  wide  ; 
one  end  has  a  plain  handle  and  the  other  a  cross- 
handle,   in    the    direction   of    the 
plane  of  the  blade.  The  edge  of  the 
knife  is  brought  up  by  means  of  a 


Fig.  1561. 


Currier^s  Knife. 

whetstone,  and  a  wii-e  edge  is  con- 
stantly ]>reserved    by  a  steel  wire 
which  acts  as  a  burnisher. 
Ctir'ri-er's  Tools.    See  :  — 

Beam. 

Beam-knite. 

Cleaner. 

Clearing-stone. 

Crippler. 

Currier's  knife. 

Horse. 

Mace. 

Pommel. 

Raising-board. 

Round  knife. 

Rub-stone. 

Slicker. 

Steel. 

Stiiking-knife. 

t'nhairins-knife. 


CiiTri^t-'WTife]. 


Cttr'ry-card.  Aleathcr  or  wood- 
en   slip   with   inserted    teeth    like 
wheel  was  a  cog-wheel  S  feet  in  diameter  and  having  I  those   of   wool-cards,    and   used   for   currying    ani- 
forty-four  cogs ;   this  meshed  into  a  trundle-wheel  1  mals. 


CURRY-COMB. 


664 


CUSHION. 


Cur'ry-comb.  An  inipluincnt  with  projecting 
senuteil  ribs,  nscil  for  groonjing  horses. 

Ill  tlio  si-ulptiucs  cif  Nimrouil  is  represented  a  tent 
within  wliii'li  :i  groom  is  currying  a  horse. 

Cur'ry-ing.  The  pioccss  of  shearing  the  green, 
tanned  skins,  to  l>riiig  them  to  a  thickness,  and  af- 
terwards dressing  them  by  daubing,  grain iini,  and 
surface-hnishiiig  ;  transmuting  the  tanned  skins  in- 
to niercliantalde  leather. 

Tlie  meehanieal  part  of  the  process  is  performed 
by  a  peculiar  knife  (see  Oukkieii's  Knifk)  upon  a 
nearly  vertical  beam  over  whicli  the  liide  is  placed. 

The  mode  of  currying  skins  upon  a  slanting  beam 
or  board  is  shown  in  the  ancient  paintings  of  Kourna, 
Thebes.     Slicl-iii'i  with  a  sharp  edge  is  also  shown. 

Cur'ry-ing-glove.  A.  heavy  glove  having  a  pile 
of  coir  woven  into  a  hempen  fabric,  and  shaped  to 
the  hand.  Back  and  palm  are  alike,  and  either  may 
be  used  for  currying. 

Cur'sor.  A  part  of  a  mathematical  instrument 
which  slides  on  the  main  portion  ;    as,  — 

The  movable  leg  of  a  beam-compass. 

The  joint  of  the  proportional  compasses. 

The  hand  of  a  barometer. 

The  beam  of  tile  tnnumel. 

The  slide  of  a  Gunter  rule. 

The  adjustable  plate  of  a  vernier. 

The  moving  wire  in  a  reading  microscope. 

Cur'tail-step.  (Joiiicrg.)  The  bottom  step  of 
a  stairs,  when  tiuished  with  a  scroll  and  similar  to 
the  handrail. 

Cur'taiu.  1.  {FoHificalion.)  That  portion  of  a 
rampart  which  e.\tends  between  and  joins  the^(»A;s 
of  two  bastions.     See  B.VSTKiN'. 

2.  (LocksMilhiiiq.)  A  shifting  plate,  which,  when 
the  key  is  witlidrawn,  interposes  so  as  to  screen  the 
inner  works  from  being  seen  or  reached  by  tools. 

3.  A  strip  of  leather  which  overlaps  the  parting 
of  a  tnink. 

4.  A  dependent  cloth  serving  as  a  screen. 
Cur'tain-pa'per.     A  heavy  paper,  printed  and 

otherwise  nrnuiiienti'd,  for  window-shades. 

Cur'tal-axe.  A  short  sword  with  a  curved 
blaile.  The  na  ue  has  been  modified  from  time  to 
time  :  CoiUal-h%clte  ;  contcd-ace  ;  carth-axc  ;  cur- 
tal-axe  ;  coulc-lucc  ;  curlc-lasse  ;  cutlass. 

Curve.  1.  .A.  draftsman's  instrument  having  one 
or  a  variety  of  curves  of  various  charactei-s  other 
than  arcs,  which  may  be  struck  by  a  compass. 
Some  are  constructed  for  specific  purposes,  such  as 
shipwright's  curves,  radii-curocs,  etc. 

2.  A  bend  in  road,  canal,  or  railway  ;  especially 
in  the  track  of  the  latter. 

Curved  Pump.  One  in  which  the  piston  re- 
ciprocates in  an  arc. 

Fig.  \ali. 


Cur'vi-lin'e-ar.  A  drafting  -  instrument  used 
in  describing  irregular  curves.  The  various  shapes 
of  its  marginal  outline  enable  it  to  be  fitted  into 
pjosition  so  as  to  project  or  transcribe  the  curve  re- 
ipiired.  M.  Desalier,  of  Paris,  invented  a  machine 
for  generating  the  curves  and  marking  out  the  pat- 
terns. It  is  capable  of  making  1,200  varieties  of 
curves. 

The  illustration  shows  one  adjustable  instrument. 
The  lU'.xible  bar  A  is  set  to  any  given  curve  by  the 
adjustment  of  the  ordinal  rods  B  in  the  bar  C.     It 


Fig.  1563. 


Curved  Pump. 


has  a  greater  range  of  capacity  than  the  arcogmph, 
being  adapted  for  double,  irregular,  and  mixed 
curves. 

Curv'o-graph.  An  instrument  for  drawing  a 
curve  without  reference  to  tlie  center.  It  is  usually 
an  elastic  strip,  which  is  adjustable  to  a  given  curve, 
and  serves  to  transfer  the  latter  to  another  plat  or 
another  ]ilace  on  the  jilat. 

Cush'ion.  1.  A  padded  seat,  back,  or  arm  of  a 
sofa,  lounge,  or  chair. 

An  ancient  Egyptian  cushion,  made  of  linen  and 
stull'ed    with   the 

feathers  of  water-  Fig-  15M. 

fowl,  is  preserved 

in      tlie     British   

Museum.      See^^ 
Chair. 

2.  The  padded 
edge  of  a  billiard- 
table,  which  re- 
bounds the  balls, 

3.  (Eng7-aring.) 
A  flat  leathern 
bag  filled  with 
pounce  and  sup- 
porting the  plate. 

4.  (Gilding.) 
The  jiad  on  which  the  gilder  spreads  his  gold-leaf, 
and  from  which   he   takes  it  by  a  camel's-hair  tool 
calleil  a  dp. 

5.  The  pillow  of  the  bone-lace  maker.  Pillow- 
lace  is  made  by  hand,  and  is  of  several  kinds,  known 
as  Valenciennes,  Jlechlin,  Honiton,  etc.     See  Lace. 

6.  (Electricitti.)  The  rubber  smeared  with  amal- 
gam, and  whose  friction  again.st  the  gla,ss  cylinder 
or  disk  causes  the  electrical  excitation. 

7.  (Arr/iitecture.)  a.  The  impost-stone  on  a  pier. 
Coussiuct. 

b.  A  capital  of  a  column  so  sculptured  as  to  re- 
semble a  cushion  pressed  down  by  the  weight  of  its 
entablature. 

8.  (Sli'am  engine.)  A  body  of  steam  at  the  end 
of  a  cylinder  to  receive  the  impact  of  tile  piston. 
This  is  accomplished  by  closing  the  eduction-port  a 


Billiard-  Cushion. 


CUSHIOK-EAFTER. 


665 


CUT-OFF. 


little  before  the  end  of  the  stroke,  or  by  opening  the 
induetioii-port  on  the  same  side  of  the  piston,  a  little 
before  the  end  of  the  stroke. 

Cush'ion-raft'er.  (Carpenlrtj.)  An  auxiliary 
rafter  beneath  a  principal  one,  to  sustain  a  great 
strain. 

Cusp.  (Architecture.)  An  ornament  in  stone- 
work of  the  Gothic  order.  It  consists  of  projecting 
points,  foiined  by  the  meeting  of  curves,  and  is  the 
foundation  of  the  peculiar  foliation,  feathering,  tra- 
cery, archery,  and  panels  of  the  order. 

Cut.     1.  A  term  for  a  certain  quantity  of  yarn. 

2.  The  style  of  the  notches  of  a  tile  ;  as,  — 

Rough  cut.  Smooth  cut.  , 

Bastard  cut.  Dead-smooth  cut. 

Second  cut. 

3.  Cut  of  a  letter  ;  its  size  and  shape. 

4.  Cut  of  a  ponton-bridge  ;  the  water-way  be- 
tween the  pontons. 

Cut-glass.  Flint-glass  ornamented  by  cutting 
away  portions. 

The  decanter,  tumbler,  or  other  object,  is  held 
against  a  revolving  wheel,  whose  surface  is  provided 
with  a  grinding  material  ;  and  afterwards  to  another 
wheel  with  a  polisliing  powder. 

The  first,  or  c«Wi«j/-wheel,  is  of  iron,  furnished 
with  sand  and  water. 

The  second,  or  smoothinrj-v,']\ee],  is  of  stone,  with 
clear  water,  to  work  out  the  scratches  of  the  giinder. 

The  third,  or  polishiiig-vihue],  is  of  wood,  with 
rottenstone  or  putty-powder  for  polishing. 

Cut-in  Notes.  (Printing.)  Notes  which  occu- 
py spaces  taken  out  of  the  text,  whose  lines  are 
.shortened  to  give  room  therefor. 

Cu'ti-sec'tor.     A  knife  consisting  of  a  pair  of 


Fig.  1565. 


Tie7>tanii's  Cutisector. 

parallel  blades,  adjustable  as  to  relative   distance, 
and  used  in  making  thin  sections  for  microscopy. 

Cutlass.  Abbreviated  from  curtal-axc.  A  short, 
heavy,  cur\-ing  sword  ;  especially  used  by  seamen  in 
boarding  or  repelling  boarders.  Rosalind  calls  it  a 
curtle.-axe. 

Cut'ler-y.  Knives,  swords,  chisels,  and  axes 
were  originally  made  of  material  found  ready  to  the 
hand,  and  this  varied  with  the  place.  Among  the 
Cariljs  they  were  made  of  shells  of  the  Strombus 
giijas,  whicli  is  still  fislied  for  off  tlie  island  of  Bar- 
badoes.  Flint  knives  and  tools  were  used  in  almost 
all  parts  of  Europe  and ,  America  ;  they  are  found 
under  circumstances  which  indicate  that  man  was 
contemporaneous  with  a  number  of  e.vtinct  animals, 
such  as  tile  Bos  Imviit'rjns,  the  Irisli  elk,  tlie  Elephas 
priiiiufenina^  and  others.  The  stone  knives  and 
hatchets  of  this  ]irehistoric  period  are  fouml  in 
great  vaiiety  and  number,  and  in  some  cases  a  blade 
or  edge  of  obsidian  was  secured  to  a  handle,  or  a  row 
of  arrow-heads  or  blades  fastened  in  the  grooved 
edge  of  a  stock,  forming  a  jagged  knife  or  saw.  Tliis 
has  been  found  among  the  .sepulchral  moumls  of  the 
lro(|Uois,  and  was  also  among  the  wea]tons  of  the 
people  met  by  Herrera,  who  says:  "The  Indians 
Iiad  swords  made  of  wood,  having  a  gutter  in  the 
forepart,  in  wbicdi  were  sharp-edged  flints  strongly 
fixed  with  a  soi-t  of  bitumen  and  tliread."  Among 
the  Mexicans  this  toothed  blade  was  anned  with 
obsidian,  and  the  Spaniards  found  it  a  very  destruc- 
tive weapon.  Stephens  found  the  same  weapon 
represented  in   sculpture    in    the  ruins  of  Central 


America  and  Yucatan.  In  process  of  time  copper, 
then  bronze,  and  then  iron  and  steel,  were  intro- 
duced. For  analyses  of  the  ancient  bronzes,  see 
Alloys. 

In  the  Egyptian  mode  of  embalming  dead  bodies, 
and  in  practicing  the  rite  of  circumcision,  a  knife  of 
flint,  obsidian,  or  other  sharp  stone,  was  used.  We 
read  of  it  in  Exodus  where  Zipporah  took  a  shaip 
stone  and  used  it  for  the  latter  purpose.  Herodotus 
and  Diodorus  Siculus  also  refer  to  "sharp  Ethiopic 
stone  "  as  used  in  disenilioweling  co]']>ses  in  tlie  pro- 
cess of  embalming,  no  knife  of  metal  being  allowed 
to  be  used  upon  the  body.  The  custom  of  u.sing  a 
shard  of  flint  has  descended  to  our  day  among  some 
of  the  nations  who  retain  the  practice  of  circum- 
cision. 

Under  the  head  of  cutlery  are  included  knives  of 
all  kinds,  scissors,  shears,  razors,  and  forks.  It  is 
only  by  a  stretch  of  the  term  that  it  can  be  made  to 
include  edge-tools,  such  asaxes,  adzes,  cliisels,  gouges, 
plane-bits,  etc.  These  are  not  cutlery.  See  KNiFli ; 
Scissors;  Sheaes  ;  Fork;  Kazok  ;  Suhgu'AL  In- 
struments; Damaskeening;  Forging  ;  Te.mper- 
ING  ;  Sword,  etc. 

Cut-mark.  A  mark  made  u])on  a  set  of  warp- 
threads  before  placing  on  the  war]i-beam  of  the 
loom,  to  mark  off  a  certain  delinite  length,  flu-  mark 
defining  the  end  of  wliich  shall  apjiear  in  the  woven 
piece  and  afford  a  measure  to  cut  by. 

Cut-nail.  A  nail  cut  from  a  iiail-jilate,  in  con- 
tradistinction to  one  forged  from  a  nail-rod,  as  a 
clasp,  horse-shoe,  or  flat-head  nail. 

llr.  Odion,  of  Massachu.setts,  invented  a  mai-hine 
for  making  cut-nails  in  1816.  Mr.  Keed,  of  the  same 
State,  followed  with  another  machine  for  the  same 
purpose. 

Walter  Hunt's  double-reciprocating  nail-machine 
was  introduced  in  1841.     See  Nail. 

Cut-off.  The  teim  is  applied  to  that  mode  of 
using  steam  or  other  elastic  Huid  in  wliidi  it  is  ad- 
mitted to  the  cylinder  during  a  ]iortion  only  of  the 
stroke  of  the  piston  ;  the  steam,  after  the  induction 
ceases,  working  expansively  in  the  cylinder  during 
the  remainder  of  the  stroke  of  the  piston. 

Fig.  1566. 


Corliss  Oat- Off. 


CUT-OFF. 


CG6 


CUT-OFF. 


Winler's  Cut-Off'. 


The  cit'-o  fin  locomotive-pngincs  is  flTci'teil  by  a 
certain  aJjiistment  of  the  IjInk-motion  (which  sec). 
The  cut-off,  m  many  steam-engines,  is  etiected  hy 
tlie  governor,  wliich  is  so  connected  to  the  valve- 
gear  as  to  vaiy  the  throw  of  tlie  valve-rod,  modil'y- 
ing  it  aeenriling  to  the  speed  of  the  engine  ;  the 
eli'ect  l.>cing  that  an  acceleration  of  speed  works  a 
diminution  of  steam  inducted  and  conversely,  the 
object  being  to  ."eeure  uniformity  of  speed. 

The  Coiii.iss  cut-off,  1851  (Fig.  1566),  has  an 
oscillating  disk  a,  placed  centrally  on  the  cylinder 
with  four  pins,  to  wliicU  rods  are  attached,  iniiiarting 

motion  to  tlie 
Fig.  15G7.  valves.    Two 

of  the  rods 
b  b  connect 
permanently 
with  the  ex- 

^      , liaust,      and 

Q'iH  — '    -/^tf'^^  y  jto^Ss]  I        two    c   c   de- 
— fl       'il    ''  ''./  ^\^^~~-'  I  I  I      tachably    by 

^^      III       /     3»^r  ^  I  '  ■    *       ", 

springs   a 

and  hooks  e 
with  the  in- 
let -  valves. 
Cranks  /  on 
the  ends  of 
the  valve-stems  fit  into  the  hooks,  and,  becoming 
detached,  close  the  valve  by  a  weight  g.  A  lifting- 
rod  h,  with  rack  operated  by  a  worm-wheel  i,  and 
having  inclines  k  bearing  against  .stops,  makes  the 
valves  adjustable. 

Winter' .s  cut-off,  1859  (Fig.  1567),  has  a  crank  on 
the  main  shaft,  which  imparts  motion  to  a  revolving 
shaft,  arranged  between  the  upper  and  lower  steam- 
chests  ;  a  cam  a  on  the  shaft  operates  the  swinging 
toe  b,  which  is  pivoted  in  a 
sliding,  adjustable  box  c  in  a 
guide.  A  recess  in  lower  side 
of  said  toe  allows  the  cam  to 
clear  the  toe  when  working  full 
stroke,  ami  the  ciu-ner  of  the 
recess  has  a  friction-niller  which 
is  struck  by  the  cam,  causing 
the  lifters  d  to  operate  the 
valves.  The  swinging  toes  drop 
when  the  cam  passes  them. 

In  Stevens  s  cut-off,  1841 
(Fig.  1568),  a  rotary  .shaft  a  is 
placed  between  the  upper  and 
lower  steam-chests  b  b,  and  has 
two  lifters  r,  d  placed  on  ojipo- 
site  sides  of  its  center,  which 
alteniatelj'  raise  and  depress 
the  valves  by  the  toes  e  on  the 
rock-shaft.  To  adjust  the  toes, 
a  slot  and  pin  are  jirovided  in 
the  rock-shaft  arm.  To  cut  oH' 
shorter,  the  toes  must  be 
dropped,  the  pin  raised,  and  the 
eccentric  set  ahead.  To  cut  off 
longer,  reverse  the  operation. 

Ali.f.n  and  Wklls's  cut-off, 
1853  (Fig.  loCfl).  Upon  tlie 
rock-shaft  M  are  arranged  the 
loose  steam-toes  B  B,  with 
pawls  E  A"  [livoted  to  their 
outer  ends,  which  are  raised  by  rollers  a  «  on  a 
cross-arm  (f  of  the  rock-shaft  arm  F,  and  when  they 
clear  the  rollers  they  drop  inward,  thus  opening  and 
closing  the  valves.  To  adjust  them,  two  arms  //  // 
are  provided  with  a  right  ami  left  hand  screw.  The 
arms,  having  ncitioii  nearly  coincident  with  t)r' 
piston,  start  downwards  at  the  same  time  the  rock- 


Fig.  1563. 


shaft  rises.     The  exhaust-toes  A  A  are  permanently 
attached. 

In  the  gridiron  valve  (••/,  Fig.  1570)  the  steam- 
chest  is  divided  by 

a  longitudinal  par-  ^'g-  1569. 

tition  b  jirovided 
with  suitable  ports, 
over  which  is  ar- 
ranged the  cut-off 
valve  a,  and  in  the 
lower  part  of  the 
chest  is  the  usual 
slide-valve  c. 

Ill  the  MF.niiicK 
cnt-off  {B,  Fig. 
1570)  the  steam- 
valve  a  is  provided 
with  ports  through 
its  lower  part,  over 
wliicli  the  cut-off 
valves  b  b  slide. 
They  are  made  ad- 
jnstalile  by  a  right 
and  left  hand  screw  on  the  valve-stem  d,  by  wliich 
they  may  be  drawn  together  or  forced  apart.  In  the 
steam-chest  cover  are  arranged  adjustable  rings  c  c, 
that  bear  on  the  back  of  the  valve  a  to  make  it  a 
balanced  valve.  The  space  inclosed  in  the  rings 
connects  witli  the  condenser. 

Sickel's  cut-oif  (Fig.  1 571 ).  A  rock -.shaft  a.  oper- 
ated by  the  rod  b  from  the  eccentric  is  placed  mid- 
way of  the  steam-chests,  and  provided  with  the  usu- 
al toes,  by  wdiich  the  lifters  c  and  rods  d  d  of  the 
valves  are  operated.  To  seat  them  without  slam- 
ming, the  valve-stems  are  provided  with  dash-pots 
e.  c  ;  and  to  seat  them  suddenly,  a  spring-catch  is  se- 
cured on  the  stems,  against  which  a  vibratory  wiper 

Fig.  1570. 


Allen's  Cut-Off . 


Sttvms's  Cul-Off. 


Cut- Off  Slide-  Valve. 

ff  passes,  and,  when  released,  the  valves  are  seated 
instantaneously. 

A  dray  cut-off  is  one  actuated  directly  by  the  main 
valve. 

2.  A  valve  or  gate  in  a  spout,  to  stop  discharge  ; 
as  in  grain-spout  when  the  required  weight  or  quan- 
tity has  been  discharged  or  the  receiving  vessel  is 
full. 


CUT-OFF  VALVE. 


667 


CUTTIKG. 


Fig.  1571. 


3.  A  device  in 
a  rain-water  spout 
to  send  the  falling 
water  in  either  of 
two  directions,  as, 
forinstanee,  to  the 
gutter  until  the 
roof  is  clean,  and 
then  to  the  cis- 
tern. 

4.  A  rod  on  a 
reaper,  to  hold  up 
the  falliuj,'  giain 
during  the  clear- 
ing of  the  I'allen 
grain  from  the 
lilatform. 


Cut-off  Valve. 

A  valve  arranged 
to  close  the  induc- 
tion-ports of  a 
SickeVs  Cut-Off.  steam-cylinder  at 

any  given  period 
befor.;  the  close  of  the  stroke  of  the  piston,  in  order 
that  the  steam  may  be  used  expansively  in  the  inter- 
val.     See  Cu  r-OFF. 

Cut-out.  {Tdegmphij.)  A  species  of  switch 
used  in  ti-lcgjaph-offices  to  connect  the  wires  pass- 
ing through  the  otHce,  and  "cut  out "  the  instrument 
from  the  circuit.  Usually  a  m;re  lever,  pivoted 
between  the  wires  leading  to  and  from  the  instru- 
ment, so  that,  on  being  turned  in  the  proper  direc- 
tion, it  will  connect  the  wires. 

Cut-pile.  (Fabric.)  A  fabric  woven  in  loops, 
which  are  subsequently  cut  so  as  to  give  a  pile 
(hairy>  surface,  such  as  velvet,  plush,  Wilton  car- 
pet, etc. 

Cut-splay.  The  oblique  cutting  of  the  edges  of 
bricks  in  certain  kinds  of  fancy  brick-work. 

Cut-stone.  A  h-'ca  stone.  Ashlars  reduced  to 
for  n  by  chisel  and  radlet. 

Cut'tee.  The  box  to  hold  the  riuillsin  a  weaver's 
loom. 

Cut'ter.  1.  iHnshandry.)  That  portion  of  a 
mower  or  reaper  which  actually  severs  the  stalk. 
The  varieties  are  numerous,  but  the  general  verdict 
of  approval  has  been  given  to  what  may  be  called 
the  sait\ —  a  term  which  describes  generally  a  device 
consisting  of  projecting  teeth  or  :<ei:tions  affixed  to  a 
bar  and    reciprocated   longitudinally  of   the  latter. 

See  HAFlVESTF.n-CfTTER. 

2.   (NaxUical. )     a.  A  vessel  with  one  mast,  having 


fore  and  aft  sails.  The  spars  are  a  inasty  boovi,  gffff, 
and  bowsprit. 

Cutters  are  usually  small,  but  the  fancy  has  some- 
times been  to  make  them  as  large  as  460  tons  and 
28  guns  (the  J'ipcr).  They  are  either  clincher  or 
carvel  build  ;  have  no  jib-stay,  the  jib  hoisting  and 
hanging  by  the  halliards  alone. 

A  cutter  carries  a  fore  and  aft  main-sail,  gaff-top- 
sail, stay,  foresail,  and  jib. 

b.  A  boat  smaller  than  a  barge,  and  pulling  from 
four  to  eight  oars.  It  is  from  22  to  30  feet  long,  and 
has  a  beam  equal  to  .29  to  .25  of  its  length.  A  num- 
ber are  required  for  the  miscellaneous  purposes  of  a 
large  shii),  and  ai'e  known  as  the  first,  second,  etc., 
cutters. 

3.  A  one-horse  sleigh. 

4.  A  soft  brick  adajited  to  be  rubbed  down  to  the 
required  shape  for  ornamental  brick -work  or  arches. 

5.  A  wad-punch. 

6.  A  revolving  cutting-tool  of  a  gear-cutter,  a 
planing-machine,  etc.     See  Cuttf.r-he.\L). 

7.  An  upright  chisel  on  an  anvil.     A  Jiack-iron. 

8.  The  router  or  scorjier  portion  of  the  center- 
bit,  which  removes  the  portion  circumscribed  by  the 
nicker. 

9.  A  burin,  an  engraver's  tool ;  as  a  (^)i^cutter 
or  lint-tool. 

10.  A  file-chisel. 

11.  X  peij-cutlcr,  or  flocit. 

12.  {Agriculture.)  An  implement  or  machine  for 
cutting  feed.   See  Sti!.\w-cuttek  ;  Root-cutteh,  etc. 

Cutter-bar.  1.  {Borinri-machincri/.)  A  bar  sup- 
ported between  lathe-centers  or  otherwise  in  the  axis 
of  the  cylinder  to  be  bored,  and  carrying  the  cutting- 
tool.  By  various  modifications  having  the  same  ob- 
ject in  view,  the  tool-stock,  cutter-bar,  or  cylinder 
may  be  moved,  so  as  to  cause  the  tool  to  pass  around 
inside  the  cylinder  or  converselj',  and  also  cause  it 
to  traverse  from  end  to  end.    See  Boring-m.\i}1ine. 

2.  (Harrcstcr.)  A  bar,  usually  reciprocating  lon- 
gitudinally, and  having  attached  to  it  the  triangular 
knives  or  sickles,  which  slip  to  and  fro  in  the  slots 
of  the  fingers,  and  cut  the  grain  or  grass  as  the  ma- 
chine progresses. 

Tlie  V>ar  carrying  the  fingers  is  the  Jiiigcr-bar. 

Cut'ter-grind'er.  A  grindstone  or  emery-wheel 
specially  constructeil  for  grinding  the  sections  of  the 
cutter-bars  of  reajiing  and  mowing  machines. 

Cut'ter-head.     A  rotating  head,  either  dressed 


Fig.  1573, 


rig.  1574. 


Cuttrr-Hend. 


Rotary  Cutter. 

and  ground  to 
form  a  cutter,  or 
having  means  for 
the  attaching  of 
bits  ov  lilades  thereto,  as  in  the  illustrations. 

Cut'ter-stock.  A  head  or  holder  in  which  a 
cuttiiii;  lilade  or  tool  is  fastened  for  use. 

Cut'tiug.  1.  {Railroading.)  An  excavation  for 
the  purpose  of  a  road,  railroad,  or  canal.  When  the 
earth  is  not  required  for  a.  fill  or  embankment,  it  is 
called  waste. 

When  the  sides  are  not  secure,  sufficient  slope 
must   be   allowed   or  retaining -walls  constructed. 


CUTTING-BOARD. 


GC8 


CUTTING-PRESS. 


Fig.  1675. 


Cutting. 

These  wall.s  batfer  towards  the  bank  in  order  to 
withstand  the  tlirust.  See  B.iTTiSK  ;  Bkea.st-wali,  ; 
Retaining-Wall. 

2.  {Milling.)  A  poor  riuality  of  ore  mi.xed  with 
that  whicli  is  better. 

Cut'tiiig-board.  A  board  for  the  liench  or  lap, 
iii  euttini;  out  leather  or  cloth  for  clothing. 

Cut'tiiig-box.  .V  machine  for  cutting  hay,  straw, 
or  corn-stalk  into  short  feed.      See  Stuaw-cutter. 

Cut'ting-com'pass.  A  compass,  one  of  whose 
legs  is  a  cutter,  to  make  washers,  wads,  and  circular 
disks  of  ]iaper  for  other  nses. 

Cut'ting-down  Line.  {Shiphuilding.)  A  curved 
line  on  the  sheer-plan,  which  touches  the  lowest  part 
of  the  iniu*r  surface  of  each  of  the  frames.  It  deter- 
mines tln^  depth  of  the  Hoor-tiinbers  and  the  liight 
of  the  (lead-wood  fore  and  aft. 

Cut'ting-down  Staff.  (Shipbuilding.)  A  rod 
having  marked  upon  it  tlie  bight  of  the  ciUting-down 
liiv  aliove  tlie  keel  at  the  several  frames. 

Cut'ting-en'gine.  (Sil/c-machinenj.)  A  machine 
in  which  refuse  or  Hoss  silk  —  the  fibers  having  been 
previously  disentangled,  straightened,  and  laid  par- 
allel by  the  HacivLE,  Fillino-e.ngine,  and  DitAW- 
ING-FKAME  (which  See)  —  are  cut  into  lengths  of 
about  1^  inches,  so  as  to  enable  them  to  be  treated 
as  a  staple  by  the  earding-nmchine  and  the  machines 
which  I'oUow  ill  the  cotton  process,  bringing  the 
fiber  to  a  sliver,  a  roving,  a  thread,  suitable  for 
weaving. 

The  cutting-engine  has  feed-rollers,  and  an  inter- 
mit tingly  acting  knife,  somewhat  similar  to  a  chaff 
or  tobacco  cutter. 

Cut'ting-file.  The  toothed  cutter  of  a  gear-cut- 
ting engine. 

Cut'ting-gage.  A  tool  having  a  lancet-.shaped 
knife  (one  or  two)  ami  a  movable /cncc  by  which  the 
distance  of  the  knife  from  the  edge  of  the  board  is 

Fig.  1578. 


Ciilliii!;-  Gage 

adjusted.  It  is  used  for  cutting  veneers  and  thin 
wooil.  In  the  Wes*:,  linn-wood,  sawed  through  and 
through  the  width  of  tlie  log,  \  to  |  inch  thick,  is 
rippi'il  into  plastering-lath  by  the  cutting-gage,  after 
a  sti;di;lit  ciIl^c  has  been  once  established. 

Cut'ting-line.  (Printing.)  A  line  made  by 
printers  on  a  sheet  to  mark  the  off-rMt ;  that  which 
is  cut  off  the  printed  sheet,  folded  separately,  and 
set  into  the  other  fiddi'd  portion. 

Cut'tiug-ma-chine'.  1.  A  machine  for  reducing 
the  length  of  staple  of  llax.   See  BliKAKiNc-MACiliN'E. 

2.  A  inachine  for  cutting  out  garments.  A  recip- 
rocating vertical  knife  works  in  a  slot  of  the  table 


which  siip)iorts  the  pile  of  cloth  to  be  cut.  The 
cloth  is  fed  by  the  attendant  so  as  to  bring  the 
line  marked  on  the  ujiper  layer  in  line  with  the 
knife. 

Cut'ting-nip'pera.  A  pair  of  pliers  whose  jaws 
are  sharii  and  coni''  in  e.xact  apposition.  Tlie  cutters 
are  sometimes  on  the  i'ace  of  the  jaws  and  .sometimes 
on  the  side. 

Cut'ting-out  Ma-chine'.  One  by  which  plan- 
chets  for  coin,  or  blanks  for  other  purposes,  are  cut 
from  ribbons  of  metal.     See  Cutting- I'UKs.s. 

Cut'ting-plane.   A  carpenter's  .smoothing-plane. 

Cut'ting-press.  1.  A  screw-press  for  cutting 
plaiiehets  of  metal  from  strips.  The  ciclling-press  oi 
the  coining-apparatus  (1,  Fig.  1577)  has  a  cast-iron 
frame  n,  which  is  fixed  on  a  stone  basement ;  b  is 
the  screw,  which  is  fitted  through  the  top  of  the 
frame,  and  actuates  a  slider  c.  At  the  lower  end  of 
the  slider  a  steel  punch  d  is  fixed.  Its  diameter  is 
exactly  eijual  to  that  of  the  pieces  which  are  to  be 
cut  out. 

Beneath  is  the  steel  die,  which  has  a  hole  in  it  of 
proper  size  to  fit  the  steel  punch.  On  the  other 
side  is  a  box  with  screws  for  adjusting  the  die,  so 
that  the  hole  in  it  will  be  exactly  beneath  the  punch. 


The  slide  c  is  fitted 
into  a  socket,  whicli 
guides  it  so  that  it  will 

descend  correctly  into  Cutting-Presses. 

the  hole  in  the   die  ; 

a  piece  of  iron  is  fixed  a  small  distance  above 
the  ilie,  and  has  a  hole  tlirongh  it  to  admit  the 
punch.  Its  use  is  to  hold  down  the  jiiece  of  met- 
al when  the  punch  rises,  otherwise  the  piece  would 
stick  to  the  punch. 

On  the  upper  end  of  the  .screw,  a  piece  /  is  fixed, 
and  an  arm  jirojects  from  it,  with  a  weight  g  at  the 
end  ;  and  it  is  this  weight  which  gives  the  necessary 
momentum  to  punch  out  the  ]iiece  ;  /(  is  a  spimlle 
fixed  upon  the  piece/,  in  the  line  of  the  screw  ;  it 
is  supported  in  a  collar  ;)  at  the  upper  end,  and  above 
the  collar  a  level'  4  in  k  is  fixed,  and  at  one  extrem- 
ity of  this  lever  a  roller  k  is  placed  ;  this  is  acted 
u])Oii  by  projecting  teeth,  which  are  fixed  in  the  vim 
of  a  largi!  horizontal  wheel,  which  is  turned  round 
by  the  prime  mover  of  the  mill,  and  thus  produces 
the  requisite  motion  in  the  whole  apparatus. 

2  (Fig.  ].')78)  is  a  modified  form  in  which  a  is  the 
tail  of  the  weighted  swinging-lever/,  whicdi  is  moved 
by  hand,  to  move  the  slider  n  and  the  punch.  The 
lower  die  d  is  adjusted  in  position  by  the  system  of 
set  screws  s,  on  the  bed-piece ;  p  is  the  holding-down 
plate. 

2.  A  bookbinder's  press  (3,  Fig.  157S)  for  hold- 


CUTTINGS. 


669 


CYLINDER  BORING-MACHINE. 


ing  a  pack  of  folded  sheets  while  the  book  is  sawed 
previous  to  sewing,  or  for  holding  the  sewed  book 
for  edge-cutting.  The  screws  s  s  pass  through  the 
.side-pieces  c  c,  which  are  steadied  by  sliding-guides. 
The  pack  may  now  be  planed  or  saw-cut  on  the 
back  for  the  twines  to  which  the  sheets  are  sewed. 

Cut'tings.  {.VelaUiirr)//.)  The  larger  and  light- 
er refuse  which  is  detained  by  the  sieve  in  the 
hotchinrt-tub,  or  hutch. 

Cut'ting-shoe.  A  horseshoe  with  nails  on  only 
on.' sidi*,  for  horses  that  c'»^  or /«^r/bre.  Afcaiher- 
edff  sirir. 

Cut'ting-thrust.  A  tool  like  a  cuUing-gmjc,  em- 
ployed in  grooving  the  sides  of  lioxes,  etc.  It  has  a 
routinq-imiti'T  in  a  stock,  and  an  adjustable  sliding- 
head  which  forms  a  gage  for  distance  from  the  guide- 
edge  nf  the  boai'd. 

Cut'too-plate.  A  hood  above  the  nave  or  hub 
of  a  vehicle,  to  prevent  the  street  mud  from  falling 
upon  the  axle  and  becoming  ground  in  between  the 
axle-box  and  spindle.  Otherwise  called  a  dirl-bnard, 
or  round  robbin.     It  is  attached  to  the  axle  or  bol- 


(Fahrk.)     Piled   goods  in  which 


ster. 

Cut-vel'vet 

the  loiips  are  cut 

Cut-Twa'ter.  1.  {Shipwri'/htinr).)  The  forward 
edge  <ff  the  .tfcm  or  prow  of  a  vessel  ;  that  which  di- 
vides the  water  right  and  left.  It  is  fayed  to  the 
forepart  of  the  stem. 

2.  (Bridge. )  The  edge  of  a  starling  presented  np 
stream,  to  divide  the  waters  on  each  side  of  the 
pier. 

Cu-vette'. 


1. 


Cuvette. 


(Glass.)  A  basin  for  receiving 
the  meltcil  glass  after  it  is 
refined,  and  decanting  it  on 
to  the  table  to  be  rolled  into 
a  plate. 

The  curettes  stand  in  open- 
ings in  the  sides  of  the  fur- 
nace,  and    are    filled   with 
melted  glass  from  the  jiots 
by  means  of  iron  ladles.   The 
material     remains     sixtCL^u 
hours  in  the  pots  and  six- 
teen   in    the    cuvettes.     In 
casting,  the  cuvette  is  lifted 
by    means    of    a   gripping- 
tongs,  chains,  and  a  i;rane, 
and  the  contents  are  poured  upon  the  casting-table. 
•2.   [Fortifieatimi .)     A  ditch  in  the  main  diti'h. 
Cy'a-nom'e-ter.      Invented    by    .Sau.ssure,    for 
determining  the  depth  of  tiie  tint  of  the  atmos- 
phere. 

A  circular  band  of  thick  paper  is  divided  into 
fifty-one  parts,  each  of  which  is  ]iaiuted  with  a  dif- 
ferent shade  of  blue ;  the  extremities  of  the  scale 
being  respectively  deep  lilue  anil  nearly  white.  The 
colored  band  is  held  in  the  hand  of  the  observer, 
who  observes  the  partii^ular  tint  corresponding 
to  the  color  of  the  sky.  The  number  of  this  tint, 
retkoning  from  the  light  end,  indicates  the  intensity 
of  the  blue. 

Cy-an'o-type.  [P.'t'jtograph;/.)  A  process  by 
Sir  .[olin  Herschid  in  which  cyanogen  is  employed. 
One  form  of  the  proc  'ss  is  as  follows  :  — 

A  paper  is  washed  with  ferridcyanide  of  potassium 
and  dried  ;  placed  under  a  frame,  the  parts  exposed 
to  light  are  changed  from  yellow  to  blue  (Prus.sian 
blue).  The  picture  is  washed,  then  fixed  by  car- 
bonate of  soda,  and  dried.  The  picture  before  wash- 
ing is  lavender  on  a  yellow  ground,  liut  washes  out 
to  a  blue  on  a  white  ground.  It  is  rather  curious 
than  really  useful.  The  process  has  several  vari- 
ations. 


Cy'clo-graph.       More     properly     Akcogkaph 

(which  see). 

Cy-cloid'al  En'gine.  An  instrument  made  use 
of  by  engravers  in  making  what  is  called  nuichine- 
v:ork  upon  the  plates  for  bank-notes,  checks, 
etc. 

The  lines  have  a  general  cycloidal  form,  being 
generated  by  a  point  revolving  around  a  moving 
center,  or,  what  amounts  to  the  sanje,  are  cut  b}'  a 
gi-aver-point  to  which  a  revolution  is  imparted,  the 
plate  traversing  below  in  a  straight  line,  a  waveil 
line,  a  circle,  ellip.se,  or  other  figure.  The  line  is 
thus  compounded  of  two  movements,  and  a  wavy  or 
complex  interlacing  figure  of  absolute  regularity  is 
produced  as  a  guard  against  counterfeiting  ;  it  being 
impossible  to  produce  such  work  by  any  means  other 
than  such  a  tool.  Counterfeiting,  being  an  under- 
hand proceeding  and  seeking  secrecy,  is  followed  by 
.skillful  men,  but  without  the  expensive  and  compli- 
cated mechanical  adjuncts. 

Cy-cloid'al  Pad'dle.  The  name  is  a  misnomer, 
but  is  applied  to  a  ]iaildle-\\he(d  in  which  the  board 
is  divided  longitnilinally  into  several  strips  in  a 
slightly  retreating  order,  m  edition.  The  object  of 
the  division  of  the  float  is  to  bring  the  sections  in 
succession  into  the  water,  lessening  the  concussion  ; 
and  by  a  more  complete  distribution  of  floats  around 
the  circumference  of  the  wheel  to  make  the  resistance 
more  uniform. 

Cyl'iii-der.  \.  (Steam-engine.)  That  chamber  of 
a  steam-engine  in  which  the  force  of  steam  is  utilized 
upon  the  jdston. 

For  more  than  ten  years  Watt's  conception  of  the 
steam-engine  could  not  be  realized  in  jiractice,  owing 
to  the  impossibility,  with  the  aiipliances  then  at 
hand,  of  constructing  a  jiiston  and  cylinder  air-tight. 
Mr.  Pioulton  of  Soho  came  to  his  relief  with  ca[iital 
and  mechanical  skill. 

2.  (Pneumatics. )  The  barrel  of  an  air-pump,  such 
as  used  by  Hero  of  Alexandria  (see  the  Spirilalia), 
and  that  of  Otto  Guericke  of  Magdehourg.  See  AlR- 
PU.MP. 

Perhaps  the  earliest  use  of  the  cylinder  and  piston 
is  found  in  the  blowing-machines  of  native  metal- 
lurgists in  portions  of  Asia  and  Africa. 

3.  The  cylinder  of  the  .laccpiard  loom  is  really  a 
square  prism  revolving  on  a  horizontal  axis  and  re- 
ceiving the  cards. 

4.  A  clothed  barrel  in  a  carding-njachine. 
Urchins  and  iloffers  are  clothed  cylinders  of  smaller 
size. 

5.  The  glass  barrel  of  an  electrifying-machine. 

6.  (Printing.)  a.  An  inking-roUer  of  a  printing- 
machine. 

b.  The  cylinder  of  some  forms  of  printing-machines 
carries  the  type  in  tttrtlcs. 

7.  The  bore  of  a  gun.  The  charge  cylinder  is  that 
occupied  by  the  charge  ;  the  vacant  cylinder  is  the 
remaining  portion. 

8.  A  wooden  bucket  in  which  a  cartridge  is  car- 
ried from  the  magazine  to  the  gun. 

9.  The  body  of  a  jiump. 

10.  A  garden  or  field  roller. 
Cyl'in-der-blow'er.    A    blowing-machine    for 

blast  and  cupola  furnaces,  which  consists  of  a  piston 
woiking  in  a  cylinder,      ."^ee   Rr.nWER. 

Cyl'in-der  Bor'ing-ma-chine'.  (Metnl-work- 
ing.)  A  machine  having  face-plates  on  which  the 
cylinder  is  dogged  concentrically  with  the  axial 
boring-bar  on  which  a  tool-holder  has  longitudinal 
feed,  to  move  from  end  to  end  of  the  cylinders.  The 
bar  draws  entirely  out,  to  allow  the  work  to  be  shift- 
ed, and  independent  slide-rests  face  off  the  ends  of 
the  cylinder. 


CYLINDER-COCK. 


G70 


CYLINDEE-GLASS. 


Fig.  1580. 


Seilers^s  Cylinder  Boring- Machine . 

Cyl'in-der-cock.  (S'team-enrjinc.)  A  faucet  in 
tin;  I'liil  ot  ii  lyliiuliT  to  allow  water  of  coiideiisa- 
tiou  to  esL-ai)e  when  the  pi.ston  ap|ii'oache.s  the  said 
end  of  the  cylinder.  Owinj;  to  the  incomjires.sibility 
of  water,  tile  end  of  the  cylinder  may  lie  driven  out, 
if  the  water  be  allowed  no  means  of  escape.  It  i.s 
also  useil  to  allow  the  passage  of  steam  in  blowinn 
through  the  cylinder,  etc.,  in  wanning  uii.  It  is 
then,  functionally,  a  blow-through  cock. 

When  the  cylinder-cock  is  made  automatic,  it  has 
a  spring  to  keep  it  closed  against  the  normal  ]iressure 
of  steam,  liut  which  yields  to  the  excessive  ]iiessui'e 
in  the  cylinder  incident  to  the  striking  of  the  iiiston 
against  a  body  of  water,  the  result  of  the  condensa- 
tion of  .steam  in  the  I'ylinder. 

Cyl'iii-der-cov'er.  {S/eam-engine.)  The  lid 
bolted  to  a  Hange  round  the  top  of  a  cylinder,  so  as 
to  be  perfectly  steam-tight.  The  piston-rod  passes 
throngli  a  stnlhng-bo.x  in  the  center. 

The  term  is  also  aiijilicd  to  the  jacket,  lagging,  or 
e/eiiiling,  which  prevents  to  some  extent  the  radiation 
of  heat. 

Cyl'iu-der-eu'giiie.  A  paper-machine  in  which 
the  |iulp  is  taken  up  on  a  cylinder  and  delivered  in  a 
continuous  sheet  to  the  dryers. 

Cyl'in-der  Es-cape'ment.  Another  name  for 
the  liiirizciiitMl  escapemi-iit  invented  by  Graham. 
See  lIiniiziiMAi.   Kscait.ment. 

Cyl'in-der  Es-cape'-valve.  A  valve  in  the 
end  nf  a  rybndei-  lo  let  oil'  watei'  of  condensation. 

Cyl'in-dsr-glass.  A  mode  of  making  window- 
glass,  in  wliiili  the  material  is  brought,  by  a  sneces- 
sion  of  oper.itions,  to  the  shape  of  an  open-ended  cyl- 
inder, which  is  split  by  a  diamond  and  Hatted  in  a 
furnai'e. 

Although  tliis  plan  had  long  been  practiced  in  Ger- 
many and  lielginin,  it  was  not  imported  into  Eng- 
land until  aliout  1S46,  owing  to  the  vexations  ex- 
cise-regulations, all  iinprovements  in  glass-working 
being  hampered  and  well  nigh  ]irevented.  The  im- 
position, however,  was  takeij  ofi'  in  time  for  the 
manufacture  of  cylinder-glass  for  the  World's  Ex- 
po.sition  building  in  London,  1853. 

We  are  not  aware  that  it  has  yet  been  introduced 
into  the  United  States. 

As  remarked,  this  mode  of  making  flatted  glass 
was  no  new  thing,  but  is  ilescribed  in  the  THversa- 
rum  Arlium  Schcdidn,  written  probably  in  the  thir- 
teenth century. 

While  crnwn-(/!nns  is  blown  into  a  globe,  then 
whirled  and  blown  into  an  oblate  spheroid,  pierced 
and  eventually  expanded  into  a  disk,  ciilmdcr-<]lass 
or  broad-glass,  as  it  is  often  called,  is  made  into  a 
hollow  bulb,  which  is  made  gradually  to  assume  the 
cylindrical  form ;  the  ends  are  opened  by  means  to 
be  described,  finally  the  cylinder  is  split  and  flat- 
tened. 

The  process  is  as  follows  :  — 

The  workman  collects  a  mass  of  the  glass  a  around 
the  end  of  his  blowing-tube,  and  then  distends  and 


rouuds  it  by  blowing  and  roll- 
ing on  the  marccr,  or  flat,  cast- 
iron  table.  The  subsequent 
operations  consist  in  reheating, 
blowing,  and  swinging  until  the 
diameter,  and  then  tlie  length 
of  the  cylinder  rerpiired,  are  at- 
tained, the  glass  successively  as- 
suming the  forms  b  c  re[iresent- 
ed  in  the  tignre.'  In  the  fourth 
stage,  where  it  has  assumed  a 
conoidal  form  d,  the  point  is  very 
thill,  and  the  blower,  having 
filled  the  shell  with  air  at  a  pres- 
sure, places  it  in  the  furnace,  when  the  expansion  of 
the  air  by  Iieat  causes  the  conoid  to  burst  at  the 
ape.x  c.  The  edge  of  the  hole  is  then  trimmeil  with 
shears,  and  enlarged  by  the  puccllas,  a  peculiar  hand- 
tool  which  resembles  a  pair  of  spring  sugar-tongs 
with  Hat  jaws.  The  cylindrical  form  /  b''iiig  then  per- 
fected, the  cylinder  is  ready  to  be  removed  from  the 
blowiiig-tnbe,  a  circular  piece  of  glass  coming  away 
with  the  tnbe  so  as  to  make  an  opening  in  the  other 
end  of  the  cylinder. 

This  separation  is  effected  by  a  red-hot  bent  iron, 
in  which  the  cylinder  is  turned  round  a  few  times. 

Fig.  15S1 


Successive  Stages  of  Cyhndtr- Glass. 

SO  as  to  expand  the  glass  at  that  point  g.  A  drop  of 
water  on  the  heated  line  makes  an  instant  tincture. 

The  cylinder  is  then  split  by  a  diamond  or  by 
means  similar  to  tliat  which  removed  the  disk  from 
the  end  h. 

Flailing  and  nnnmliug  finish  the  process.  These 
are  accomplished  in  separate  furnaces,  or  apartments 
heated  by  the  same  furnace.  (See  Flattixg-fui!- 
NACK. )  In  the  combined  form  it  consists  of  consec- 
utive chambers  heated  by  a  furnace  beneath.  The 
cyliniler  is  iilaced  on  the  heated  floor  of  the  flatting- 
furnace,  with  the  cracked  side  uppermost;  the  heat 


CYLINDER  GRINDING-MACHIN^E.         671 


CYLINDRICAL  LENS. 


of  the  furnace  causes  it  to  soften  and  spread  out, 
when  all  curves  and  lumps  are  removed  by  a  straight 
piece  of  wood,  fastened  crosswise  at  the  end  o.  an 
iron  handle  and  wetted  before  applying.  The  flat- 
ting-stone is  made  very  smooth,  as  any  inerpia'.itics 
are  transferred  to  th.;  ghvss.  The  sheet  of  gUiss  is 
then  pushed  into  thi^  annealing-chamber,  where  it  is 
set  upon  edge  and  left  to  cool  graiiually. 

The  operations  of  making  crown  and  cylinder  glass 
are  exceedingly  interesting,  and  have  some  marked 
pecnliarities.  "Wonderful  is  the  command  attained 
by  skill  over  the  plastic  stutf,  and  in  no  other  art 
except  pottery  is  there  such  a  growth  bene<ith  the 
hand  of  the  ojierator. 

The  illustration  shows  the  men,  each  on  his  plat- 
form, one  swinging  his  prolonged  bulb  above  hi.s 
head,  another  blowing  and  swinging  it  below  his 
feet,  while  a  third  is  oliserving  the  operation  of 
heating  the  glass,  which  he  keeps  constantly  turning 
round  by  means  of  the  rod  in  his  hand,  to  which  it 
is  attached. 

Cyl'in-der  Grind'ing-ma-chine'.  A  machine 
for  trueing  and  polisliiiig  the  in.>i  les  of  cylinders. 
The  cylinder  is  secured  to  the  slide-r  *st,  and  moves 
along  on  the  ways  longitudinally  of  the  mandrel  A, 


Fig.  1582. 


Cylinder-  Grinder. 


which  is  mounted  on  centers,  and  rotated  by  ths 
band-wheel  ''.  The  inside  is  ti.xed,  and,  as  the  n)an- 
drel  A  and  head  D  rotate  on  their  a-xis,  the  rod  0, 
carrying  tlie  grinding-disks,  is  caused  to  revolve 
around  the  said  a.xis,  and  at  the  same  time  rotate  o.i 
its  own  axis,  carrying  tlie  disks. 

Cyl'm-der-mill.  One  form  of  mill  for  pulver- 
izing the  ingi-edients  of  gun)iowder,  having  a  cylin- 
dii'al  runner  traversing  on  a  bedstone. 

Cyl'in-der-po^'der.  That  of  which  the  char- 
coal is  ni;ul'  in  irn-.i  cylin  lers. 

Cyl'in-der-press.  (I'ri  ifin;;.)  a.  A  form  of 
press  in  which  the  type  is  .secuied  on  a  cylinder 
which  revolves  and  presents  the  fomn  successively 
to  the  inking-roUei's  and  to  th'j  paper.  The  /.'/,«- 
revolving  pruiting-inackhti  of  Hoc  is  of  this  class, 
and  is  shown  in  the  full-page  cut  opposite.  These 
machines  are  made  with  two,  fo.ir,  six,  or  ten  print- 
ing-cylinders arranged  in  planetary  form  around  the 
periphery  of  the  larger  type-carrying  cylinder.  The 
type  is  secureil  in  turtles,  or  the  stereotype  is  b  'nt 
to  the  curve  of  the  cylinder.  The  circumference  of 
the  latter  has  a  series  of  binary  systems,  the  elem?nt.s 
of  whi  h  are  an  inking  apparatus  and  an  impression 
apparatus,  the  paper  being  fed  to  tli*  latter,  and  the 
printed  sheet  carried  away  therefiom  by  tapes  to  a 
flyer,  which  de'ivers  it  on  to  th>  tvble. 

b.  One  in  which  the  form  i ;  placed  upon  a  bed 
and  the  impression  taken  by  a  cylinder,  which  takes 
a  sheet  and  receives  an  impression  from  the  form 
while  it  is  passing  under  them.  These  are  known 
as  dotibie,  siii;jl:\  anviUy  lar j'\  stop,  cylinder-presses. 

In  the  d/]ub'e  cylinder-press  two  cylinders  are  used, 
which  take  sheets  alternately.     The  sinrile  ha.s  but  '  and  con  vex  ends. 


press  known  distinctively  a-s  a  .•ii'/i,i7'c  laiy  ci/lindcr 
priiUiivj-iiuichint:,  in  which  the  form  runs  beneath 
four  rollers.  The  feed  is  by  fingers  on  the  cylinder, 
taking  sheets  from  the  inclined  feed-lioard  above,  and 
pas.singthem  between  the  cylinder  blanket  and  the 
form,  the  cylimier  and  bed-i'ack  gearing  together 
during  this  portion  of  the  motion  of  each.  The 
printed  sheet  is  delivered  by  a  Hyer. 

The  slop-cyliiuUr  j)ress  is  one  in  which,  after  a 
sheet  is  printed,  the  cylinder  remains  stationary 
while  the  bed  is  running  back,  during  which  time  a 
fresh  sheet  is  placed  in  position. 

In'the  stop-cylinder  press,  designed  for  woodcut 
printing,  special  arrangements  are  made  for  inking, 
—  I)y  a  vibrating  cylinder  or  inkiiig-table,  as  may 
be  desired,  — and  the  number  of  form-rollers  may  be 
proportioned  to  the  character  and  size  of  the  work, 
being  usually  adapted  to  the  size  of  the  bed.  The 
impression -cylinder  is  stationary  during  the  re- 
turn of  the  "bed,  and  the  fingers  close  on  the  sheet 
before  the  register-points  are  withdrawn  ;  the  cylin- 
der then  revolves,  and  it  gears  directly  into  the  bed, 
and  perfect  register  is  obtained.  The  bed  is  arranged 
to  run  once,  twice,  or  thrice  beneath  the  inking- 
rollei-s  to  each  impression,  so  as  to  secure  a  more 
perfect  distribution  of  the  ink. 

Cyrin-der-print'lng.     1.  (Printing.)    A  mode 
of  printing  in  w  Inch  the  type  is  secured  to  the  cyl- 
inder, or  the  pajier  on  a  cylimier  which  acts  in  con- 
nection wiih  a  rolling-bed.      See  Cylinder-PKESS. 
2.  A  system  of  printing  calicoes  by  engraved  cop- 
per cylinders,  invented  in  .Scotland  and  perfected 
in  England.     These  are  engraved  on  the  Perkins 
principle,  by  which  a  small  roller  with  the  design  in 
I  cameo  is  impressed  against  the  surface  of  the  revolv- 
ing cylinder,  delivering  upon  the  latter  the  design 
in  intaglio  as  many  times  repeated  as  the  circum- 
ference of  the  small  steel  cylinder  (the  mill)  is  con- 
tained in  the  circumference  of  the  copper  cylinder. 

This  is  the  prinei]de  of  the  American  system  of 
bank-note  engraving.  See  TuANsFrRuiNO-MACiUNE. 
Cyl'in-der-tape.  (Printimj).  A  tape  running 
cm  tlie  impression-cylinder  beneath  the  edge  of  the 
paper,  to  remove  the  sheet  from  the  cylinder  after 
printing. 

Cyl'ln-der-ivheel.  A  form  of  scape-wheel,  used 
in  the  liori-j'itt'il  or  ciilltukr  escapement. 

Cyrin-der-wrrench.  A  form  of  wrench  adapted 
to  grasji  round  rods  or  tubes.      See  PiPE-wr.ENXH. 

Cy-lin'dri-cal-arch.(  Architrdurc.)  One  which 
is  a  jirolongation  of  the  same  curve  thi'oughout  its 
length. 

Cy-lin'dii-cal  Boil'er.  A  boiler  of  a  cylindri- 
cal shape,  in  contradistinction  to  the  other  and  earlier 
forms. 

The  cylindrical  boiler  was  introduced  into  Corn- 
wall, England,  in  conseiiuence  of  the  use  of  a  higher 
pressure  of  steam,  which  rendered  the  luiydack, 
hcmisplicriciil,  ami  icatfon  boilers  unsafe.  (See  CoR- 
xisii-boilerK  Smeaton  introduced  the  flue  into  the 
boiler.  The  eyliudriral  return-Hue  boiler  was 
pat -nted  bv  AVilki'ison  in  1799. 

Cy-liii'dri-cal  Lens.  A  reading-gla.ss  whose  back 
and  front  faces  are  formeil  by  cy- 
lindrical surfaces,  the  diameters  of 
which  are  at  right  angles  to  each 
other  ;  the  form  being  that  of 
two  segments  of  cylimlers  united 
at  their  bases. 

A  lens  ha^Hng  a  cylin<lrical  body     Cylindrical  Lens. 
A  Stanhope  ]f tin. 


1583. 


one,  and  needs  but  one  attendant  feeder  ;  the  printed  I      The  term  may  also  include  a  lens  consisting  of  a 
sheets  are  thrown  down  by  a  fly-frame.  |  trae  cylinder  which  gives  a  line  of  light  ;  or  of  cy- 

The   accompanying  full-pagi  illustration   is  of  a  ;  lindrical  segments  parallel  to  each  other,  which  com- 


CYLINDRICAL  SAW. 


G72 


CYSTOTOME. 


Fig.  1584. 


binatioii  al.so 
give.s  a  line  of 
light. 

Cy-lin'dri- 
cal  Saw.  A 
saw  having  a 
cyliii  ilriual 
form  and 
.sharpened  at 
one  end.  Used 
in  sawing 
staves  froiu 
the  block, 
giving  them  a 
transversely  rounded  form  ;  for  sawing  felloes,  chair- 
backs,  etc.  It  is  on  the  principle  of  the  crown- 
saw,  and  is  variously  called  a  tub-saw,  drum-saw, 
barreJ-sau\  etc. 

Cy-lin'dri-cal  Valve.    [S/cam-enr/ine.)    A  valve 
in  a  trunnion  or  elsewhere  having  a  cylindrical  shape 

Kg.  1585. 


Cylindrical  Saw. 


- ji  ■*     -J.;- 

Cylindrical  Valve. 

and  oscillating  on  its  axis,  to  open  and  close  ports 
in  the  ryliudric.il  case  which  forms  its  seat. 

Cy'nia  Rec'ta.  A  form  of  waved  or  ogee  mold- 
ing liollow  in  its  upper  part  and  swelling  below. 
Cymiitium.     See  Molding. 

The  member  below  the  abacus  or  corona. 

Cy'ma  Re-ver'sa.  An  ogee  in  which  the  hollow 
miMiilicr  of  tlie  molding  is  below.     See  Molding. 

Cym'bals.  Disks  of  bronze,  more  or  less  basin- 
shaped,  clashed  together  or  lightly  touched  in  accord 
with  the  music.  They  are  very  ancient,  being 
represented  in  different  forms  upon  the  sepulchral 
monuiuents.  They  were  used  by  the  Levites  in  tlie 
temple  ordinances,  ami  tlie  sons  of  Asaph  excelled 
in  their  u.se.  They  are  mentioned  among  other  in- 
struments, 1043  n.  c,  when  David  bi'ought  the  ark 
home,  —  ]iarps,  psa'tcries,  ti:nbrcls,  mrnets,  cymbals 
(2  Sam.  vi.  5). 

The  loud-sounding  and  hujh-soundinij  cymbals 
mentioned  in  Psalms  cl.  5,  were  probably  the  clash- 
ing cymbals  and  rattling  castanets. 


Egyptian  Cymbals  (SaWs  Collection). 


The  accompanying  illustration  shows  the  cymbals 
of   ancient 

Egypt.     They  Fig  15S6. 

have  been 
found  in  the 
tombs  of 
Thebes,  and 
those  shown 
^re  now  in  the 
collection  of 
Mr.  Salt. 
They  are  about 
7  inches  in  diameter,  and  are  of  an  alloy  which  does 
not  seem  to  have  been  determined  analytically. 
Quite  likely  tliey  are  of  bronze,  with  a  possible  a<l- 
dition  of  some  silver. 

A  small  variety  of  cymbals  jilayed  with  the  finger 
aiul  thumb  resemble  castanets  in  the  mode  of  using 
to  beat  the  measure  of  the  dunce.  They  are  shown 
in  the  paintings  of  Herculaneiim,  and  were  some- 
times attached  to  the  ankles  of  the  flute-players. 
See  Castanets. 

Cymbals  are  also  represented  in  the  sculptures  of 
Nimroud. 

The  cymbals  were  used  in  religions  and  patriotic 
observances  by  the  Egyptians,  Assyrians,  Jews, 
Etrurians,  Greeks,  and  Romans  ;  by  the  Greeks  in 
the  worship  of  Cybele,  Bacchus,  and  Juno  ;  indeed, 
Xenophon  says  that  the  cymbal  was  invented  by 
Cybele,  and  used  at  her  feasts,  at  a  ^leriod  correspond- 
ing to  our  date  of  1580  E.  c. 

The  origin  of  the  cymbal  was  evidently  heroic  ; 
swords  anil  shields  being  clashed  in  the  warlike 
dances  of  the  .semi-barbarous  people  of  the  countries 
bordering  on  the  Mediterranean. 

In  a  Persian  dance  of  the  times  of  Cyrus  and 
Candiyses,  the  movements  were  ])erformed  to  the 
mu.sic  of  the  flute,  the  performers  dashing  their 
crescent-shaped  shields  together,  falling  on  one 
knee,  and  rising. 

The  corybantian  dance  of  Crete  and  Phiygia  was 
a  wild,  warlike  performance,  with  the  same  rattling 
accompaniment.  The  Pyrrhic  dance,  as  described 
by  Plato,  was  a  frantic  exhibition  of  evolutions  and 
tumblings,  representing  the  modes  of  doiiging  and 
warding  off'  the  blows  of  swords,  daggers,  and  spears, 
and  was  performed  to  the  jarring  nmsic  of  clashing 
weapons.     The  modern  Greeks,  who 

*'....  have  the  Pyrrhic  dance  as  yet," 

have  emasculated  the  performance,  whii'h  threw  in- 
to the  shade  anything  else  on  record,  including  the 
ferocious  and  disgusting  dances  of  the  redskins  of 
the  West. 

"  My  lord  called  for  the  lieutenant's  citteni,  and 
with  two  candlesticks  with  money  in  them  for 
symliols  [sic),  we  made  barber's  music."  —  Pe1'Y.s, 
1660, 

Cys'to-tome.  (Suryicnl.)  An  instrument  for 
cutting  into  a  cyst,  natural  or  morbid,  such  as  open- 
ing the  bladder  for  the  extraction  of  urinary  calculi, 
opening  the  capsule  of  the  crystalline  leus,  etc. 
CystUomc. 


DAB. 


DAM. 


D. 


Dab.    An  impression  in  type-metal  of  a  die  in 
course  of  sinking. 
DabTjer.   \.  (Prin/ing.)   The  original  inking-ap- 
paratus  for  a  form  of  tjjie.     It  con.sisted 
Fig.  1587.    of  a  ball  of  cloth  stuffed  with  an  elastic 
material.     Two  of  them  were  used,  one 
in  each  hand.    One  of  tliem  being  dabbed 
ui>on  the  inking-table  to  gather  a  quan- 
tity of  ink,  the  balls  were  then  rubbed 
together  so  as  to   spreail  it  uniformly. 
This  was  done  while  the  pull  was  being 
1  made,  and  when  the  bed  was  withdrawn 
'  from  below  the  platen,  and  the  printed 
Dttbber.      sheet    removed,    the   assistant,    working 
actively  with  both  hands,  inked  the  sur- 
face of  the  form. 

Another  form  of  dabber  is  a  roll  of  cloth,  the  end 
of  which  is  used  for  inking  the  engraved  copper- 
plate. 

2.  (Engraving.)  A  silk  ball,  stuffed  with  wool, 
for  spreading  the  ground  upon  the  hot  plates. 

3.  {Slerentijping.)  In  the  paper  ))roiess,  the  in- 
sinuation of  the  damp  paper  into  the  interstices  of 
the  letters  by  dabbing  the  liack  of  the  paper  with  a 
hair  brusli. 

The  term  has  also  been  applied  to  the  eUche  pro- 
cess, in  whiih  the  form  is  dabljt^d  down  into  a  shal- 
low cistern  of  typi--met;il  which  is  just  setting. 

Dab'bing-ma-cliiiie'.  ( Tupc-founding. )  The 
niachiiie  employed  in  easting  large  metal  type. 

Dac-tyl'i-on.  (Musk.)  \IkiA-tiiU  'ir.,  a  joint.) 
An  iustiumeut  invented  by  Henry  Herz  for  training 
the  fingers  and  suppling  the  joints.  See  Sloore's 
"  Encyclopedia  of  Music."     See  also  Chikoplast. 

Da'do.     (ArcliUccturc.)     A  plain  flat  surface  be- 
tween a  base  and  a  cap  or  corona  of  a  plinth.    A  die. 
Tile  sjiaee  between  the  b:ise  and  surluuse  of  a  room. 
Dagger.     1.   A  weapon   with  a   pointed   blade, 
adapted  for  stabbing. 
Kg.  158S.  The  words  d'ly  and  dagger  came 

into  use  about  the  twelfth  century, 
but  the  knife  is  as  old  as  Cain,  or 
Abel  it  might  be  said,  as  he  butch- 
ered sheep,  and  brought  them  and 
the  fat  thereof  as  a  sacrifice. 

The  Romans  carried  secreted 
daggers  (d«lo)  hidden  in  the  han- 
dles of  whips  and  canes. 

The    Veuetians     had     daggers 
of  glass   with  three-edged  blades 
Dagsers.  and  a  tube  to  secrete  poison.      By 

a  sudden  wrench  the  blade  was 
broken  off  and  remained  in  the  wound,  like  the  ar- 
row-head of  an  .A.pache.      Nice  people  Itoth  ! 

The  digger  was  a  piart  of  the  iMjuipment  of  the 
Frank  warrior,  who  probably  called  it  a  eoutci,  or 
something  like  that.  It  does  not  ilifl'er  materially 
from  the  dirk  idurk.  duirc)  of  the  Gadhelic  branches 
of  the  Celts,  or  the  poiiiard  of  those  nations  who  ac- 
knowledge Latin  {pungcre,  Lat.,  to  prick)  as  the  base 
of  their  mother  tongues. 

In  the  fourteenth  century  it  was  carried  by  citi- 
zens, yeomen,  sailors,  and  ladies.  It  survives  in 
England  in  the  midshipman's  dirl;  and  in  other 
places  as  a  stiletto,  a  boicie-knife,  etc. 

The  dagger  seems  to  have  been  a  favorite  instra- 

ment  as  an  accessory  to  the  soldier's  equipment  for 

•dose  combat.     The  Highlander,  Western  desperado, 

and  Chilian,  all  seem  to  apiirove  of  the  mode  of  car- 

43 


rying  it  recorded  of  Ehud  1336  B.  c.  ;  "  Ehud  made 
him  a  dagger  which  had  two  edges,  of  a  cubit  length, 
and  he  did  gird  it  uj)on  his  right  thigh  "  (Judges  iii. 
16).  The  modem  plan  seems  to  be  in  the  garter  or 
the  boot,  unless  it  be  worn  in  the  belt,  bosom,  or 
down  the  back  ;  mirabile  dictu,  such  was  known  on 
tile  Jlississippi  and  by  "  Arkansaw  travelei's." 

Some  ingenuity  has  been  e.x[iended  on  this  weapon 
in  the  mode  of  attaching  it  to  the  handle  and  pro- 
viding the  latter  with  a  pistol. 

2.  (Printing.)  A  character  (t)  to  call  attention 
in  the  text  to  notes  on  the  foot  or  margin  of  the 
page.  As  ^  reference-mark  it  comes  ne.\t  after  the 
star  (*). 

A  double  dagger  (J)  is  another  sign  for  a  simi- 
lar pni'pose  when  references  are  numerous. 

Dag'ger-plece.  {Shipbuildi7ig.)  A  diagonal 
piece  in  a  shi|i's  frame  ;  as,  dagger-tiiee,  dagger- 
wood,  etc. 

Dag'ger-plank.  {Shipbuilding.)  One  of  the 
planks  w  hich  unite  the  poppets  and  sicpping-vp  pieces 
of  the  cradle  on  which  the  vessel  rests  in  launching. 

Da-guerre'o-type.  The  photogi-aphic  process 
inventetl  by  Daguerre  dvuing  the  veal's  1824-39,  re- 
sulting in  the  use  of  the  caniei"a  for  the  exposure  of 
a  sUver  or  silvered  plate,  sensitized  by  exposure  to 
fumes  of  iodine  in  a  dark  chamber.  The  latent 
image  was  developed  by  fumes  of  mercury  and  fixed 
by  liyposulphite  of  soda.  In  1S29,  Daguerre  was 
joined  in  his  experiments  by  Xiepcc,  who  had  been 
experimenting  for  fifteen  years  with  an  allied  process 
in  which  a  plate  coated  with  asphaltum  was  exposed 
in  a  camera,  the  image  developed  by  dissolving  away 
the  unalloyed  portions  by  oil  of  lavender.  The 
French  government  granted  a  pension  of  6,000  francs 
to  Daguerre,  one  half  to  revert  to  liis  widow  ;  4,000 
francs  to  ^iepce's  son,  with  reversion  of  one  half  to 
his  widow.      Xiepeedied  in  1833,  Daguerre  in  1851. 

Da-guerre'o-type  Etch'ing.  A  mode  of  etch- 
ing by  means  of  the  influence  of  light  on  a  jirepared 
plate.  The  plate  becomes  exposed  where  the  dark 
lines  of  the  image  fall,  and  the  plate  is  corroded  at 
those  places  by  a  subseiiueiit  operation. 

Dahl'gren  Gun.  Xanied  from  tlie  late  rear-ad- 
miral John  A.  Dahlgren,  of  the  L'nited  States  navy. 
A  gun  ill  which  the  front  portion  is  materially 
lightened  and  the  metal  transferred  to  the  rear, 
giring  the  "bottle-shape,"  wliicli  cau.sed  some  sur- 
prise on  their  first  appearance  in  Europe. 

Colonel  Bomford,  chief  of  ordnance  of  the  United 
States  army,  commenced  making  this  experiment 
previous  to  the  war  of  1812,  and  gave  the  name  of 
"  Columbiad"  to  the  piece. 

Da'is.  A  raised  )ilattorra  at  the  upper  end  of  a 
room,  of  a  diuing-hall,  or  room  of  ceremony.  On  it 
the  dining-table  of  celebrities  was  placed.  Its 
present  use  is  for  a  throne  or  rostnim. 

Dale.  \  spout  or  trough  to  carry  off  water  ;  as 
a  pump-dale. 

Dam.  1.  A  bank  or  structure  across  the  cuiTcnt 
of  a  stream. 

Dams  for  reservoirs  are  among  the  most  impor- 
tant of  all  embankments,  as  their  failure  entails  such 
e.xteusive  disasters. 

The  dam  of  the  Estrecho  de  Rientes,  in  Spain,  was 
situated  in  a  valley  a  little  above  the  town  of  Lorea, 
and  was  designed  to  hold  tlie  water  to  a  higlit  of 
167  feet.  After  eleven  years'  use  the  weight  of  wa- 
ter, which  liad  attained  a  hight  of  156  feet,  .\pi"il 


DAM. 


{374 


DAMASK. 


30,  1S02,  burst  tlie  wall,  iiiakiiig  a  tuimel  100  feet 
high  aiiil  70  fVi't  liioail,  (lisc-liarging  the  whole  con- 
tents ill  less  than  an  hour. 

The  catastrophe  was  caused  by  the  water  fiiiiling 
its  way  through  the  sand  and  gravel  at  the  bottom 
of  the  valley. 

608  persons  were  drowned,  809  houses  destroyed, 
and  the  damage  to  property  was  estimated  at 
$700,000. 

The  thickness  of  the  crown  was  36  feet,  and  the 
slope  of  the  surface  away  from  the  water  was  2  feet 
in  liiglit  to  1  base. 

The  dam  ol'  the  reservoir  of  Alicante  is  circular,  the 
conve.v  side  up  stream.  It  is  struck  with  a  radius 
of  350  feet,  is  l>7  feet  thick  at  the  top  ;  the  masonry 
batters  up  stream  10  feet.  The  thickness  at  the 
bottom  is  112  feet. 

It  is  executed  of  a  hard  primary  limestone  rock, 
and  the  overflow  is  made  in  two  streamsf  each  6  feet 
wide  and  7  feet  below  the  crown  of  the  dam,  which 
has  an  inclination  from  the  surface  of  the  dam  of  3 
feet  4  inches.  Notwithstanding  the  capacity  of  the 
overHow  water-way,  the  reservoir  has  been  several 
times  filled  to  the  level  of  the  top,  the  water  wash- 
ing over. 

On  September  8,  1792,  after  a  protracted  storm, 
the  water  rose  to  a  hight  of  8  feet  3  inches  above 
the  top  of  the  dam,  ponring  over  it  in  a  magnificent 
cascade.  Such  confidence  was  given  by  its  stability 
on  that  and  other  occasions  that  the  overflows  were 
closed,  the  waste  water  tumbling  over  the  wall. 

Herrera,  the  architect  of  the  Escurial,  was  the 
author  of  this  magnificent  project,  which  was  exe- 
cuted between  1579  and  1594.  The  depth  of  water, 
when  full,  is  134  I'eet  B  inches,  and  the  storage  capa- 
city 131,000,000  cubic  feet. 

The  Tanks  of  Ceylon  are  among  the  wonders  of 
hydraulic  engineering;  as,  for  instance,  the  chain 
of  tanks  which  unite  the  ancient  capital  Pollinarua 
with  Tamblegani  l?ay  and  Trincomalee.  Some  of 
these  are  artfficial  lakes  twenty  miles  in  circumfer- 
ence, formed  by  embankments  of  massive  masonry 
that  seem  to  defy  the  hand  of  time.  They  form  part 
of  a  vast  system  of  irrigation. 

Similar  structures  are  found  in  Southern  India 
and  Arabia,  and  point  to  the  occupation  of  those 
countries  by  the  same  race  ;  a  civilized  people,  older 
than  the  Arabs  and  Hindoos. 

In  England  the  dams  of  reservoirs  are  usually 
earthworks,  the  dependence  for  tightness  being  a  core 
or  wall  of  puddle,  commencing  in  a  trench  below  the 
foundations  and  carried  up  to  within  a  few^  feet  of 
the  top.  The  puddle  forms  a  water-tight  wall  in  the 
bank,  and  averages  in  tliickness  about  one  third  the 
hight  of  the  eniliMiikmeiit. 

The  embaiiknient  has  an  internal  slope  of  1  hight 
to  3  base  ;  the  external  slope,  1  hight  to  2  base  ;  the 
width  on  top,  20  feet. 

The  earthwork  is  carried  up  in  laj'ers  of  from  4  to 
6  inches,  carefully  rammed. 

In  Frame  tlie  main  dependence  for  tightness  has 
been  work  in  hydniulic  lime,  in  the  use  of  which 
the  French  worknii'ii  are  peculiarly  skillful. 

The  French  practice  has  been  to  carry  up  the  dam 
in  homogeneous  layers,  not  over  nine  inclies  thick 
and  rammed  to  six  inches,  being  watered  with  lime- 
water.  The  pierrc,  or  stone  jiitcliing  of  the  face,  is 
carried  up  in  independent  walls,  so  that  injury  to 
one  iloes  not  entail  the  ruin  of  the  rest.  The  French 
dis]ien.se  with  the  puddle-wall. 

The  dam  across  the  Schuylkill  River  at  the  Fair- 
mount  Water- Works,  Philadeljihia,  mea.sures  l,(iOO 
feet  from  bank  to  bank,  forming  an  angle  of  about 
45°  with   the   direction  of  the  stream.      Kv  this  ex- 


tension of  length   the   perpendicular  rise  above  the 
top  of  the  dam  is  lessened  during  high  water.     Tlie 

Kg.  1589. 


-  I^^'tr'l:^^^^?^:^ 

'1         -l.  - 

u- 

J — ■— a — 

J  - ■  1  -1  -^fv    iT**^  ■ 

-■>:'^^^--  -'H^^:^ 

— a^ 

=^=i-4^=^-- 

Overfall  Dam  aeross  the  Schuylkill,  PhUadelphia. 

slack  water  above  the  dam  extends  about  six  miles, 
and  a  canal  and  locks  are  provided  for  overcoming 
the  rise.  A  part  of  the  bottom  consisted  of  mud, 
and  upon  this  portion,  270  feet  in  length,  a  founda- 
tion of  rubble  was  laid,  and  covered  with  earth. 
This  portion  is  150  feet  broad  at  the  base  and  12 
feet  on  toji,  being  encased  with  large  stones.  The 
overfall  dam  is  1,204  feet  in  length,  founded  on  the 
bare  rock,  the  deejiest  portion  Iiaving  a  depth  of  24 
I'eet  lielow  low  tides. 

While  on  the  subject  of  dams  we  must  not  forget 
that  constructed  by  Lieutenant-Colonel  Bailey  to 
rescue  the  Heet  of  gunboats  on  Ked  Kiver  after  the 
disastrous  defeat  of  the  anny  under  General  Banks 
in  his  ill-starred  and  worse-managed  expedition. 
As  the  fleet  arrived  in  the  neighborhood  of  Alexan- 
dria it  was  detained  by  the  low  stage  of  water  on 
the  falls  at  that  point.  It  seemed  impossible  to 
escape  from  the  trap,  but  Colonel  Bailey  constructed 
a  wing-dani  600  feet  in  length,  which  concentrated 
the  flow  of  water  in  a  narrow'  channel,  and  made  it 
possible  for  the  gunboats  to  float  down  to  the  lower 
level,  whence  they  readied  the  Mississipjii.  The 
ojieration  is  termed  _/?«s/i /»(jf. 

2.  Of  a  bla.st-furnace.  See  D.\m-platk  ;  D.-iM- 
sniNE. 

Da-mas'cus-i'ron.  Damascus-iron  is  produced 
by  the  following  method  :  — 

Unite  by  welding  twenty-five  bars  of  iron  and 
mild  steel  alternately,  each  about  2  feet  long,  2 
inches  wide,  and  |  inch  thick,  and  having  drawn 
the  fagot  into  a  bar  §  inch  sipiare,  cut  it  into 
lengths  of  5  or  6  feet.  One  of  thi'se  jiieces  is  heated 
to  redness,  and  one  end  is  held  firmly  in  a  vice, 
while  the  other  is  twi.sted  by  a  wrench  or  toiig.s, 
which  shortens  the  I'od  to  half  its  length  and  makes 
it  eylindiieal.  If  two  of  tlicse  twisted  pieces  are  to 
be  welded  together,  they  are  turned  in  diverse  di- 
rections, one  to  the  right  and  the  other  to  the  left ; 
these  are  laid  parallel  to  each  other,  welded  and 
flattened.  If  three  rods  be  used,  the  outside  ones 
turn  in  a  direction  the  opposite  of  the  middle  one, 
and  this  produces  the  handsomest  figure.  By  these 
o|)erations  the  alternations  of  iron  and  steel  change 
places  at  each  h.alf-revolution  of  the  scjuare  rod, 
composed  of  twenty-five  laminae,  the  external  layers 
winding  round  the  interior  ones  ;  thus  forming,  when 
flattened  into  a  ribbon,  irregular  concentric  ovals  or 
circles.  The  fineness  of  the  Damascus  depends  upon 
the  numlier  and  thickness  of  tlii'  alternations  ;  and 
the  figure  of  the  ribbon,  when  brought  out  by  acids, 
resembles  that  of  a  curled  ostrich  feather,  but  when 
wound  into  a  .spiral  form  ami  united  on  its  edge  by 
jumping,  the  edges  bend  around,  and  the  figure  is 
completed.  Other  modes  might  be  mentioned,  but 
all  involve  the  same  principles.      See  WuoTZ. 

Da-mas'cus-trwist.  A  kind  of  gun-barrel  made 
of  a  ribbon  of  Damascus-iron  coiled  around  a  man- 
drel anil  welded.     See  Damascuis-ikon. 

Dam'ask.  1.  (Fabric.)  a.  A  rich  silk  stuff' 
originally  made  at  Damascus  and  thence  deriving  its 
name.     It  had  raised  figures  in  various  patterns,  and 


DAMASK. 


675 


DAMPER. 


flowers  ill  their  natural  coloi-s  ciiibossf  d  upon  a  white 
or  colored  ground.  The  work  wa.s  jirobably  of  the 
nature  of  embroidery  in  the  fir.st  jilaee,  but  the  fig- 
ure.i  were  afterwards  e.xhibited  on  the  suiiiice  liy  a 
peculiar  armngeiiient  of  the  loom,  which  brought  up 
certain  of  the  colors  and  depressed  otliere,  according 
to  the  rei|uireiiients  of  the  pattern. 

We  read  of  similar  goods  in  the  year  1305  B.  c, 
when  Deborah  celebrated  the  victory  over  Sisera :  — 

"  Divers  colors  of  needlework  on  liotli  sides,  meet 
for  the  necks  of  them  that  take  the  s]ioil." 

The  events  of  the  bloody  battle  of  Jit.  Tabor  took 
place  but  four  days'  march  from  Damascus,  and  it  is 
probable  that  this  ancient  city  was,  as  early  as  the 
times  of  Abraham  (19116  -  1822  B.  (_'. ),  the  workshop 
of  articles  in  metal,  .silk,  wool,  and  flax,  as  well  as 
the  depot  of  an  extensive  trade  between  the  Oiien- 
tals  on  the  east  and  the  Pliceiiiciaus,  the  carriers  of 
antiquity,  on  the  west. 

Abraham's  steward  was  a  man  of  Danuiscus,  and, 
ui  default  of  issue,  would  have  been  heir  to  his  juop- 
eity.  Through  all  the  uproar  of  aiitiipiity  Damascus 
has  maintained  a  prominent  jiosition,  being geogi'aph- 
ieally  well  situated  and  rich  in  the  great  necessity  of 
a  warm  climate,  water. 

"  Are  not  Abana  and  Pliarpar,  rivers  of  Damascus, 
better  than  all  the  waters  of  Israel '."  said  the  haughty 
Syrian. 

Mohammed  refused  to  enter  the  city,  as  it  was 
decreed  that  a  man  could  enter  Paradise  but  once, 
and  he  did  not  wish  to  exhaust  his  chances  by  an 
entrance  on  a  paradise  upon  earth. 

The  steel,  the  roses,  and  the  fabrics  of  Damascus 
survive  in  most  modern  languages. 

The  rich  work  of  the  looms  of  Damascus  opened 
the  eyes  of  the  rugged  men  of  the  West,  who  alter- 
nately won  and  lost  the  rocky  mountain-road  which 
led  to  Jerusalem,  and  the  fabric  has  retained  its 
name  and  substantially  its  character  ever  since. 

Silk  and  worsted  damasks  were  favorite  materials 
with  our  grandmothers  for  bed-hangings,  curtains, 
and  the  upholstering  of  furniture. 

*'  A  bed  of  ancient  damask." 

b.  A  woven  fabric  of  linen,  extensively  made  in 
Scotland  and  Ireland,  and  used  for  table-cloths,  fine 
toweling,  napkins,  etc.  By  a  particular  management 
of  the  warp-tlireads  in  the  loom,  figures,  fruits,  and 
flowers  are  exhibited  on  the  surface,  as  in  the  ancient 
damask.  It  is  known  as  wosliuig  damask,  or,  when 
unbleachetl,  as  brown  dama.sk. 

A  small  patterned  toweling,  known  as  diaper,  has 
a  figure  produced  in  the  same  manner. 

c.  StuH'  with  awavy  or  watered  ajipearance.    Moire. 

2.  (MclciViiniii.)  A  wavy  jiatteru  shown  in  ar- 
ticles forged  from  a  combined  iron  ami  steel  blank. 
The  two  metals  are  mechanically  assoinated,  and  the 
bar  is  then  twisted,  doubleil,  welded,  or  otherwise 
treated,  so  as  to  convolve  the  fibers  of  the  respective 
metals.  When  the  forging  and  grinding  (and  temper- 
ing if  a  sword)  are  completed,  the  article  is  dipped 
in  acidulated  water,  which  corrodes  the  steel  and 
does  not  aflect  the  iron.  The  steel  waves  thus  ap- 
pear black,  and  the  iron  remains  white. 

The  damnsk  is  produced  by  the  unequal  tendency 
to  oxidation  of  the  two  metals. 

It  must  not,  however,  be  supposed  that  mere 
ornamentation  is  the  principal  object  of  the  me- 
chanical combination  of  the  metals.  The  main  ob- 
ject is  quality  of  the  blaile  or  the  barrel,  as  the  case 
may  he,  and  the  figure  ilemonstrates  visibly  the  de- 
gree and  completeness  of  the  a.ssociation  ;  not  inter- 
mixture, as  the  lines  of  demarcation  are  well  marked, 
though  the  lamina!  are  indissolublv  welded. 


If  the  steel  be  drawn  lengthwise,  the  veins  of  the 
pattern  will  be  longitudinal  ;  if  the  metal  be  ex- 
tended equally  in  different  directions,  the  veins  will 
be  crystalline  ;  if  it  be  maile  wavy  in  two  directions, 
there  will  be  various  shades  and  gradations,  as  in 
the  Oriental  damask.  The  orbicular  veins  or  anv 
other  pattern  is  produced  by  jieculiar  turns  anil 
manipulations,  and  depcends  upon  the  skill  of  the 
workman. 

Dam^ask-car'pet.  Also  known  as  British,  a 
damask  Venetian.  A  variety  of  carpet  resembling 
the  Kidderminster  in  the  mode  of  weaving,  but  ex- 
posing the  irirrj)  insteail  of  the  iceft. 

Dam'ask-een.  The  name  is  derived  from 
Damascus,  where  the  art  is  held  to  have  originated. 

It  means  to  ornament  one  metal  by  another  by 
inlaying  or  incrustation,  as,  for  instance,  a  sword- 
blade  of  steel,  by  figures  of  gold.  The  metal  to  be 
ornamented  is  carved  or  etched,  and  the  hollows  or 
lines  filled  in  with  the  gold  or  silver,  and  united  by 
hammering  or  by  solder.  It  was  practiced  as  early 
as  617  B.  c.  by  Glaucus  of  Chios.  The  analogous 
operation  of  inlaying  bronze  and  stones  with  gold  or 
silver  was  practiced  at  remote  periods  by  the 
Egyptians,  as  the  statues  and  scaraba;i  witness. 
This  mode  of  decoration  of  metal  is  principally  ap- 
plied to  the  ornamentation  of  swords  and  other 
weapons,  and  has  three  fonns  among  the  Persians, 
where  the  art  is  principally  practiced. 

a.  The  design  is  drawn  by  a  brush,  engraved, 
wires  laid  in  so  as  to  project,  and  fastened  at  points 
liy  golden  nails.  The  surface  of  the  gold  inlay  is 
then  engraved. 

b.  The  engraved  blade  is  filled  even  to  the  surface 
with  gold,  which  is  pressed  in  and  polished  by  a 
burnislier  of  nephrite. 

c.  The  design  consists  of  a  great  number  of  minute 
holes,  whicli  are  filleil  with  gold-wire  buiTiished  in. 

Dam'ask-loom.    A  loom   for  weaving  figured 

fabrics.       See  .I.\CQfAIlU. 

Dam'ask-steel.  The  steel  of  Damascus  origi- 
nally ;  the  pi ocess  traveled  into  Khorassan  and  Per- 
sia, where  it  prospered  long,  but  decayed  as  the  hordes 
swept  over  the  country.  It  is  a  laminated  metal  of 
pure  iron  and  steel,  of  peculiar  quality,  produced  by 
careful  heating,  laborious  forging,  doubling,  and 
twisting.     See  Damascu.s-ikon. 

Da-masse'.     {Fabric.)     A  Flan-        Fig.  159a 
ders  linen,  woven  with  flowers  and 
flgures,  anil  resembling  damask. 

Dam'as-sin.    (Fabric.)    A   sUk 
damask    containing  gold   or   sUv 
flowers  in  the  fabric. 

Damp'er.  1.  A  plate 
in  an  aii-duct,  whether 
air  draft  or  flue,  for  the 
jiurpose  of  regulating 
the  energy  of  the   fire 

by  regulating  the  area 

of  the  passage  of  ingress 

or  egress,  as  the  case  may  be. 

Dampers  are  of  various  forms:  like 
butterfly-valves,  as  in  the  illustra- 
tion;  hinged  flaps,  like  clack-valves ; 
sliding  or  rotating  grates,  like  reg- 
isters, etc.  The  damper  is  to  the 
air-pipe  or  flue  what  the  valve  or 
faucet  is  to  the  duct  for  steam  or 
liquids. 

The  register  or  damper-valve  for 
chimneys  is  an  old  English  inven- 
tion, and  is  referred  to  as  such  by 
Savot,  in  his  book,  1624. 

The  Laconicuyn,  or  stove  of  Laconia,  used  in  heat- 


DAMl'Ell-REGULATOR. 


G76 


DAM-PLATE. 


inj;  the  air  of  the  s\v('ating-a]iartraent  of  the  Roman 
baths,  was  heatml  hy  tlie  tlames  of  the  hypoaiustum 
beneath  the  Hour.  The  heat  of  the  stove  was  regu- 
lated by  means  of  a  brazen  shield  suspended  by  a 
chain  so  as  to  elose  entirely  or  partially  the  opening 
of  cunnnuuicatiou  between  the  stove  and  tlie  base- 
ment furnace.  In  tlie  Baths  of  Titus  a  globe  at- 
tached to  a  chain  acted  as  a  ball-valve  in  the  same 
manner  as  a  damper. 

The  dampers  of  furnaces  are  either  in  the  door  of 
the  ash-])it,  to  regulate  the  ingress  of  air,  or  in  the 
course  of  or  on  top  of  the  chimney,  to  close  the 
egress  of  the  volatile  results  of  combustion.  In  the 
latter  form  they  are  used  in  almost  all  metallurgic 
furnaces. 

In  Fig.  1591,  the  furnace-door  and  flue-iloor  are 
respectively  furnished  with  dampers,  so  connected 


Fig.  1591. 


DaiTtperfor  Hot-Air  Furnaces. 


that  when  one  is  opened  the  other  is  closed,  and 
rice  versa. 

2.  (i/iUic. )  A  padded  finger  in  a  piano  move- 
ment which  comes  against  the  strings  and  limits  the 
period  of  tlie  vibrations.  Its  nonnal  position  is 
upon  the  string,  from  whence  it  is  lifted  by  a  wire 
as  the  key  is  de]uessed  by  the  player. 

The  damjier  has  assumed  various  forms  :  the  single 
action,  in  wliicli  the  damper-wire  a  rests  on  the  key  ; 


Fig.  1592. 


mmii>i/,i«,ii,w&W!}','.:..,'i-,i!imii/i,', 


V77777^7?77777777P7777?J77:7^777>?7y. 


0 


UampfT  {Piano-Forte). 

the  double  action,  in  which  the  damper-wire  b  rests 
on  a  separate  lever  below. 

Bacon  says  :  "  In  spinets,  as  soon  as  the  spine 
is  let  fall  tfi  touch  the  string,  the  .sound  cease.s." 

Damp'er-reg'u-la'tor.     A  device,  by  whicli  the 


lieat  of  a  furnace  or  the  pres.sure  of  steam  is  made  to 
vary  the  area  of  the  air-supply  opening  of  the  fur- 
nace, or  of  the  flue  which  carries  from  the  furnace 
the  volatile  results  of  combustion. 

In  the  former  case  the  device  is  thermostaric, 
usually  consisting  of  a  rod  or  combination  of  rods, 
wliiih  lengthen  or  shorten  as  the  heat  increases  or 
diminishes  above  a  determinate  point  ;  the  said 
variation  in  length  acting  mechanically  by  suitable 
connections  to  open  or  close  a  damper  In  the  ash-pit 
door  or  the  flue. 

The  damper-regulators  which  act  by  the  pressure 
of  steam  are  of  three  or  more  kinds. 

a.  A  tube  is  inserted  in  the  top  of  the  boiler,  and 
its  open  end  descends  below  the  water-level.  The 
pressure  of  the  steam  supports  a  column  of  water  in 
this  tube,  and  the  bight  of  the  colunm  varies  with 
the  pressure  of  steam.  A  float  in  the  tube  is  sup- 
ported upon  the  water  ;  a  chain  from  the  float 
passes'over  one  or  more  pulleys,  and  is  carried  to  the 
clamper  which  is  suspended  to  it.  When  the  pres- 
sure of  steam  is  de- 
creased by  its  with-  Fig.  1593. 
drawal  for  the  use 

of  the  engine  or  by  © ^ 

the  slacknessof  the 

tire,  the  column  of 

water    descends, 

bearing    tlie    float 

with  it.     The  float 

draws     upon     the         \ ,'■  ■    j    '   | 

chain    and     raises  j; 

the  damper,  so  as  ^ 

to  allow  a  gi-eater 

draft  and  urge  the 

fire. 

h.  A  device  act- 
ing by  the  direct 
pressure  of  steam 
against  a  piston  or 
diaphragm,  to  ac- 
tuate a  lever  which 
will  open  or  close 
the  draft  as  a 
greater       or       less  Damper- Regulator. 

amount  of  heat  is 

recpiired.  The  base  A  is  fitted  on  the  boiler,  and 
the  steam  through  B  acts  within  the  expausible  hol- 
low disks  C  a  to  raise  the  rod  H,  which  lifts  the 
lever  L,  or,  when  the  pressure  slacks,  by  the  col- 
lapse of  the  disks  to  let  the  lever  fall. 

c.  An  electro-magnetic  device  in  which  a  column 
of  mercury  is  lifted  by  the  pressure  of  steam,  and 
when  above  or  below  its  nonnal  or  determinate  le\'cl 
closes  a  circuit  and  brings  into  action  an  armature 
which  upeiis  or  closes  tlie  furnace-door. 

Damp'ing-ma-chine'.  1.  {Printincj.)  A  ma- 
chine I'ur  damping  slieets  of  paper  previous  to  print- 
ing. A  certain  amount  of  the  paper  may  be  thor- 
oughly wetted  and  built  up  between  dry  quires  into 
a  i)ilc,  by  their  own  weight  or  pressure  causing  an 
e()ual  distribution  ;  or  a  quire  may  be  quickly  passed 
under  water  and  out  again  and  then  built  up  with 
others  into  a  pile  ;  or  a  sparger  may  be  used,  a^  in 
tlie  perfecting  presses  which  print  from  a  roll,  which 
sends  a  fine  spray  upon  the  paper  as  it  is  rolled  ott' 
from  one  rod  and  rolled  on  to  another. 

2.  A  machine  in  whicli  starched  goods  arc  mois- 
tened previous  to  running  them  through  the  caleii- 
dering-machine,  to  give  them  a  finished  and  lustrous 
surface. 

Dam-plate.  A  plate  in  front  of  the  djim-itmir 
which  forms  the  bottom  of  the  hearth  in  a  blast-fnv- 
nace.      See  Hlast-FUIINACE. 


Vii/^'i 


DAMSEL. 


677 


DASH-WHEEL. 


Fig.  loM. 


L  I       .illli' 


A  MA.    ill! 


Damping-Machine. 

Damsel.  A  projection  on  a  millstone  spindle 
for  shakiiii;  tlie  shoe. 

Dam-stone.  The  stone  at  the  bottom  of  the 
henrlh  of  a  bUust-furnaie.      See  BL.4.ST-FUKX.4.CE. 

Dan.  tMiiiiitg.)  A  truck  or  sledusedin coal-mines. 

Da'na-ide.  A  water-wheel  haring  a  vertical 
axis  and  inner  and  outer  diiuns  between  which  radi- 
al Boats  are  attached.  The  water  acts  tangentially 
upon  the  spirally  arranged  radial  floats,  passes  down 
between  the  said  inner  and  outer  cases,  and  is  dis- 
i'harged  at  the  bottom.  The  water  dashes  upon  the 
wheel  from  a  chute,  and,  the  floats  being  spiral,  the 
wheel  may  be  said  to  act  by  percussion  and  recoil. 
A  tvh-icliccJ. 

Dan'dy.  1.  {NaiUkal.)  A  sloop  or  cutter  with 
a  jigger-mast  abaft,  on  which  a  mi^zen  lug-sail  is  set. 

2.  {PajKr-mahing.)  A  perforated  roller  employed 
to  press  out  the  surplus  water  and  scl  the  paper. 
Patented  in  England  by  Wilks,  in  1830.  A  partial 
vacuum  is  obtained  in  that  part  of  the  roller  on 
which  the  pa|)er  rests. 

Dan'dy-bmsh.  A  hard,  whalebone-bri.stlebrush. 

Dan  dy-horse.     \  velocipede. 

Dandy-rig  Cutter.  A  peculiarly  rigged  sloop. 
See  Daniiy. 

Dan'dy-roll'er.  [Paper.)  A  sieve-roller  be- 
neath which  tiie  web  of  paper-pulp  pa.sses,  and  by 
which  it  is  compacted  and  partially  drained  of  its 
water.  It  may  be  made  the  means  for  water-murk- 
itig  the  paper.  The  paper  pa-sses  thence  to  the  first 
pair  of  pressiug-rnllers.      A  daadit. 

Dan'iell's  Bat'ter-y.  The  double-fluid  battery 
inveuteJ  hy  Juhn  Frederick  Dauiell,  F.  R.  S.,  who 
received  the  Copley  medal  from  the  Royal  Society  in 
1837  for  this  invention  ;  he  died  in  1845. 

Ajar  of  glass  or  earthenware,  in  which  fits  a  plate 
of  copper  bent  into  cylindrical  form.  Within  the 
copper  is  a  porous  cup  containing  the  zinc.  The 
lii[uids  used  are  a  saturated  solution  of  sulphate  of 
copper  in  the  outer  cell,  and  of  sulphuric  acid  in 
the  inner  cell  or  porous  cup. 

To  the  copper  a  perforated  shelf  or  jacket  is  often 
attached  for  holding  crj-stals  of  sulphate  of  co]>per, 
so  that  the  solution  may  be  kept  at  the  point  of 
saturation.     See  G.A.LVAXR-  B.^rTERY. 


Dan'ish  Bal'ance.  A  fonu  of  the  steelyai\l, 
the  iuvei^e  of  the  Roman  or  Chinese.  The 
weight  and  load  are  suspended  at  the  respective 
ends,  and  the  suspension-loop  is  shifted  along 
the  beam  till  equilibrium  is  attained.  The 
weight  of  the  goods  is  thus  to  the  weight  of 
the  hob  reciprocally  as  their  respective  distance 
from  the  loop.     (See  Fig.  530.) 

Dar'by.  (Plastering.)  A  tioat-tool  used  by 
plasterer  in  working  on  ceilings  especially.  It 
is  3i  feet  long  and  7  inches  wide,  with  two 
handles  on  the  back  by  which  it  is  manipulated. 
Dark-box.  A  closed  chamber  in  which  an 
electric  light  is  placed  in  order  that  e.xiierimeuts 
^  may  be  deprived  of  all  light  except  the  beams 
issuing  at  the  lens.     See  Electhic  Light. 

Dark-glass'es.     Shades  fitted  to  optical  re- 

flecting-iustnmients  to  intercept  the  sun's  rays. 

Dark-lan'tern.   A  lantern  having  a  circular 

shade  which  may  be  used  to  clo.se  the  aperture 

and  hide  the  light.     (See  Fig.  972.) 

"  ily  father  and  1  with  a  dark  lanthorn,  it  be- 
ing now  night."  —  Pepvs's  Diary,  1667. 

Dark-sUde.  (Phvtttgraphy.)  The  holder 
for  the  sensitized  plate.     See  Plate-holijeb. 

Dark-vreU.    A  cell  elevated  beneath  a  trans- 
parent object  in  a  microscope,  to  form  an  opaque 
background  when  the  said  object  is  to  be  viewed 
as  illuminated  by  light  from  above. 
Dam'ing-last.     A  potato,  an  egg,  an  apple,  or 
a  small  gourd,  to  stretch  a  jwrtion  of  a  stocking  while 
being  darned. 

Dam'ing-nee'dle.  One  of  large  size  for  cany- 
ing  a  wooleu  yam  in  stojiping  holes  in  knitted  or 
woven  fabrics. 

Dart.  A  missile  spear  or  javelin  much  in  use 
among  the  ancients,  and  yet  seen  among  many  of  the 
more  barbai-ous  nations.  The  Caffres  of  South  Africa 
and  the  aboriginal  inhabitants  of  Au.stralia  are  very 
expert  in  the  use  of  the  as^gai.  The  darts  in  u.se 
among  the  ancients  were  of  two  kinds,  namely,  sjiear- 
headed  (that  is,  without  barbs),  or  bearded.  The 
former  were  often  attached  to  a  long  cord,  enabling 
the  thitiwer  to  recover  his  weapon  after  having 
thrown  it.  Dart-heads  aiv  usually  made  of  iron, 
but  among  savage  nations  flints,  sea-sliells,  fish- 
bones, and  other  hard  sub.stances,  have  been  em- 
ployed ;  and  among  some  of  the  aboriginal  inhabi- 
tants of  Africa  and  America  the  dart  was  merely  a 
shai-p-pointed  stick,  the  end  of  which  was  carbon- 
ized bv  fire.  The  weapon  "is  always  very  simple  in 
its  construction,  and  is  usually  from  3  to  5  feet  long. 
Dash.  1.  {Printing.)  A  short  line  ( — )  occur- 
ring in  a  sentence  to  mark  a  si,gnificant  pause  of 
more  moment  than  that  indicated  by  a  comma. 

Also  used  to  indicate  a  consecutive  series,  as, 
John  xiv.  1-8.     -Also  used  as  a  "ditto  "  mark. 

The  em-dash  is  the  length  of  the  "em"  of  its  font ; 
the  en-dash  one  half  the  former.  The  double-dash 
has  the  length  of  two  em's. 

2.    (fchicle.)     Foi-merly   splash-board.     A   boaixl 
or  fender  erected  on  the  forepart  of  the  bed,  and 
standing  in  front  of  the  driver.     A  d(t.ih-board. 
Dash-board.     1.  The  float  of  a  paddle-wheel. 
•2.   Th.-  j]>lash-l)oard  of  a  vehicle. 
Dash-pot.     A  contrivance  for  easing  the  fall  of 
a  weight.      The  falling-rod  is  connected  to  the  pis- 
ton, and  the  latter  plunges  into  the  water  contained 
in  the  cylinder.     See  Crr-OFF  (Fig.  1571). 

Dash-nile.  (Printing.)  A  rule  between  articles 
across  a  column  or  page,  and  shorter  than  the  width- 
measnre. 

Dash-wheel.  (Blrarhing.)  A  wheel  with  com- 
partment revolving  partially  in  a  cisteni,  to  wasli 


DASYMETER. 


678 


DEAD-BEAT  ESCAPEMENT. 


and  rinse  calico  in  the  piece,  by  alternately  dipjiiiig 
it  in  the  water  and  then  dashing  it  iVoni  side  to  side 
of  the  eonijiartniiMits  as  the  wheel  rotates. 

Da-sym'e-ter.  An  instrument  for  weighing  gases. 
It  consists  ol'  a  thin  glass  globe,  which  is  weighed  in 
the  gas  and  then  in  an  atnios]>here  of  known  density. 

Da'tum-line.  (En(jinccriii(j.)  The  ho)-izontal 
line  of  a  section  from  whicli  all  hights  and  depths 
are  calculated, 

Daub'iiig.  1.  (Cwrriiiiig.)  Or  dubbinff.  A  mix- 
ture of  lisli-oil  and  tallow  which  is  worked  into 
leather  after  the  hitter  has  been  shaved  by  the  knife 
at  the  currier's  beam. 

2.  (Ptaslcrinij.)  a.  A  rough  coat  of  mortar 
thrown  npon  a  wall,  and  supposed  to  give  it  the 
appearance  of  stone.     Rough-cast. 

b.  The  citinkinrj  or  closing  of  the  apertures  be- 
tween the  logs  of  a  cabin.  The  daubing  is  usually 
mud.  The  chimneys,  made  of  sticks,  are  also 
daubed  inside  and  out. 

Dav'it.  \yaiitical.)  a.  A  beam  projecting  from 
a  ship's  bow,  for  the  attachment  of  tlu^  tai'kle 
whereby  the  anchor-tiuke  is  lifted  without  dragging 
against  the  side  of  the  vessel.  The  operation  is 
termed ,^'«A?'H5r  the  anchor. 

b.  One  of  a  pair  of  cranes  on  the  gunwale  of  a 
ship,  from  which  are  suspended  the  quarter  or  other 


Fig.  1595. 


S/iip^s  Davit. 

boats.  The  boat-tackles  are  attached  to  rings  in  the 
bow  and  stern  of  the  boat  respectively,  and  the  fall 
is  belayed  on  deck.  AVhen  the  boat  is  lowered  the 
hooks  of  the  fall-blocks  are  cast  off  simultaneously, 
or  great  danger  results,  when 
the  ship  is  under  way.      See  fig-  159T. 

Boat-loweuin'gApi'Auatus, 
p.  :!14. 

Dav'it -fall  Hook.  A 
luiuk  having  a  means  for  in- 
stant unclutching  or  release, 
and  used  at  the  end  of  a 
davit-fall  toengage  a  ring-bolt 

Fig.  1596. 


Davit-Fall  Hook. 


Fall-Block  Honk. 


at  the  stem  or  .stern  of  a  boat.  .Sec  liuAi-iiKTAiinM; 
Appahatus  ;  Davit. 

In  Fig.  1.596,  the  luroked  ends  are  kept  together 
by  the  suspending-chain,  and  are  opened  by  their 
weighted  arms  as  the  boat  touches  the  water. 

In  Fig.  l.SyT,  the  hook  is  capsized  by  a  lever  and 
a  cord. 

Da'vy-lamp.  (.Mining.)  Tin;  .safety-lamp  of 
Sir  Humphry  Davy,  in  which  a  wire-gauze  en- 
velope covers  the  flame-cdiamber  and  prevents  the 
passage  of  Haine  outward  to  the  explosive  atmos- 
phere of  the  mine,  while  it  allows  circulation  of  air. 
See  Safety-lamp. 

Day.  The  light  of  a  window  in  a  bay  ;  the  dis- 
tanie  lict\vr(  11  nuillioiis. 

Day-lev'el.  (.!//« /«7.)  k\\  tulil,  ov  .lougli.  A 
drift  whose  outer  end  is  at  the  natural  surface,  open 
to  the  day. 

D-block.  {Nautical.)  A  block  bolted  to  the 
shiji's  .side  in  the  ehannels,  to  reeve  the  lifts  through. 

Dead.  1.  Liislrrlcss  ;  as  of  .some  kinds  of  unpol- 
ished or  unbunii.slied  metallic  surfaces.  Ma/t.  Also 
of  color  without  brilliancy,  nfntratl  color.    J>eslcmper. 

2.  Fa/,te  :  as  of  imitation  doors  and  windows,  ])ut 
in  as  arcliitectural  devices  to  balance  parts. 

3.  Motionks.i :  as  the  dead  spindle  of  a  lathe, 
which  does  not  rotate.  A  rfcr(rf-lock.  Ikad-ccnlcr 
of  a  crank. 

4.  Opaque;  as  a  rf««Might  or  shutter  over  a  cabin 
window. 

5.  Solid,  without  light  or  ojicniny  ;  as  a  dcud-irall,. 
a  dead-plate,  or  unperforated  portion  of  a  furnace- 
grate  ;  the  dead-wood  of  a  ship. 

6.  Useless;  as  dead  steam,  that  is,  exhausted. 
Dead-head,  a  fecdivfi-hcad  or  sullage-piece.  IJead- 
weighl.  Deads  in  mining,  the  useless  substances 
which  enclose  the  ore. 

7.  Soundless;  as  a.  dead-floor,  which  ab.sorbs  the 
sound. 

8.  Flat :  as  a  dead-smooth  file  ;  having  the  least 
possible  bight  of  teeth.      Dead-lerel. 

Dead-aii'gle.  ^ Fort iflcat ion.)  The  space  in  front 
of  a  parapet  which  is  out  of  view  of  the  soldiers  in 
the  work,  and  whicli  they  cannot  fire  upon. 

Dead-ax'le.  An  axle  which  run.s,  but  does  not 
comimiiiicate  motion,  as  distinguished  from  a  drio- 
«'n//-axle,  whicli  is  a  //rr-axlc. 

Dead-beat  Es-cape'ment.  This,  whi(  h  is  also 
known  as  the  r.^cajietnciit  of  repose,  was  invented  by 
Graliam  about  1700,  anil  was  intended  to  isolate  the 
going  works  mole  comjiletely  from  the  ]ieiidulum. 
The  seconds-hand  in  the  dead-beat  stands  still  after 
each  drop,  whereas  in  the  rccoil-cfcajinnrnl  there  is 
a  bncl'-lash  to  the  train . 

The  working  surfaces  of  the 
pallets  of  the  anchor  in  this 
escapement  are  curved  con- 
centrically with  the  axis  of 
oscillation  of  the  anchor. 
When  a  pallet  escajies  from 
one  tooth  and  allows  a  jiartial 
rotation  of  the  .sT(/;)r-wheel,  a 
tooth  on  the  opposite  side  is 
arrested  by  the  other  jiallet, 
but  without  giving  any  back- 
la.sh  to  the  wlieel,  which  would 
cause  a  recoil  to  the  train  of 
gearing. 

The  term  dead-beat  is  to 
contradistingui.sh  it  from  the 
rccoiZ-escapement  (see  Fig.  193),  in  whicli  the  work- 
ing faces  are  curved  eccentrically  in  relation  to  their 
a.xis  of  oscillation  so  as  to  olfer  a  slight  im]iedinient 
to   the   liiiitioii    of    the    wheel.      This    iiii]icdimpnt 


Dead-Bent  Escapement. 


DEAD-CENTER. 


679 


DEAD-STEAM. 


causes  a  slight  recoil  of  tlie  scapr-v:hccl ,  wliich  is 
communicated  to  the  train.  The  pallets  iu  the  rc- 
coi?-escapeuieut  are  both  check  and  hnpuJse,  but  in 
the  dcad-htat  one  is  sinijily  check  and  the  other  gives 
a  slight  Impulse  at  the  moment  of  escaping.  The 
impulse  given  to  the  pallet  is  communicated  to  the 
pendulum,  to  overcome  the  friction  on  the  jiendulum 
bearing  and  the  resistance  of  the  air,  and  thereby 
keep  the  beats  of  the  pendulum  isochronous.  The 
cyliiukr  or  horizontal  escapement  is  a  dead-beat  es- 
capement for  watches,  and  was  also  invented  by 
Graham. 

Dead-cen'ter.  One  of  the  two  points  in  the 
orbit  ul  a  .  r.uik  in  which  it  is  in  line  with  the  con- 
nectiii,r;-roil.      TIic  J  ad-point. 

Dead-col'or-ing.  {Painting.)  A  Hrst  layer  of 
color  forming  a  ba-sis  for  that  which  succeeds  it.  It 
is  called  dctd  because  it  has  no  gloss,  and  is  to  be 
hidilen  by  the  finishing  coats.      Vcstciapcr. 

Dead-door.  (Shipbuilding. )  One  fitted  in  ex- 
terior rabbets,  to  protect  a  cabin  window  or  cover 
an  opening  when  the  lights  are  carried  away. 

Dead'en-ing.  1.  (Carpentry.)  Packing  in  a 
floor,  ceiling,  or  wall,  to  prevent  conduction  of 
sound.  Such  provision  constitutes  it  a  dead-floor, 
or  dead-wall.     Puriglnij. 

2.  (Gilding.)  A  tliin  coat  of  glue,  slightly  warmed, 
smeared  over  a  surfiice  that  is  gilded  in  destemper, 
and  is  not  to  be  burnished. 

3.  Roughening  a  surface  to  diminish  the  glitter. 
Dead-eye.     (Nautieul.)     a.  A  block  without  a 

sheave,  probably  so  named  from  a  grotesque 
Fig.  loM9.  resemblance  to  a  death's-head  or  skull. 
Such  are  those  fiat,  round  blocks  li.\ed  in 
the  channels,  and  having  eyes  for  the  lanyards 
by  which  the  shrouds  are  set  up.  The  cir- 
cumferential groove  for  the  shroud  is  called 
the  -icore.  The  dead-eye  is  also  known  as  a 
ram-block. 

b.     The  croio-fcH  dxad-ojcs  are  cylinders 
with  a  number  of  lioles   for  the  lines  com- 
posing the  crow's-foot.    X  euphroc  or  ttcrotr. 
t      c.   The  eve-bolt  or  staple  on   the  gunwale 
of  a  canal-boat  to  which  the  towing-line  is 
bent.   The  line  is  retained  by  a  key  of  wood, 
which  passes  throngh  the  eye   and  is  cast 
loose  by  )iulling  nut  or  breaking  the  key. 
Dead-fall.     (Machlmry.)     1.   A    dump- 
'  ing-platform  at  the  mouth  of  a  mine. 

2.  A  trap  in  which  a  falling  gate,  board, 
or  log  drops  upon  the  game  and  kills  it. 
Used  especially  for  vermin. 

Dead-file.  One  whose  cuts  are  so  fine 
Dend-  '""1  close  that  its  operations  are  practically 
Eyt.     noi.seless.       See  De.id-SMOoTH  File. 

Dead-flat.     The  midship  bend  or  frame 
having  tile  greatest  breadth. 

Dead-flue.  One  which  is  bricked  up  at  bottom 
and  tlis  ■iiiitiiiued. 

Dead-gold.  Tlie  unburnished  sui-face  of  gold  or 
gold-leaf,  fiom  the  electro  bath  or  the  hands  of  the 
gilder.  Parts  of  objects  are  frequently  left  unbur- 
nished as  a  foil  to  the  Inilliant  and  lustrous  buniLslied 
portions.     Oilders  call  it  matt.     See  Gilding. 

Dead-ground.  (Mining.)  X  body  of  non- 
metalliferous  rock  dividing  a  vein,  which  passes  on 
each  side  of  it.  The  vein  is  said  to  take  horse,  in 
allusion  to  its  straddling  the  intervening  rock. 

Dead-head.  1.  (Ordnance.)  An  extra  length 
of  metal  cast  on  the  umzzle  end  of  a  gun  in  order  to 
contain  the  dross  and  porous  metal  wiiich  floats  on 
the  sounder  metal  beneath.  When  cooled  and  solid 
the  dead-hciiil  is  cut  oH'. 

2.    (Founding.)  That  piece  on  a  casting  which  fills 


'  the  ingate  at  which  the  metal  entered  the  mold.      A 
\fcediny-hc(id  or  s\dlage-plrce. 

'  3.  {Lathe.)  The  tail-stock  of  a  lathe  containing  the 
dead-Kplndle  and  bnck-cenler ;  in  contradistinction 
to  the  lire-licad  or  head-stuck  at  the  other  end  of  the 
sheers,  which  contains  the  live-spindle. 

4.  (X'autical. )  A  block  of  wood  used  as  an  anchor- 
buoy. 

Dead'ing.  (Steam-engine.)  The  clothing  or 
jacket  around  a  steam  boiler  or  cylinder  to  prevent 
radiation  of  heat.       Vhading  ;  logglnij. 

Dead-latch.  A  kind  of  latch  whose  liolt  may 
be  so  locked  by  a  detent  that  it  cannot  be  oiieiied 
from  the  inside  by  the  handle  or  from  the  outside  by 
the  latch-key.  The  detent  is  usually  capable  of 
locking  the  bolt  in  or  out,  so  that  the  device  tonus 
a  latch,  a  dead-lock,  or  is  made  inoperative,  as  de- 
sired. 

Dead-let'ter.  {Prinling.)  Type  which  has  been 
used  for  printing,  and  is  ready  for  distribution. 
Dead  matter. 

Dead-light.  {X'autical.)  A  shutter  placed  over 
a  cabin  window  in  .stoixuy  weather,  to  defend  the 
glass  against  the  blows  of  the  waves. 

Dead-lock.  (Lvcksindhlng.)  A  lock  operated 
on  one  side  by  a  handle  and  on  the  other  side  by  a 
key. 

bead  Met'al.  Metal,  such  as  gold  or  silver,  left 
with  dead  or  lusterless,  that  is,  unburnished  or 
unpolished,  surface.      Matt. 

IJead-plate.  {Furnace.)  An  ungrated  portion 
of  a  furnace  floor,  on  which  coal  is  coked  previously 
to  [lushing  into  the  fire  above  the  grates.  It  was 
introduced  by  Watt  in  his  patent  of  1785. 

Dead-point.  One  of  the  points  at  which  the 
crank  a.ssunies  a  position  in  line  with  the  pitman  or 
the  rod  wlach  im]iels  it.  In  steam-engines  with 
vertical  cylinders,  the  dead-points  are  the  highest 
and  lowest  ]iositions  of  the  crank.      A  dead-center. 

Dead-ris'ing.  The  portion  of  the  ship's  bottom 
foriiud  liy  the  floor  timbers. 

Deads.  (Mining.)  Kon-metalliferous  rock  ex- 
cavated around  a  vein  or  in  forming  drifts,  levels, 
shafts,  cross-coiu'ses,  etc.  Jfany  veins  are  too  nar- 
row for  working,  and  the  walls  have  then  to  be  cut 
into  to  aflbrd  space.  Such  work,  as  yielding  nothing, 
is  called  ckad-u-ork  or  tut-u'urk,  and  the  proceeds  are 
d^ads  or  attic,  to  lie  got  rid  of  as  economically  as 
possible,  by  sending  uji  to  the  surface,  or  filling  up 
the  gunnies  ami  goafs  of  old  workings. 

Dead-sheave.  {Xautlcal.)  A  scored  channel 
for  the  1  nil  (if  a  rope  ;  destitute  of  a  .sheave. 

Dead-shore.  A  timber  strat  worked  up  in  brick- 
work to  sup]iort  a  superincumbent  ma.ss,  till  the 
brick-work  which  is  to  cany  it  has  set  or  become 
haril. 

Dead-smooth  File.  A  fUe  whose  teeth  are  of 
the  finest  and  closest  quality.  The  grades  are  as 
follows  :  — 


Rough. 

lliddle-cut. 

Bastard. 


Second-cut. 
Smooth. 
Dead -smooth. 


The  number  of  the  teeth  to  the  inch  of  a  dead- 
smooth  file  varies  with  its  length  in  inches. 

Inches    .4  6  8  12         16         20 

Cuts        .     216         144         112         88         76         64 

The  angle  of  the  chisel  in  cutting  is  about  4°  from 
the  ]ierpendicular. 

Dead-spin'dle.  (Lathe.)  The  non -rotating  spin- 
dle in  tic-  idil-sfofk  or  dead-head  of  a  lathe. 

Dead-steam.  Steam  destitute  of  energy,  in- 
active from  want  of  heat,  from  having  attained  it.s 


DEAD-STltUKE  HAMMEK. 


080 


DEBUSCOl'E. 


ultiniatf  ex)Miisioii,  or  from   being  so   i)laced  as  to 
Iiave  no  i*Hf<-ti\'L'  value  in  any  given  case. 
Dead-stroke    Ham'mer.      A     iiower-hanimev 

wliich  delivers  its 
fig.  1600  blow       without 

Ijeing  aH'eeteJ  by 
tlie  recoil  of  the 
shaft  on  which 
the  lam  or  ham- 
mer is  stocked. 
The  frame  ^4  lias 
a  crank-wheel  C 
connected  by  a 
rod  D  to  the 
s[ning  E,  from 
which  the  ham- 
mer is  suspended. 
The  latter  moves 
in  guides  F. 

bead-wrall. 
A  wall  unrelieved 
by  windows  or 
other  ojienings. 

Dead-Tveight. 
The  weight  of  the 
vehiile  of  any 
kind  ;  that  which 
must  be  trans- 
ported in  addition 
to  the  load.  The 
extent  of  dead- 
weight in  railway  traffic  may  be  judgi'd  from  tlie 
following  estimate :  — 


Dead-Stroke  Hammer. 


Weight  of  locomotive  and  teniler 
One  baggage-car     . 
Three  s6-seat  passenger-cars 
One  sleeping-car     . 


Pounds. 
104,000 
•25,000 
84,000 
40,000 

253,000 


These  cai's,  if  filled,  will  cany  about  194  passen- 
gers, which  will  give  1,304  ]iounils  of  deail-weight 
for  each  person  carried. 

Dead-^vell.  A  well  dug  through  a  stratum  im- 
pervious lo  water  and  penetrating  a  porous  strata  ; 
nsed  to  allow'  surface-water  to  pass  away,  or  to  carry 
oil'  l)y  infiltration  refuse  water  of  factories,  dye- 
liousi-s.  etc.     An  dbsorbliui-vi'U.     See  Di:.\IN'-\viaL. 

Dead-Tvood.  (Sliipbiii/tliur/.)  Tla^  solid  mass 
of  liuilt-up  tinibeis  at  the  nairow  jiortions  of  the 
extremities  of  a  sliip's  frame,  fore  and  aft,  above  the 
keel,  and  continued  as  high  as  the  cutfing-down- 
liiw.  In  arctic  vessels  the  dc(td-wood  is  in  unusual 
cjuantity,  to  give  solidity  to  a  structure  liable  to  con- 
tact with  iee-Hoes  and  drifts. 

Dead-'works.  The  paits  of  a  vessel  abo\'e  the 
load  water-line. 

Deal.  A  plank  12  feet  long,  11  inches  wide,  and 
2^  inches  thick.  Deals  are  sawed  of  other  sizes,  but 
are  reduced  to  that  cubic  dimension  in  computing 
them. 

Practice  may  differ  in  different  countiies.  The 
above  is  the  Ottawa  rule.  In  Englaml,  lumber  not 
exeeeiling  3  inches  in  thickness  and  fl  inches  wide. 

Deal-frame.  A  ijniuj-sitic  for  slitting  deals  or 
balks  of  pine-timber. 

The  illustration  .shows  the  English  form  of  the 
machine,  which  has  two  separate  saw-gates  a  n, 
worked  from  dianu'trically  o]i]>ositi^  cranks  on  one 
sliaft  h.  The  feed  is  eontinuous,  ami  the  rate  of 
advance  adjustable  from  18  inelies  to  72  inches  per 
minute.  The  feed-motion  is  by  a  friction-disk  c, 
rod  h,  worm  c,  and  wheel/,  and  the  rate  is  adjusted 


Fig.  1601. 


Dial-Frnnu:. 

by  a  lever  wliich  raises  or  lowers  the  friction-wheel  d 
on  the  disk. 

Dean.     (Mining.)     The  end  of  a  level  or  gallery. 

Dear'born.  A  light  four-wlieeled  family  car- 
riage of  moderate  [iretensions  and  mimed  after  the 
designer. 

De-bage'.  {Fabric.)  A  dress-goods  like  aljiaca, 
having  a  cotton  w-ar)i  and  a  woolen  filling,  which 
is  dyed  in  the  wool  and  mixed  in  the  thread. 

De-blai'.  (For/ifienfion.)  The  excavated  earth 
wldcb  forms  the  rcmhlui  m  elevated  work. 

De-bran'iiing-ma-chine'.  A  machine  or  i)ro- 
cess  for  decorticating  grain.  It  is  accomplished  by 
steaming  and  rubbing,  by  a  partial  grinding,  or  by 
a  process  equivalent  to  rasping.   See  Dki'iiutic^tok. 

De'bus-cope.  .\  modification  of  the  kaleido- 
sct)[ie,    in\'eiited    by    M.  Didius,    a    Fri'Uch    optician. 


DECAt'HORDOX. 


681 


DECK-LUmX. 


It  cousists  of  two  highly  iiolished  silvered  plates,  set 
at  au  augle  of  70^  with  each  other.  Wheu  [ilaced  be- 
fore a  picture  or  design,  an  iissemblage  of  flower 
petals,  or  other  small  colored  objects,  beautiful  de- 
signs are  formed  by  their  reflected  images.  The  in- 
strument is  held  stationary  while  these  are  copied, 
and  by  successively  moWng  it  over  the  object,  dif- 
ferent combinations  of  figures  are  shown,  which  may 
be  added  to  the  fii-st.  It  is  particularly  iutemled 
for  the  use  of  draftsmen  who  are  required  to  design 
ornamental  patterns  for  fabrics. 

Dec'a-chord'on.  Au  ancient  form  of  harp 
ha\'ing  ten  strings. 

De-cau-ta'tion.  The  pouring  of  a  clear  liquid 
from  the  sediment.  In  starch-making  and  operations 
on  a  similar  scale  it  is  performed  by  siphons. 

De-cair'bon-izing-fur'nace.  A  furnace  in 
wluch  superrtiiuus  carbon  is  limned  out  of  a  metal. 
The  term  is  u  very  general  one,  and  may  include  the 
boiling  and  puddling  furnaces  in  which  cast-iron  is 
heated  to  make  the  metal  malleable. 

Fig.  1602  shows  a  decarbonizing  and  ilesulphuriz- 
ing  funiace  in  which  the  air  from  the  blast-wheel  is 
conducted  by  chamber  A  and  tuyeres  £  to  the  fuel- 
chamber,  whence  the  flame  proceeds  to  the  dome  A', 

Fig.  1602. 


Decarbonizing  and  Desulphurizing  Furnace. 

and  acts  upon  the  pig-iron  F,  which  is  pileil  upon 
the  hearth  E.  As  tlie  iron  melts  it  runs  through 
the  throat  G,  and  falls  down  the  shaft  K,  upon  the 
platform  H,  where  it  rebounds  in  fine  ]iarticles,  and 
is  exposed  to  the  air  from  the  blast-jiipe  L  and  its 
tuyeres,  collecting  in  the  hearth  /.  A'  is  the  char- 
ging-hole  ;  .1/,  damper  ;  J,  exit-flue. 

Deck.  {Shipbuililhig.)  A  floor  in  a  .ship  above 
the  bottom  of  the  hold.  Boats  have  no  permanent 
decks,  but  are  sometimes  temporarily  covered  with 
a  previ-iitcr-decl: 

The  deck  is  said  to  liave  bei-n  a  Tluisiau  invention  ; 
first,  as  a  protection  to  tin'  rowers  bem-ath.  In  its 
primary  form  it  was  a  scaft'old,  one  at  the  i)row  and 
another  at  the  stern,  for  the  combatants. 

Decks  may  riui  from  stem  to  stern,  oi'  be  but  par- 


tial.  Some  fishiug-ciaft  have  a  partial  deck  fonuing 
a  cuddy. 

Vessels  are  classed,  for  some  purposes,  by  the  num- 
ber of  their  decks  ;  as,  single-decked,  tu:o-decked, 
thrce-dccl'cd. 

In  thi-ee-decked  ships  the  decks  above  the  water- 
line  are  known  as  the  upper  or  spar,  main.  Middle, 
gun  or  lower  deck.  In  two-decked  ships,  the  upper 
or  spar,  m/iiii,  and  gua  deck. 

In  frig-ates  and  merchant- vessels,  the  upper  and 
main  decks. 

The  deck  next  below  the  water-line  is  the  orlop- 
deck  in  two  or  three  deckers,  but  is  known  as  the 
lower  deck  in  vessels  of  the  lower  grades.  The  after- 
part  of  the  orlop-deck  is  the  cock'-pit. 

A  passage  round  the  orlop-deck,  to  get  at  the  ship's 
side  for  repairs  during  action,  is  called  the  wing- 
passage.  On  this  deck  are  the  cabins  and  berths  of 
officers  and  men. 

A  complete  deck  over  the  main-deck  is  tlie  spar 
or  Jluslt  deck. 

The  foreeastlc  is  the  foremost  part,  and  the  quarter- 
deck the  aftermost  part,  of  the  s^jar-deck  ;  the  wakl 
is  the  space  amidships. 

A  small  deck  at  the  after  end  is  the  poop  or  round- 
lutxise,  and  usually  extends  to  the  mizzen.  Above  it 
is  the  poop-deck. 

A  similar  deck  at  the  forward  end  is  called  the 
topgallaut-foreccistle. 

A  ti'ansverse  deck  e.xtending  across  the  middle  of 
the  vessel  is  called  a  harricane-deck ,  bridge-deck,  or 
bridge.  It  is  common  in  steam -vessels,  covering 
the  space  between  the  jtaddle-ltoxes. 

Detached  buildings  on  a  deck  are  deek-houses. 
The  opeiungs  in  a  deck  are  ladxlcr-ways  or  hadch- 
wat/s.     '  Ticeen-deeks  is  the  space  below  the  spar-deck. 
The  former  is  by  a  hood  or  covering  called  a  com- 
panion.    The  coverings  of  a  halehmn/  are  halches. 

The  raised  ledges  around  the  hatcliway  are  coam- 
ings in  the  fore  and  aft  direction  ;  liead-lcdgcs  in  the 
parts  athwartships. 

Glasses  inserted  in  holes  made  in  a  deck  are 
calleil  dcck-l ights,  and  serve  to  light  cabins  below. 

Deck-bridge.  1.  One  in  which  the  track  oc- 
cupies the  upiier  stringer,  as  distinguished  from  one 
in  which  the  track,  whether  for  cars  or  carriages, 
rests  on  the  lower  stiinger  and  tonus  a  through 
bridge. 

2.  A  platform  connecting  the  paddle-boxes  of  a 
side-wheel  steamer,  or  above  and  across  the  deck 
amidships  of  a  propeller. 

Deck'el.  (Paper-making.)  A  curb,  which  by 
confinii}g  the  pulp  determines  the  width  of  the  sheet 
or  roll  of  paper.  In  hand-machines  it  is  a  loose 
rectangular  frame  of  wood. 

In  macliine  work  it  is  continuous  ;  usually  of 
linen  and  lamitchouc  along  the  two  margins  of  the 
apron.  The  uncut  edge  of  paper  is  known  as  the 
deckel  edge. 

Deck-feed  Pump.  {Xaulical.)  .\  hand-pump 
useil  for  washing  decks,  feeding  the  boiler,  etc. 

Deck-hook.  (Shipbtiilding.)  A  thwartship- 
franie  crossing  the  apron  in  a  nearly  horizontal  posi- 
tion, to  strengthen  the  bow  and  support  the  forward 
end  of  the  deck.     See  .Stem. 

Deck-light.  A  bull's-eye  or  thick  glass  w  indow 
let  into  au  upper  deck  to  light  a  cabin  or  stateroom. 
SiVfc-lights  are  made  in  a  sinnlar  manner,  and  light 
the  staterooms  through  windows  in  the  side  of  the 
vessel. 

A  has  a  bull's-eye  g  and  a  screw-ring  which  is 
forced  into  an  elastic  packing  in  the  face  of  the  glass, 
whose  frame  is  rotated  by  rack  /  as  it  moves  to  and 
from  the  opening. 


DECK-JfAII,. 


682 


DEEP-WELL  I'IJM1>. 


Fig.  1803 


■iS^ 


J^^t 


Deck  and  Side  Lights. 

B,  a  light  c  is  lielil  in  a  frame  b,  which  is  secured 
to  tlie  post  by  screws  g. 

C  has  a  light  c  in  a  bashing  b,  secured  in  the  post- 
frame  d. 

D  has  a  frame  B  hinged  to  frame  A,  and  secured 
jy  a  screw. 

In  E  the  light  frame  a  is  secured  to  h  by  hinges 
and  a  swinging  arm  c. 

F  \^  sccnicd  in  a  somewhat  similar  manner. 

Deck-nail.  A  diamond-shaped  spike  for  nailing 
down  the  drrU-planks. 

Deck-plate.  (Sleam-ctuiinc.)  A  plate  around 
the  i.-himni'y  of  a  marine-engine  fnrnace,  to  keep 
tlie  sane-  tioin  ccintaet  with  the  wood  of  the  deck. 

Deck-stop'per.  A  cable-stopper  on  deck,  to 
secure  tlie  calilc  forward  of  the  windlass  while  it  is 
being  ovirhauli'd  ;  or  one  abaft  the  bitts  to  keep 
mori'  c^iiilc  IVom  running  out. 

Deck-tran'som.  {Shij/bai/dinr/.}  A  horizontal 
tinitier  \nidrr  a  ship's  counter. 

Decli-na'tion.  {Ooinpass.)  The  horizontal  angle 
wliic  h  a  needle  makes  with  the  meridian.  Varia- 
lliiii. 

Dec'li-ua'tor.  An  instrument  used  in  dialing, 
for  taking  tlie  declination  and  inclination  of  a  jilane. 

De-clin'ing-di'al.  One  which  cuts  either  the 
plane  of  the  prime  vertical  circle  or  plane  of  the 
horizon  obliquely. 

Decli-nom'e-ter.  An  apparatus  for  measuring 
the  de.linaticin  nf  tin'  magnetic  needle  ;  its  variation 
iVoiii  tlie  true  meridian. 

De-coc'tion.  An  aipieons  solution  of  the  active 
priiiei]iles  uf  any  sulistance,  obtained  by  boiling. 

De-clor-im'e-ter.  A  measurer  of  the  effects  of 
bleaeliiiig-iiuwder. 

An  instrument  to  test  the  power  of  charcoal  in  its 
divided  state  in  decolorizing  solutions.  It  is  a 
graduated  tube  charged  with  a  test  solution  of  indigo 
or  liiolilsses, 

De-col'or-ing-style.  A  method  of  calico-print- 
ing in  wliicli  the  piece  of  goods  is  colored,  and  a 
part  of  it  —  forming  a  given  pattern  —  is  snbse- 
ipiently  discharged.  Also  known  as  the  (/isehiiiyc- 
sti//c.  It  may  be  done  by  printing  a  dyed  ])iei'e 
with  something  which  cancels  a  portion  of  the  color, 
or  by  ]irinting  an  uncolored  piece  with  a  substance 
which   keejis    the    color    from    penetrating    certain 


parts.  This  is  called  the  rcsisl-stijlc.  V>\  printing 
certain  parts  with  a  mordant,  then  coloring,  a  sub- 
sequent washing  may  remove  all  trace  of  dye 
except  at  the  mordanted  parts.  See  Calico-PHINT- 
INO. 

De-cor'ti-ca'tor.  A  process  or  a  machine  for 
removing  tlie  hull  from  grain.  In  the  hominy-mill 
the  fibrous  envelope  is  taken  from  the  corn,  which 
may  be  left  nearly  intact  otherwise,  if  desired.  The 
process  is  sometimes  perfbrnicd  by  a  preliminary 
steaming,  followed  by  rubbing  or  ras]iing.  Decorti- 
cating was  practiced  by  the  Kumans,  the  whole  grain 
being  pounded  in  mortars  with  scime  abradant  which 
rasped  off  the  cuticle  or  bran.  Jlills  for  decorticat- 
ing are  known  in  England  as  barley-mills,  that  grain 
being  principally  used  as  liuninn  food  in  the  condi- 
tion known  as  jKarl  barley.  The  barley-mill  has  a 
roughened  exterior,  and  revolves  in  a  wooden  casing. 
The  middle  portion  of  the  latter  is  lined  with  sheet- 
iron  pierced  like  a  grater  with  holes,  the  .sliarp  edges 
of  which  turn  upward.  In  Germany  grain  is  decor- 
ticated between  stones  set  at  such  a  distance  apart 
as  to  rasp  the  bran  ofl'  the  giain  without  mashing 
the  latter. 

Com  is  sometimes  decorticated  by  stee]iing  in  lye 
of  wood  ashes.  The  v'hoU  hominy  thus  obtained  is 
then  repeatedly  washed  to  extrieute  the  potash. 

A  Prussian  process  is  a  modilication  of  the  cen- 
trifugal machine,  in  which  the  bran  is  removed  by 
friction  of  its  kernels  irrespective  of  any  artificially 
prepared  abrading  surfaces.  A  vertical  casing  has  a 
number  of  horizontal  annular  shelves,  arranged  con- 
centrically with  an  internal  cylindrical  dnim.  This 
latter  has  radial  vanes,  which  sweep  in  the  spaces 
between  the  shelves.  A  portion  of'  the  easing  is 
made  of  sheet-metal,  and  perforated  in  such  manner 
that  currents  of  air,  induced  in  the  oiieration  of  the 
machine,  pa.ss  out  from  the  casing  and  thence  into 
a  dust  or  bran  chamber,  and  cairy  with  them  the 
dust  and  bran  as  fast  as  they  are  liberated  from  the 
grain.  The  grain  being  placed  upon  the  shelves, 
the  rotation  of  the  drum  causes  its  vanes  to  carry  the 
grain  around  at  the  rate  of  about  three  thousand  feet 
jier  minute.  The  time  rei|uired  to  wholly  remove 
the  u.seless  envelopes  from  the  kernels  is  very  short, 
only  from  three  to  four  minutes,  and  by  ventilating- 
passages  any  undnc  heating  is  ]irevented. 

De'cus-so'ri-um.  An  instrument  for  depressing 
the  dura  mater  after  trephining.  — TnuM.\s. 

Deeps.  (Ncnitiml.)  The  estimated  fathoms  be- 
tween the  marks  on  the  hand  lead-line.  See  Maiik.s 
ANli  Dkeps. 

Deep-sea  Line.     {Nautical.)     a.  A  water-laid 
line   of  200   fathoms,    and   used   with   a  28-pound 
weight  in   sounding.     It  is  usually  marked  as  fol- 
lows in  the  Biitish  service :  — 
2  and  3  fathoms,  black  leather. 
5  fathoms,  white  bunting. 
7         "         red  bunting. 

10         "         leather  with  a  perforation. 

1.3  "         black  leather. 

15         "         white  bunting. 

17         "         red  bunting. 

20         "         two  knots. 

30         "         three  knots. 

40         "         four  knots,  etc. 

A  single  knot  marks  the  intermediate  five  fathoms 
over  twenty  fathoms. 

b.   A  line  for  deep-sea  fishing.     A  corf-line. 

Deep-Twell  Pump.  A  pump  specifically  adapted 
foi'  nil  and  brine  wells  which  are  boretl  of  small 
diameters  and  to  great  depths.  From  the  necessities 
of  the  case,  tlie  working  parts  must  be  contained 
within  a  single  tube,  wliicli  has   the  lower   valves 


DEFECATOR. 


683 


DELIVERY-ROLLER. 


■  1604.  and  generally  a  strainer  at  the  foot.  Such 
'~'  wells  are  sometimes  800  feet  deep  ;  the 
tube  is  in  seetions  united  liy  serew-eoup- 
lings  ;  the  lower  end  has  tiie  foot-valve  .ff  ; 
the  valved  bucket  C  is  on  tlie  end  of  the 
long  rod  D,  by  whieh  tlie  linuid  is  lifted, 

Def'e-ca'tor.  {Suyitr-manufadure.)  An 
apjiaratus  tor  the  removal  from  a  saccharine 
liq^uid  of  the  immature  and  feculent  mat- 


Fig  1605. 


'-^r 


Dff'cator. 

ters  which  would  impair  the  con- 
centrated result. 

The  jians  are  arranged  in  rows 
in  the  sugar-house  and  heateil  liy  steam- 
jackets.  Tlu'ir  use  is  to  clarify  the  juice 
from  the  mill  or  the  partially  concentrated 
syrup  from  the  first  vacuum-pan,  the 
acidity  in  the  liquid  being  neutralized  by 
a  portion  of  lime.  A  frothy  scum  rises  to 
the  surface,  which  increases  as  the  liquid 
is  kept  in  a  simmering  condition.  In  the 
illustration,  /  is  the  defecator.  The  juice 
is  received  through  a  pipe  from  the  reser- 
voir e,  steam  from  the  boilers  being  ad- 
mitted by  the  tube  (/.  The  scum  having 
attaineil  a  considerable  solidity,  the  liquid 
IS  withdrawn  by  turning  the  luiudle  m'  of 
Deep-Well  ''^''  f'i'"'"<'fi  allowing  the  liquid  to  pass  by 
Pump,  the  pi]>e  iii  m  to  the  trough,  which  conducts 
the  clarified  juice  to  another  reservoir  or 
to  the  filters. 

In  other  forms,  the  juice  is  exposed  in  a  shower 
to  the  fumes  of  sulphurous  acid  gas,  which  tends  to 
arrest  the  fermentation  incident  to  the  presence  of 
nitrogeneous  matters  in  tlie  juice.  Defecators  for 
sorghum  partake  of  the  character  of  filters,  the 
action  being  principally  mechanical  in  arresting  the 
Hoatiug  matters  that  render  the  liquid  turbid. 

De-file'ment.  (Fortification.)  The  arrangement 
of  a  fortifii'.ation  in  regard  to  'the  hight  of  its 
parapet  and  direction  of  its  faces,  so  as  to  secure  it 
from  an  enfilading  or  reverse  fire. 

Def  la-gra'tion.  The  sud- 
Fig.  1606.  deu    combustion    of    a    sub- 

stance for  the  purpose  of 
producing  some  change  in  its 
composition  by  the  joint 
action  of  heat  and  oxygen. 
It  is  usiuilly  performed  by 
projecting  in  a  red-hot 
crucible,  in  small  portions  at 
a  time,  a  mixture  of  about 
equal  parts  of  the  body  to  be 
oxidized,  and  nitrate  or 
chlorate  of  potash  or  other 
energetic  oxydizer. 

Def'la-gra'tor.      An    in- 
.■itrnment    for   producing    in- 
tense heat.     It  is  generally  a 
Deflasrator.  form  of  the  voltaic  battery. 


Such  was  used  by  Davy  in  1807-8,  when  he  de- 
composed soda,  potash,  borax,  and  lime. 

In  the  form  invented  by  Dr.  Hare  of  Philadelphia, 
it  is  composed  of  a  single  sheet  each  of  copjier  and 
zinc  rolled  helically  upon  a  central  cylinder  of  wood. 
The  two  metals  are  prevented  from  touching  each 
other  by  intervening  pieces  of  cloth  or  twine.  It  is 
dipped  in  a  tub  of  acidulated  water,  and  derives  its 
name  from  its  poweiful  heating  effects. 

De'flec-tom'e-ter.  An  instrument  for  measur- 
ing the  deflection  of  a  rail  by  a  weight  in  rapid  mo- 
tion. 

De-flect'or.  A  plate,  diaphragm,  or  cone  in  a 
lamp,  furnace,  or  stove,  to  bring  the  flame  and  gases 
into  intimate  contact  and  improve  the  combustion. 

Deg'ging-ma-chine'.  (Cotton.)  One  for  damp- 
ing the  t'al.iric  in  the  ])rocess  of  calendering. 

IJek'le.  A  curb  which  determines  the  margin  of 
the  sheet  of  pulp  in  hand-made  paper. 

A  strip,  sometimes  of  caoutidiouc,  lying  on  the 
edge  of  the  traveling  cloth  in  a  Fourdrinier  machine, 
ami  forming  the  edge  of  the  sheet.      A  deckle. 

De-laine'.  (Fabric.)  A  lady's  dre.ss-goods  with 
a  cotton  chain,  woolen  filling,  untwilled.  It  is  dyed, 
figured  in  the  loom,  or  printed. 

All-wool  delaines  are  similar,  excepting  that  the 
chain  is  of  wool. 

"  The  Gauls  have  a  coarse,  long-wooled  sheep,  from 
which  they  weave  the  thick  saga  called  laities." 

De'le.  (Priiitinc/.)  The  expunging  term  of  the 
proof- reader,  marked  on  the  margin. 

Delft-blue.  {Calico-jiri/Uing.)  .\  mode  of  print- 
ing, also  known  as  China  blue.  See  Calico-print- 
ing. 

Delft-vrare.  A  kind  of  pottery  originally  man- 
ufactured at  Delft,  in  Holland,  in  the  fourteenth 
century.  It  is  now  consiilcrcd  coarse,  but  was  among 
the  best  of  its  day,  being  considered  equal  to  the 
Italian  in  (juality,  but  somewhat  inferior  in  its  orna- 
mentation. 

The  glaze  of  the  Delft-ware  is  made  as  follows  : 
Kelp  and  AVoolwich  sand  are  calcined  together,  to 
form  a  vitreous  mass  called  frit.  Lead  anil  tin  are 
calcined  to  form  a  gray,  jiowtlery  oxide.  Tlu'  frit  is 
jiowdered  and  mixed  with  the  oxide,  zaH're  being 
added  to  confer  blue  color,  aisenic  for  dead-white. 
This  is  fused,  making  an  opaque  enamel  ;  grouml 
and  mixed  to  the  consistence  of  cream. 

Delft-ware  is  made  of  a  calcareous  clay  of  varying 
color,  which  is  ground  in  water,  strained,  and 
evaporated  to  a  plastic  consistence  ;  it  is  then  tem- 
pered, and  stored  in  cellars  to  ripen.  Prolonged 
storage  increases  its  tenacity  and  plasticity.  It  is 
then  kneaded,  without  sand  ;  formed  on  the  wheel, 
diied,  and  jiartially  burned,  reaching  the  biscuit 
condition.  The  bilmlous  ware  is  then  glazed,  dried, 
packed  in  saggars,  which  are  piled  in  the  kiln  and 
baked. 

De-lin'e-a'tor.  1.  (Tnilnring.)  A  pattern  formed 
by  rule  ;  being  expansible  in  the  dii'cctions  where 
the  sizes  vary,  as  indicated  by  the  varying  lengths 
obtained  by  measurement. 

2.  (Surveying.)  A  perambulator,  or  geodetical 
instrument  on  wheels,  with  registering  devices  for 
recording  distances  between  ]ioints ;  a  pendulum 
arrangement  by  which  a  profile  line  is  inscribed  on 
a  traveling  strip  :  and  certain  other  data,  according 
to  construction. 

De-liv'er-ing-roU.    See  Delivery-roller. 

De-liv'e-ry.  {Founding.)  The  draft  or  allow- 
ance l)y  which  a  pattern  is  made  to  free  itself  from 
closi'  lateral  contact  with  the  sand  of  the  mold  as  it 
is  lifted,      .\l.so  called  draw-toper. 

De-liv'er-y-roll'er.    That   roller  in  a  carding. 


DKLIVERY-VALVE. 


684 


DENDROMETEK. 


Dem'i-cir'cle. 

and  iiKlicutiuf!  aiij 


An 
le 


paper,  culcndcriiKj,  or  other  niacliine,  which  coniUu'ts 
the  olijeet  finally  IVoni  tlie  ojieiative  jiortions  of  the 
aiipiuatiis, 

De-liv'er-y-valve.  Tliat  valve  tluough  wliich 
the  disc-haige  of  a  jmnipeil  Huid  occurs,  as  the  upper 
valve  of  the  air-puni[i  in  the  condensing  steam-en- 
gine, through  which  water  is  lifted  into  the  hot-well. 
Delph.  {/{i/ilmulic  Enyineering.)  The  drain  on 
the  land  side  of  a  sea  embankment.  It  should  be 
at  suiheieut  distance  not  to  encourage  the  percolation 
of  water  from  the  outside  of  the  bank,  or  the  slip- 
ping of  the  bank  from  outside  jiressure.  Thirty-six 
feet  from  the  foot  of  the  liank,  12  feet  \vi<lth  at 
top,  li  fei-t  at  bottom,  and  a  depth  of  4  or  5  feet,  are 
appioved  pniportionute  dimensions. 

De  Luc's  Col'umn.  A  dry  galvanic  pile  made 
by  alternating  plates  or  sheets,  such  as  silver,  zinc, 
and  paper. 

Dem'i-bas'tion.  (Forlificatiun.)  A  single  face 
and  tlank,  resembling  the  half  of  a  bastion. 

Dem'i-can'non.  An  old  33-pounder  of  84  inclies 
bore  and  a  length  of  10  or  12  feet.  "  What's  this  ? 
a  sleeve  '  'tis  like  a  denii-cannon." — Petruohio. 

Dem'i-cap'on-niere.  {Forlification.)  A  con- 
struction across  the  ditch  having  but  one  parapet 
and  glacis. 

instrument    for   measuring 
It   resembles  a   protractor, 
ami  has  sights  at  each 
Fig.  1607.  end    of    its    diameter, 

a  also  sights  at  each  end 

of  a  rule  or  alidade 
fg,  which  has  an  axis 
at  c  over  the  center  of 
the  circle,  so  as  to 
sweep  the  graduate<I 
arc  cad.  A  given 
object  being  observed 
from  a  station,  through 
the  sights  c  d,  the 
alidade  is  adjusteil  so 
that  the  othei-  object 
is  ohservalile  through 
the  sights  on  / ;/.  The 
point  of  the  rule  then 
indicates  the  angle. 
In  the  miildle  of  the  instrument  is  a  I'ompass  to  show 
the  magnetic  bearings. 

By  proviiling  the  instrument  with  t(descopes,  a 
considei-able  deorce  of  accuracy  may  be  attained,  and 
more  distant  points  conveniently  observed. 

It  is  a  moilest  substitute  for  the  tlieodolite.  The 
plane  of  the  instrument  is  placed  hm-izontally  for 
takiug  rlist^inccs,  and  vertically  for  hights. 

Dem'i-cul'ver-in.  An  old  y-pounder,  with  4- 
inch  lion-  and  a  length  of  9  feet. 

Dem'i-gorge.  [FoHlfiaUion.)  The  line  formed 
by  the  lauliiugution  of  the  curtain  to  the  center  of  a 
l>.istinn. 

Dem'i-lune.  [Fortification.)  An  outwork  of  the 
Harare  ul'  a  ra\'eliu. 

Dein'i-par'al-Iel.     {Fortification.)     Shorter  en- 
trenchments thrown  up  between  the  main  parallels 
of  attack,  for  the  protection  of  guards  of  the  trenches. 
Dem'i-re-lief.     Ov  demi-rilievo.     A   term   a]i- 
plied  to  sculpture    projecting   moderately  from  the 
face  of  a  wall ;  half  raised,  as  if  cut  in  two,  and  half 
only  fixed  to  the  plane.      Mezzo-rilie.vo.     A  degree 
between  aito  and  basso  rilievo. 
Dem'i-ri'li-e'vo.     See  Dkmi-rei.ief. 
Demi-re-vet'ment.     (Fortification.)    A  retain- 
ing wall  lor  a  scar[i,  covering  it  as  high  tis  protected 
by  the  i-rest  of  the  glacis. 

Dem'i-tint.     A  lialf-tint  or  medium  shade  of  col- 


Drini-  Circle. 


or.  In  studying  architectural  efi'ects  it  is  observable 
that  the  demi-tint  is  the  shade  seen  when  the  sun's 
rays  strike  the  side  of  a  house  at  a  certain  angle,  say 
45',  with  the  ground  plane. 

De-my'.  A  size  of  drawing  and  flat  writing  paper, 
varying  with  different  makers  unfortunately,  but 
quoted  liy  liingwalt  as  10  x  20  or  1()  x  21  inches. 

Si/iijin  t/ti/ii/  i^  17  X  17  inches. 

Dem'y-os'tage.  A  woolen  stuff  used  in  Scot- 
land. 

Den-drom'e-ter.  An  instrument  for  measuring 
the  hight  and  diameter  of  trees,  to  estimate  tlie  cubic 
feet  of  timljer  therein.  It  has  means  for  taking 
vertical  and  horizontal  angles,  and  is  mounted  on  a 
tripod  stand.    An 

upright  stem  rises  Fig- 1608. 

from  the  top- 
plate,  at  the  end 
of  which  is  a  ball, 
with  a  hole  per- 
forated tlu'ougli 
it  to  receive  tile 
horizontal  stem  of 
the  instrument  ; 
b  c  may  be  called 
the  base  lunb  of 
the  instrument, 
which  is  brought 
to  an  exact  hori- 
zontal position  by 
means  of  the  level 
d.  The  limb  c 
rises  on  a  joint  at 
c,  and  slides  upon  Dendrometer. 

a  vertii-al,  gradu- 
ated are/.  At  the  joint  c  is  an  eye-piece  through 
which  the  surveyor  looks  along  the  side  of  the  bar 
b,  to  a  small  point  ov  rising  edge  at  the  end  of  the 
bar  ;  the  part  of  the  tree  cut  by  this  line  of  obser- 
vation will,  if  the  tree  is  jiroperly  adjusted,  be  per- 
fectly horizontal  with  the  eye-piece.  Another  eye- 
piece is  also  placed  on  the  upjier  side  of  the 
rising  limb,  for  the  purpose  of  looking  along  this 
limb  to  a  point  or  rising  edge  e  in  its  extremity. 
The  surveyor  elevates  this  limb  until  that  i>art  of 
the  tree  to  which  the  measurement  is  designed  to 
extend  is  exactly  cut  Ijy  the  line  of  observation, 
and  the  angle  subtended  between  that  and  the 
horizontal  is  shown  upon  the  vertical  arc  /.  The 
grailuations  of  the  arc  /'  are  not  angles  of  altitude, 
but  marks  or  graduations  answering  to  feet  and 
inches  of  a  tangent  line,  extending  from  the  hori- 
zontal point  upward,  taken  at  a  given  distance  from 
tlie  tree  ;  conseiiueiitly  there  are  two  or  more  rows 
of  divisions,  answering  to  the  several  distances  at 
which  the  instrument  may  be  planted.  These  may 
he  25  feet  and  50  feet,  and  the  grailuations  made 
accordingly  ;  the  longer  distance  for  larger  trees, 
and  the  smaller  for  those  of  lower  stature. 

The  horizontal  angles  which  are  to  determine  the 
diameter  of  the  trunk,  at  the  several  points  of  ob- 
servation, are  ascertained  by  the  limb  f/,  which  slides 
laterally  upon  an  arc  or  graduated  plate  h,  divided 
upon  the  same  jirinciples  as  the  arc  /.  The  limbs 
b  or  c  being  fixed,  so  as  to  coincide  with  one  side  of 
the  trunk,  the  limb  ij  is  then  moved  until  it  coin- 
cides with  the  other  side  of  the  trunk,  and  the 
angle  subtended  between  the  two  shows  by  the 
graduated  plate  h  the  diameter  in  feet  and  inches  of 
the  trunk  at  the  point  of  observation. 

The  length  of  the  trunk,  and  its  diameter  at  the 
several  parts,  being  thus  ascertained  by  the  instru- 
ment, recourse  must  then  be  had  to  tables,  ealcula- 
tion.s,  or  the  ordinary  sliding  rule,  for  the   piirjiose 


DENIM. 


685 


DEXTAL  DRILL. 


of  obtaining  from  these  measuivnients  the  solid  con- 
tents of  the  timber  in  the  tree.  Adjusting  screws, 
circular  racks,  and  pinions  afford  means  for  adjust- 
ing the  limbs  of  the  instrument,  and  altering  their 
]iosition,  as  circumstances  may  require  ;  and  when 
crookeil  anns  or  bent  portions  of  the  trunk  present 
themselves,  the  instrument  may  be  turned  upon  its  : 
pin,  in  the  ball  at  the  top  of  the  stem  a,  and  used  in 
an  inclined  position. 

Den'im.  {Fabru:)  A  colored,  livilkd  cotton 
cloth  used  for  overalls. 

Den'mark-sat^in.  A  narrow  worsted  stuH', 
woven  witli  a  satin  twill  and  used  for  ladies'  shoes. 

Den'net.  A  light,  open,  two-wheeled  carriage 
like  a  gig,  hung  by  a  combination  of  three  springs  ; 
two  of  which  are  placed  across  the  axle,  at  right 
angles  with  it,  the  third  being  suspended  from  them 
behind  by  shackles. 

Den-sim'e-ter.  An  instrument  contrived  by 
I  'olonfl  Jlallet,  of  the  French  anny,  and  M.  Bianchi, 
for  ascertaining  the  specific  giavity  of  gunpowder. 

It  consists  of  a  glass  globe  having  a  tube  which 
communicates  with  a  quantity  of  mercury  in  an  open 
vessel.  The  globe  is  joineil  at  top  to  a  graduated 
glass  tube,  which  may,  by  means  of  a  flexible  tube, 
be  connected  with  an  air-pump.  A  diaphragm  of 
chamois  skin  fits  over  the  lower,  and  one  of  wire- 
cloth  over  the  upjier  orifice  of  the  globe,  and  the 
tubes  above  and  below  these  orifices  are  provided 
with  stop-cocks. 

For  ascertaining  the  density  of  the  gunpowder,  the 
air  is  exhausted  from  the  globe  by  means  of  the  air- 
pump,  until  the  mercury  rises  to  a  certain  mark  on 
the  graduated  tube,  when  the  globe  is  detached  fiom 
its  support  and  weighed  ;  it  is  then  em]itied  and 
cleaned,  and  a  given  weight  of  gunpowder  intro- 
duced, when  it  is  again  attacheil  to  the  tubes  and 
the  air  exhausted  as  before,  filling  with  mercury  all 
the  space  in  the  globe  not  occupied  by  the  powder, 
up  to  the  mark  before  imlicated  ;  the  stop-cocks  are 
now  clo.scd,  and  the  globe  once  more  detached  and 
weighed. 

The  absolute  specific  gravity  of  the  powder  is  ob- 
tained by  multiplying  the  weight  of  the  powder  con- 
tained in  the  globe  by  the  known  specific  grarity  of 
mercury,  and  dividing  the  product  by  the  product 
resulting  from  multiplj-ing  the  difference  between 
the  weight  of  the  globe  when  filled  with  mercury 
alone,  and  its  weight  when  filled  with  mercury  and 
powder,  into  the  weight  of  the  powder  employed  in 
the  experiment. 

Dent.  1.  (Weaving.)  One  of  the  siilits  of  the 
rccd,  which  is  fixed  in  the  swinging  lathe,  and  whose 
office  it  is  to  beat  the  ?!Y/>-thread  up  to  the  iceh. 

2.  A  tooth  of  a  gear-wheel. 

3.  (Carding.)  The  wire  staple  that  fonns  the 
tooth  of  a  card.     See  Card. 

4.  A  salient  knob  or  tooth  in  the  works  of  a  lock. 
Den'tal    Ap'pa-ra'tus    and    Ap-pli'aa-ces. 

See  under  the  following  heads  :  — 


Alveolar  forceps. 

Amalgam  manipulator. 

Anjesthetic  refrigerator. 

Aimealing  lamp. 

Articulator. 

Atomizer. 

Automatic  lamp. 

.\utomatic  mallet. 

Blow-pipe. 

Broach. 

P.ur. 

Bur-drill. 


Burnisher. 
Cow-hom  forceps. 
Creosote-apparatus. 
Dental  chair. 
Dental  chisel. 
Dental  drill. 
Dental  files. 
Dental  hammer. 
Dental  jilugger. 
Dental  pump. 
Dentiscalp. 
Dentist's  flask. 
Denture. 


Excavator. 

File-carrier. 

Filling. 

Forceps. 

Fulcium-forceps. 

Hoe. 

Im]ires.sion-cup. 

Inhaler. 

ilallet. 

Mouth-glass. 

Nerve-instmments. 

Nerve-needle. 

N  ippers. 

Nit rous-o.xide  apparatus , 

Pivot-tooth. 

Plugger. 

Plugging-forceps. 

Porte-polisher. 

Rubber-gage. 

Saliva-pump. 


Scaler. 

Screw-forceps. 

Soldering-lamp. 

Spicula-forceps. 

Spring  for  artificial  teeth. 

Stopping. 

Stump-extractor. 

Suction-plate. 

Tape-can'ier. 

Thimble. 

Tongue-compressor. 

Tool-holder. 

Tooth.     Artificial 

Tooth-jdugger. 

Tooth-saw. 

Trephine. 

Turnkey. 

Vulcanize!'. 

Vulcanizing-flask. 

Wedge-cutter. 


Herodotus  says  that,  in  the  practice  of  medicine 
and  surger)',  the  teeth  are  committed  to  one  set  of 
physicians. 

Den'tal  Ar-tic'u-la'tor.  An  instrument  for 
matching  the  dentures  of  upper  and  lower  jaw.  See 
Ar.TicrL.iToE. 

Den'tal  Chis'el.  For  excavating  cavities  in  the 
teeth  or  cutting  the  natural  teeth  prejiarator}'  to 
filling.  They  have  sti-aight  or  oblique  edges,  and 
are  used  by  a  pushing  action.  Tools  of  other  shapes 
used  by  a  lateral,  rotatory,  or  drawing  action,  are 
ExcAVATor.s,  Drills,  Buk.s,  etc.  (which  see). 

Den'tal-cut  Dove'tail.  A  dovetail  having  a 
nundier  of  dents  on  each  part  fitting  within  the  in- 
terdental space  of  the  fellow-portions.  Drawers  and 
well-constructed  boxes  are  thus  secured  at  their 
cornels. 

Den'tal  Drill.  An  instrument  for  cutting  out 
carious  portions  of  teeth  ;  for  opening  out  a  nerve- 
Fig.  1609. 


Dental  Drills. 

cavity,  for  plugging,  or  for  the  insertion  of  a  pivot. 
The  drills  are  sized  and  shaped  for  their  work. 

n,  Scranton-drill.  d,  flat-drill. 

ff,  square-drill.  e,  Forbes-drill. 

c,  auger-drill. 

A  is  Si  drill-stock  having  a  nut  a,  traversing  on  a 
spiral  stem  b.  B  has  a  bow  c,  whose  string  operates 
the  whorl  d  and  the  tool-socket.  C  has  a  separate 
handle  ami  flexible  coupling  h\ 


DENTAL  FIIJ':. 


686 


DENTIST'S  FURNACE. 


Den'tal  File.     Om-  iniulc   for  use  in   operalivu 
r    nii'cliaiiiinl    dfiitistiy.      Among    tlie.se    may  be 


enmueiated  the  I'ollowiiij 
live  of  their  |iurposes. 

Biscusjiid  tile. 
Feather-eilHvd  hie. 
Fiiiishiiif;  hli'. 
Latenil  tde. 
Iviiife-edge  hie. 


Their  names  are  intUea- 

Molar  file. 
Plug-hnishing  file. 
Separating  file. 
Stump  file. 
Vulcanite  tile. 

Den'tal   For'ceps.     The  dentist  uses  a  variety 
of  oiierating-forceiw.   Some  are  distinguished  by  their 
objective  names,  as  — 
Upper  forceps.  Molar  forceps. 

Uniier  forceps.  JJcntcs  sapientim  forceps. 

Front  forceps.  Root  forceps. 

Back  force)is.  Alveolar  forei-ps. 

Incisor  forceps.  Spicula  forceps. 

Bicuspid  forceps. 

By  shape  or  peculiar  conformation :  — 
Straight  forceps.  Narrow-beak  forceps. 

Curved  forceps.  Cow-horn  forceps. 

Bayonet-shape  forceps.       Fulcrum  forceps. 
Hawk's-bill  forceps.  Screw  forceps. 

By  the  kind  of  duty : — 
Excising  forceps.  Nipping  forceps. 

Separating  forceps.  Plugging  forceps. 

Den'tal    Ham'mer.     An   instrument  for  plug- 
Fig  1610.  gii'S    teeth  ;    operated     by    the    alternate 
j^^^       pressure  and  relaxation  of  pressure  of  the 
j^__,     ^j^^j.  upgjj  jj^^  point.     The  ])lugging-tool 
'  jires.si's    against    the   filling    iu    the  tooth  ; 
jiressure  on  the  case  makes  the  tool-stock 
recede,    imparting    its    movement   to   the 
lifting-bar    and    hammer,    until    the    bar 
pus.ses   the  incline  of  the  wedge,   releases 
its   hold  on   the   catch,    and   releases   the 
Iiammer,  which  descends  under  the  influ- 
ence of  the   spring.     The  force  is  adjust- 
ed   by    d(-'vices    oiierated    by    an    exterior 
band. 
Den'tal  Plug'ger.     An  instrument  for 
compacting  the  metallic  filling 
Fig.  1611.  of  teeth. 

The  jioint  of  the  plugger  con- 
tinues to  jiress  upon  the  metal 
in  the  cavity  of  the  tootli,  being 
actuated  by  the  tension  of  the 
spring,  while  the  tube  is  recipro- 
cated and  acts  by  concussion  on 
the  end  of  the  stem. 

Den'tal  Pump.  An  appa- 
ratus for  witlidrawing  the 
saliva  from  the  mouth  during 
dental  operations.  See  Saliva- 
riTMP. 

Den'ted  Chis'el.  (Scidp- 
turr.)  A  I  liisel  with  a  dentated 
edge,  used  in  carving  stone. 

Den-telle'.  (Bookbinding.) 
An  ornamental  tooling  resem- 
bling noti'hing  or  lace. 

Den'til.  (Architecture.)  A 
small  jirujecting  block  in  a  cor- 
nice. Frcipieiitly  introduced  in 
a  l■o^v  bciii'atb  the  corona, 

Den'ti-scalp.  An  instru- 
ment for  scaling  teeth. 

Den'tist's    Chair.     A  chair 
Dental    provided  with  iiunierous  adjust- 
Devlnl  rlu^^er.    ,,,1,^(5  jq  j^jj  {[jj.   exigencies   of 

Hnmnitr.  surgical  dentistiy.     The  chair  itself  is  piv- 


— Si 


\ 


otcd  on  a  stand  which  has  casters. 
The  seat  15  vertically  adjustable, 
the  back  inclinable.  The  head- 
rest is  adjustable  vertically  and 
as  to  inclination. 


DentisVs  Cfiair. 


Den'tist's  Flask.  A  case  in  which  a  molded 
vulcanite  base  for  dentures  is  subjected  to  the  heat 
of  the  muffle.  A  clamp  holds  the  parts  of  the  flask 
in  perfect  apposition.  „.    ,„,, 


Fig.  1613. 


,  S.  TViife'j  Dentist's  Fur- 
nace. 


Den'tist's  Fur'nace.  A 

furnace  for  l}akidy  and  burn- 
ing porcelain  teeth.  It  is 
made  of  fire-clay,  andhooped 
with  sheet-iron.  The  figure  ^• 
shows  the  furnace  arranged 
for  two  muffles.  The  latter  are  chambers,  like  those 
in  an  assay-furnace,  except  that  they  are  destitute 
of  the  slots  which  admit  the  flame  to  the  contents  of 
the  mutHe.  The  lower  o]iening  in  the  furnace  is  for 
draft,  and  leads  to  the  ash-pit. 

The  opening  above,  with  a  door,  is  that  of  the 
principal  muffle  in  which  the  porcelain  teeth  are 
burned.  In  these  articles,  as  in  the  usual  jiorcelain 
work,  there  are  several  operations.  The  teeth  are 
molded  and  then  leaked,  which  forms  them  into  bis- 
cuit. Tiny  are  then  painted  with  enamel  compound, 
and  a  second  operation,  with  much  increased  heat, 
vitrifies  the  enamel  and  completes  the  operation, 
which  is  termed  hnrning. 

The  upper  inntfle  is  for  baking  and  also  for  an- 
ncnlinii,  the  teeth  burned  in  the  lower  nniffle  being 
subjected  in  the  upper  one  to  a  lower  heat,  which  is 
allowed  gradually  to  abate,  so  that  the  teeth  shall 
not  crack. 


DENTUKE. 


687 


DERRICK. 


Tlie  oiiening  in  the  dome  is  for  fuel,  and  that  in 
the  toil  for  a  chimney. 

Tliese  furnaces  are  oval  in  fonn,  with  hinged 
doors,  the  center  sections  eased  with  sheet-iron.  The 
muflles  are  12  inclies  long  liy  3J  inches  wiile,  inside 
measurement.  The  outside  measurement  of  the  fur- 
nace is  43  inches  high,  21  inches  wide,  and  16 
inclies  deep. 

Den'ture.     Au  artificial  tooth,  block,  or  set  of 

teeth.     The  former  are  partial  dentures,  the  latter 
is  mfiiU  denture. 

They  may  be  classified  as  follows  :  — 

A  iiii-iit-looth  is  an  artificial  crown  set  upon  a 
natural  root. 

Dentures  made  from  dentine  or  river-horse  teeth, 
plate  and  teeth  carved  from  a  solid  block. 

Plates  carved  i'rom  dentine  to  fit  the  gums,  or  the 
gums  and  the  roof  of  the  inoutli,  upon  which  are 
pivoted  natural  human  teeth. 

Plates  made  of  gold  or  silver  fitted  to  the  mouth 
and  mounted  witli  porcelain  teeth. 

Coiitiiuioiis-ijuin  dentures.  Plates  made  of  platinum 
and  mounted  witli  porcelain  teeth,  around  tlie  necks 
of  whicli,  and  upon  the  lingual  surface  of  the  i)late, 
a  siliuious  compound  or  enamel  is  fused. 

Mineral-plate  dentures.  Made  entirely  of  porce- 
lain ;  idate  and  teeth  molded  and  carved  from  porce- 
lain mi,\ture,  enameled  and  burned. 

Plates  made  of  vulainized  rubber  with  pnreelain 
teeth,  secured  by  being  embedded  previous  to  the 
process  of  vulcanizing,  assisted  by  pins  and  staples 
of  jilatinum. 

Plates  made  by  casting  a  base  metal  alloy,  with 
porcelain  teeth  secured  by  being  partially  embedded 
in  tlie  casting. 

Under    the    date    of    March    11,     1664,     Pepys 
writes:     "My    wife     come 
Fig.  1615.  home,  and  she  had  got  her 

tooth  new  done  by  La 
Roche,  and  are  indeed  now 
pretty  handsome,  and  I  was 
much  pleased  with  it." 

The  Japanese  Hadsikfsan, 
or  "tooth  carpenter,"  is  an 
itinerant  artist  who  makes 
Denture.  his  teeth   of  ivory,   shark's 

teeth,  or  stone,  let  into  the 
wooden  base,  and  retained  in  position  by  being 
strung  on  a  thread,  which  is  secured  at  each  end  by 
a  peg  driven  into  the  hole  where  it  makes  its  e.xit 
fi-om  the  base.  Iron  or  copper  tacks  are  driven  into 
the  ridge  to  serve  for  masticating  purposes,  the  un- 
equal wear  of  the  wood  and  metal  keeping  up  the 
desired  roughness  of  surface.  To  construct  a  full 
upper  and  lower  denture  requires  about  two  days' 
constant  work,  which  becomes  five,  owing  to  the 
frequent  chats,  naps,  and  smokes.  An  impression  of 
the  mouth  is  taken  in  wa.x,  another  impression  had 
from  this  ;  the  latter  is  smeared  with  red  paint,  and 
a  wooden  block  fitted  to  it  by  gi-adual  trials  and 
appro.ximations. 

Among  the  technical  terms  appertaining  to  den- 
tures are  :  — 

Pivot-tooth,  an  artificial  crown  secured  to  a  natural 
root  by  the  insertion  of  a  pivot,  or  pin. 

Plate-tooth,  one  fastened  to  a  plate. 

Plain-tooth,  one  without  any  gum. 

Gum-tooth,  one  made  with  a  portion  of  gum  at- 
tached. 

Bloek,  two  or  more  teeth  made  unitedly. 

Set,  a  full  furnishing  for  one  jaw. 

Dasc,  that  which  artificial  teeth  are  mounted  on 
or  attached  to. 

Mounlihg,  attaching  teeth  to  a  base. 


De-o'dor-iz'er.  A  drug  or  pastille  applied  to,  or 
burned  in  the  [jreseiice  of,  putrescent,  purulent,  in- 
fectious, or  fetid  matter. 

Deodorizers  are  a  sanitary  provision  for  the  defe- 
cation of  matter  having  no.xious  effluvia  ;  acting  to 
render  the  matter  inert,  to  absorb  it  mechanically, 
or  only  to  disguise  it,  supplanting  the  fetor  by 
superior  energy,  as  in  the  use  of  aromatic  pastilles. 

Sanatory  experts  ^L.,  sanotor,  a  healer  of  diseases, 
a  physician)  have  devised  these  sanita7'i/  expedients 
(L.,  sanitas,  health)  to  isolate  infection  and  thus 
prevent  the  .sjiread  of  disease.    See  also  Disinfectok. 

De'phleg-ma'tor.  A  form  of  condensing  ap- 
paratus fur  stills,  consistingof  broad  sheets  of  tinned 
copper  solilcred  together,  so  as  to  leave  naiTOW  spaces 
between  tlieni. 

Depi-la'tion.  A  very  good  teim  to  describe  the 
process  which  is  usually  calleil  nnhairimj.  It  con- 
sists in  the  loosening  and  removal  of  hair  from  hides 
and  skins,  and  is  usually  accomplished  by  lime. 
It  is  hence  called  limeing. 

Lime  being  injurious  to  leather,  other  processes 
have  been  suggested  and  to  some  e.xtent  practiced. 
See  Unii.viring. 

De-press'or.  (Surgery.)  An  instrument  like 
a  cuiTed  spatula,  used  for  reducing  or  pushing  into 
place  an  obtruding  part.  Such  are  used  in  opera- 
tions on  the  skull  involving  the  use  of  the  trephine, 
and  in  couching  a  cataract.  Also  used  in  removing 
beyond  the  range  of  the  knife  or  the  ligature  needle 
a  portion  intruding  within  the  area  of  the  operation. 

Dep're-ter.  Plastering  done  to  represent  tooled 
ashlar-work.  It  is  first  pricked  up  and  floated  as 
for  set  or  stneeo,  and  then  small  stones  are  forced  on 
dry  from  a  board. 

Depth'en-ing-tool.  1.  A  countersinker  for 
deepening  a  hole. 

2.   A  wal 
of  jiivot-holes  in  movement-plates. 

Depth-gage.  A  graduated  measuring-tool,  or 
one  capable  of  being  set  to  a  measure  to  determine 
the  depth  of  a  hole. 

Dep'u-ra'tor.  An  apparatus  to  assist  the  expul- 
sion of  morbid  matter  by  means  of  the  excretory 
ducts  of  the  skin.  It  consists  of  an  apparatus,  topi- 
cal or  general,  by  which  the  natural  pressure  of  the 
air  is  withdrawn  from  tlie  surface  of  the  body. 

The  depurator  is  described  in  Nathan  Snu'th's 
English  ]iatent,  1802.  Tlie  chamber  is  filled  with 
steam  and  the  air  exhausted  to  the  extent  required 
by  the  patient,  "giving  aid  to  the  ela,stic  force  of 
the  internal  air  contained  within  the  human  body 
to  throw  out  the  ott'ensive  matter." 

De-rail'ment.  (Kailway  Engineering.)  The 
condition  of  a  locomotive  or  car  in  respect  of  being 
off  the  rails. 

Der'by.     {.Uasonry.)     A  two-handed  float. 

Der'mal  In'stru-ments.  {Surgery.)  Instru- 
ments acting  upon  the  skin,  such  as  the  acupunctu- 
rator,  hyjiodermic  syringe,  scarificator,  artificial 
leech,  cupping-glass,  vacuum  apparatus,  depurator, 
etc. 

Dermo-path'ic  In'stru-ment.  An  acicular 
instrument  used  to  introduce  a  vesicatory  beneath 
the  skin.  See  AcupUNCTi'ii.iTOK ;  Hypodeumic 
Syringe,  etc. 

Der'rick.  A  form  of  hoisting-machine.  The  pe- 
culiar feature  of  a  derrick,  which  distinguishes  it 
from  some  other  fonns  of  hoisting-machines,  is  that 
it  has  a  boom  stayed  from  a  central  post,  which 
may  be  anchored,  but  is  usually  stayed  by  guys. 

A  derriek  has  one  leg,  a  shears  two,  and  a  gin 
three.  A  creine  has  a  post  and  jib.  A  trhin  or  u-him 
has  a  vertical  axis  on  which  a  rope  winds.   The  cap- 


DERRICK. 


G88 


DKRRICK. 


.v^(/(  lias  a  vertical  drmii  I'oi'  tlie  ropi',  ami  is  rotateil 
1)V  kirs.  The  icindln.is  has  a  liorizontal  barrel,  anil 
is"  rutated  by  handspik-es.  The  winch  has  a  horizon- 
tal barrel,  and  is  l're(|Uently  the  means  of  winding 
up  the  tackle-rojje  of  the  derriek  ;  it  is  rotated 
bv  franks.  The  crab  is  a  portable  wiiieh  and  has 
cranks. 

'I'lie  derrick  is  more  coninionly  used  in  tlie  United 
."states  than  in  Europe,  and  lias  attained  what  ap- 
pears to  be  maximnni  effectiveness  witli  a  given 
weight.  Two  spar.s,  three  guys,  and  two  sets  of 
tackle,  —  one  for  the  jib  and  one  for  the  load,  — com- 
plete the  apparatus,  e.'ccept  the  winch,  crab,  or  cap- 
stan, for  hoisting. 

The'  invention  is  nautical,  the  original  being  the 
sailor's  contrivance,  made  of  a  s|iare  topmast  or 
a  Ijooni,  and  the  appropriate  tackle.  Such  are  used 
in  masting,  piittiug  in  boilers  and  engines,  ami 
hoisting  heavy  nierch:indise  on  board  or  ashore. 

The   ilerri-c/c-crane  is  a  combinatiou  of  the   two 

Fig.  161& 


balam'c  any  weight  on  the  o|iposite  side.  From  the 
deck  of  this  vessel  rises  an  iron  tripod,  80  feet  high, 
on  the  top  of  which  revolves  a  gigantic  boom,  120 
feet  long,  and  above  the  boom  the  king-post,  a  con- 
tinuation of  the  tripod,  rises  to  the  hight  of  50  feet. 

tine  arm  of  tin?  boom  is  furnislu'd  witli  ten  four- 
fold blocks.  The  chains  attached  to  these  blocks 
are  passed  across  the  king-post,  brought  over  the 
other  arm  of  the  boom,  and  thence  descend  to  the 
other  side  of  the  vessel,  where  they  are  connected 
to  crabs  worked  by  two  powerful  steam-engines,  by 
means  of  which  the  weights  are  raised. 

This  floating-derrick  is  capable  of  self-propulsion 
by  means  of  paddle-wheels,  and  thus  removes  its 
suspended  load  to  a  position  of  safety  for  repair  or 
other  purpose. 

The  present  extensive  use  of  horse  hay-forks  for 
hoisting  hay  in  stacking  or  mowing  has  given  rise 
to  a  number  of  inventions  for  obtaining  an  elevated 
point  of  support  for  the  upper  pulley. 

Kig.  1617. 


ilfpll 

I  I'  P  i   I 


Derrick- Crant, 

devices,  as  its  name  imjiorts,  having 
facility  for  hoisting  and  also  for 
swinging  the  load  liorizonfally.  '^: 

The  machine  illustratetl  was  made 
by  Wightman  of  Edinburgh,  Scot-     i-- 
larid,  and  consists  of  a  vertical  post      «V 
su|i]iortcd  by  two  timber  back-stays  "    >  ~/,//^- 

wliose  feet  are  anchoreil  to  tlie  earth. 
Tlie /lYi  or  movable  s|iar  of  the  der-         --jsi,        <""  ' 
rick 'is  hinged  to  and  near  the  foot    ''•^^t  • 
of  the  post,  its  top  being  hcdd  by  a       ^''^*^^.,.         ^ 
chain  which  jiasses  over  pulleys  to 
a  winch  on  the  post,  so    that  the 
inclination  of  the  jib  may  be  ad- 
Justed  as  rec|uii-ed.     The  fall  of  the  hoisting-tackle 
is  jiassed  over  a  .sheave   on  the  summit  of  the  Jib, 
and  thence   down   the   jib    to    the   hoisting-winch. 
This  derri<:k-crane  commands  a  radius  of  from  10  to 
liO  feet  without  being  moved  from  its  position. 

Bishop's  floating-derrick  was  used  in  IS.'iO  in 
raising  sunken  vessels,  and  consists  of  a  flat-bot- 
tomed vessel,  270  feet  long  and  90  feet  beam.  It 
wasbiiiU.  by  the  Thames  Iron  ShiiibuildingConi|iany 
at  Hlackwali,  and  has  a  immber  of  water-tight  com- 
IKirtiiicnts,    whicli    can    be   tMled,  so   as  to   coniiter- 


Bishop''s  Floating-Denirk 

Some  of  these  are  on  portable  frames,  or  wagon- 
bodies.  Others  are  true  derricks,  with  a  jib  or  spar 
stayed  by  guys.  Some  nmre  nearly  resemble  the 
craiir,  others  the  gin.  Many  minor  peculiarities 
distinguish  them,  but  in  their  general  features  their 
construction  is  fairly  referable  to  those  described 
under  the  various  heads. 

The  floating-derrick  of  the  New  York  Department 
of  Docks  was  built  under  the  supervision  of  Mr. 
Newt(ni,  assistant-engineer  of  the  department.  It 
was  coiistructi'd  expressly  for  tlic  imrpose  of  trans- 


FLOAIING    llEHHicK. 
NEW   YOHK    DKPARTMENT  OF   PUBLIC   WORKS. 


Sec  jiii.je  089. 


DESCENDING-LETTER. 


6S9 


DESITLPHURIZING-FURNACE. 


porting  from  the  work-yards  the  blocks  of  granite 
and  artiticial  stone  that  are  to  form  the  river  wall. 
Its  lifting  and  carrying  power  is  100  tons,  and  the 
float  which  carries  the  derrick  is  of  rectangular 
form,  66  by  71  feet,  and  13  feet  in  depth.  It  is 
stiffened  by  si.xteen  trusses,  extending  from  the  deck 
to  the  bottom,  and  running  across  from  side  to  side. 

The  tower,  which  is  placed  upon  the  float,  and 
supports  the  king-post  and  booms,  is  made  of  twelve 
balks  of  pine,  63  feet  3  inches  in  length,  and  14 
inches  sijuare.  These  balks  or  legs  are  stiffened  from 
one  eml  to  the  other  by  struts  and  braces  ;  their 
lower  ends  are  bolted  into  a  heavy  cast-iron  circle, 
which,  in  its  turn,  is  held  dowii  by  numero  is  bolts 
which  pass  through  the  bottom  of  the  floor.  At 
their  upper  extremity  these  legs  are  brought  close 
together,  and  are  inserted  in  a  cast-iron  cap,  to 
which  they  are  bolted.  The  tower  forms  a  frustum 
of  a  dodecagonal  pyramid  40  feet  in  diameter  at  the 
base,  52  feet  in  bight,  and  12  in  diameter  at  the  top. 

The  front  or  hoisting  boom  of  the  derrick  consists 
of  two  wronght-iron  box -girders  22  inches  deep  by 
9|  inches  wide.  These  girders  are  made  of  planed 
plates,  are  spaced  24  inches  asunder,  and  are  held 
parallel  by  braces  of  wrought-irou  ;  on  the  upper 
and  innei-  edges  of  these  girders  a  track  or  .slide  of 
poUshed  brass  is  fastened  by  counter-screws.  These 
tracks  have  a  projector  which  extends  a  short  dis- 
tance downward ;  the  carriage  w'hich  carries  the 
main  hoisting-blocks  slides  on  them.  The  carriage 
is  composed  of  two  plates  of  iron  j  of  an  inch  thic'k, 
and  spaced  10  inches  asunder  ;  its  length  is  8  feet, 
its  depth  3  feet.  The  iron  boom  is  s\ipported  by 
eighteen  diagonal  rods  2J  inches  in  diameter.  These 
converge  near  the  top  of  the  king-post,  and  are 
secured  to  it  by  three  heavy  forgiugs,  which  straddle 
the  iron  cap  on  the  top  of  the  post. 

The  king-post  is  of  wrougbt-iron,  40  inches  out- 
side diameter.  It  is  hollow,  and  its  shell  is  J  of  an 
inch  thick.  It  revolves  in  a  circular  casting, 
swinging  the  boom  completely  ai'ound. 

All  the  machinery  is  jdaced  on  the  float  under  the 
tower,  and  the  levers  which  operate  it  and  give  the 
various  movements  are  brought  together  on  a  plat- 
form 35  feet  aliove  the  deck  of  the  float,  so  that  the 
person  operating  them  acts  in  full  view  of  the  load 
that  is  being  handled.      (See  plate  opposite.) 

De-Bcend'ing-let'ter.  [Printimj.)  Oneofthose 
whicli  descend  lulow  the  line,  as/,  g,  j,  p,  q,  ;/. 

Des'ic-ca'tion.  The  evaporation  or  drpng  off 
of  the  a<pieous  ]iortion  of  bodies  ;  practiced  with 
fruit,  meat,  milk,  vegetable  extracts,  and  many 
other  matters.  It  is  usually  done  by  a  current  of 
heated,  dry  air,  and  as  such  may  be  considered  as 
distinguished  from  evaporators,  so  called,  to  which 
furnace  heat  or  steam  heat  is  applied. 

De-sil'ver-ing.  Tlie  process  of  renlo^^ng  lead 
from  an  alloy  with  silver  by  means  of  removing 
crystals  of  the  former  from  the  cooling  alloy.  The 
Pattinson  process. 

Desk.  A  sloping  table,  frame,  or  case  for  a 
writer  or  reader.  In  the  illustration  are  several 
forms  of  school-desks. 

A  shows  a  de.sk  with  a  seat  for  the  scholars  in  the 
row  in  front  of  it.  A  single  seat  is  required  for  the 
rear  row. 

B  shows  a  desk  and  seat  capable  of  folding  for 
transportation  and  for  sweeping. 

C,  the  seat  only  folds. 

Desk-knife.    An  eraser. 

Des-tem'per.    A  mode  of  painting  with  opaque 

colors,  principally  used  for  walls,  ceilings,  domes, 

.scenes,   etc.,   in  which  the  colors  are  mixed  with 

chalk   or   clay   and   diluted'  with   size.       Tempera 

44 


Fig.  1618. 


School-Dfsks. 

painting  was  practiced  in  ancient  Egypt.  The  wall 
was  covered  with  a  coating  of  lime  or  gypsum.  The 
outline  was  sketched  in  with  red  chalk  and  then 
tilled  out  with  black.  The  painter  levigated  his 
colors  and  mixed  them  with  water,  placed  them  on 
a  palette  hung  to  his  wiist,  and  applied  them  to  the 
surface  on  which  he  was  at  work. 

It  was  also  practiced  in  Greece  and  Rome.  The 
cartoons  of  Raphael  are  in  desteniper.  It  is  common 
foi-  auditoriums.  Kalsomine  (or  calcimine)  is  a  form 
of  it.      Sometimes  written  fh'sfrniprr  or  tempera. 

De-sul'phvir-iz'ing  Fur'nace.  (.Uetallurg;/.) 
A  roasting-furnace  for  driving  off  tlie  sidphur  from 
jiyritic  oi-es.  There  are  many  forms  adapted  to  the 
requirements  of  ditt'erent  ores,  facilities  of  building, 
kind  of  fuel,  and  the  more  or  less  perfect  result  de- 
manded by  the  value  of  the  metal  and  other  com- 
mercial and  economical  incidents. 

Ores  are  desulphurized  by  roasting  in  heaps. 

In  reverberatory  furnaces  of  the  usual  kind.  See 
COPPEK-FURXACE. 

In  rotary  inclined  cylinders  exposed  to  the  heat  of 
a  fire  beneath. 

In  a  flue  or  stack  where  it  falls  through  a  column 
of  flame.     See  Decarbiinizixg-furxace. 

On  a  rotary-table  furnace  (as  in  Fig.  1619),  where 
the  desulphurizing-cbamber  is  surrounded  with  flues 
through  which  the  caloric  currents  from  the  furnace 
are  compelled  to  pass  on  their  way  to  the  chimney. 


DETACHED  ESCAPEMENT. 


690 


DETONATING-PRIMER. 


Within  tlie  cliaiiiber  is  a  stirrer  provided  w  ith  con- 
veyors and  operated  by  gear-wlieels.    Tlie  pulverized 

fig.  1619. 


Rotary-  Table  Furnace. 


ore  is  placed  in  the  center  of  the  oven,  and  rarricid 
by  the  conveyor  to  the  discharge-hole  near  the  out- 
side. 

Another  form  is  that  in  which  the  ore  is  ]dai-ed  on 
movable  plates,  and,  when  heated  to  redness,  is  drawn 


Fig.  1620. 


Desu/phurizing-Furnace 

out  of  the  furnace  by  the  chains,  and  dumped  into 
water.  When  removed  from  water,  it  is  crushed  be- 
fore passing  to  the  cupola. 

In  Hagan's  process,  superheated  steam  is  intro- 
duced into  the  furnace  and  deconifiosed,  the  hydrogen 
flame  attacking  the  sul[ihur.  arsenic,  and  antimony. 
De-tached'  Es-cape'ment.  The  detached  es- 
capement was  invented  by  Mudge  in  the  seventeenth 
century. 

Earnshaw's  detached  escapement  has  two  vibra- 
tions of  the  balance  for  each  im- 
pulse, resembling  the  duplex  in 
this  respect.  A  is  the  main  pallet 
I  projecting  from  tlie  balance-arbor, 
concentric  with  which  is  another 
small  pallet,  called  the  lifting- 
pallet,  which,  when  the  balance  is 
vibrating  from  A  towards  B,  lifts 
a  very  slender  spring  />',  and  with 
it  the  detent-spring  C,  so  as  to  set  at  liberty  or  un- 
lock the  tooth  Z>,  the  point  of  which  rests  on  a  ruby 
pin  projecting  from  the  detent-spring  C,  and  fonning 
the  detent. 

The  point  E  of  the  principal  jiallet  having  passed 
the  tooth  F,  the  wheel  moves  forward  liy  the  action 
of  the  mainspring,  while  the  ne.\t  tooth  G  falls 
upon  the  ruby  pin  and  is  locked.  The  screw  H 
serves  to  adjust  the  position  of  the  detent  and  the 
strength  of  the  locking.  In  the  return  of  the 
Imlance,  the  pallet  A  passes  easily  by  the  detent- 
spring  by  forcing  back  the  slender  spring  B. 


Detached  Escape- 
ment. 


This  is  a  chronometer  escapement. 

The  term  dcladicd  is  also  applied  to  the  ordinary 
form  of  lever-escapement  with  two  pallets,  which 
engage  the  teeth  of  the  scape-wheel,  and  a  fork 
which  engages  a  pin  on  the  balance-arbor.  The  term 
detached,  in  this  case,  is  to  distinguish  it  from  the 
««(;/ior-esca|iement,  wherein  a  segment-rack  engages 
a  pinion  on  the  balance-arbor.     See  Levek-escapi;- 

MENT. 

De-tached'  Work.  (Fortijicatum.)  A  work 
included  in  the  defence,  but  placed  outside  the  body 
of  the  place, 

De-tach'ing  Horses  from  Car'riages.  k 
means  for  sui-Uleuly  releasing  an  unmanageable  team 
from  the  vehicle. 

The  llaniuis  of  Worcester,  in  his  "  Century  of 
Inventions,"  165.5,  describes  an  apparatus  of  this 
kind,  under  command  of  the  passengers,  in  which, 
"by  means  of  a  T-ended  lever,  two  or  four  bolts 
could  be  simultaneously  diawn  inwards,  and  the 
horses  thereby  released  with  the  greatest  possible 
ease  and  certainty." 

Hohllield  of  Sa.xony,  1711-71,  contrived  a  car- 
riage in  which  the  person  could  by  a  single  push 
loosen  the  pole  and  set  the  horses  at  libeily. 

Williams's  Englisli  ]iatent,  1802,  operates  by  a 
cord  releasing  a  bolt,  which  allows  the  studs  to 
which  the  traces  are  attached  to  rotate  and  the 
traces  to  slip  off. 

Since  these,  numerous  rlevices  have  been  sug- 
gested, but  have  not  come  extensively  into  use. 

De-tect'or.  1.  An  arrangement  in  a  lock,  in- 
troduced by  Ru.xton,  by  which  an  over-lifted 
tumbler  is  caught  by  detent,  so  as  to  indicate  that 
the  lock  has  been  tampered  with. 

In  Mitchell  and  Lawton's  lock,  English,  1815, 
the  motion  of  the  key  throws  out  a  nundier  of  wards, 
which  engage  the  key  and  keep  it  from  being  with- 
drawn until  the  bolt  is  moved,  when  the  pieces  re- 
sume their  normal  position  and  release  the  key. 
Should  the  key  fail  to  act  ujion  the  holt,  it  cannot 
be  withdrawn,  but  the  lock  must  be  destroyed  to 
relense  it. 

Chubb  had  a  detector  in  his  lock  of  1818. 

2.  A  means  of  indicating  that  the  water  in  a 
boiler  has  sunk  below  the  point  of  safety.  See  Low- 
WAJKK  Detectoh. 

De-tent'.  A  pin,  stud,  or  lever  foiming  a  stop 
in  a  watch,  clock,  tumbler-lock,  or  other  machine. 
It  is  variously  called  in  specific  cases  ;  as,  click, pawl, 
dog,  fence,  etc.  It  is  usually  ca]ialile  of  motion, 
either  at  certain  intervals,  as  in  s<une  escapements, 
or  by  operation  of  a  key,  as  in  locks. 

A  detent-catch  falls  into  the  sti  iking-wheel  of  a 
clock,  and  stops  it  from  stiiking  more  than  the  right 
number  of  times.  The  watch-escapement  has  also  a 
detent. 

The  ratchet-wheel  has  a  click,  to  prevent  back 
motion. 

The  windlass  has  a  jmirl,  to  fall  into  the  notches 
of  tlie  rim. 

Det'on-at'mg-ham'mer.  The  hammer  of  a  per- 
cussion gnu-lock. 

Det'on-at'ing-pcw'der.  One  which  explodes 
by  a  blow.  The  compound  used  in  the  jiriming  of 
percussion-caps  and  fuses  is  the  fulminate  of  luercnry 
or  of  silver,  collected  as  a  precipitate  wiii'ii  the  metal, 
dissolved  in  nitric  acid,  is  poured  into  warm  alcohol. 
The  iirecipitate  is  collected,  washed,  and  dried. 

Det'on-at'ing-pri'mer.  {Blastitig.)  A  primer 
exploded  by  a  fuse,  and  used  in  blasting  operations 
to  violently  explode  gun-cotton,  instead  of  the  for- 
mer plan  by  which  the  charge  of  gun-cotton  was 
simply  ignited. 


DETOX  ATIXG-TUBE. 


691 


DIAL. 


Fig.  1622. 


■E 


Slick. 


Det'o-nat'ing-tube.  A  graduateil  tulie  used  for 
the  detonation  of  g;;ses,  being  pierced  by  two  opposed 
wires  by  which  an  electriu  spark  is  introdnr.ed.  Tlie 
gas  is  confined  over  water  or  mercury.     See  Et'Di- 

OMETEK. 

Det'o-na'tion.  Instantaneous  combustion  with 
loud  explosion. 
De-vel'op-ing.  (Plwloiiraphy.)  The  treatment 
of  an  exposed  sensitive  photographic 
surface  with  a  solution  of  a  protosa^t 
of  iron  (generally  sulphate  of  iron),  py- 
rogallie  acid,  or  gallic  aciil,  in  con- 
junction with  a  small  amount  of  nitrate 
of  silver,  either  present  in  the  film  or 
added,  so  as  to  call  into  visible  exist- 
ence the  latent  picture  produceil  in  the 
camera  or  under  a  negative  ;  an  opera- 
tion always  performed  in  an  actini- 
cally dark  room,  that  is,  one  in  which 
the  rays  at  the  violet  end  of  the  spec- 
trum are  excluded. 

The  developing-stick  has  a  suction- 
pad  of  india-rubber,  by  which  it  is 
made  to  cling  to  the  glass,  allowing 
great  freedom  of  motion  without  dan- 
ger of  befoniing  detached. 

De-vel'op-ment.  (Shipbuilding.) 
The  process  of  drawing  the  figures 
which  given  lines  on  a  curved  surface 
would  assume,  if  that  surface  were  a 
flexible  sheet  and  were  spread  out  Hat 
upon  a  plane  without  alteration  of  area 
and  without  distortion. 

Surfaces  not  truly  developable  are 
drafted  on  a  plane  surface  by  the  pro- 
ce.ss  termed  ExP.i.N'SION  (which  see). 

De-ver'soir.  \HydrnuHc  Engi- 
ncring.)  Of  a  dike,  the  fall. 
Dev'il.  1.  A  machine  for  opening  out  the  tus- 
socks of  cotton,  and  cleaning  therefrom  the  dirt  and 
off.il.  It  has  various  other  names,  such  as  trilloirrr, 
witlij,  bcatiiig-macliiiie,  etc.  See  Cotton-clean  ixo 
Machine. 

2.  A  rag-engine  or  spiked  mill  for  tearing  woolen 
rags  into  shoddy,  or  linen  and  cotton  rags  to  make 
pa|ier  pulp. 

3.  .\  machine  for  making  wood  screws. 
Dev'il-car'riage.     A   carriage  used  for  moving 

heavy  ordnance.      A  sling-cart. 

Dev'il's  Claw.     A  grapnel. 

Dew-point.  The  point  of  temperature  at  which 
the  moisture  of  the  air  commences  to  conilen.se.  See 
Hyorometf.u. 

Dew-ret'ting.  The  process  of  softening  and  re- 
moving the  mucilage  Iro'.n  the  fibrous  and  cellular 
portions  of  the  stalks  of  llax  anl  hemp,  liy  exposure 
to  clew,  showers,  sun,  and  air  upon  a  sward.  See 
Rettins. 

Dex'trine.  A  gummy  material  made  from  starch 
and  largely  used  in  the  manufacture  of  calico.  Its 
name  is  derived  from  its  right-handed  rotation  of  a 
ray  of  plane  polarized  light. 

Torrefied  starch;  roasted  at  a  temperature  of  300° 
F.     British  gum. 

Potato  starch  moistened  with  water,  acidulated 
by  nitric  acid,  dried  spontaneously  and  then  in  a 
stove  at  •212°  F. 

'Dho'ney.  A  native  coasting-vessel  of  India  with 
two  masts  and  not  exceeding  150  tons. 

Dho^w.  An  Arab  vessel  with  a  single  mast,  a 
yard  the  length  of  the  vessel,  and  a  lateen  sail. 
They  are  from  150  to  200  tons  burden. 

Di'a-caus'tic.  A  double-convex  lens  u.sed  in 
cauterizing  parts  of  the  body. 


Di-ser'e-sis.  (Printing.)  A  mark  (•■)  placed 
over  the  second  of  two  adjacent  vowels  to  indicate 
that  they  should  both  be  pronounced  ;  as,  aerated. 

Di'a-gom'e-ter.  An  electroscope  invented  by 
Rousseau,  in  wliich  the  dry  pile  is  employed  to 
measure  the  amount  of  electricity  trajismitted  by 
different  bodies  ;  to  determine  their  conductivity. 

Di-ag'o-naL  { Shi jAuil ding.)  1.  A  timljerbrace, 
knee,  ]ilank,  truss,  etc.,  crossing  a  vessel's  timbers 
obliciuely. 

2.  -A.  line  cutting  the  body-plan  diagonally  from 
the  timbers  to  the  middle  line. 

3.  An  obliipie  brace  or  .stay  connecting  the  hori- 
zontal and  vertical  raemliers  of  a  truss  or  frame, 

Di-ag'o-nal-built.  (Shipbuilding.)  A  manner 
of  boat- building  in  which  the  outer  .skin  consists  of 
two  layers  of  planking  making  angles  of  about  45° 
with  the  keel  in  oppo.site  directions. 

They  are  built,  like  clinker-built  boats,  upon 
temporary  ti^isverse  molds.  After  setting  up  and 
fixing  the  molds  Hpon  the  keel,  the  gunwale,  a 
shelf-piece,  and  a  series  of  ril>l)ands  are  temporarily 
fixed  in  the  molds.  Two  layers  of  planking  are  then 
put  on,  bent  to  fit  the  nxjlds  and  rib-bands,  and 
fastened  to  tath  other  and  to  the  keel,  stem,  stem- 
post,  shelf,  and  gunwale  with  naihs,  diiven  from  the 
out.side,  and  clenched  inside  ujxin  small  rings,  calletl 
roves.  The  gunwale  is  then  shoretl,  to  keeji  it  in 
shape.  The  molds  and  rib-bands  are  taken  out,  and 
floors,  hook,  thwarts,  etc.,  are  put  in  as  in  a.  clinker- 
built  boat. 

Di-ag'o-nal  Eye-piece.  Used  for  solar  obser- 
vations. A  very  small  jiercentage  of  the  sun's  light 
and  heat  is  reHecteil  ficni  the  fir.st  surface  of  a  prism, 
the  7est  being  tiansniitted. 

Di-ag'o-nal  Fram'ing  and  Stays.  (Sleam- 
crigiiic.)  The  obliipie  Iranie  antl  braces  whiidi  con- 
nect the  plumfier-block  of  the  paddle-shaft  with 
the  framing  of  the  .'ide-lever  steam-engine. 

Di-ag'o-nal  lines.  (Shipbuilding.)  Lines  show- 
ing the  Imundaries  of  various  jarts,  formed  liy  sec- 
tions which  arc  oblique  to  the  vertical  longitudinal 
plane,  and  which  intei-sect  that  ])lane  in  straight 
lines  (larallel  to  the  keel.  I'sually  <.li-awn  in  red  iu 
the  draft. 

Di-ag'o-nal  Eib.  A  projecting  band  of  stone 
or  timber  iia.ssing  diagonally  from  one  angle  of  a 
vaulted  ceiling  across  the  center  to  the  opposite 
angle. 

Di-ag'o-nal  Scale.  A  mathematical  scale  in 
which  tlie  smaller  divisions  are  made  by  lines  that 
run  obliijuely  across  the  larger  divisions. 

Di-ag'o-nal  Tie.    .An  angle-brace. 

Di-ag'o-nal   'Wrench.     An    S-shaped    wrench 
adapted  to  be  used  in  corners  where 
the  ordinary  wrench  will  not  turn. 

Di'al.   1.   An  instrument  for  show- 
ing   the   time  of   day  by  the    sun's , 
shadow. 

Since  man  first  looked  up  and  re- 
garded the  sun,  its  apjiarent  diurnal 
course  has  been  the  measure  of  time 
as  to  parts  of  days,  as  the  recurrences 
of  his  visits  have  formerl  the  units  of 
the  .still  greater  period  « hich  marks 
his  complete  circuit  in  the  zodiac. 

"  Hetween  day-break  and  sun-ujj" 
may  be  a  local  expression,  but  it  has 
its  analogues  in  all  idioms,  and  like 
its  congeners,  "an  hour  by  the  sun," 
and  "  the  sun  two  hours  high,"  marks 
the  constant  reference  by  those  of 
out-door  occupation  to  the  master  of 
day  as  the  measurer  of  time.     In  the  Diagonal  Wrenc/i. 


DIAL. 


692 


DIAL. 


latitiule  of  Oliio,  a  furmer  judges  of  noon  in  liarvest- 
tinie  by  reaching  one  foot  forwanl  to  try  whether 
he  can  step  on  to  the  shadow  of  his  head.  The  tired 
farm-servant  of  Me.so]iotaniia  "  earnestly  (h^sired 
tlie  [eastward]  sliadow,"  as  he  watched  the  sun 
gradually  decline  in  the  western  sky. 

It  is  u.seless,  then,  to  e.xpect  to  give  a  date  for  the 
invHiition  of  the  sun-dial.  It  was  not  an  iiiveution, 
but  an  observation. 

It  is  evident  that  the  dial  having  a  gnomon  which 
makes  with  the  horizontal  plane  an  angle  ei[ual  to 
the  latitude  of  the  place  is  the  invention  of  the 
Asiatics,  it  is  bootless  to  inquire  wliether  it 
originated  on  the  southern  slope  of  the  great  back- 
bone of  the  continent,  or  in  far  Cathay,  by  the  Yel- 
low .Sea.  Herodotus,  whose  fame  grows  clearer  and 
brighter  as  yeara  wa.\  and  wane,  states  that  the 
Greeks  received  the  sun-dial  from  the  Chaldeans 
(see  that  of  Berosn.s,  iiifni).  We  nu\y  fairly  judge 
the  character  of  the  ancient  dials  from  those  yet 
remaining  in  India,  which  are  destitute  of  modem 
innovations,  such  as  ghuss  lenses  and  linely  graduated 
metallic  scales. 

Dr.  Hooker,  in  his  "  Notes  in  Bengal,  Ncpaul, 
etc,"  gives  sketches  of  the  sun-dials  in  the  (Observa- 
tory of  Benares.  This  observatory  was  built  by 
Jey  Sing,  Riijah  of  Jayanagar,  upwards  of  200  years 
ago.  His  skill  in  mathematical  science  was  so  great 
that  the  Emperor  Mohammed  Shah  employed  him 

Fig  1624. 


Eqtiatorial  Sun-Dial  (^Benares). 

to  refoiTO  the  calendar.  He  also  built  the  observa- 
tories of  Delhi,  Matra  on  the  .lunina,  and  Onjein. 
The  Xarce-inin,  or  equatorial  sun-dial,  has  a  face  26 
inches  in  diameter  ;  the  Sciiirat-i/mita,  or  eiiuinoctial 
sun-dial,  has  a  gnomon  30  feet  long,  and  each  quad- 
rant is  9  feet  long.  These  instruments,  which  are 
shown  in  a  group  in  Fig.  309,  are  jiartictilarly  in- 
teresting, as  tliey  carry  the  eye  back  to  the  times  of 
the  Chaldean  ast'.onomers.  There  is  no  reasonable 
doubt  but  that  tliese  instruments,  absolutidy  devoid 
of  lenses  and  tubes,  are  similar  to  those  used  bv  the 
observers  of  Mesopotanna  and  the  valley  of  the  Nile, 
4,000  years  ago.  The  dial  of  the  Hindoos  is  ileseribed 
in  the  Surya  Siddhaiita,  or  Sanskrit  te.\t-book  of 
astronomy,  translated  for  the  Americ'an  Oriental 
Society,  and  published  in  their  journal,  Vol.  VI. 

About  771  years  before  the  Christian  Era,  the 
Assyrian  king  Phiil  invaded  Samaria.  Thirty-one 
years  afterward,  Pckah  of  Samaria  besieged  the  young 
King  Ahaz  in  Jerusalem,  and  the  latter  sent  to  Tig- 


lath-Pile.ser,  the  Assyrian,  then  in  Damascus,  for 
help  against  his  enemy.  This  was  given.  When 
Ahaz  went  tt)  Dania.scus  to  greet  his  benefactor,  he 
saw  a  beautiful  altar,  and  sent  working  drawings  of 
it  to  Urijah,  the  priest  in  Jerusalem.  An  altar  was 
completed  against  his  return.  In  the  same  spirit  of 
enterprise  and  taste,  and  probably  from  the  same 
trip  of  oliservation,  he  set  up  the  dial  wdiieh  is  men- 
tioned in  the  account  of  the  miraculous  cure  of  his 
Son  Hezekiah,  thirteen  years  after  Ahaz  was  gathered 
to  his  fathers.  This  is  perhaps  the  first  dial  on 
record,  and  is  140  years   before   Thales,  and  nearly 

Fig.  1625. 


Equinoctial  Dial  (Benares) 

400  years  before  Aristotle  and  Plato,  and  ju.st  a  little 
previous  to  the  lunar  eclipses  observed  at  Babylon, 
as  recorded  liy  Ptolemy. 

The  opinions  as  to  the  construction  of  the  dial  of 
Ahaz  vary  considerably,  and  the  Helirew  word  is 
said,  by  Colonel  White  of  the  Bengal  army,  to  .sig- 
nify a  .v/i;  (>«(»■,  which  much  strenglhens  the  infer- 
ence that  it  was  like  the  eipiinoctial  dial  of  the  In- 
dian naticuis  and  of  Jlesoiiotamia,  from  whence  its 
pattern  is  assumed  to  have  been  derived.  Cyril,  of 
Alexandiia,  —  the  murderer  of  Hypatia,  and  not 
very  good  authority,  —  and  Jerome,  a  much  better 
man,  agreed  in  su])posing  that  it  had  a  gnomon  and 
a  graduated  circle  on  which  the  shadow  of  the  gno- 
mon was  thrown.  The  diurnal  division  of  time  in 
the  observatories  of  Chaldea  was  probably  a  certain 
fr-action  of  a  solar  day  :  but  with  most  nations  the 
natural  day  was  the  jjeriod  between  sunrise  and  sun- 
set, which  was  divided  into  twelve  periods,  whiidi  were 
only  the  eiiuivalent  of  our  hours  at  the  equinoxes, 
when  days  and  nights  ari'  eipial  ;  in  summer  they 
were  longer  and  in  wintei-  shorter  than  at  the  equi- 
noxes. The  Chaldeans,  Syrians,  Hindoos,  Persians, 
Egyptians,  ttreeks,  and  Konians  thus  divided  the 
daylight  into  twelve  jieriods  or  hours,  while  the  civil 
day  was  the  solar  day  and  had  twenty-four  hours. 
The  liial  of  Ahaz  may  have  had  a  vertical  gnomon 
on  the  upper  one  of  a  seiies  of  steps,  the  time  being 
deterniined  by  the  shadow  of  the  point  of  the  gno- 
mon on  the  gi~iduations  of  that  arc-shaped  step 
which  was  di'signed  for  that  season  of  the  year  at 
which  the  observation  was  made.  It  might  thus  re- 
semble the  analemma,  described  by  Vitruvius,  which, 
by  marking  the  length  of  the  shadows  of  a  fixed  gno- 
mon, showed  the  diH'erent  altitudes  of  the  sun  at 
the  different  seasons  of  the  year.     Grotius  sujqiosed 


DIAL. 


693 


DIAL. 


the  dial  of  Aliaz  to  be  a  concave  hemisphere  with  a 
central  globe  whose  shadow  fell  on  the  lines  engraved 
on  the  concavity.  This  would  resemble  the  Greek 
scapha,  a  semicircular  concave  dial,  or  hciuicydium, 
ascribed  by  Vitrnvius  to  Berosus  the  Chaldean,  3-tO 
B.  c.  ;  this  was  long  in  use  in  Rome,  and  many  have 
been  discovered.  It  consisted  of  a  semi-spherical 
horizontal  basin  with  a  style  erected  in  such  a  man- 
ner that  its  e.'ctremity  was  exactly  at  the  center  of 
the  sphere.  The  shadow  of  the  point  of  the  gnomon 
on  the  concave  surface  had  the  same  position  with 
regard  to  the  lower  sphere  that  the  sun  occujiied  in 
the  apparent  spherical  dome  of  the  heavens,  eleven 
converging  lines  in  the  concave  part  dividing  it  into 
the  twelve  hours  of  the  day.  So  much  for  the  sui-- 
mlses  of  those  whose  studies  weie  of  Greece  and 
Rome,  but  to  whom  the  whole  Oriental  world  was 
not,  or  wivs  but  as  a  distant  and  unintelligible  mui'- 
niur.  How  little  even  Alexand  -r  suspected  —  he  who 
penetrated  the  farthest  into  the  teeming  and  con- 
templative East  —  that  the  most  complex  and  elalio- 
rate  language  of  wliich  the  world  had  any  knowledge 
—  the  Sanskrit  —  had  just  ceased  to  become  a  spo- 
ken tongue  !  How  U'iir  the  astute  .Greek  came  to 
opening  the  volume  which  Providence  has  given  to 
be  the  delight  and  tlr!  wonder  of  tlie  philologists  of 
the  nineteenth  cejitury  !  We  adhere  to  the  supposi- 
tion that  the  dial  of  Ahaz  was  a  structure  like  that 
of  B-nares. 

It  will  b3  notieeil  that  the  chronicler  does  not 
state  the  result  in  hoai's,  li  it  in  degrees,  —  a  mathe- 
matical mode  of  state. aeat  which  shows  that  it  had 
reached  its  then  form  thro.igh  the  hands  of  the  as- 
tronomers, with  wliom  the  division  of  the  circle  into 
360'  was  usual  at  the  earliest  recorded  period  at 
which  astronomiital  instruments  are  mentioned. 
The  ancient  horaiy  division  of  the  Hindoos  was  in- 
to sbcty  hours.  Tlie  Chinese  divide  the  solar  day 
into  twelve  period-!,  each  equal  to  two  of  our  hours. 
The  .lapmese  divid  ■  tile  solar  day  in  the  same  man- 
ner, but  for  common  customary  purposes  the  period 
of  daylight  into  six  e  |  iil  parts.  The  length  of  the 
divisional  portions  of  daylight  would  therefore  vary 
with  the  season,  but  extreme  accuracy  is  dispensed 
with,  and  the  variitioui  are  regulated  four  times  in 
a  year  upon  tlie  average  of  three  months.  The  ear- 
liest mention  of  hours  is  perhaps  in  Daniel  iv.  19, 
when  the  prophet  b;came  "astonied  for  one  hour." 
As  Daniel  was  of  tlie  great  men,  we  may  assume 
that  his  coma  lasted  about  sixty  of  our  minutes,  as 
he  probably  regarded  the  horary  division  of  the 
astrologers,  rather  than  the  vulgar  and  fluctuating 
term  of  the  populace.  It  is  not  insignificant  that 
the  word  hoicr  occurs  but  once  in  the  common 
translation  of  the  Old  Testain;-'nt,  sixty-seven  times 
in  the  New  Testament. 

The  weekly  period  is  mentioned  in  the  oldest  book 
in  the  world  (Genesis),  and  dates  from  the  planting 
of  man  upon  this  sphere.  The  nomenclature  of  the 
days,  placing  them  under  tlie  regency  of  the  planets, 
is  ascribed  to  the  Chaldeans  by  some  of  the  ancients, 
but  Dion  Ca.ssius  (XXXVII.  18)  says,  with  as  great 
■  probability,  that  the  Egyptians  were  tlie  first  to  re- 
fer the  days  to  the  seven  planets.  They  used  the 
liL'bdoraadal  division  for  certain  relii;jious  observances, 
but  also  the  decades  or  divisions  by  tens  of  days, 
which  is  also  used  by  the  Chinese.  Their  twelve 
hours  of  day  and  twelve  of  night  were  also  each  dedi- 
cated to  a  genius  called  Xnu  (hour>.  Niglit  was 
held  to  precede  day  :  "  The  evening  and  the  morning 
were  the  first  day"  (Gen.  i.  5). 

The  Chinese,  ancient  Romans,  modern  European 
nations,  and  astronomers  generally  began  or  begin 
the   day  with   midnight ;    the  Chaldeans,   Syrians, 


Hindoos,  and  Persians  with  sunrise.  With  the 
former  he  is  a  great  fact,  with  the  latter  a  god. 

"The  Egyptians,  they  said,  were  the  first  to  dis- 
cover the  solar  year,  and  to  portion  out  its  course 
into  twelve  parts.  They  obtained  this  knowledge 
from  the  -stars.  To  my  mind  tln'V  contrive  their 
year  much  better  than  the  (.ireeks,  fur  tliese  last  in- 
tercalate every  other  year  a  whole  month,  but  the 
Egyptians,  dividing  the  year  into  twelve  months  of 
thirty  days  each,  add  every  year  a  space  of  five  days 
[and  a  quarter]  besides,  whereby  the  circuit  of  the 
seiisons  is  made  to  return  with  uniformity."  — 
HERODOTrs  II.  4. 

"These  [Egj'ptians]  of  Thebes  seem  most  accu- 
rately to  have  observed  the  eclipses  of  the  sun  and 
moon  ;  and  from  them  do  so  manage  their  prognos- 
tications that  they  certainly  foretell  every  future 
event.  " —  DiODOUi's  SicuLrs  (60  n.  c). 

The  Egyptians  had  the  true  helioi'entric  theory 
of  the  .solar  system,  which  the  Greeks  could  not  re- 
ceive, and  which  was  revived  twenty  centuries  after- 
wards by  Co]iemicus.  It  was  a  great  event  for 
Europe  when  Psammeticus,  about  650  B.  r.,  opened 
the  ports  of  Egj'pt  to  the  other  Mediterranean 
nations,  and  encouraged  the  loniaus  aud  Cariaiis  to 
settle  there. 

The  horoseopus,  who  occujiied  the  second  place 
in  the  proces.sion  of  the  Egyptian  priests,  carried  a 
fuirologitfm,  or  sun-dial. 

The  dial  is  mentioned  in  the  book  of  Tobit,  which 
is  supiiosed  to  liave  been  written  by  a  Jew  of  Pales- 
tine, detailing  the  experiences  of  an  Israelite  of  the 
tribe  of  Najdithali,  who  lived  in  Nineveh  in  the 
reigns  of  Shalmanezer  and  Sennacherib. 

Perhaps  the  true  order  of  statement  would  have 
been  Ix'tter  pre.'.erved  if  we  had  conuneiiced  the  his- 
tory of  the  dial  with  the  Chinese,  who  aie  stated, 
no  doubt  truthfully,  to  have  used  the  gnomon  from 
the  earliest  antiquity  ;  but  the  notii:es  attainable  are 
so  scattering  and  vague  that  it  isdilHcult  to  associate 
them  with  the  definite  details  which  have  been 
principally  referred  to  so  far.  The  study  of  astronomy 
in  China  is  as  ancient  as  the  time  of  Abraham,  and 
the  earliest  known  observations  are  Chinese  (see 
AsTRiiNOMlCAL  IxsTKU.MF.NT.s),  though  We  have 
statements  of  ancient  historians  that  observations 
quite  as  ancient  were  made  by  the  Chaldeans.  The 
dials  commonly  used  in  China  aie  n.entioned  by 
Jlohammedan  travelers  in  that  counliy  in  the  ninth 
century. 

After  all  this,  it  seems  idle  to  quote  the  saying  of 
Pliny,  that  the  sun-dial  was  originally  invented  by 
Anaximander  of  Miletus  (,'i50  B.  c.) ;  but  that  cunous 
writer,  to  whose  a]i]ietite  for  infomiation  we  owe  so 
much,  felt  bound  to  give  an  origin  for  everything. 
He  might  even  have  read  in  Homer  (9.i0  E.  c),  the 
not  very  recondite  reference  to  a  sun-dial  :  — 

'*  These  curious  e.ves,  inscribed  with  wonder,  trace 
The  sun's  diurnal  and  his  annual  rax-e." 

The  building  in  Athens  long  known  as  the  "Tower 
of  the  Winds"  is  now  known  as  the  "Horological 
Monument  of  Andronicus  Cyrrhestes."  It  had  eight 
faces,  CAch  provided  with  a  gnomon  and  divisional 
markings. 

The  dial  in  the  square  court  of  the  Alexandrian 
Museum  was  visited  by  an  august  jirocession  of 
philosophers  during  the  seven  centuries  which  sepa- 
rated Aristarehns  from  Hypatia.  On  the  instru- 
ment, which  had  a  ])lane  parallel  to  the  ei^nator  and 
a  gnomon  parallel  to  the  earth's  polar  axis,  Hip- 
parchus,  130  B.  c,  learned  tlie  length  of  the  year, 
that  the  four  quarters  of  the  year  are  not  of  equal 
length,  and  also  observed  the  precession  of  the  equi- 
noxes.     See  AUMILLAltY  Spheue. 


DIAL. 


694 


DIAL. 


Before  the  time  of  the  erection  of  a  suii-tlial  in  the 
Qiiiriii  i.s  by  Ij.  l*apyrin.s  I'ur.sor,  293  B.  c,  the  time 
was  called  liy  watclie^i,  wliich  divided  the  time  be- 
tween the  rising  and  setting  of  tlie  sun.  About 
thirty  yeai-s  alter,  the  Consul  Marcus  Valerius 
Messala  l)rou^lit  to  Rome  a  dial  from  the  spoils  of 
Catania,  in  Si,:ily,  and  this  he  pla^ied  on  a  pillar 
ne.ir  the  rostrum  ;  but,  not  being  calculateil  for  the 
latitude  of  Rome,  it  was  ine.xaet. 

Tlie  obelisk  erected  by  Augustus  in  the  Campus 
Martius  was  brought  by  his  orders  from  Egypt.  It 
was  originally  hewn  for  Pharaoh  Sesothis,  according 
to  Pliny,  and  was  76j  feet  in  hight.  After  being 
l)ng  buried  in  ruin.s,  it  w;us  disinterred  but  not  re- 
ercjted  by  Pope  Benedict  XIV.,  and  was  found  to 
be  broken.  Pliny  stites  that  in  its  ])osition  in  the 
Campus  Martius  it  was  "  applied  to  a  singular  pur- 
pose by  tile  late  Enip'ror  Augustus,  that  of  marking 
the  shatlows  projecteil  by  the  sun,  and  so  measuring 
the  length  of  the  days  and  nights.  With  this  ob- 
ject a  stone  pavement  was  laid,  the  extreme  length 
of  which  corresponded  exactly  with  the  length  of 
the  shadow  thrown  by  the  obelisk  at  tliR  sixth  hour 
(noon)  on  the  day  of  the  winter  solstice.  After  this 
period  the  shadow  would  go  on  day  by  day, 
gradually  decreasing,  anil  then  again  would  as 
gradually  increase,  correspomling  with  certain  lines 
of  brass  that  were  inserted  in  tlie  stone  ;  a  device 
well  deserving;  ti  b:^  known,  and  due  to  the  in- 
genuity of  Facundus  Novus,  the  mathematician." 

On  an  ancient  bas-relief  at  Kome,  an  hour-glass  is 
placed  in  the  hands  of  Morpheus,  and  Atheniens 
says  that  the  ancients  carried  portable  lio.ir-glasses 
with  them  as  measurer.s  of  time. 

The  ancients  had  three  time-measurers,  —  dials, 
liour-glasses,  clepsydras.  Alfred  the  Great  added 
wax  tajiers  ;  perhaps  Elm  Junis  the  pulsating  lever  ; 
Galileo  anil  Huyghens  tlio  pendulum.     See  Clock. 

The  Spaniards  found  the  jlexicans  provided  with 
sun-dials  for  determining  the  hour,  and  in.struments 
for  tlie  solstices  and  equinoxes.  Their  day  had  six- 
teen hours,  commencing  at  sunrise.  The  Peruvians 
had  also  their  sun-dials.  One  in  Quito,  in  the  form 
of  an  obelisk  in  the  center  of  a  circle  on  which  was 
marked  an  east  and  west  line,  indicated  the  eipunox. 
These  were  destroyed  by  the  ignorant  Spaniards,  who 
thought  them  idolatrous.  Their  ancestors  had  stared 
with  the  sam :  stujiid  amazement  at  the  Saracenic 
arniils  and  observatories. 

Dials  were  placed  in  the  gardens  of  the  Tuileries 
and  Luxembourg,  so  arranged  as  to  fire  a  cannon  at 
noon.  A  mortar  is  ]iliced  on  the  meridian  line  of 
tlie  dial,  with  a  burning  lens  placed  over  the  touidi- 
liole  at  such  a  distance  and  angle  that  as  soon  as  the 
sun  arrives  on  the  meridian  its  rays,  concentrated  by 
the  lens,  set  fire  to  the  powder,  the  explosion  of 
which  announces  the  hour  of  noon. 

"  We  take  no  note  of  time  but  from  its  loss  ; 
To  give  it  tlien  a  tongue  is  wise  in  man." 

The  voice  i;  ratlier  more  energetic  than  anything 
which  in;4ancholy  Young  had  probably  anticipated 
or  would  enjoy. 

Dials  are  of  various  construction,  according  to  the 
presentation  of  the  )dane  of  the  dial. 

The  pnlar-iliitl  {A)  has  a  plane  parallel  to  the  axis 
of  the  earth  and  (lerpendicular  to  the  meridian  of  the 
lilace.  In  this  case,  the  style  is  parallel  to  the  plane 
of  the  dial,  and  tlie  liour-liiies  are  jiarallel  straight 
lines,  whose  distance-i  from  the  meridional  line  are 
respectively  ]iroportioned  to  the  tangents  of  the  an- 
gles which  tlie  hour-planes  make  with  the  plane  of 
the  meridian. 

The  com}mm  dial  (B)  has  a  horizontal  plane,  and 
makes  with  the  style  an  angle  equal  to  the  latitude 


FiR.  1626. 


viii    1^  ^jgxiil   II    111    ly 


ip 


-Vtll     ]X    X  M^III    II    III      IV 


»    1   1       o 


Siin-Diah. 


of  the  place,  the  style  preserving  its  paiallcdisni  to 
the  earth's  axis.  This  becomes  a  2^olar  diaJ  at  the 
equator,  as  the  plane  of  the  dial  is  also  parallel  to 
the  earth's  axis.  At  other  latitudes,  the  liour-lines 
intersect  each  other  in  the  point  in  wliich  the  .style 
intersects  the  plane  of  the  dial.  The  angles  which 
the  hour-lines  make  with  each  other  and  with  the 
meiidional  line  cutting  the  XII  depend  upon  the  lati- 
tude. 

The  vertical  dial  (C)  has  a  plane  fixed  to  a  wall, 
tower,  or  house.  The  determination  of  the  hour- 
lines  is  similar  to  the  ca.se  of  the  horizontal  dial,  but 
the  angle  formeil  by  the  gnomon  and  dial-jilane  is 
the  cmn;ilemenl  of  the  latitude,  the  style  jircserving 
its  pirallelism  with  the  earth's  axis  as  before. 

Varieties  of  the  vertical  dial  are  found  with  those 
having  presentations  eiist,  west,  etc.  When  the  plane 
is  east  or  west,  it  is  in  the  meridian,  is  [tarallel  to  the 
vertical  plane  of  the  style,  and  the  hour-lines  are  all 
parallel. 

When  a  wall  dial  is  not  perpendicular,  it  is  said  to 
be  declined. 

When  it  does  not  face  directly  one  of  the  four  car- 
dinal points,  it  is  called  a  vertical  declined  dial. 

The  dial  shows  true  or  solar  time,  and  not  the 
mean  time  of  a  well-regulated  clock.  The  dial 
agrees  with  such  a  clock  four  days  in  the  year. 

An  aziiiwth  dial  has  a  style  pei-pendicular  to  the 
plane  of  the  horizon,  and  marks  the  sun's  azimuth. 

The  pocket  sun-dial  (D)  has  a  little  compass  for 
adjustment,  and,  of  course,  is  only  moderately  exact 
even  at  its  calculated  latitude. 

2.   The  grad- 


uated and  num- 
bered face- 
plate of  a  watch 
or  clock.  A 
dial-])hitr. 

The  old  Chi- 
nese dials,  like 
the  divisions  of 
the  clepsydra, 
were  decimally 
divided.  The 
duodecimal  di- 
vision is  later 
than  Kung-fu- 
tze. 

The  dial  (Fig. 
1627)  is  a  sug- 
gestion for  one 


Fig.  1627. 


Chinese  Ctork-Vial. 


DIAL-LOCK. 


69o 


DIAMOND-CUTTIJTG. 


Telrg'iiph-Dial 


for  the  Chinese  market ;  the  outer  circle  has  numerals 
corresponding  to  Roman  numerals.  The  inner  circle 
has  the  Chinese  horary  characters  for  the  jieriods  of 
two  hours  each,  as  they  do  not  indicate  these  by 
numbers.  The  small  intervening  figin-es  of  the  inner 
circle  divide  the  two-hour  periods  into  hours.  The 
index  finger  or  hand  makes  one  revolution  in  twenty- 
four  hours. 

3.   (Telegraphy.)     An  insulated  stationary  wheel 
having    altern-ating 
Fig  1628.  conducting  and  non- 

conducting portions 
against  which  the 
point  of  a  spring 
key  is  in  frictional 
contact.  To  the 
wheel  H  one  of  the 
wires  of  the  battery 
is  attached,  and  the 
other  wire  to  the 
axis  of  the  spring- 
key  c,  whose  pointer 
rests  on  the  wheel. 
As  the  key  rotates, 
while  it  passes  over 
the  metallic  portion 
of  the  wheel,  the 
circuit  is  complete, 
and  when  it  passes 
over  the  non-con- 
conducting  portions  i  i  of  the  wheel  the  circuit  is 
broken.  Thus  are  signals  given  in  Farmer's  fire- 
alarm  telegra|jh. 

Another  form  of  telegraph-dial  is  the  lettered  and 

number        dial 
1629  of    the    Cooks 

and  Wheat- 
stone  tele- 
graph, in  whose 
center  a  pointer 
rotates  or  o.scil- 
lates,  and  di- 
rects attention 
j  of  the  observer 
to  the  letters, 
(which  are 
spelled  ti'l 
scrintim  by  this 
means. 

4.   A     circu- 
larly graduated 
jilate  on  which 
an  index-finger 
marks     revolu- 
tions, pressure, 
or  what  not,  in 
a    register, 
counter,  or 
meter.     Tlie  cut  shows  a  steam-gage  dial  which  has 
two  graduated  circles,  one  representing  pressure,  the 
other  temperature. 

5.  An  instrument  for  holding  the  r?<>/i  on  the  end 
of  which  the  gem  is  cemented  while  exposed  to  the 
lap  or  wheel.  It  has  ailjustnn-nts  as  to  inclination, 
and  also  axial,  with  markers  indicating  degrees  in 
adjustment,  so  as  to  portion  out  the  circumference 
of  the  stone  in  facets  forming  chords  of  specific  arcs 
at  oiven  depths.      See  Axgvi.ometek. 

Di'al-lock.  .\  lock  provided  with  one  or  more 
dials,  having'  a  series  of  letters  or  fignres  on  them. 
Each  dial  lias  a  hand  or  pointer  connected  by  a 
spindle  with  a  wheel  inside  tlie  lock  ;  on  the  wheel 
is  a  notch  whii'h  has  to  be  brought  into  a  certain 
.position  before  the  bolt  can  be  moved.     There  are 


Steam- Gage  Dial. 


false  notches  to  add  to  the  difficulty  of  finding  the 
ti'ue  notch  in  each  wheel.  To  adjust  the  notches  to 
their  proper  position,  a  nut  on  the  back  of  the  wheel 
is  loosened,  and  the  pointer  is  set  at  any  letter  or 
figure  chosen  by  the  user.     S<'e  Pkkmi'Tation-lock. 

Di'al-plate".  (tVocA-.)  The  fiice  on  which  the 
divisions  indicating  the  hours  and  minutes  are  placed. 

Di'al-wheeL  (Horoloiiy. )  One  of  those  wheels 
placed  between  the  dial  and  pillar  plate  of  a  watch. 
Also  called  tiiiiiute-irluel  zcorks. 

Di'al-work.  {Horology.)  The  motion  work  be- 
tween the  ilial  and  movement  plate  of  a  watch. 

Di'a-mond.  1.  (PrintiiHj.)  A  small  kind  of 
type  used  in  English  printing  :  — 

Diamond,  S^S  etas  to  th«  toet, 

Fearl,  178  ems  to  the  foot 

2.  A  lozaige  or  rhomb.  The  name  is  conferred 
upon  nuts  and  bolt-heads  of  that  form.  Also  upon 
gravers  which  are  rhombal,  and  not  square  in  cross- 
section. 

3.  A  valuable  gem,  the  hardest  of  all,  and  of 
various  colore.  It  has  many  uses  in  the  mechanic 
arts,  derived  fi»ni  its  extreme  hardness  ;  .some  uses 
in  optics,  owing  to  its  high  refractive  and  small  dis- 
persive power.     Sp.  gi'.  3.521. 

Among  the  celebiated  diamonds  may  be  ncfted  the 
following  :  — 

Great  iVogul.  Found  in  1550,  in  Golconda,  and 
seen  by  Tavernier.  Weighed  793  carats  ;  cut  to  279 
carats  (carat,  4  gi'ains). 

BiL^sian.  Taken  from  a  Brahmiuical  idol  by  a 
French  soldier  ;  sold  to  the  Empress  Catherine  for 
i90,000  and  an  annuity  of  £4,000.  Weighs  194' 
cai-ats. 

put.  Brought  from  India  by  Mr.  Pitt,  the  giand- 
father  of  the  firet  l-^rl  of  Cliatham  ;  sold  to  the 
Ilegent  Duke  of  Oiieans,  in  1717,  for  £135,000. 
Weighed  when  rough,  400  carats ;  cut  to  136J  carats. 
Napoleon  placed  it  in  the  hilt  of  his  sword. 

Kuh-i-nom:  Seen  by  Tavernier  in  1665,  in  the 
possession  of  the  Great  Jlogul.  Seized  hj'  Nadir 
Shah,  in  1739,  at  the  taking  of  Delhi.  Became  the 
property  of  Runjeet  Sing.  Captured  by  the  Eng- 
lish at  the  taking  of  the  Punjab.  Presented  to  tlie 
Queen  by  the  East  India  Company,  in  1850  ;  weighed 
in  the  rough  800  carats,  cut  to  iSGr^-  carats  ;  recut 
to  103 J  carats.  —  Bi;.\NDE. 

Austrian.     A  rose-cut  diamond  of  139i  carats. 

Sir  Isaac  Newton  suggested  that  the  diamond  is 
oomliustible,  but  the  first  to  estalilish  the  fact  were 
the  Florentine  Academicians,  in  1694;  they  suc- 
ceeded in  burning  it  in  the  foctis  of  a  laige  lens.  La- 
voisier, in  1772,  examined  the  results  of  combustion, 
"which  sTiowed  it  to  be  pure  ciy.stalline  form  of  carbon. 

The  uses  of  the  diamond  include  the  following : — 

Abradant  for  various  pui-po-ses,  in  wheels,  laps, 
and  slicers. 

Stone  drilling  and  sawing.     See  Cakbon  tool- 

PnlNTS. 

Engraver's  ruling,  and  marking  graduations  on 
instruments. 

Class-cutting.  Lenses.  Jeweliy. 

Di'a-mond-cut'ter's  Com'pass.  (iJimnond-eut- 
timi.)  An  iiistrunn-iit  used  to  measure  the  inclina- 
tion of  the  sides  of  jewels.  It  is  a  movable  arm  a, 
inserted  at  an  angle  of  45°  into  a  metallic  base  b.  It 
is  shown  in  the  lower  illustration  of  Fig.  1630  as 
measuring  the  inclination  of  the  eolkt-side  to  the 
girdle  and  the  bi:et  to  the  table.     See  Bkilliant. 

Di'a-mond-cut'ting.  Until  1476,  when  Louis 
de  Berghern,  of  Bruges,  first  discovered  this  art,  the 
diamond  was  worn  uncut ;  the  four  great  stones  in 
the  mantle  of  Charlemagne  funiishing  an  example. 

The  diamond  is  cut  in  three  forms,  the  Buili.iant 


DIAMOND-CUTTING. 


696 


DIAMOND-DRILL. 


(which  see),  the  rose,  and  the  table,  and  their  re- 
spective values  are  in  the  order  named.  The  form  a 
diamond  shall  assume  is  determined  by  its  shajie  in 
the  rough,  the  duty  of  the  lapidary  being  to  cut  it 
so  as  to  sacrifice  as  little  as  possible  of  the  stone  and 
obtain  the  gi-eatest  surface,  refraction,  and  general 
beauty.  Having  decided  upon  the  fomi,  a  model  is 
made  in  lead  and  kept  before  the  workman  as  a  copy. 
The  rough  diamond  is  cemented  to  a  handle  calli'd 
a  diyp  (a.  Fig.  1630),  leaving  the  part  exposal 
which  is  to  be  removed  to  form  one  facet.  The  pro- 
jecting portion  is  then  removed  by  attrition  against 
another  diamond  similarly  set  in  a  handle  {B,  Fig. 
1630),  or  by  means  of  diamond-dust  and  oil  upon  a 
disk,  wheel,  or  wire,  according  to  circumstances. 
When  a  facet  is  huished,  the  stone  is  reset  in  the 

Fig.  1630. 


Diamtmff-  Ctttting. 

handle  and  the  proces.s  ri'peated.  Several  months 
are  ex])ended  in  cutting  lai-ge  stones,  as  the  work 
proceeds  very  slowly. 

The  polishing  is  performed  upon  a  rapidly  revolv- 
ing iron  wheel  d,  driven  by  a  band  cj,  and  fetl  by  haml 
with  diamond-du.st  and  oil  ((',  Fig.  1630).  The  dia- 
mond is  set  in  a  do])  as  before,  on  the  end  of  a 
weighted  arm  fe,  and  held  against  the  wheel  ;  the 
results  of  the  process  being  collected  in  a  box  for 
future  operations. 

The  weight  of  a  diamond  is  exiiressec!  in  carats 
equal  to  four  grains  ;  the  tcnn  is  derived  from  thi; 
Arabic  <prat,  a  bean,  a  word  derived  from  the  Grei^k 
kemtimi,  signifying  a  little  honi,  the  frait  of  the  ka- 
rob-tree. 

The  value  of  a  diamond  is  commonly  increased 
threefold  by  skillful  cutting,  ami  its  value  is  the 
.square  of  its  weight  exjin'sscd  in  carats  multiplied 
by  S  40  specie.  This  is  but  an  appro.timation  to  the 
truth,  for  the  value  of  diamonds  fluctuates  like  other 
things,  though  to  a  less  extent. 


Diamonds  with  Haws  or  imperfections  are  sawn 
asunder  or  split ;  the  latter  (shown  at  A)  being  a 
speedy  but  risky  operation,  requiring  great  judg- 
ment in  determining  the  plane  of  cleavage  and  skill 
in  the  use  of  the  chisel  b  and  haiumer.  For  sawing, 
a  fine  wire  is  used,  fed,  as  in  the  case  of  the  revolv- 
ing-wheel, with  diamond-d\ist  and  oil. 

l)iamonds  are  of  various  colors.  They  are  crys- 
tallized caibon,  which,  not  color,  determines  the 
chenucal  difference  between  the  dianKUul  and  other 
gems,  .such  as  the  ruby,  amethyst,  topaz,  etc.,  while 
its  hardness  exjiresses  its  mechanical  ditfcrence. 

Di'a-mond-draft.  ( Weaving. )  A  method  of 
drawing  the  war]i-threads  through  the  heddles. 

Di'a-mond-drill.  A  drill  aimed  with  a  dia- 
mond, which  cuts  its  way  into  the  material  as  the 
drill-stock  is  lotated.  It  was  invented  by  Hermann, 
and  patented  in  France  by  him,  June  3,  185-1.  He 
states  that  he  makes  crystals  or  angular  fragments  of 
the  black  diamond  useful  in  "working,  turning,  and 
polishing,  etc.,  of  hard  stones  such  as  granite,  por- 
phyry, marbles,  etc."  The  diamond  is  broken  to  ob- 
tain angular  fragments,  which  are  embi'dded  by  alloys 
in  the  metallic  stock,  to  form  a  cutting-tool  (6'  c'. 
Fig.  1631).     See  C'AKmiN  Tool-I'oints,  p.  461. 

In  his  certificate  of  addition,  March  31,  1S55, 
he  states  that  the  diamonds  are  to  be  inserted  in 
holes  drilled  for  them  in  the  end  of  the  drill-rod, 
the  metal  being  battered  down  around  them  to  form 
a  bezel. 

The  drill-bar  slides  vertically,  and  is  rotated  by 
lievel-gearing.  He  refers  to  the  need  of  water  on 
the  drill. 

Leschot  in  1860-64,  and  Pihet,  in  1866,  de- 
voted some  care  to  the  matter ;  the  latter  introducing 


Fig.  1631. 


Diamond  Tools. 


the  annular  drill -head  (shown  at  «',  Fig.  1631),  which 
is  a  steel  ring  studded  with  black  diamonds.  The 
heads  of  the  drills  used  at  the  Mont  Cenis  Tunnel, 
and  the  excavations  by  General  Newton  at  Hal- 
let's  Point,  East  Eiver,  N.  Y.,  were  of  this  char- 
acter. 

Fig.  1632  represents  a  prospecting  or  open-cut 
drill  detached  from  the  boiler  whi<di  drives  it.  The 
two  oscillating  engines  c  drive  tlu;  bevel-geaiing  d, 
which  rotates  the  drill-bar  ef  fn)m  900  to  1,000 
revolutions  per  minute,  boring  in  ordinary  rock 
from  15  to  20  feet  ])er  hour,  a  is  the  frame,  II  the 
steam  connections. 

Fig.  1633  is  a  mining  or  tunnel  drill.  Tlie  tip- 
right  frame  E  E,  which  sup|)orts  the  swivel  drill- 
head  with  its  gears  and  drill,  is  attached  by  hinge- 


DIAMOND-DRILL. 


697 


DIAMOND-MORTAR. 


Fig  1632 


Fig.  1633. 


Prospecting- DriU. 

plates  to  the  top  and  bottom  of  the  driving-.shaft  F, 
ami  may  be  swung  to  the  riglit  or  left,  describing  a 
semicircle.  This  allows  the  drill  to  act  at  any 
angle  of  the  horizontal  arc  thus  described  without 
moving  the  machine.  The  drill-head  also  slides  up 
and  down  this  adjustable  frame  E  E,  enabling  it  to 
bore  a  perpendicular  row  of  horizontal  holes. 

The  drill  itself,  with  its  feed-gears  and  sliding- 
guide  0,  may  be  turned  completely  round  bj'  loosen- 
ing a  nut  ou  the  back  of  the  swivel-head  so  that  the 
point  of  the  drill  shall  describe  a  vertical  circle,  at 
any  angle  of  wliich  it  will  bore  equally  well. 

The  two  uprights  G  G  used  to  support  the  driving- 
shaft  F  are  made  of  common  hydraulic  pipe,  and 
may  be  lengthened  or  shortened  according  to  the 
hight  of  the  tunnel.  The  driving-shaft  F  has  a 
sliding-gear  attached  by  feather  and  spline,  adjust- 
able at  any  position.  The  sliding  brace  just  lieneath 
this  gear  is  used  to  steady  the  driving-shaft.  Motion 
is  communicated  to  this  shaft  by  means  of  the  gear 
D.  The  posts  E  E  are  set  firmly  against  the  upper 
wall  by  means  of  e.'ctension-screws  N  N,  which  may 
be  run  \\\i  two  or  three  feet  if  desiieil.  The  steam 
or  compressed  air  is  brought  through  rubber  hose 
from  any  convenient  distance,  and  introduced  into 
the  engine  by  pipe  L.  M  is  the  exhaust-pipe.  The 
feed  may  be  varied  at  pleasure,  and  according  to  the 
hardness  of  the  rock  f.  om  90  to  340  revolutions  per 
inch  ;  that  is,  from  2  to  10  inches  per  minute.  The 
machine  is  balanced  on  its  axle  by  depressing  the 
handles  ff,  and  trundled  about  like  a  wheelbarrow. 
Operated  by  either  comjiressed  air  or  steam. 

In  Fig.  1631,  a  a  are  front  and  side  views  of 
diamond-chisels  used  in  turning  rubies  for  watcli- 
jeweliug. 

i  is  a  diamond-drill  for  making  the  hole  in  the« 
ruby  plate.  | 

rf  is  a  tool  of  steel  wire  to  be  used  with  diamond- 
dust  in  drilling  jewels.  | 


Tunnel-Drill. 

e  f  are  two  views  of  a  triangular  fragment  of 
diamond  mounted  for  drilling  china  or  porcelain. 

3  is  a  square  stone  mounted  for  the  same  purpose. 

h  is  a  metallic  tube  for  drilling  annular  holes  in 
jewels  with  diamond-dust. 

i  is  a  diamond-point  mounted  for  etching  or  ruling 
in  engraving. 

j  k  are  diamonds  mounted  for  ruling  graduations 
of  matlieniatii-d  instruments. 

Di'a-mond-gage.  Employed  by  jewelers  in 
estimating  the  sizes  of  small  diamonds.  In  the  staff 
are  set  small  ciystals  of  giaduated  sizes  by  which 
jewels  are  compared.  The  crystals  are  from  i  to  /f  of 
a  carat. 

Di'a-mond-head'ed  Bolt.  See  Bolt.  A  bolt 
whoM-  head  has  a  lozenge  or  rliomlial  shape. 

Di'a-mond-knot.  A  kind  of  knot  made  at  equi- 
distant inten-als  on  a  rope,  to  give  support  to  the 
hand  or  foot. 

Di'a-mond-lens.  The  diamond-lens,  owing  to 
its  high  refractive  and  small  dispersive  power,  re- 
quires much  less  curvature  than  glass  lenses  of  the 
same  focal  length.  It  therefore  admits  of  the  em- 
ployment of  a  larger  pencil  of  rays,  and  gives  more 
light.  A  diamond  and  a  plate-glass  lens  of  similar 
form  and  radius  are  in  their  comparative  magnifying- 
powers  as  8  is  to  3. 

Diamond  lenses  were  made  by  Andrew  Pritchard 
in  182i.     One  was  re- 


cently made  in  London 
at  a  cost  of  £250  ster- 
ling. 

Di'a-m  o  n  d-m  o  r'- 
tar.  Diamonds  for  the 
use  of  the  lapidary  are 
crushed  in  a  mortar, 
whicli  consists  of  a  cyl- 
indrical biix  a  and  a 
pestle  h,  both  made  of 
iiardened  steel.  Asmall 
rough  diamond  is  placed 
in  the  mortar,  and  the 


Fig.  1634. 


ri     W 


r^ 


/_ 


Diamond  Mortar  ami  Grinder. 


DIAMOND-NAIL. 


698 


DIBBLING-MACHIXE. 


pestle  diivfu  ilown  by  a  hammer.  The  pieees  of 
Dl'oUeii  (liainoiiil  .Tie  examineil  tor  the  deteetioii  of 
fragments  suitalile  for  gravers,  drills,  and  etohinf;- 
points.  The  rcniaimler  is  masheil  to  an  imiialpalile 
powder  by  several  hours'  continued  work,  rotating 
the  jiestle  between  blows. 

■\\lieu  sullicieut  fineness  is  not  attained  by  the 
mortar,  the  dust  may  be  ground  between  the  con- 
cave and  convex  surfaces  c  of  of  a  hardened  steel 
mill,  a  little  oil  being  added  to  the  dust.  The  par- 
ticles will  grind  I'.irli  other. 

Di'a-mond-uail.  A  nail  having  a  rhombal  bend, 
used  for  .'.ome  jiurjioses.  The  acute  angles  of  the 
rhomb  an?  soractiuie.s  made  to  clinch. 

Di'a-niond-plO'w.  A  small  plow  having  a  mold- 
board  and  share  of  a  diamond  .shape  ;  that  is, 
rhoraboidal.  One  siile  of  the  rhomb  I'uns  level  on 
the  ground,  another  forms  the  breast,  and  the  other 
two  are  the  marginal  Hues  of  the  backward  extension 
of  the  iiiold-l«>ard. 

Di'a-mond-point.  A  stylus  armed  with  a  dia- 
mond, either  ground  conical  or  made  of  a  selected 
fragment  of  the  desired  shape.  AVilson  Lowry  in- 
troduced the  diamond-point  into  eugraver's  ruling- 
machines.  Etching-tools  have  been  pointed  witli 
diamonds.  Dianioni-]M>ints  are  used  in  ruling  tlie 
graduation  of  the  finer  kinds  of  instruments,  also  by 
Nobcrt,  it  is  sujiposed,  in  ruling  the  wonderful 
series  of  lines  that  form  the  tests  of  the  microscopes 
of  higher  powers. 
Di'a-mond-point  Chis'el.  A  chisel  whose  cor- 
nels are  ground  off  olilitjueiy. 

Di'a-moud  -  tool.  {jlila/- 
worl-iiKj.)  A  metal-turning  tool 
whose  cutting  edge  is  formed  by 
facets. 

Di'a-mond-work.  {Uason- 
Tij.)  Keticulated  work  formed 
by  courses  of  lozenge  -  shaped 
stones,  very  common  in  ancient 
masonry. 

Di'a-pa'son.  (Music. )  A  stop 
of  an  organ  having  pijies  or  reeds 
extending  throughout  the  scale  of 
the  instrument. 

Uiapason-stops  may  be  open  or 
stopped,  as  the  pi)ies  are  open 
above  or  are  closed  by  tom2)ioiis. 
Doiihle-diajMsoti  is  an  octave  graver  than  diapason. 
See  Siiii'. 

Di'a-per.  1.  {Fabric.)  A  linen  toweling  with  a 
small  ligure  thrown  up,  as  in  damask. 

2.  A  panel  or  Hat  recessed  surface  covered  with 
carving  or  other  wrought  work  in  low  relief. 

Di'a-per-work.  {.Unsnnrii.)  A  pavement  check- 
ered by  stoni's  or  tiles  of  diti'erent  colors. 

Di'a-phane.  (Fiiliric.)  A  woven  silk  stuff  witli 
traus|i:irriit  and  colored  figures. 

Dia-pha-nom'e-ter.  An  instrument  for  meas- 
uring the  ti;ins|iareiicy  of  the  air. 

Di  a-phan'o-scope.  [Optics.)  A  dark  box  for  ex- 
hibiting tiaiispaivnt  pictures  with  or  without  a  lens. 
Di  a-phan'o-type.  (Photngraphii.)  Another 
name  for  the  Inllenntjipe,  in  which  a  diaphanous  or 
pale  positive  on  a  paper  rendered  translucent  by  var- 
nish is  colored  on  the  back  and  placed  over  and  in 
exact  correspondence  with  a  duplicate  positive  of 
strong  character. 

Di'a-phragm.  1.  A  partition  in  a  chamber, 
tube,  or  other  object. 

Flexible  diaphragms  are  used  in  steam-pressure 
indicators,  faucets,  gas-regulators,  pumps,  etc. 

2.  (Optics.)  An  annular  disk  in  a  camera  or 
telescope,   or  other  optical  instrument,  to  exclude 


Diamnnft'Poinl 
Cliisd. 


some  of  the  marginal  rays  of  a  beam  of  light.  The 
original  form  of  this  beautiful  contrivance  is  the 
iris  of  the  eye,  which  shuts  out  strong  light  and 
ri'gulates  the  quantity  admitted.  The  use  of  the 
iris  was  known  to  Leonardo  da  Vinci. 

Di'a-phragm-fau'cet.  One  which  clo.sos  its 
aperture  liy  the 

dejiression'      of  Fig.  1636. 

the  diaiihragm 
upon  the  end 
of  a  pipe  liy 
means  of  a 
screw-plunger. 

D  i  '  a  - 
p  h  r  a  g  m  - 
plate.  A  phite 
beneath  the 
stage  of  a  com- 
pound micro- 
scope, to  restrict 
the  amount  of 
light  reHected 
from    the    mir-  Diapliragm-Fauctt. 

ror.     The  plate 

has  a  number  of  holes  of  varying  sizes,  either  of 
v.hiili  may  be  brouglit  to  bear. 

Di'a-phragm-pump.  .\  pump  in  wliieli  a  <lisk- 
]dstnii  is  attaclied  by  an  ela.stie  dia)ihragm,  usually 
of  leather,  to  the  sides  of  the  barrel.  It  was 
described  by  Desaguliers  in  1744  as  "a  piston  with- 
out friction."  It  is  much  older  than  the  time  of 
this  philosopher,  however.  It  has  been  again  and 
again  re-invented,  anil  brought  out  with  a  flourish 
of  trumpets.  See  Bag-itjh'.  Its  application  may 
have  been  suggested  by  the  human  diaphragm. 

Di'as-tim'e-ter.  A  philosophical  instniment  for 
measuring  distances. 

Di'a-style.  {Architecture.)  A  system  of  columni- 
ation  in  which  the  width  of  the  intercolumns  is 
cipial  to  tliree  diameters  of  a  column. 

Di'a-tom-prism.    {Optics.)    A  triangular  prism 
used  for  illuminating  small 
objects    in     the    field    by 
oblirpie  light. 

Di-at'o-ni.  Angle-stones 
in  a  wall,  wnniglit  on  two  , 
faces,    and    projecting   be- 
voud   the  general    face  of 
the  wall. 

Dib'ble.  A  pointed  im- 
jileinent  with  a  spade-han- 
dle used  to  make  a  liole  in 
the  ground  to  receive  seed. 
In  the  East  of  England 
wheat-crops  are  put  in  by  Dialom-Prism. 

this  means.     It  is  slow,  but 

sure.  A  man  takes  a  dibble  in  each  hand,  and  goes 
backward  across  the  field  ;  children  following  him 
drop  the  grains  into  the  holes.  It  is  economical  of 
seed,  but  the  principal  motive  i.s  to  condense  the 
soil  around  the  seed,  so  that  it  may  retain  moisture 
in  that  sandy  country  which  once  was  a  rabbit- 
warren,  and  where  a  certain  duchess  told  the  pro- 
jirietor,  Coke  of  Norfolk,  tliat  she  saw  two  rabbits 
quarrelim;  for  one  liliule  of  grass. 

■  DibTjling-ma-chine'.  One  used  for  making 
holes  in  rows  for  potato  sets,  for  bean.s,  or  other 
things  which  are  planted  isolated  in  rows.  It  may 
be  adapted  for  corn  by  instituting  the  ]iroper  pro- 
]iortion  between  the  jiarts  ;  corn  re(|iiiring  a  greater 
distance  apart  in  the  rows,  unless  it  is  only  to  be 
tended  one  way.  Tlie  machine  shown  is  adapted  to 
be  ]iushed  liy  one  man,  and  may  be  a  useful  adjunct 
to  gardening. 


Fig.  1637. 


DICE. 


699 


DICING. 


Fig.  1638. 


^ 


About  1649,  Gabriel  Platte 

described    a  dibbling-innchinc 

formed  of  iron   piii.s,    "made 

I* — --»  to  |ilay  lip  and  down  like  vir- 

<>-J  giiial  jai;ks." 

Dice.  Cubes  with  marked 
sides,  thrown  from  a  box  and 
used  in  gaming  or  determin- 
ing by  chance.  The  dice  of 
Thebes  were  cubical,  and  num- 
bered like  the  modern,  as  may 
be  seen  by  the  figure  which 
represents  ancient  dice  in 
European  museums. 


Fig.  1639. 


Ancient  Egyptian  Dice. 


Dittb'.ers^ 

Dice  are  referred  to  in  several  places  in  the  "  Rig- 
Veda,"  the  most  ancient  of   the   Sanscrit   religious 
book.s  :  — 

"  Let  man  fear  Him  who 
hold.s  the  four  dice,  before 
He  throws  them  down."  — 
};ig-rala,  I.  41,  9  (b.  C. 
1500). 

Rliampsinitus  is  said  by 
Herodotus  to  have  jilayed 
with  the  goddess  Ceres,  and  Mercury  is  fabled  to 
have  played  dice  with  the  moon,  winning  from  her 
the  five  odd  days  of  th?  year. 

The  game  of  checkers  also  was  played  by  Eameses, 
with  two  sets  of  men  or  dogs  {JiifruncuU),  or  counters 
(calculi),  of  different  colors.     See  Checkers. 

While  the  statement  of  Herodotus  po.ssesses  a  cer- 
tain historic  interest,  wc  cannot  credit  that  dice, 
knuckle-bones,  and  ball  were  invented  by  the  Lydi- 
ans  to  while  away  the  alternate  days  of  fasting  to 
which  the  people  were  .subjecte  1  in  a  time  of  bitter 
scarcity.  Neither  can  we  creilit  Socrates  when  he 
avers  that  Palamedes,  .son  of  the  King  of  Euboea, 
invented  dice  to  serve  instead  of  dinner  during  the 
siege  of  Troy,  1200  B.  c. 

"Herodotus  is  mistaken  when  he  says  that  these 
sports  were  invented  in  the  time  of  Atys,  to  amuse 
the  people  dining  the  famini-,  for  the  Heroic  times 
are  older  than  Atys."  "In  Homer  the  suitors  amused 
themselves  in  front  of  the  door  with  dice  [to  deter- 
mine by  the  chances  who  should  claim  Penelope]." 
—  Athen'.eus,  a.  d.  220. 

Plato  is  more  probably  correct  in  ascribing  them 
to  the  Egyptians,  though  the  Sanscrit  b.iok  is  as  old 
as  the  Pentateuch  and  the  Pharaoh  who  knew  Jo- 
seph. 

The  Greek  dice  were  cubes,  and  were  numbered 
like  our  own,  6-1,  t>-  2,  4  -3,  so  tliat  the  opposite 
faces  should  add  7.  They  usually  threw  three  dice. 
T^iie  original  dice  are  supposed  to  have  been  knuckle- 
bones, and  they  still  maintained  their  ]iopularity  af- 
ter the  more  perfect  numbered  cube  had  been  intro- 
iluced.  The  bones  were  called  tali,  and  were  used 
five  in  number.  The  nstmij'li  were  probably  cubes 
without  numbers,  and  played  like  the  knuckle-bones  ; 
they  were  made  of  bone,  stone,  metal,  ivory,  or  glass. 
The  number  of  pieces  used  was  similar  to  the  num- 
ber of  the  lines  on  the  Greek  abacus,  or  the  digits 


of  the  hand.  (See  AB.^crs.)  The  game  of  astrayali 
is  represented  in  ancient  sculpture  and  in  a  painting 
in  Herculaneum.  Pliny  mentions  a  group  in  bronze 
by  I'olycletus  of  two  naked  boys  at  play,  then  in  the 
Atrium  of  Titus.  The  same  subject  in  stone  is  in 
the  British  JIuseum. 

In  the  game  of  (luodedm  scripta  the  moves  were 
deteimined  by  dice  ;  the  game  of  lali  and  tessrra  was 
played  with  dice.  Dice  similar  to  ours  were  found 
at  Herculaneum,  and  the  convulsion  which  over- 
whelmed Pompeii  surprised  a  hazard-party  at  their 
amusement  :  1800  years  afterward  the  dice  were 
found  in  their  bony  hands,  andthegameyetunsettled. 

At  an  entertainment  given  in  135"  by  the  Lord 
Mayor  of  London,  the  Kings  of  France  and  Scotland 
being  prisoners  and  the  King  of  Cypnis  on  a  visit 
(h-vip.  Edward  III.),  the  host  challenged  all  to  dice 
and  hazard.  —  Stow. 

The  dice-box  of  the  ancients  ifritilbts)  was  of  a 
cylindrical  form,  and  l;ad  iiaiallcl  indentations  to 
turn  the  dice  as  they  were  shaken. 

To  descend  one  step  lower  brings  us  down  to  the 
game  of  "odd  and  even"  (par  ct  impar),  a  puerile 
amiKement  jdayed  by  the  lion  an  vagabonds  with 
beans,  nuts,  almonds,  or  coin.  It  was  played  with 
the  fingers  in  ancient  Egypt,  in  Greece,  and  in  Rome, 
ai.il  still  .sinvives  in  the  Mexican  vim-a. 

Pitch  and  tc.-s  was  not  so  cr.mmon,  but  jiitching 
coins  or  bones  within  a  ring  or  into  a  hole  was  com- 
mon in  ancient  Greece. 

Thimble-rig  was  understood  and  practiced  by  the 
ancient  Egyptians,  much  as  by  the  vulgar  of  the 
Jiresent  day.  It  consi.'jted  of  four  inverted  cups 
hiding  an  object,  such  as  a  pea  or  other  "little 
joker,"  and  is  described  by  Kenrick  and  Wilkison. 

Di'chro-scope.      (Optics.)     An    instrument  to 
exhibit  the  two  comple- 
mentary  colors    of  po-  Fig.  1640. 
larized  light.    The  qual-  V 
ity  called  the  dichruism   P 
of   crystals  consists  in 
transmitting     different   '_ 
colors     when      viewed    ^ 
in  different  directions. 
There  are  several  vari- 
eties  of    this    apparatus   invented   by   Arago    and 
Brewster. 

As  constructed  by  Brewster,  it  consists  of  a  tube 
about  two  inches  long,  blackened  on  the  interior, 
and  attached  to  a  ball  and  soi'ket. 

The  ball  contains  two  pri-n.s  of  calcareous  spar, 
separated  by  a  film  of  sulphate  of  lime,  so  placed 
that  each  pair  of  the  four  images  is  tinged  with  the 
complementaiy  colors.  A  lens  is  arranged  upon  or 
near  the  prisms  either  at  front  or  back. 

On  viewing  the  sky  or  any  luminous  object,  four 
brilliantly  colored  images  of  the  aperture  will  be 
seen,  the  color  of  the  two  middle  ones  being  com- 
plementary to  that  of  the  outer  ones.  By  movijig 
the  ball  in  the  socket  the  colors  will  con.stantly 
change,  and  the  images  will  sometimes  overlaji  and 
sometimes  separate,  exhibiting  a  great  variety  of 
hues,  pleasing  the  eye  by  their  combinations  and  by 
the  soft  harmony  of  their  contrasts. 

Many  beautiful  variations  may  be  obtained  by 
using  several  films  of  sulph.ate  of  lime  haiing  their 
axes  variously  inclined  to  one  another. 

For  other  fonns  of  this  instrument  see  "  Encyclo- 
pedia Edinensis,"  Vol.  XV.  jip.  653,  654,  and  plate 
cccc.xlii. 

Dic'ing.  A  mode  of  ornamenting  leather  in 
squares  or  diamonds  by  pressure,  either  of  a  blunt 
awl  or  an  edging-tool,  or  in  a  machine  by  pressure 
between  dies. 


Dichroscope. 


DICKEY. 


700 


DIE-SINKING. 


Dick'ey.  A  nvnt  behind  the  body  of  a  carriage 
for  servants.  In  the  old-t'ashiuned  English  stage- 
coach it  was  occupied  by  the  guard  and  some  pas- 
sengers. 

Die.  1.  (.Veial-tvorking.)  a.  In  punching-ma- 
chines,  a  bed-liieee  which  has  an  opening  the  size  of 
tlie  puncli,  and  through  whicli  the  piece  is  driven. 
Tliis  piece  may  be  a  phmciiet  or  blank,  or  it  may  be 
merely  a  plug  driven  out  of  the  object  to  form  a 
bolt  or  rivet  hole.  In  nut-machines  the  uuts-blanks 
may  be  made  by  one  die  and  punched  liy  another. 

b.  {Forfliiiy.}  A  device  consisting  of  two  parts 
which  coact  to  give  to  the  piece  swaged  between 

Fig.  1641. 


Hammer-FoTging  Dies. 

them  the  desired  form,  as  in  the  example  (Fig. 
1641),  which  shows  a  set  of  hammer-forging  cameo 
and  intaglio  dies,  which  act  successively  upon  the 
blank. 

c.  (Sheet-metal. )  A  former  and  punch  or  a  cameo 
and  intaglio  die  between  which  a  piece  of  sheet- 
metal  is  pressed  into  shape  by  a  blow  or  simple 
pressure.     See  Drop-press. 

d.  {Coining.)  Both  dies  are  intaglio,  so  as  to 
make  a  cameo  or  raised  impression  u|ion  each  face 
of  the  planchet.  The  upper  di(^  has  the  obverse, 
the  faec,  which  is  often  the  bust  of  the  sovereign  or 
national  emblem.  The  lower  die  has  the  reverse, 
with  an  effigy,  legend,  value,  escutcheon,  as  the 
case  may  be. 

Owing  to  the  random  way  in  which  ornaments 
are  disposed  on  coins,  any  general  definition  will  no 
longer  meet  all  cases. 

A   die    for   coining,   mechanically  considered,    is 
made  by  the  following  process  : 
Fig.  1642.  A  piece  of  softened  steel  called  a 

hub  is  prepared,  and  upon  its 
end  the  design  is  cut.  Tlie  steel 
is  then  hardened,  and  is  used  to 
make  a  matrix,  in  which  the 
im])ression  is  intaylio,  that  is, 
sunken.  A  plug  of  softened  steel 
alittle  larger  than  its  ultimate  size, 
Coining-Dies.  and  with  the  center  a  lit- 
tle raised,  isplacedonthe( 
bed  of  a  screw-press,  and,  the  hardened  matri.\ 
being  placed  upon  it,  pressure  is  brought  to  bear  on 
the  matri.x,  which  delivers  its  impression  on  the 
face  of  the  plug.    The  result  is  a  salient  impression. 


and  forms  the  punch.  In  all  cases  where  metal  is 
condensed  it  becomes  heated  and  hardened,  and  in 
this  case  it  Ijecomes  necessary  to  withdraw  the  im- 
perfect panelt  and  anneal  it,  after  wliiih  it  receives 
anothej-  pressure  from  the  matri.x.  This  is  repeated 
until  the  hiipres.sion  is  fully  developed.  The  punch, 
by  a  similar  operation,  is  then  employed  to  make  a 
die.  The  die  is  then  hardened,  and  may  be  used 
for  coining  or  for  making  a  new  liab  if  the  former 
shoohl  become  injured.  The  first  perfect  die  is 
generally  retaineil  for  the  purpose  hist  mentioned. 

The  date,  is  put  by  hand  into  the  dies  to  be  used 
in  coining,  as  it  rci|uires  to  be  changed  ;  and  the 
iii'st  die  and  the  hub  may  be  preserved  for  many 
years  and  may  make  hundreds  of  dits.  For  the  ap- 
{dication  of  the  dies,  see  (_'<.u.MNG. 

.\  mode  of  |irocedure  which  saves  one  step  in  the 
above  process  is  to  engrave  the  design  in  intaglio 
in  the  first  place.  This,  when  hardened,  forms  a 
tnatrix,  IVom  which  the  punch  is  made  ;  the  punch 
being  used  to  form  the  die  for  coining. 

A  die  will  sometimes  deliver  '2.")U, 000  impressions 
before  it  is  necessary  to  remove  it  from  the  coining- 
press  ;  and  sometimes  a  die  will  crack  at  the  first 
impression. 

c.  (Enijmving.)  An  engraved  ]i'ate  or  small  roller 
of  steel,  subseiinently  hardened  ami  used  to  deliver 
an  impression  upon  the  surface  of  a  soft  steel  roller, 
which  in  turn  is  hardened  and  forms  a  mill.  The 
die  is  intaijlio,  and  the  mill  is  cameo.  The  latter  is 
used  to  impress  a  plate  or  a  roller  to  be  used  for 
bank-note  ]irinting  or  calico-iirinting  respectively. 
■See Tk.\n.sfkrrini;-m.\ciiixi-,  ;  C'l.\m.ming-.\hciiine. 

/.  One  of  the  pieces  whicli  combine  to  form  a 
hollow  screw  for  cutting  threads  on  bolts  and  such 

:      •  Fig.  1643. 


Screw-Cutting  Dies. 

like.    The  two  portions  are  fitted  in  a  stnc/c.    In  some, 
the  dies  are  set  up  by  screws,  in  others  by  scrolls. 

2.  The  cube  or  dado  of  a  pedestal. 

3.  .\  cube  marked  with  figures  on  its  respective 
sides  and  used  in  games  of  chance.      See  DlcK. 

Die-sink'ing.     The  art  of  making  dies  for  coins, 
medals,  etc.     It  is  a  branch  of  engraving,  but  in- 

Fig.  1644. 


Stock  and  Dies. 


DIESIS. 


701 


DIFFEEEXTIAL  THERMOMETER. 


volres  turning,  tempering,  and  the  use  of  other  tools 
besides  the  graver.     See  Die. 

Di'e-sis.      {Printing.)     The   douhle-dagger   (J), 
a  refereiice-niark. 

Die-stock.     A  frame  to  hold  the  dies  for  cutting 
external  screw-threads.    The  dies  are  detached  pieces 
of  steel,  containing  the  thread 
Kg.  1^5.  on  their  inner  curved  sur- 

faces, and  these  fit  into 
grooves  or  upon  ridges  in  the 
slot  of  the  die-stoSi,  being 
closed  upon  the  bolt  to  be 
threaded  by  means  of  a  set 
screw. 

Flier  die-stocks  are  made  by 
setting  removable  dies  in  the 
jaws  of  pliers. 

Diffe-ren'tial  Block.  A 
double  block  hariug  sheaves 
of  different  .sizes.     See  DlF- 
FEKEXTi.^L  Pullet. 
Die-stoelc  Dif fe-ren'tdal  Coup'ling. 

A  form  of  extensible  coup- 
ling, to  vary  the  speed  of  the  driven  part  of  the  ma- 
chinerv. 


Diffe-ren'tial  Peed. 


Fig  16W. 


An  arrangement  by  which 
a  regular  powerful  and 
slow  movement  is  ob- 
tained, for  earning 
fonvard  a  tool,  from 
the  motion -work 
whereby  the  tool  is 
rotated.  A  differential 
feed-drill  is  shown  in 
front  and  side  views 
and  in  section.     The 

K    tangent-screw     moves 


Fig.  1647. 


Fig.  1618. 


at  the  same   time  the  two  (, 

worm-wheels  a  b  ;  the  lower   ""■ 

)ne  has  fifteen   teeth  and 

rotates  the  tool,  the  upper 

has  sixteen  teeth,  and  by   ."' 

the  difference  between  the 

two,     the     odd    tooth     ad-        Differmtial-Feed  Drill 

vances   the  tool  gi-adually 

by  the  rotation  of  the  axial  screw. 

Diffe-ren'tial  Gear'ing.  A.  form  of  gearing 
first  introduced  bj'  Dr.  WoUaston  in  his  trochimnetcr, 
for  counting  the  turns  of  a  carriage-wheel,  in  which 
two  cog-wheels  of  var\-ing  sizes  are  made  to  travel 
at  the  same  absolute  surface-rate  and  in  the  same 
direction,  aiid  communicate  motion  equivalent  to 
the  diBerence  between  the  circumferences  of  the 
two.  See.  for  an  illustration,  Differentl^l  Feed. 
See  also  Eqiation-al-biix. 

Diffe-ren'tial  Pulley.  This,  in  a  somewhat 
clumsy  form,  has  been  kuown  for  centuries  under 
the  name  of  the  Chinese  windlass,  and  one  was 
found  by  the  allied  English  and  French  armies  to 
be  in  use  for  raising  one  of  the  drawbridges  in  the 
city  of  Pekin.  It  was  described  by  Dr.  Carpenter 
in  his  "Mechanical  Philosophy,"  etc.,  1844. 

The   chain   winds  over  two  drums  of  different 


Fig  1649. 


Differential  Pulkv. 

diameters,  winding  on  to  one 

as  it  unwinds  from  the  other ; 

the  effect  gained  is  as  the        _._       .  .  _  ,, 

difference   between  the  two,         0<fftrenUal  PuO^. 

the  smaller  the  difference  the  greater  the  power  and 

the  less  the  speed. 

I  n  the  geared  differential  pulley  the  effect  is  pro- 
duced by  making  one  more  tooth  in  one  of  the 
wheels  the  chain  passes  over  than  in  the  other. 

Diffe-ren'tieil  Scre'w.  Invented  by  Hunter, 
the  celebrated  surgeon.  Two  threads  of  unequal 
pitch  are  upon  the  same  shaft, 
one  unwinding  as  the  other 
winds.  The  effective  progression 
is  equal  to  the  difference  of  the 
pitches  of  the  two  threads.  By 
making  thisdifference  very  .small, 
great  power  may  be  attained 
without  the  weakness  due  to  a 
very  fine  screw. 

^  i?  is  a  plate  of  metal  in 
which  the  screw  C  D  plays. 
This  screw  is  hollow,  ami  re- 
ceives the  smaller  screw  D  E, 
whii  h  is  free  to  move  longitudi- 
nallv,  but  is  restrained  from  ro- 
tating by  the  frame  A  F  G  B 
of  the  press.  The  larger  screw  has  ten  threads  to 
the  inch,  the  smaller  one  has  eleven. 

Diffe-ren'tial  Ther-mom'e-ter.  A  thermom- 
eter having  two  air-bulbs  connected  by  a  bent  stem 
occupied  by  colored  sulphuric  acid.     When  one  leg 


Fig.  1651. 


Differential  Screw. 


Differential  Windlass. 


Differential  Tker-    js  exposed  to  heat,  the  air  in  the 
momeier.  ^^j^  j^  expanded,  and  the  liquid 

in  that  leg  of  the  instrument  is  depressed. 


DIFFERENTIAL  WINDLASS. 


702 


DIGGING-MACHINE. 


Diffe-ren'tial  Wind'lass.  A  \vinjla,ss  whose 
liarrcl  ruii.sists  ut'  two  iiortioiis  ot"  varying  lUaniett'i'.s. 
The  rupe  wiutU  on  to  out-  as  it  winds  oft'  tlie  otlicr, 
tli(!  etlVct  of  a  revolution  being  governed  by  the  dif- 
ference between  tlie  cireuniferenee.s  of  the  two 
jiortiiins.  If  it  wind  on  to  the  larger  and  off  of  the 
siniilh'r  tlie  load  is  raised,  and  eonver.sely.     See  Clll- 

NIvSK.   WiNliI.ASS. 

Dif-fu'sion  -  ap-pa-ra'tus.  (Sagar-manufac- 
luiv.)  A  mode  ol  e.xtracting  the  sugar  from  cane  or 
beet-root  by  dissolving  it  out  with  water.  It  is 
adopted  in  .some  establishments  in  British  India  and 
in  Austria.  The  sugar-yiehling  material  is  fed  in  at 
the  hoii|)er  a  and  cut  into  slices  in  the  cylinder  b  by 
knives  driven  by  liaud-wheel  r,  antl  issues  at  the 
opening  u  into  tlie  hojiper  c,  where  it  is  carried  down 
the   central   pipe  d  and.  discharged  into  the  lower 


Fig.  1652. 


RohrrTs  Diffusion- Apparatus  for  Sugar. 


chamber  c,  and,  gradually  ascending  through  the 
series  of  chanil)ers  /  g  h  i,  is  carried  off  by  a  rake  p 
driven  by  gearing  q.  As  the  slices  of  cane  rise  in 
the  diffiising-chambers,  they  meet  water,  which  is 
supplied  fi'oni  above  through  small  pipes,  the  water 
meeting  first  the  most  e.\hausted  slices  as  they  rise 
to  the  discharge-level,  and  pa.ssiug  through  to  the 
richer  material  as  it  becomes  more  and  more  satu- 
rated. At  tlie  bottom  it  issues  through  perforations 
or  outlet-pipes  k,  and  is  carried  off  to  a  cistern 
I,  where  it  is  heated,  and  is  then  returned  upon  the 
cane  through  the  jiipe  m  and  the  cistern  n  and  the 
central  feeiling-tiibe,  by  whiidi  the  cane  or  beet  is 
supplied  to  the  dilfusiug-ehamber. 

Diffu'aion-tube.  An  instrument  for  determin- 
ing the  rate  of  dill'nsion  of  different  gases.  It  con- 
sists of  a  graduated  tube  closed  at  one  end  by  plaster- 
of-pai'is,  — a  substance  which,  when  moderately  d:y, 
possesses  the  required  porosity.  —  Thomas. 

Di'geat-er.  Invented  by  Dr.  Papin,  almut 
1690. 


A  strong  boiler  a  with  a  tightly  fitting  cover  b, 
closed    by  a  sdew  c,  and  used  to  expose   fooil   to   a 
heat  above  212°.     By  a  certain  increment  of  heat 
the  gelatine  is  sepa- 
rated      from       the  Fig.  1653. 
jdiosphate    of    lime 
of   the    bones ;    the 
earthy    particles 
sinking  to  the  bot- 
tom.       It      has     a 
safety-valve  on   top 
to    allow    steam    to 
eseajie   when   it   be- 
gins   to    acquire    a 
dangerous     tension. 
It  was  in  contriving 
this  boiler  that  Dr. 
I'ajiin  invented  the  safety-valve. 

The  lar<l  and  other  grease  tanks 
used  for  workingup  ]ioor  carcasses  and 
the  offal  of  slaughter-houses  belong 
to  this  class  of  .apparatus.  Thousands 
of  carcasses  of  cattle  and  sheep  too 
Iioor  for  the  market  are  thus  worked 
up  yearly  in  the  United  Stiite.s,  and 
the  lard-tank  is  a  regular  feature  in 
the  hog-slaughtering  centers,  Chicago, 
Cincinnati,  etc.,  where  the  entrails  and  other  offal 
yiidding  grease  are  thus  treated  on  a  large  scale. 

The  tanks  have  also  been  introduced  into  Buenos 
Ayres  and  probably  into  Te.xas,  where  beeves  are 
slaughtered  for  their  liides  and  tallow.  The  car- 
casses, after  removing  a  lew  choice  j  arts,  are  dumped 
into  the  tanks,  when  steam  is  ajj]  lied,  resolving 
them  into  fat,  water  holding  .soluble  matters  in 
solution,  and  mud,  the  latter  containing  the  earthy 
and  some  other  particles. 

Of  this  class  is  Wilson's  tank  for  rendering  lard 
and  tallow,  jiatented  in  1844.  The  tank  is  preferably 
a  vertical  eylimler,  and  is  calculated  for  high-pres- 
sure steam.  It  has  a  pierforated  steam-pipe  below 
the  perforated  false  bottom  which  sustains  the 
charge,  and  allows  the  water  of  condensation  to 
percolate  into  the  lower  chamber.  A  discharge-hole 
at  bottom  is  provided  for  lemoving  the  residuum. 
A  number  of  try-cocks  at  different  bights  afford 
means  for  determining  the  Ii'vels  of  the  fat  and  water 
i-es]iectively  ;  and  discharge-cocks  peiniit  the  float- 
ing fat  to  be  decanted  or  the  water  withdrawn,  as 
the  contents  and  state  of  the  process  may  require. 

The  figure  on  the  right  hand  shows  an  apparatus 
in  which  tannin  is  extracted  from  the  vegetable  sub- 
stances which  yield  it, —  say,  for  instance,  nut-galls. 
It  is  an  elongated  glass  vessel  ^,  having  an  orifice 
at  top  which  is  htted  with  a  ground-glass  stopper, 
and  contracting  at  its  lower  extremity  so  as  to  fit 
info  the  neck  of  a  bottle  or  matrass  B,  which  receives 
the  extract.  The  matrass  connects  Viy  proiier  ori- 
fices and  a  caontchouc-tube  Jl  with  the  vessel  J,  so 
that  the  ether  which  lies  u]ion  the  nut-galls  in  the 
up]ier  vessel  and  forms  the  menstruum  of  the  extract 
ill  the  lower  one  shall  not  evaporate. 

Dig'ger.  A  name  a]iplied  to  sonu-  forms  of  spade- 
like inipleineuts  in  which  the  soil  is  lilted  and  turned 
by  other  than  the  usual  modes.  More  curious  than 
useful. 

Dig'ging-ma-chine'.  {Jgi-icjiUure.)  A  s)iad- 
ing-maehiue  for  loosening  and  turning  the  soil. 
There  are  many  forms,  which  may  be  classed  under 
two  heads,  reciprocating  and  rotary. 

Fig.  16.54  re]ireseuts  one  kind  in  which  the  sjiade- 
handles  pass  through  guide-slots  in  an  upper  bar, 
and  receive  their  motion  by  attachment  to  cranks 
revolved  by  connection  with  the  drum.     The  depth 


DIGUE. 


703 


DlillNISHING-STAFF. 


Fig.  lGo4 


Reciprocating  Spading-Machine, 

is  regulated  by  the  vertical  adjustment  of  the  tilting- 
fninie  which  carries  tlie  crank-shaft. 

In  the  rotaiy  machine  (Fig.  1655)  the  ground- 
wheel  b  drives  the  spade-wlieel  L  tlirough  the  inter- 
vention of  gearing.  The  wheel  B  is  in  the  advance, 
aud  the  depth  of  penetration  is  regulated  at  the  rear 


Fig    1655 


Rotary  Dig^in^-Mitchine. 

of  the  frame  above  the  caster-wheel  N.     The  shares 
M  .1/  are  removable. 

Other  forms  of  spaders  have  blades  tlirust  out  and 
retracted  as  tlie  machine  advances. 

Digue.     A  sea-wall  or  breakwater.     An  artificial 
construction  opposing  a  barrier  to  the  sea  or  prevent- 
in?  tlie  (lenud:ition  of  the  land  thereby.     See  Dike. 
Dike.     1 .   A  levee  or  wall  of  earth,  gabions  or  car- 
pentry,   to   prevent 
Fig.  IjoS.  the      encroachment 

of  water,  or  to  serve 
as  a  wharf  or  jetty. 
The  stractures  va- 
ry extremely,  ac- 
cording to  purpose, 
exposure,  and  the 
nature  of  the  foun- 
dations. The  more 
superior  class  con- 
sists of  a  timber 
structure  strongly 
braced,  founded  on 
piles,  filled  in  with 
stone,  and  faced  with  planking  or  masonry.     See 

Sf.A-WALL  ;    JeTTV  ;    BllE.iKW.iXEll. 

The  dikes  of  Holland  are  the  most  memorable  of 
their  cla-ss,  and  protect  from  tlie  sea  that  wonderful 
land  which  is  so  largely  below  the  high-water  sea- 
level.  The  dikes  in  some  jiarts  of  Holland  arc  thirty 
feet  above  the  ordinary  level  of  the  country,  and  have 
sufficient  width  at  top  to  form  a  roadway.  They  are 
founded  on  timbers  and  piles  filled  in  with  .stones 
faced  with  clay  and  revetted  with  gabions  of  rushes, 


willows,  etc.  The  slope  to  the  sea  is  from  1  rise  to 
4  base  down  to  1  in  1 3. 

The  history  of  these  works  is  one  of  gradually  in- 
creasing strength  and  solidity,  with  heroism  and 
pertinacity  wonderful  to  relate.  The  accidents  by 
which  the  sea  has  again  and  again  claimed  its  own 
have  swept  away  whole  provinces  aud  communities. 
A  Hood  in  1277  formed  the  present  Gulf  of  Dort  and 
overwhelmed  forty-four  villages.  The  Hood  of  1287 
overwhelmed  80,000  persons,  aud  gave  tlie  Zuyder 
Zee  its  present  bounds.  Another  storm  in  the  six- 
teenth century  destroyed  100,000  persons. 

The  Haarlem  Lake  "is  the  latest  of  the  great  recla- 
mations. The  cost  of  rendering  habitable  and  cul- 
tivable the  51,300  acres  was  §3,330,000,  about  $65 
jier  acre.  Previously  to  undertaking  this  colossal 
work,  the  Zind  Plass,  of  nearly  11,500  acres,  had 
been  ledauned  at  a  cost  of  $1,250,000,  not  far  from 
SllO  per  acre. 

.\mong  the  most  celebrated  of  dikes  was  that  of 
llenes,  which  turned  the  Nile  from  its  course  to  ac- 
commodate the  new  city  of  Jlemphis.  "  Its  lofty 
mounds  and  strong  embankments  turned  the  water 
to  the  eastward,  and  effectually  confined  the  river  to 
its  new  bed."  —  Wilkinson. 

2.  (ilini-ng.)  A  non-metallic  wall  of  mineral  mat- 
ter occupying  a  former  fissure  in  rock,  intercepting 
and  disturbing  the  order  of  ore-bearing  strata. 

3.  A  stone  fence    (Scot- 
_               land). 

4.  A  ditch  for  water. 
Di-lat'or.  An  instrument 

for  extending  parts,  such  as 
the  eyelids,  or  dilating  the 
walls  of  a  cavity,  theurethra, 
vagina,  anus,  etc.  See  the 
following:  — 

Anal  dilator. 

Eyelid-dilator. 

Laclirymal-duct  dilator. 

Speculum. 

Sphincter-muscle  dilator. 


Rouen  Quay. 


Stricture-dilator. 
Urethra-dilator. 
Uterine  dilator. 
Dil'i-gence. 
national    vehicle 


A  French  stage-coach.  It  was  the 
on  the  regular  routes  ;  had  four 
wheeels,  twu  compartments,  a  deck,  and  a  dickey  ; 
was  drawn  by  from  four  to  seven  horses,  and  engi- 
neer.-d  by  a  ]iostilion. 

Dil-lii'ing.  A  Cornish  word  lor  the  operation  of 
.sorting  ores  iu  a  hand-sieve.  The  sieve  has  a  hair 
bottom  of  close  texture,  and  contains  about  thirty 
pounds  of  stamped  tin  ore.  The  sieve  is  immersed 
in  water  and  moves  the  ore  up  and  down  and  cir- 
cularly, so  as  to  cause  all  the  particles  to  be  in  a  state 
of  suspension  in  the  water. 

By  inclining  the  sieve  the  lighter  particles  are  al- 
lowed to  run  off'  into  the  fccre,  while  the  richer  par- 
ticles are  laid  a.side  for  ronsting. 

Di-lut'ing  Rol'ler.  A  roller  in  paper-making 
machinery,  which  conducts  an  additional  supply  of 
water  into  the  pulp-cisteni  to  reduce  its  density. 

Dim'i-ty.  {Fabric.)  A  heav^-,  fine,  white  cot- 
ton goods,  with  a  crimped  or  ridged  surface  ;  plain, 
striped,  or  cross-barred. 

The  Greek  diniUoa  (double  warp-thread)  is  be- 
lieved to  have  been  a  kind  of  twilled  fabric,  and  was 
erjuivalent  to  the  Latin  biUx. 

Di'men-sion  Lum'ber.  Lumber  .sawed  to  spe- 
cific sizes  to  order,  iu  contradistinction  tosluck-linnbcr 
which  has  the  usual  market-sizes.   See  Stock-gang. 

Di'men-sion  Stone.     Ashlar  (which  see). 

Di-min'ish-ing-staff.  (Shipbuilding.)  Plank- 
ing wrought  under  the  wales,  and  thinned  to  corre- 
spond with  the  thickness  of  the  bottom  plank. 


DING-DONG. 


704 


DIPPER. 


Ding-dong.  (Horolofju.)  A  striking  anange- 
iiKMit  in  wliifli  two  bells  of  different  tone.s  are  used 
iintl  stnu'k  in  suecession  to  mark  the  quarter-hours. 

Dinged-work.  Work  embossed  by  blows  whii'h 
depress  one  surface  and  raise  the  other.  See  C'has- 
iNi;. 

Din'gy.  1.  A  row-boat  of  the  Hoogly,  which 
proliahly  gave  the  nann;  to  the  little  jolly-boat  of  the 
merehant-service,  mentioned  below. 

2.  k  boat  of  Boml>ay,  projielled  by  paddles,  and 
having  one  nrist  ami  a  settee-.sail. 

3.  An  extra  boat  of  a  ship  for  common  uses. 
It  is  clinker-liuiU,  from  \i  t(j  14  feet  long,  and  has 
a  beam  om-  tliird  of  its  length. 

Di-op'ter.  An  ancient  altitude,  angle,  and 
levelin,'  instrument  ;  said  to  have  been  invented  by 
Hippinhus.      fliiplra. 

Di-op'tric  Light.  The  dioptric  system  of  light- 
ing, used  in  lighthouses,  as  distinguished  from  the 
catoptric,  which  is  by  reflectors.  Refraction  instead 
of  reflection. 

Lenses  were  used  in  the  South  Foreland  light  in 
1752,  and  in  the  Portland  light,  England,  in  1789. 
The  system  fell  into  disfavor,  owing  to  certain  me- 
chanical difficulties  in  the  construction  and  arrange- 
ment of  the  lenses. 

It  was  revived  and  improved  by  Fresnel  about 
1810,  and  has  been  generally  adopted  throughout 
France  and  Holland,  and  partially  in  England.  It 
is  considered  superior  to  tlu  catoptric,  and  was  re- 
adopted  in  England  in  1831,  being  placed  in  tha 
Lundy  Island  Lighthouse,  Devonshire,  Englaml. 

The  Fresnel  dio|itric  lamp  consists  of  a  mechanical, 
four-wicked  oil-lamp,  placed  in  the  center  of  an 
octagonal  glass  jn'isin  ;  the  center  part  of  each  of 
the  siiles  being  formed  of  a  plano-conve.x  lens  of 
about  15  inches  diameter,  which  is  surrounded  by  a 
series  of  glass  rings  of  a  spherical  triangular  form, 
so  as  to  produce  the  same  effect  upon  the  rays  as  is 
produced  by  the  central  lens.  Allan  Stevenson, 
Arago,  and  Faraday  are  credited  with  improvements 
ill  the  details. 

The  flame  is  placed  in  the  focus  of  the  lenses,  and 
the  beams  are  bent  parallel  to  each  other,  so  as  to 
form  a  .solid  beam  of   light    proceeding  from  each 

Fig  1657. 


FresneVs  Dioptric  Light. 

lens.  The  lenses,  after  careful  and  persistent  at- 
tempts, were  merged  into  a  cylindrical  lioop  which 
formed  the  central  zone  around  the  flame,  as  seen  in 
the  elevation  a.  The  rays  striking  above  and  below 
were  bi'nt  so  as  to  assume  a  position  parallel  to  those 
proceeding;  from  the  hoop,  as  seen  in  the  section  b. 

Di-op'tric  Mi-crom'e-ter.  A  form  of  the 
double  image  micrometer,  introduced  by  Ramsden 
(1735-1800),  in  which  the  divided  lens  is  in  the 
eye-tube.  In  the  ordinary  form  it  is  the  object- 
glass  which  is  divided. 

Di'o-ra'ma.  A  mode  of  scenic  representation  in 
which  the  spectator  and  picture  are  placed  in  sepa- 
rate  rooms,   and   the    picture  viewed    through    an 


aperture  the  sides  of  which  are  continued  towards 
the  picture,  so  as  to  prevent  the  distraction  of  the 
eye  by  other  oljects.  All  light  admitted  jiasses 
through  this  aperture  from  the  picture,  which  is 
illumined  by  light  from  above  at  such  an  angle  as 
to  be  reflected  through  the  aperture  towards  the 
spectators.  By  means  of  shutters,  screens,  and  re- 
flectors, the  light  is  modified  to  represent  changes 
of  sunlight,  cloud,  and  moonlight.  Transparent 
portions  of  the  picture  adndtting  light  from  behind 
brilliantly  illuminated  certain  portions. 

M.  Daguerre  was  one  of  the  artists  of  the  dioraniic 
exhibition  at  Regent's  Park,  London,  in  1823.  He 
is  justly  famous  in  connection  with  his  heliographi.' 
discoveries.  He  died  in  Paris,  January  10,  1851. 
aged  62.  M.  Bouton  was  associated  with  Daguerie 
in  the  invention  and  exhibition. 

Dip.  1 .  ( Co7itpttss. )  The  vertical  angle  wliich  a 
freely  suspended  needle  makes  with  the  horizon. 
Indinafiou.     See  DirriNO-NKMiLE. 

2.  (Mining  Emiinceriiui.)  The  inclination  orpitch 
of  a  stratum.  The  point  of  the  compass  towards 
which  it  declines  is  the  print  of  dip.  The  angle 
with  the  horizontal  '\?.\.\\it  ainonnf  of  dip  or  i\\Q  angle 
of  dip.  Tlie  strihc  is  the  extension  of  the  stratum 
at  right  angles  to  the  dip.  Dip  is  also  known  as 
iuidc,  .'iJope,  underlie. 

3.  The  depth  of  submergence  of  the  float  of  a 
paddle-wheel. 

4.  A  candle  made  by  i-epcated  dipping  of  the 
wick  in  melted  tallow. 

5.  The  slight  downward  inclination  of  the  arms 
of  an  axle.     Swing. 

6.  (Furlijiaition.)  a.  The  superior  slope  of  a 
parapet. 

h.  Tlic  inclination  of  the  sole  of  an  embrasure. 

Dip-cir'cle.  A  vertical  graduated  circle,  in  the 
jdane    of   which   a 

delicate     magnetic  Fig- 1658. 

needle  is  suspended 
on  a  horizontal 
axis,  which  rests 
upon  two  polished 
agate  supports. 
The  circle  is  set  in 
the  )dane  of  the 
magnetic  meridian, 
and  the  needle  in- 
dicates upon  the 
giaduated  circle 
the  angle  of  incli- 
nation. 

In  the  improved 
form  shown  at  Fig. 
1658,  the  needle 
is  insulated  from 
other  metal,  and 
the  readings  are 
effected  by  two  tel- 
escopes fixed  on 
opposite  ends  of  all 

arm    traversing    a  Dip-Circle. 

graduated  ciic'c. 

Dip-head  Lev'el.  (Mining. )  The  gallery  pro- 
ceeding right  anil  left  from  the  engine-pit  bottom. 
The  nitiin.]\-\'A. 

Di-plei'do-scope.  An  optical  instrument  for 
indicating  the  jiassage  of  a  heavenly  body  over  the 
meridiaji  by  the  coincidence  of  two  images  fomied 
by  a  single  and  double  refraction  from  a  triangu- 
lar prism  which  has  one  transparent  and  two  silvered 
planes,  one  of  the  latter  being  in  the  plane  of  the 
meridian.  —  Bli.iNDE. 

Dip'per.     (Photography.)     An  instrument   used 


DIPPING. 


705 


DIRECT-ACTION  STEAM-ENGINE. 


for  imraereing  negative  plates  iu  upright  baths  eon- 
taiuiiig  uitiate  of  sih-er,  hypo.sulpliite  of  soda,  cya- 
niiie  of  potassium,  etc.,  ami  withdrawing  the  same 
after  sensitizing  or  fixing.  They  are  slender  Hat 
strips  of  hard  rubber,  wood,  glass,  porcelain,  and 
sometimes  silver  wire,  having  short  projections  upon 
which  to  rest  the  edge  of  the  plate,  which  stands 
nearly  upright  in  the  bath  while  the  chemical  changes 
take  place. 

Dip'ping.  1.  The  process  of  brightening  oma- 
mental  brass-work. 

a.  The  grease  is  removed  by  heat  or  lye. 

b.  The  work  is  /ncl-lcd  in  dilute  ac[uafortis. 

c.  Scoured  with  sand  and  water. 

d.  Washed. 

e.  Dipped  in  a  bath  of  pure  nitrous  acid  for  an 
instant. 

/.  Washed.  g.  Kubbed  with  beech  sawdust. 

A.   Burnished.         i.  Lacipiered. 

2.  Plunging  sheet-iron  plates  in  the  pickle  or  the 
tin-bath  in  tinning. 

3.  Wicks  in  the  tallow-vat. 

4.  The  wool  or  fabric  in  the  dye-tub. 

5.  The  paper  form  in  the  pulp. 

And  so  on  of  various  operations  in  the  arts,  me- 
chanic and  fine. 

6.  The  Scotch  term  for  the  dubbing  of  American 
and  English  cuniers.  It  consists  of  boiled-oil,  tish- 
oil,  and  tallow. 

7.  (Photoiiraphii.)  Immersing  the  collodionized 
plate  in  a  sensitizing  bath. 

Dip'ping-frame.  1.  A  frame  from  whicii  can- 
dle-wicks are  suspended  while  dipping  into  the  vat 
of  melted  tallow.     See  Candle. 

2.   (Di/ciiifi.)     A   frame   on   which    the   fabric   is 
stretched  and  immersed  in  dyeing  with  imligo. 
Dip'ping-nee'dle.   The  inclination  or  dip  of  the 
magnetized  needle  was  not  known  to 
the  Chinesf,  who  had  discovered  its 
variation  during  the  twelfth  century. 
This  element  of  terrestrial  magnet- 
ism appears  to  have  been   discovered 
by  Robert  Xonnan,  a  compass-maker 
of  Ratclitf,  London,  who  detecteil  the 
dip  and  published   the  fact  in  1576. 
He  contrived  the  dipping-needle,  and 
found  the  dip  at  London  to  be  71°  50'. 
Dippins-NeedU.  See  also  Dir-ciiiCLR. 

Captain  Sir  James  Ross,  the  cele- 
brated Arctic  navigator,  reached  the  magnetic  pole, 
latitude  70^  5'  17 "  nortli,  and  longitude  96°  46'  45" 
west,  on  the  1st  of  .lune,  1831.  The  amount  of  dip 
was  S9°  59'.  Horizontal  needles  refused  to  work, 
showing  no  sensitiveness.  He  erected  a  cairn  of 
limestone  rocks,  inclosing  a  tin  ca.se  containing  the 
record.  The  cairn  may  remain,  unless  the  Esijui- 
mau.x  Indians  have  removed  it  iu  search  of  plunder, 
but  the  magnetic  pole  has  moveii  away. 

The  dipping-needle  is  one  of  the  instruments  fur- 
nished to  the  chain  of  obseiTatories  which  are  dotted 
over  the  earth.     See  ilAGXETOMETER. 

Dip'ping-pan.  (Slcrcotiiping.)  A  square,  cast- 
iron  tray  in  which  the  fioatinij-plate  and  plaster-oast 
are  placed  for  obtaining  a  stereotype  cast.  The 
floating-plate  is  to  foi-m  the  back  of  the  stereotyjie, 
and  the  mold  the  face  ;  the  dipping-pan  forms  the 
flask,  and  is  plunged  beneath  the  surface  of  the 
metal  in  an  iron  pot.  The  metal  runs  in  at  holes 
through  the  lid  and  forces  apart  the  plate  and  mold. 
Dip'ping-tube.  A  tube  for  taking  microscopic 
objects  out  of  a  licpiid.      See  FlsmxG-TfBE. 

Dip— pipe.     A  device,  also  known  as  a  sc^/,  in 
the  hydi-aulic  main  of  gas-works.     In  the  illustra- 
tion, the  seal-cup  a  is  charged  with  tar,  which  per- 
45 


Fig.  1659. 


Dip-Pipe. 


!  mits  the  movable  dip-  Fig.  1660. 

pipe  h  to  be  lifted  iuto  or 
out  of  the  main.  The 
lid  c  cannot  be  removed 
from  the  njouthpiece 
until  the  handle  is 
raised,  which  removes 
the  lock  and  seals  the 
dip.  When  the  retort 
is  again  charged,  and 
the  lid  fastened  by  Ijear- 
ing  down  the  handle  of 
the  lift,  the  lidis  locked 
and  the  dip  is  again 
raised. 

Dip-roll'er.  (PriiU- 
ing. )  A  roller  to  dip 
ink  from  the  fountain. 

Dip-sec'tor.  A  reflecting-insti-ument.  One  was 
invented  by  Dr.  Wollaston,  and  one  by  Tjoughton. 
It  is  used  for  ascertaining  the  tnie  dip  oi'  the 
horizon  ;  the  principle  is  similar  to  the  sextant. 

Dip'ter-on.  (Ardiitcctun.)  A  temple  having  a 
double  row  of  columns  on  each  of  its  four  sides. 
Such  an  edifice  is  said  to  be  dipteral. 

Di-rect'ing-cir'cle.  A  ring  used  in  giving  the 
proper  shape  in  making  gabions. 

Di'rect-ac'tion  Steam-en'gine.  A  foi-m  of 
stcam-cngiac  in  which  the  piston-rod  or  cross-head 
is  connected  directly  by  a  rod  with  the  crank,  dis- 
pensing with  working-beams  and  side-levers.  They 
may  be  classed  generally  under  three  heads :  those 
which  obt.ain  the  parallelism  of  the  piston-rod  by 
means  of  the  system  of  jointed  rods  called  a  parallel 
vuition  ;  those  which  use  guides  or  sliding  surfaces 
for  this  purpose  ;  and  those  denominated  oscilltiting- 
engines,  in  which  the  cylinder  is  hung  upon  pivots 
and  follows  the  oscillations  of  the  crank.  More  spe- 
cifically as  follows  :  — 

Annular  cylinder  steam-engine  {Maudslay's). 

Double-cylinder  steam-engine  (^faluislal/s). 

Double-piston  steam-engine  {Maudslay's). 

Gorgon  steam-engine  (Scawarers). 

Inclined  cylinder  steam-engine  (Brunei's). 

Inverted  cylinder  steam-engine  {Galloway's). 

Inverted  double-cylinder  steam-engine  (///VA's). 

Oscillating  cylinder  steam-engine  (  Witty's). 

Sliding-cover  steam-engine  {Fartcyn's). 

Steeple  steam-engine  {Treret/iick;  Xapier). 

Trunk  steam-engine  {Humphery's). 

See  under  the  respective  heads. 

In  Napier's  direct-action  steam-engine,  the  beam  is 
retained,  but  only  lor  the  purpose  of  working  the 
pumps. 

The  cylinders  are  arranged  alongside  of  each  other, 
and  work  the  cranks  on  the  main  shaft,  the  cranks 
being  set  at  90°  with  each  other  ;  but  one  of  the  cyl- 
inders shows  in  the  side  elevation.  The  cylinders  a 
are  fixed  to  a  framing,  which  is  bolted  to  the  bottom 
of  the  boat.  The  piston-rods  aie  keyed  at  the  u)iper 
ends  to  cross-heads  c,  to  the  exterior  ends  of  which 
are  attached  the  connecting-rods  d.  The  lower 
ends  of  the  latter  are  inserted  in  the  fork  ends  of 
the  beams  c,  which  vibrate  upon  a  shaft  /',  the  bear- 
iv.gs  of  which  rest  on  the  top  of  the  condenser  g. 
In  the  same  forks  are  in.serted  the  ends  of  other  con- 
necting-rods A,  which  are  keyed  at  their  upper  ends 
to  cross-heads  i  i.  In  the  center  of  these  cross-heads 
are  bosses  large  enough  to  receive  the  rods  ^j,  which 
extend  to  the  crank-pins  of  the  cranks  k  k.  These 
cranks  are  fixed  to  the  main  shaft,  which  rests  upon 
the  bearings  1 1,  upon  the  arches  m,  which  are  bolted 
to  the  cross-beam. 

The  .side-beams  e  e  are  not  straight,  but  have  two 


DIRECT-ACTION  STEAM-ENGINE. 


me 


DISCHARGE-STYLE. 


bends,  the  ends  near  the  cylinder  being  inucli 
farther  apart  than  the  opposite  ends,  which  are 
alongside  the  air-pump,  so  that  they  conform  some- 
what to  the  shape  of  the  machine,  and  take  up  as 
little  room  as  possilJe.  The  beams  e  c  are  also 
forked  at  their  ends  nearest  to  the  air-pump  o,  in 
order  to  admit  the  in.sertion  of  the  pump-rods  ;), 
which  are  connected  at  their  upper  ends  with  the 
cross-head  7,  in  a  bush  in  the  center  of  which  is 
keyed  the  air-pump  rod  r.     Conneeting-rods  s  are 


Fig.  1G61. 


JL 


T^apier^s  Direct-Action  Steam-Engine. 

attached  to  the  side  beams  c,  and  at  their  upper 
ends  t  to  cross-heads,  which  are  connected  to  two 
rods  which  work  the  plungers  of  two  feed-pumps  for 
supplying  the  boiler.  The  rod  and  lever  x  are  for 
the  purpose  of  regulating  the  quantity  of  injection 
water  which  entei's  into  the  condenser,  by  a  pipe 
from  the  outside  of  the  vessel,  and  can  be  increased 
and  lessened  in  quantity  by  turning  a  cock  to  which 
the.  rod  x  is  attached  ;  ?/  is  a  hot-well,  into  which 
is  discharged  from  the  air- 
pump.     The  feed- 


the   condensing   water 
Fig.  1662. 


Penn^s  Marine  Steam-Ennine. 


pumps  are  sup- 
plied with  water 
from  this  hot- 
well,  through  tlie 
medium  of  a  pipe, 
the  overplus  being 
discharged 
through  the  side 
of  the  vessel  by 
another  pipe  (not 
shown). 

In  Penn's  di- 
rect-action steam- 
engine,  a  is  the 
cylinder  ;  b  the 
piston-rod,  carry- 
ing the  cross-head 
c  c;  this  latter 
consists  of  four 
arms,  branching 
diagonally  from 
the  center.  On 
each  side  two 
side-rods  d  d  are 
suspended  from 
the  extremities  of 


the  arms  c  c  of  the  cross-head,  and  are  attached  at 
the  lower  end  to  a  cross-bar,  in  the  center  of  which 
is  a  jiin,  to  which  the  forked  end  of  the  arm  (i  of 
the  connecting-rod  h  is  coupled  ;  i  i  are  two  guide- 
rotls,  upon  which  the  bar  e  slides,  the  rods  passing 
through  brass  bushes  attached  to  the  side  of  the 
bar  ;  /:  is  the  crank,  and  m  the  side  frame  ;  n  the 
slide-case,  and  p  the  steam  pipe. 

Di'rect-draft.  In  steam-boilers,  when  the  hot  air 
and  smoke  pass  olf  in  a  single  direct  flue.  In  contra- 
distinction to  a  rcvcrtiiifi,  a  wheel,  or  a  split  draft. 

Di-rect'or.  1.  [Elcctriciti/.)  A  metallic  instru- 
ment on  a  glass  handle,  and  connected  by  a  chain 
witli  the  ]iole  of  a  battery  or  Leyden  jar.  It  is  ap- 
plied on  that  part  of  a  body  to  which  a  shock  is  to 
be  sent. 

2.  (Hiirgicnl.)  A  grooved  instniment  for  guiding 
a  bistoury,  bullet-extractor,  etc. 

Dirk.  A  dagger.  The  name  is  Celtic  (diitrc), 
and  the  weapon  forms  part  of  the  equipment  of  a 
Scotch  highlander  and  an  English  midshipman. 

The  scalping-knife,  stiletto,  and  bowie-knife  are 
similar  implements  iu  fa%'or  with  other  people. 

Dirk-knife.     A  knife  with  a  hinged  dirk-blade. 

Dirt-board.  {Carriage.)  A  board  for  warding 
ofl' earth  from  the  axle-arm.     A  cultoo-plntc. 

Dirt-scrap'er.  A  grading-shovel.  A  road-scrap- 
er. An  implement  drawn  by  a  pair  of  horses,  man- 
aged by  one  man,  and  used  in  leveling,  banking  uji, 


Fig.  1663 


Dirt-  Scraper. 


or  grading  ground.  In  the  example,  the  shovel 
turns  upon  pivots  in  the  frame,  and  its  rear  end  is 
engaged  by  spring  catches,  which  are  retracted  by 
levers  beneath  the  liandles.  Pressure  on  the  triggers 
d  allows  the  shovel  to  capsize  and  dump  its  load. 

Dis-charge'.  1.  The  issuing  direction  of  water 
from  a  reaction  or  turbine  wheel  :  .as,  the  outivard 
discharge,  or  Fourneyron  turbine  ;  the  vertical  dis- 
charge, or  Jouval  turbine  ;  the  center  discharge,  etc. 

2.   An  ajutage. 

Dis-charg'er.  1.  (Calico-printinri .)  A  material 
with  whicli  cloth  is  printed,  in  order  that  the  color 
in  which  the  cloth  is  subsequently  di]iped  may  be 
removed  from  those  portions  printed  with  the  dis- 
charger. 

The  disclinrger  acts  either  upon  the  coloring  mat- 
ter, or  on  the  mordant  before  the  cloth  is  exposed 
to  the  dye.  It  acts  chemically  by  converting  the 
coloring-matter  into  colorless  or  soluble  products  ; 
or  upon  the  mordant  by  removing  its  effectiveness 
in  setting  the  color. 

It  ditfei-s  from  a  resist  in  this,  — 

A  resist  is  an  apjilieation  to  prevent  a  color  taking 
upon  a  cloth.     A  di.':ehartjer  is  to  remove  it. 

2.   (Eleetricitii.)     See  Di.srH.\Rc;iXG-KOD. 

Dis-charge'-style.  {Calico-printing.)  a.  A 
mode  of  calicii-iirintiug  in  which  thickened  acidulous 
matter,  cither  ]iure  or  mixed  witli  mordants,  is  im- 
printed iu  certain  points  U|ion  the  cloth,  which  is 
afterwards  padded  with  a  dark-colored  mordant,  and 


DISCHARGE-VALVE. 


707 


DISINTEGRATER. 


then  dyed,  with  the  effect  of  showing  bright  figures 
ou  a  darkish  ground.  Also  known  as  the  rongeaiit- 
style. 

b.  A  mode  in  which  certain  portions  of  color 
are  removed  from  dyed  goods  by  the  topical  ap- 
plication of  chlorine  or  chromic  acid.     See  De- 

COLiKINfi-srVLF.  ;    B.\ND.\X>A. 

Dis-charge'-valve.  In  marine  engines,  a 
valve  covering  the  top  of  the  air-pump,  opening 
when  presseil  from  beneath. 

Dis-charg'ing-arch.  {Architecture.)  One  built 
above  a  lintel  to  take  the  superincumbent  pressure 
therefrom. 

Dis-charglng-rod.  A  instrument  to  discharge 
a  charged  electrical  jar  or  battery.  It  has  a  glass 
handle  and  a  pair  of  hinged  rods  with  balls  on  the 
ends,  which  are  brought  into  connection  respective- 
ly with  the  two  surfaces  or  poles  of  the  jar  or  bat- 
tery. 

Dis'en-gag'ing-gear.  (Machincri/.)  Contriv- 
ances by  wliich  machines  are  thrown  oat  of  connec- 
tion with  their  motor,  by  disconnecting  the  wheels, 
chains,  or  bands  which  drive  them.     See  Clutch  ; 

Coi-l'I.ISG. 

Dish.  1.  (Vehicle.)  The  projection  outwardly 
of  the  tire  beyond  the  plane  of  the  insertion  of  the 
spokes  in  the  hub. 

This  is  not  necessary  when  the  spindle  of  the 
axle  is  cylindrical,  but  when  the  spindle  is  taper- 
ing, it  is  necessary  to  give  a  gxther  and  swing  to  the 
spindle,  and  a  dish  to  the  wheel. 

The  gather  is  the  setting  forward  of  the  end  of  the 
spindle  so  that  the  wheel  may  run  freely,  not  press- 
ing inordinately  either  on  the  nut  or  the  biMing- 
ring. 

The  swinrj  is  the  setting  downward  of  the  end  of 
the  spindle  so  that  its  lower  edge  m;iy  be  horizontal. 
The  load  resting  thus,  the  wheel  has  no  special  ten- 
dency to  slip  in  or  out  against  the  butting-ring  or 
the  nut. 

The  swing  tips  the  wheel  outward  at  top,  leaning 
it  away  from  the  w'agon,  and.  to  enable  the  bearing 
on  the  sfl'>ke.%  fellies,  and  tire  to  be  vertical,  the 
wheel  is  drilled  :  so  that  each  spoke  is  vertical  as  it 
comes  to  the  lower  or  working  pisition.  The/cHtcs' 
being  set  square  ou  the  spoke.%  the  tread  of  the  wheel 
is  flat  on  the  ground. 

2.  A  Bat  open  vessel  in  which  food  is  served  on 
table,  as  distinguishe.l  from  a  ^)?«te  in  which  it  is 
served  to  guests. 

3.  A  box  having  a  capacity  of  672  cubic  inches, 
in  which  ore  is  measured 

Dished.     (Machincnj.)     Having  a  central  de-    |r^T 
presiion.     Hollowed,  cup-.shaped.  v^^ 

Dished-out  A  term  applied  to  the  sunk 
cradling  employed  in  vaults,  coved  ceilings,  and 
domes  which  are  formed  by  wooden  ribs  (braclrting) 
upon  which  tlie  lath  and  plastering  are  secured. 

Dish-heat'er.  -\.  warming-closet  attached  to  a 
stove  or  e.xpo<  'd  in  front  of  a  fire  to  heat  dishes. 

Dish-hold'er.     A   grasping-implement   for  hot 
dishes,  or  for  holding  thein  while  washing  in 
verv  hot  water. 

Dish'iug.     (0/ wheels.)     See  Dish. 

Dish-rack.     A  frame  in  which  dishes  and 
plates  are  placed  to  drain  and  dry. 

Dish-wash'er.  A  device  by  which  dishes  are 
cleaned  hy  agitation,  in  some  cases  assisted  by 
brushes  or  sponges.     Among  the  numerous  varieties 


DisliWaslitr. 

The  modes  are  various  :  Atomizers  for  .spraying ; 
vessels  in  which  gases  are  eliminated  by  chemical 
action  ;  vapors  generated  by  the  heat  of  lamps  be- 
neath vessels  containing  the  ingiedients  ;  blowers 
bv  which  a  medicated  atmosphere  is  diffused ; 
trays  in  which  the  materials  are  exposed  to  the 
ordinary  currents  of  air  ;  pastiles  for  burning ; 
odors  and  perfumes  for  disguising  ;  earth  and  char- 
coal for  absorbing. 

Among  disinfectants  may  be  cited  chlorine, 
chloride  of  lime,  carbolate  of  lime,  carbolic  acid, 
chloride  of  zinc,  chloride  of  iron,  peniianganate  of 
potash,  sulphurous  acid  fumes,  roasting  coHee. 

Dis-in'te-grat'or.  1.  A  machine  for  grinding 
or  pulverizing  bones,  guano,  etc.,  for  manure. 

2.  A  mill  in  which  gi-ain  is  broken  into  a  fine" 
dust  by  beaters  projecting  from  the  faces  of  parallel 
metallic  disks  revolving  in  contrar)-  directions,  as 

-g  Fig.  1665. 

# 


Disintegrator. 


may  be  cited  the  circular  rack  rotated  in  a  tub  with 
water  suflicient  to  submerge  the  dishes  and  plates. 

Dis'in-fect'or.  An  apparatus  for  disseminating 
a  gas,  vapor,  or  fine  spray  for  the  purification  of  the 
air  and  the  counteraction  of  contagious  influences. 


in  the  figure.  The  grain  is  fed  In  at  the  -center, 
and  in  falling  is  caught  by  the  horizontal  bars 
which  project  from  the  rapidly  rotating  disks.  The 
grain  acquires  a  vortical  motion  which  by  centrif- 
ugal impulse  is  caused  to  run  the  gantlet  of  the  beat- 
ers, which  are  in  concentric  series  and  run  in  alter- 
nate directions  and  at  high  velocity.  See  Flour-mill. 


DISK. 


708 


DISK-VALVE. 


Disk.  One  of  the  collars  separating  and  fasten- 
ing the  eutters  on  a  horizontal  mandrel. 

A  Hat  eircuhir  plate. 

Disk  Steani-en'gine.  A  form  of  rotary  sleam- 
eugiuc  whieli  was  invented  by  Ericsson  and  im- 
proved by  Bi.shopp  and  others. 

In  the  Ericsson  engine  the  disk  revolves,  and  in 
the  Bishnpp  cnijine  the  disk  icobbles. 

Ericsson's  disk  steam-engine   {A  B,  Fig.   1666). 

Fia.  1666. 


Disk-Engines. 


The  steam-chamber 
a  is  the  segment  of 
a  sphere,  and  is 
fastened  by  flanges 
to  the  head  6.  c  is 
the  engine-shaft, 
having  a  gear- 
wheel p.  On  the 
end  of  the  shaft  is  a 
flat  cone  rf,  having 
packing  i  aronncl 
its  circnmfereni>e 
and  a  spherical 
knob  at  its  end, 
which  works  in 
a  corresponding 
cup  or  socket  in 
the  center  of  the 
disk  g,  which 
has  a  packing  a- 
ronndits  periph- 
ery. The  disk 
(J  has  strength- 
ening ribs  s  and 
an  axis  running 
in  a  conical 
bearingwi,  which 
is  adjusted  by  a 
set      screw.       A 


brass  bearing  I  against  the  end  of  the  axis  forces  the 
disk  against  the  cone  d,  the  lower  side  of  the  disk 
remaining  in  constant  contact  with  the  lower  side 
of  the  cone  throughout  the  revolution  ;  the  two  con- 
tacting objects  revolve  in  dilferent  planes  by  the 
action  of  the  steam  on  the  sectoi-s  c  c.  These  sectors 
are  attached  to  the  cone  and  fomi  the  piston,  ami 
the  point  of  contact  of  the  disk  and  cone  forms  the 
abutment.  The  sectors  pass  through  slits  in  the 
disk,  sliding  back  and  forth  ;  occupying  the  whole 
width  of  the  stcnim  space  at  the  up]ier  portion  of 
their  stroke,  and  then  receding  as  the  surfaces  of 
the  disk  and  cone  come  in  contact  at  the  lower 
point,  on  the  respective  sides  of  which  are  the  induc- 
tion and  eduction  steam-ports. 

The  steam  passes  through  the  neck  I  into  the 
spherical  cliamber  through  an  opening  v  cut 
through  its  side  ;  this  ojiening  is  of  triangular 
shape,  and  made  as  wide  at  top  as  the  circular  plane 
is  there  distant  from  the  base  of  the  cone,  and 
gradually  tajiering  olf  downward  ;  lo  is  the  opening 
thi'ough  which  the  steam  escapes  into  the  atnios- 
jtheiHi,  or  into  the   condenser,  as  the   case   may  he. 


tluough  the  neck  ?/.    The  dotted  line  x  shows  whero 
the  cone  and  circular  plane  come  in  contact. 

Steam  admitted  into  the  spherical  chamber  by  tho 
ne(^k  t  and  opening  v,  and  being  there  prevented 
from  jiassing  the  line  x  by  the  ]>ressure  of  tlie  di.sk 
against  the  cone  at  that  place,  it  presses  against  the 
upper  leaf  c,  which,  togethiM'  with  the  con<'  and 
disk,  is  thereby  carried  round  in  the  direction  of  the 
arrow.  When  the  leaf  has  jiasseil  the  upper  part  of 
the  opening  u\  the  steam  that  has  been  acting  U]>on 
it  escapes,  but  at  the  same  time  the  opposite  leaf  has 
passed  the  top  of  the  steam-opening  V,  and  is  car- 
rieil  round  in  a  similar  manner. 

The  engine  has  no  valves,  the  action  of  the  piston 
is  at  all  times  direct,  and  the  engine  can  be  .stopped, 
started,  or  reversed  at  any  position  of  tlie  piston. 

Bishopp's  disk  steani-enginc  (English),  (C,  Fig. 
166G).  The  piston  of  this  engine  has  the  form  of  a 
disk  b  attached  to  a  shaft  c,  wliich  has  a  .sphere  d  on 
its  mid-length  occupying  a  space  between  two  frus- 
tums of  cones  which  form  the  cylinder-heads.  The 
center  of  the  sphere  occupies  the  positiiui  that  would 
form  the  point  of  meeting  to  the  apexes  of  tlie  two 
cones,  were  they  prolonged.  The  disk  and  shaft  do 
not  revolve  on  their  axis,  though  the  ends  of  the 
shaft  describe  circles,  as  the  disk  wobbles  on  the 
cones,  keeping  one  radius  on  each  side  in  constant 
contact  with  them  resjiectively.  An  abutment  is 
formed  by  a  plate  e,  which  divides  the  annular  space 
in  which  the  steam  works,  the  lower  jiortion  of  the 
disk  having  a  radial  slit  which  enables  it  to  slip 
back  and  forth  on  the  abutment-plate  c.  The  steam 
is  admitted  on  one  side  of  the  abutment  and  ex- 
hausted on  the  other,  the  live  steam  pushing  the 
disk  before  it  by  crowding  between  it  and  the  conical 
head,  and  causing  the  outer  end  of  the  arm  to  com- 
municate a  rotary  motion  to  awheel/,  to  which  it  is 
connected  by  a  univeisal  joint. 

Disk-tei'e-graph.  One  in  whi('h  the  letters 
and  ligrnes  are  arranged  around  a  circular  plate  and 
are  brought  consecutively  to  an  opening,  or  other- 
wise specilioiUy  indicated. 

The  first  of  this  class  of  telegraphic  apparatus 
.seems  to  have  been  that  of  Eonalrl,  England,  1816. 
At  each  end  of  the  line  he  had  clocks  beating  ill 
exact  unison  ;  at  least,  such  was  the 
rer[uirenu-nt  of  the  invetition.  Each 
clock-work  rotated  a  disk  having 
the  letters  and  ntmierals  on  a  cir- 
cular track,  and  these  were  exjiosed 
in  consecutive  order  at  an  opening 
in  the  dial,  the  two  ends  of  the  line 
showing  the  same  letter  coincidently. 
The  sender  of  a  message  watched 
till  the  required  letter  canu'  in  view, 
then  made  an  electric  connection 
which  diverged  a  pair  of  pith  balls 
and  drew  attention  to  the  letter. 
This  was  repeated  for  each  letter, 
the  parties  waiting  till  the  re(piired 
letter  came  in  its  turn  to  the  open- 
ings in  the  respective  dials, 
and  came  to  nanght. 

Fig.  1667  shows  a  form  of  this  instrument  in 
which  the  armature  of  the  magnet  has  two  spring 
pieces,  which  act  upon  the  ratchet-wheel  as  the 
armature  vibrates  to  and  fro,  when  the  connection 
is  made  and  broken.  The  jiicces  are  resjieetively  a 
clairkcr  and  driver,  that  is,  a  ])ulling-hook  and  a 
])ushing-arm,  so  that  each  motion  of  the  annature  is 
maile  effective  in  moving  the  ratchet,  and  also  the 
lettered  disk. 

Disk-valve.  A  valve  formed  by  a  perforated 
disk  which  lias  a  rot;ition,  partial  and  reciprocating, 


Fig.  1667. 


Disk-Te  legraph . 
It  was  a  slow  business 


DISK-WHEEL. 


709 


DISSOLVIJfG-VIEWS. 


Fig.  1668. 


or  complete,  upon  a  cir- 
cular seat  wliose  ajiertures 
form  jwrts  for  steam  or 
other  tluicl. 

Disk-wheel.  Thisdif- 
fers  from  the  usual  worm- 
wheel  iu  the  (node  of 
presenting  the  spiral  to 
the  cog-wheel.  In  the 
illustration  the  spiral 
thread  on  the  face  of  the 
disk  drives  the  spur-gear, 
Disk-lMuel.  moving  it  the  distance  of 

one  tooth  at  each  revolu- 
tion.    Tlie  shafts  are  at  right  angles  to  each  other. 

Dis-part'.  {Guniuiry.)  The  difference  between 
the  muzzle  and  breech  thicknesses  of  a  piece  of  ord- 
nance. A  piece  of  metal  is  cast  on  the  muzzle  to 
bring  the  line  of  sight  parallel  to  the  a.vis  of  the 
piece,  and  is  known  as  the  disparl-siglU  or  muzzlc- 
sighl. 

Dis-part'-sight.  A  gun-sight,  to  allow  for  the 
dispart,  and  liriug  the  line  of  sight  and  the  axis  of 
the  piece  into  parallelism. 

Dis-patch'-boat.  A  name  given  to  a  smft  ves- 
sel, formerly  a  last  sailer,  now  a  small  steamboat, 
used  in  dispatch  duty. 

Dis-patch'-tube.  A  tube  in  which  letters  or 
parcels  are  transported  by  a  current  of  air  induced 
liy  a  plenum  or  vacuum.  See  PxEi'.M-iTic  Tubul.\r 
DisFATiu  ;  Atmospheric  R.\ilw.\y. 

Dis-place'ment.  (Of  a  vessel.)  The  weight  of 
water  displaied,  which  is  equal  to  her  own  weight 
and  that  of  her  lading. 

Dis-played'.  (Printing. )  Said  of  matter  when 
lines  are  put  iu  type  more  prominent  than  the  body 
letter. 

Dis-sect'ed  Map.  An  educational  device  to 
teach  geography.  A  map  is  pasted  on  to  a  thin 
board  or  veneer,  and  thus  mounted  is  sawed  apart 
into  pieces,  follo«-ing  the  national  lines  of  demar- 
lation.  The  pieces  being  mixed,  ingenuity  and  stud}" 
are  required  to  fit  them  all  together  in  order. 

Dis-sect'ing-for'ceps.  A  pair  of  long  tweezers 
used  in  dissecting. 

Dis-sect'ing-knife.  The  knives  of  the  Egjq)- 
tian  embalniers  were  of  an  Etliiopic  stone,  probably 
Hint.     Herodotus  describes  them.    A  flint  knife  was 

Fig  lfi69. 


J}issecting-Knives. 

also  used  by  the  Hebrews,  Egyptians,  and  Ethiopi- 
ans in  performing  the  operation  of  circumcision.  See 
Knife. 

"  Then  Zipporali  took  a  sharp  stone  and  cut  off 
the  foreskin  of  her  son,  and  cast  it  at  his  [lloses] 
feet."  —  Exo'his  iv.  25. 

The  dissection  of  the  human  body  for  pur]ioses  of 
science  was  ordered  by  Ptolemy  Pliilailel]ihus  in 
the  college  of  Alexandria.  He  even  authorized  the 
vivi.section  of  criminals  condemned  to  death.  He- 
Tophilus  of  Cos  was  among  the  first  of  the  jirofessors 


in  this  great  school  of  medicine.  The  practice  of 
dissection  was  very  repugnant  to  the  prejudices  of 
the  Egyptians,  where  to  touch  a  corpse  wa,s  defile- 
ment, as  we  see  it  also  to  have  been  among  the  He- 
brews, who  became  habituated  to  many  of  the  Eg}'p- 
tian  modes  of  thought. 

Vesalius,  born  at  Brussels  1514,  died  1564,  was 
among  the  most  noted  of  the  school  of  modern  anat- 
omists who  have  pursued  the  study  of  dissection. 
His  distinguished  professional  career  was  terminated 
by  an  unfortunate  affair,  which  turned  out  to  be  a 
vivisection,  as  the  supposed  cadaver  proved  to  he 
living.  The  relatives  who  had  gianted  the  dissec- 
tion denounced  Vesalius  to  the  Imiuisition,  who 
would  have  burned  hini  but  that  Philip  II.  stepped 
in  aud  had  the  sentence  commuted  to  a  pilgiimage 
to  Jerusalem.     Decidedly  preferable. 

Dis-sect'ing-mi'cro-scope.  The  stage  of  the 
upper  figure  has  rack-adjustment  for  focus,  spring 
clips  to  hold  object-slide,  diaphragm,  movable 
arm  for  canj'ing  the  lenses,  separate  jointed  stand 

Fig.  1670. 


Dissecting-HTicroscopes. 


on  which  any  of  the  sets  of  lenses  can  be  placed  and 
used  for  rough  or  preliminaiT  examinations  ;  min-or 
on  joint,  three  .sets  of  doublets,  of  low,  medium,  and 
high  power. 

The  lower  figure  is  of  a  binocular  microscope  of 
moderate  power,  for  anatomical  and  botanical  inves- 
tigations. It  is  made  to  close  up  in  a  box  the  top 
and  front  of  which  contain  loops  to  hold  the  knives, 
scissoi-s,  tweezers,  needles,  etc.  Beneath  the  eye- 
gla.ss  is  a  gutta-percha  stage  and  a  circle  of  glass 
illuminated  by  a  mirror  below. 

Dis-solv'ing-views.  Produced  by  the  magic- 
lantem  or  the  stereopticon. 

Two  magic-lanterns  are  placed  side  by  side,  their 
lens-tubes  slightly  convergent,  so  tliat  each  will  de- 
liver its  picture  upon  the  same  portion  of  the  screen. 
A  tapering  plate  slides  iu  front  of  both  tubes,  and  is 
so  arranged  that  it  may  shut  off  the  aperture  of 
either  or  allow  a  portion  of  the  image  from  each  to 
pass  to  the  screen. 

One  being  closed,  the  other  is  fully  displayed. 


DISTAFF. 


710 


DISTRIBUTING-ROLLER. 


Now,  by  moving  the  shuttiT,  the  image  from  the 
e.\hibiteil  picture  is  gracliuvliy  dimmed  and  that  of 
the  other  as  gradually  develops.  When  the  shutter 
is  midway,  the  pictures  are  ei^ually  jirominent  and 
are  therefore  confused.  The  shutter  continuing  to 
move,  the  new  picture  commences  to  predominate, 
and  eventually  occupies  the  screen  entirely,  the  other 
image  bi'ing  excluded.  A  change  of  pictures  now  l)eing 
made  in  the  darkened  lantern,  it  is  ready  for  the  re- 
turn motion  of  the  shutter,  which  makes  a  similar 
change  to  that  just  described.  The  name  is  well 
give]),  as  the  pictures  gradually  dissolve  into  each 
•  other,  there  being  no  sudden  removal,  change,  or 
sub.stitution. 

Dis'taff.  A  cleft  stick  about  3  feet  long,  on 
whicli  wool  or  carded  cotton  was  wound  in  the 
ancient  mode  of  spinning.  The  distalf  W'as  held 
under  the  left  arm,  and  the  fibers  of  cotton  drawn 
from  it  were  twisted  spirally  liy  the  forefinger  and 
thumb  of  the  right  hand.  The  thread  as  it  was 
spun  was  wound  on  a  reel  which  was  suspended 
from  and  revolved  with  the  thread  during  spinning. 
"A  virtuous  wonnm  layeth  her  hands  to  the 
spindle,   and  her  hands  hold    the   distaff."  —  SoL- 

O.MON. 

The  figures  in  group  a,  annexed,  show  a  party  of 


Fig.  1671. 


ing  is  used  as  the  basis  of  the  colors,  the  liquid  me- 
dium being  .size  ;  it  is  much  used  for  ceilings  and 
walls.      .See  DiisrE.MPEIt. 

Distil-la'tion.  The  volatilization  of  a  liquid  and 
condensation  in  a  separate  vessel. 

Zosimus,  the  I'anopolitau,  described  the  operation 
for  the  purification  of  water,  and  the  Arabs  called 
the  instrument  an  alembic.  Djafar,  eighth  century, 
obtained  nitric  acid  and  aqua  regia,  and  Rhazes 
absolute  alcohol  and  sulphuric  acid.  See  Alembic  ; 
Still. 

Dis-trib'ut-ing.  (Printing.)  The  operation  of 
returning  I'lom  the  column  to  the  case  the  letters, 
etc.,  which  made  up  the  inatter. 

The  compositor  wets  a  page  or  ])art  of  a  column  of 
matter,  and  takes  up  a  number  ot'  lines  on  his  dis- 
tributing-rule. The  wetting  causes  the  types  to  ad- 
here slightly  together.  He  takes  a  few  words  between 
his  linger  and  thumb,  and,  reading  the  purport,  by 
a  dexterous  slackening  of  his  grip,  so  as  to  loosen 
the  type  seriatim,  he  throws  the  several  letters  into 
their  various  boxes.  Vistribulicm  is  said  to  be  four 
times  faster  than  composition.     See  Tvpe-distrib- 

I'TINO  M.iCinSR. 

Dis-trib'ut-ing-res'er-voir.  A  small  reservoir 
for  a  given  district,  capable  of  containing  a  volume 
of  water  equal  to  the  whole  excess  of  the  de- 
mand for  water  during  those  hours  of  the  day 
when  such  demand  exceeds  the  average  rate, 
above  a  supply  during  the  same  time  at  the 
average  rate.  The  greatest  hourly  demand  for 
water  is  about  double  the  average  hourly  de- 
mand. The  least  that  a  distriliuting-reservoir 
should  hold  is  half  the  daily  deniand. 

Dis-trib'ut-ing-roll'er.    {I'riiitimj.)  A  roll- 
Fig.  1672. 


Distaff,  —  Ladies  at  ^^o^^-. 


ladies  of  the  Middle  Ages,  engaged  in  the  duties  of 
ladies  of  rank  at  that  time.  "  The  mistress,  as  with 
the  lady  in  Proverbs,  layeth  her  hands  to  the 
spindle,  and  her  hands  hold  the  distaft'."  She  is 
represented  as  cutting  up  a  piece  of  cloth  to  make 
into  garments,  while  two  of  her  maidens  are  at  work 
with  their  distalfs. 

The  fig\ire  b  is  the  more  modern  Italian. 

The  distalf  and  s|iindle  are  referred  to  repeatedly 
in  the  Old  Testament,  and  were  the  only  known 
means  of  spinning  in  Egypt,  Phoenicia,  Arabia, 
India,  Greece,  and  Rome.  Di.staff  spinning  and 
weaving  are  shown  at  Beni  Has.san,  in  Egypt.  The 
Greeks  repre.sented  Minerva  with  a  distalf  as  being 
the  inventress  of  spinning. 

Catullus  describes  it  clearly  :  — 

"  The  Inadefl  distaff  in  the  left  hand  placed, 
With  sponsy  coils  of  snow-white  wool  wa,s  graced  ; 
I  From  these  the  right  hand  lengthening  fillers  drew. 

Which  into  thread  "neath  nimble  fingers  grew. 
At  interv.als  a  gentle  touch  was  given. 
By  which  the  twirling  whorl  w-as  onward  driven. 
Then,  when  the  sinking  spindle  reached  the  ground, 
The  recent  thread  around  it.s  spire  was  wound  ; 
Until  the  clasp  within  its  nipping  cleft 
Held  fast  the  newly  finished  length  of  weft." 

Dis-tem'per.   A  kind  of  painting  in  which  whit- 


Distributing- Roller  and  Inking-  Table. 


er  on  the  edge 
of  an  inking- 
table  for  dis- 
tributing ink 
to  the  print- 
ing-roller. At 
the  side  of  the 
table  isau  ink- 
trough  which  is  pressed  up  against  the  distributing- 
roller  by  balance-weights.  The  distributing-roller 
presents  a  line  of  ink  to  the  printing-roller,  which  is 
then  run  back  and  foith  on  the  table  to  spread  the 
supply  of  ink  evenly  around  it. 

The  arrangement  was  invented  by  Professor  Cow- 
per,  and  is  described  in  his  English  patent  of 
1S18. 

The  distributing-roller  in  printing-machines  car- 
ries ink  from  tht-'didfor-ri'llcr  to  the  inking-roUer. 
To  secure  an  even  distribution,  it  is  found  necessary 
to  give  an  endwise  motion  to  the  roller. 

This  is  secured  in  one  of  two  ways. 

Professor  Cowper's  plan  was  to  give  a  longitudinal 
motion  to  the  axis  (English  patent,  1818). 

Apjilegarth's  method  was  to  place  the  axis  of  the 
distributing-roller  obliquely  to  the  surface  against 
which  it  moved.     It  thus  had  a  relative  endwise  mo- 


DISTRIBUTIXG-RULE. 


711 


DITCHIKG-PLOW-. 


tion,  which  distributed  the  ink  aloug  as  well  as  around 
the  rollers  involved  in  the  combination. 

Dis-txib'ut-ing-rule.  (Printing. )  A  rule  used 
in  separating  the  line*  of  type  in  distribution. 

Dis-trib'ut-ing-ta'ble.  (Printing.)  The  slab 
on  which  the  ink  is  spread  and  transfeiTed  to  the 
rollers. 

Dis'tri-bti'tion.  The  application  of  steam  in  the 
engine  in  respect  to  its  induction,  eduction,  expan- 
sive working,  etc. 

Ditch.  1.  (Fortification.)  A  trench  or /ftssc  on 
the  outside  of  a  fortification  or  earthwork,  serving 
as  an  obstacle  to  the  assailant  and  furnishing  earth 
(d-Mai)  for  the  parapet  (rcmblai).  It  is  from  90  to 
150  feet  broad,  in  regular  fortilication.s  much  nar- 
rower in  mere  earthworks  or  entrenched  positions. 
The  side  of  the  ditch  nearest  the  place  is  the  scarp  or 
escarp,  and  the  opposite  side,  the  counterscarp,  is 
usually  made  circular  opposite  to  the  salient  angles 
of  the  works.     See  Bastion". 

Under   the   ancient   system   of    fortification,   the 
ditch  was  frequently  dug  on  the  inside,  thus  antici- 
pating by  some  thousands  of  yeare  the  improvement 
of  Pillow,  during  the  Mexican  war,  — 
"  He  who  dug  for  Polk  and  Marcy 
Ditch  and  rampart  vi-ce  var-sy." 

The  object  of  the  savages  is  evident.      It  was  to 
obtain  shelter  for  the  bodies  of  the  archers  with  the 
least  amount  of  labor  ;    and  by  this  system    they 
most  readily  obtained  the  required  shel- 
ter, having  the  beneht  of  the  ditch  and 
the  bank.   The  ilandan  Indians  adopted 
this  plan.     The  system  is  seen  in  the 
modern  rifle-pit. 

The  fossa  around  a  Roman  encamp- 
ment was  usually  9  feet  broail  and  7 
feet  deep  ;  but  if  an  attack  was  appre- 
hended, it  was  made  13  feet  wide  and 
12  feet  deep.  The  arj'jcr,  or  parapet,  of 
the  encampment  was  raised  from  the 
earth  of  Die  fossa,  and  was  crowned  with 
a  ron-  of  sharp  stakes.      Valli. 

The  ditch  outside  the  rampart  on  the 
western  side  of  Rome  was  100  feet  wide, 
30  deep.  The  work  was  constructed  by 
Servius  Tullius. 

2.  An  artificial  water  -  course .  for 
drainage. 

By  the  laws  of  Solon  (594  B.  c),  no 
one  was  allowed  to  dig  a  ditch  but  at  the  same  dis- 
tance from  his  neighbor's  land  that  the  ditch  was  deep. 
This  was  the  same  in  the  Roman  laws  of  the  twelve 
tables.  The  Grecian  law  compelled  one  who  planted 
common  trees  to  place  them  no  nearer  than  9  feet 
from  his  boundary  ;  olives,  10  feet.  The  law  of  the 
twelve  tables  made  it,  olives  and  figs  9  feet,  other 
trees  5  feet. 

The  agricultural  ditches  of  the  Romans 
were  open  {fossa  patcntc.-i)  or  closed  (fo.'Ka 
ccecoc)  ;  the  latter  usually  3  feet  broad 
at  top,  IS  inches  at  bottom.  The  lower 
portion  was  filled  witli  stone  or  gravel, 
a  layer  of  jiine  leaves  or  willows,  and  then 
the  earth  replaced.  Sometimes  a  large 
rope  of  withes  or  a  bundle  of  poles  was 
placed  in  the  bottom. 

Ditch'ing-ma-chine'.     One  adapted 
to  excavate  a  deep  trench  and  deposit  the 
earth  at  the  side   of  the  same.     In  this 
^ense  a  plow  may  be  a  ditching-machine,  and  in  fact 
is  often  so  used  in  running  shallow  ditches  for  sur- 
face-draining, but  it  will  only  make  it  single-furrow 
depth.     There  are  many  modifications  of  the  plow  \ 
for  attaining  extra  depth. 


Fig.  16T3. 


In  Fig.  1673,  the  earth  is  raised  by  a  double- 
pointed,  concave-topped  plow,  and  the  earth  is  com- 
pacted upon  it  by  an  adjustable  roller.  The  earth  is 
carried  upward  and  backward  by  an  endless  conveyer. 

Fig  1674. 


^77^^7^:^777777777^;^;^ 


Rotary  Ditcher. 


Of  a  ditlerent  type  is  the  rotary  ditching-machine, 
in  which  the  earth  is  taken  up  in  circumferential 
rece.ss  bet^veen  the  sectional  rim-plates  of  the  wheel, 
being  bound  therein  by  the  radial  sjiades  which  are 
projected  to  engage  and  retracted  to  free  the  earth 
by  fixed  cams  upon  the  frame.  The  inclined  scraper 
removes  the  earth  from  the  recess,  and  deposits  it 
Iteside  the  path  of  the  machine.  The  excavator- 
frame  is  adjustable  on  the  wheel-frame. 

Ditch'ing-plO'W.  A  plow  having  a  deep,  narrow 
shave   tor  cutting  drains  and  trenches,  and  means 


Ditching-Flow. 


DITCHING-TOOLS. 


712 


DIVIDING-ENGINE. 


for  lifting  tlie  earth  ami  depositing  it  at  tlie  side  or 
sides  of  tlie  excavation.  In  Fig.  1K75,  the  forward 
carriage  straddles  tlie  diteh,  and  the  rear  supiiort- 
ing-wlieel  runs  in  tlie  ditidi  heliind  the  cutting  and 
elevating  nieehanism.  The  share  is  supported  liy 
colters,  which  cut  the  sides  of  the  ditch,  and 
deliver  the  furrow-slice  to  tlu'  guides  upon  which  it 
rises,  and  to  the  mold-boards  which  deliver  it  on  the 
side  of  the  ditch.  Adjustments  for  varying  depths 
are  recited  in  the  claims. 

Ditch'ing-tools.  Spades  of  various  shapes  for 
ditl'erent  forms  and  depths  of  ditches.  Scoop-shaped 
for  clearing  out  tlie  bottoms  ;  paring-sjiades  for  le- 
moving  the  turf.  Level  and  reel-line  for  laying  out 
the  work.  Plows,  ditching-machines,  and  e.xcavators 
for  reducing  the  amount  of  hand-work. 

Di-ver'sion-cut  A  channel  to  divert  past  a 
reservoir  a  stream  of  impure  or  turbiil  water  which 
would  otherwise  How  into  the  reservoir.   A  hy-ivash. 

Di-vid'ed  Ax'le.  One^bisected  at  its  mid- 
length,  lu  some  instances  the  parts  are  couplcil 
together,  in  others  they  are  independent.     See  C'ai;- 

AXLE. 

Di-vid'ed    Ob'ject- glass     Mi-crom'e-ter. 

Another  name  for  the  tl'mhlr-iminir  micrometer. 
The  object-glass  of  the  telescoiie  or  nncroscope  is 
bisected  diametrically,  the  straight  edges  being 
ground  smooth  so  tliat  they  may  easily  slide  by 
each  other.  The  halves  of  the  bisected  lens  are 
movable  in  a  direction  perpendicular  to  the  line 
of  section  by  means  of  a  screw  ;  the  distances  being 
determined  liy  the  nundjer  of  revolutions  necessary 
to  bring  the  points  to  be  measured  into  optical  coin- 
cidence. 

Di-vid'er.  [Husbandry.)  The  prow  or  wedge- 
formed  piece  on  a  reaping-machine,  which  divides 
the  grain  to  be  cut  from  the  standing  grain. 

Di-vid'ers.  A  form  of  compasses,  usually  with 
an  adjusting  and  retaining  arrangement.     Its  name 


rig.  1676, 


Dividers. 


is  derived  from  its  specific  use  in  dividing  lines  into 
any  given  number  of  cipial  parts.  The  legs  are 
driven  apart  by  a  .spring  as  the  nut  is  retracted  on 
the  screw,  and  closed  by  contrary  motion  of  the 
said  nut ;  the  fine  thread  of  the  screw  admitting  of 
a  very  delicate  adjustment. 

a,  dividing  compass. 

b,  dividers  with  arc. 

c,  steel  spacing-dividers. 

d,  steel  spacing-dividers  with  pen-leg. 
c,  bow-dividers. 

/,  spring-bow  dividers,  with  handle. 

3,  bisecting-diviilers. 

Di-vid'ing-en'gine.  A  machine  for  dividing  a 
circle  into  a  ninnber  of  parts  of  e(]ual  proportions, 
either  for  tlie  purpose  of  graduation,  as  the  cii'cles 
and  arcs  of  astronomical,  surveying,  and  plotting 
instruments,  or  for  spacing  off  and  cutting  the  cir- 
cumference of  a  wheel  into  teeth. 

The  firet  notice  we  find  is  in  connection  with  a 
mode  of  originating  screws  by  Pappus  Ale.\andiinus, 


a  Greek  mathematician  of  the  fourth  century.  His 
process  was  by  a  thin  templet  of  brass  of  the  foim 
of  a  right-angled  triangle,  the  angles  of  which  were 
made  in  accordance  with  the  jiitdi  of  the  proposed 
screw.  The  perpendicular  being  wrapjied  around 
the  rod  at  right  angles  to  the  axis,  the  liypoteneuse 
gave  the  s])iral  of  the  screw,  and  tlie  base  the  pitch. 

The  subject  of  originating  screws,  which  is  closely 
connected  with  the  dividing-engine,  may  be  pursued 
in  Holtzapffel  (Vol.  II.  pp.  635-655). 

The  methods  of  giaduating  instruments  received 
much  attention  from  Tompion  (1660),  Sharp 
(1689),  the  Sissons,  and  Bird  (1745),  the  latter  re- 
ceiving £  500  from  the  Board  of  Longitude  for  his 
method  of  dividing.  Hindley,  in  1740,  constructed 
an  engine  foi'  dividing  circles,  which  also  served 
to  cut  clock-wheels. 

Eamsden,  in  1766,  contiived  his  dividing-engine, 
and  in  1777  received  a  reward  of  i;615  from  the 
Board  of  Longitude.  Following  Uam.sden  were  the 
Tronghtons,  father  and  son,  the  latter  of  whom  re- 
ceived the  Copley  medal  of  the  Hoyal  Society  of 
England  for  his  imjiroved  method  of  gi-adnation. 

liam.sden's  circular  dividing-engine  consisted  of  a 
large  wheel  moved  liy  a  tangent  screw.  The  wheel 
was  45  inches  in  diameter,  and  had  2,160  teeth,  so 
that  six  tuins  of  tlie  tangent-screw  moved  the  circle 
one  degree.  The  screw  had  a  micrometer  and  ahso  a 
rati'liet-wheel  of  sixty  teeth,  tlierefore  one  tooth 
eipialed  one  .sixth  of  a  minute  of  a  degiee.  The 
diamond  point  always  moved  on  one  fixed  radial 
line,  by  means  of  a  swing-frame.  The  circum- 
ference of  the  45-inch  circle  was  originally  divided 
into  five  parts,  each  of  these  into  thiee  ;  these  were 
then  bisected  four  times,  dividing  the  wlieel  into 
240  jiarts,  each  of  which  was  designed  to  contain 
nine  teeth. 

The  first  apjdication  of  the  tangent-screw  and 
ratchet  to  the  purpose  of  graduation  is  stated  by 
Holtzapffel    to 

have      been       by  Fig.  1677.  _ 

Pierre  Fardoil. 
See  plate  23  of 
Thiout's  "Traite 
d'Horlogerie," 
etc.,  Paris,  1741. 

Fig.  1677  illus- 
trates Ramsden's 
application  of  the 
principle  of  the 
engine  just  de- 
scribed in  origi- 
nating the  screw 
of  his  dividing- 
engine  for  straight 
lines.  The  guide-screw  G  is  turned  by  the  winch, 
and  in  each  revolution  moves  the  larger  tangent- 
wheel  one  tootli,  winding  on  to  the  boss^i  a  slip  of 
watch-spring  which  carried  the  slide  on  which  the 
tool  t  was  fixed,  thus  cutting  the  screw  C,  wliich 
was  at  the  same  time  rotated  by  the  gearing  c  y  from 
the  ]irime  shaft.  The  object  was  to  cut  a  certain 
number  of  threads  to  the  inch,  and  this  was  ob- 
tained by  a  tentative  process  by  gradually  reducing 
the  diameter  of;)  until  600  turns  of  the  handle  gave 
a  motion  of  5  inches  to  the  tool-slide. 

In  the  ap)dication  of  the  screw  to  the  graduation 
of  mathematical  scales,  it  is  employed  to  move  a 
platt'orni  which  slides  freely  and  carries  the  scale  to 
be  graduated,  the  swing-frame  for  the  diamond- 
point  being  attached  to  some  fixed  part  of  the 
framing  of  the  machine. 

Donkin  followed  up  the  matter  in  1S23  in  de- 
vising correctional  methods  for  Maudslay's  devices. 


Rnmsden^s  Screw- Cutting  Apparatus. 


DIVIDIXG-SINKER. 


7U 


DIVING-BELL. 


to  nliicU  we  caunot  devote  room.       See   Holtzap- 
ffel,  pp.  651  -6.55. 

In  18-43,  Mr.  Sims  applied  sclf-actinf;  apparatus  to 
Trou"hton's  circular  diviiling-ciigine,  ami  an  instru- 
ment of  their  manufacture  may  be  seen  at  the  Coast 
Survey  building,  Capitol  Hill.  Washinffton.  It  has 
been  somewhat  modiKed  by  Mr.  Wiirdemann,  of 
AVa-sliington,  and  is  now  driven  by  a  small  turbine 
in  the  stand.     See  GRAnu.iriNC-.MACm.NE. 

Di-vid'ing-sink'er.  {Kniitintj-mnchvic.)  One 
of  the  pieces  interposed  between  jack-sinkers,  which, 
being  advanced  while  the  latter  are  retracted,  force 
the  yarn  between  the  needles  of  each  pair,  so  tliat 
by  tile  joint  action  of  the  jack-sinkers  and  the  divicl- 
ing-siiiker.i  the  yarn  is  looped  on  each  of  the  needles. 

Div'mg-beli.  .An  apparatus,  having  some  anal- 
ogy in  shape  to  a  bell,  in  which  persons  may  deseeml 
and  remain  for  a  while  in  safety  beneath  the  surface 
of  the  water. 

The  analogue,  in  the  natural  world,  of  the  diving- 
bell,  is  found  in  the  contrivance  of  the  diving-spider, 
whose  submerged  habitation  ha.s  been  described  by 
De  Geer.  These  spiders  spin  in  the  water  a  cell  of 
strong,  closely  woven  white  silk,  in  the  form  of  a 
diving-bell  or  half  a  pigeon's  eg;;.  This  is  some- 
times quite  submergeil,  at  others  partly  above  the 
water,  and  is  always  attached  to  some  objects  near 
it  by  a  number  of  irregular  thivads.  It  is  closed  .all 
round,  but  has  a  large  opening  below,  which  is 
closed  when  the  insect  is  hibernating. 

The  diving-bell  is  said  to  have  been  used  in 
Phcenicia  320  B.  c.  This  was  about  twelve  years 
after  the  capture  of  insular  Tyre  by  .\lexandi'r,  and 
perhaps  was  used  in  the  recovery  of  valuables  throwii 
into  the  sea  to  prevent  capture  by  "young  .\mmon. " 

Aristotle  (350  B.  c.)  speaks  of  a  kind  of  kettle  by 
which  divers  could  supply  themselves  with  fresh  air 
under  water.  It  is  related  by  Jerome  that  Alexan- 
der the  Great  entered  into  a  vessel,  called  a  cohjia- 
pha,  having  a  glass  window  to  it,  and  in  which  he 
descended  to  the  bottom  of  the  oi'ean. 

The  application  of  the  diving-bell  in  Europe  is 
noticed  by  John  Tasnier,  who  attended  Charles  V. 
in  a  voyage  to  Africa.  He  relates  tliat  he  saw  "at 
Toledo,  in  Spain,  in  the  yar  1538,  in  the  presence 
of  the  emperor  and  several  thousand  spectators,  two 
Greeks  let  themselves  down  under  water  in  a  iarge, 
inverted  kettle,  with  a  light  burning,  and  rise  up 
again  without  being  wet. 

After  this  period,  the  use  of  the  diving-bell  be- 
came generally  known,  and  is  noticed  in  the 
"  Novum  Organuni  "  of  Sir  Francis  Baron,  pub- 
lished 1620  ;  in  which  the  device  is  referred  to  as 
being  in  use  in  his  time.  It  is  described  as  a  ma- 
chine used  to  as.sist  persons  laboring  under  water 
upon  wrecks,  by  affording  a  reservoir  of  air  to  which 
they  may  resort  whenever  they  reijuire  to  take 
breath.  "  A  hollow  metallic  vessel  \va.s  let  down 
evenly  to  the  surface  of  the  water  and  carried  down 
the  air  it  contained.  It  stood  upon  three  feet  like  a 
tripod,  which  were  in  length  somewhat  less  than  the 
hight  of  a  man,  so  that  the  diver,  when  he  was  no 
longer  able  to  contain  his  breath,  could  put  his  head 
into  the  vessel,  and,  haring  breathed,  return  again 
to  his  work." 

The  next  use  of  the  bell  was  in  1642,  in  America, 
when  Bedall  of  Boston  used  submerged  weighted 
"tubs,"  in  which  he  descended  to  the  "Mary 
Rose,"  which  had  sunk  the  previous  year.  The 
lifting-arrangements  were  completed  by  means  of  the 
diving-bell,  and  the  loaded  vessel  transported  to 
shoal  water  and  recovered. 

In  the  year  1687,  the  .sum  of  £  300,000  was  re- 
covered by  a  diving-bell,  at  a  depth  of  7  fathoms. 


from  a  Spanish  ship  which  had  been  wrecked  near 
the  Bermud.as.  The  bell  was  the  invention  of  Wil- 
liam Phipps,  an  American  of  I'eniacpiid,  in  tliat  part 
of  the  Colony  now  known  as  the  State  of  JIaine. 
Phipps  was  brought  up  as  a  ship-carpenter  in 
Boston,  and  made  many  unsuccessful  attempts  to 
interest  parties  in  the  work.  When  lie  succeeded, 
James  II.  was  urged  to  confiscate  the  £  16,000  which 
came  to  the  share  of  AVilliam  Phipps  ;  for  once  in 
his  life  the  king  refused  to  do  a  mean  thing.  Phipps 
was  afterwards  made  high-sheritf  of  the  Colony,  was 
knighted,  and  subsequently  was  governor. 

The  English  jiatent  of  John  Williams,  1692,  is  for 
an  "engine  for  can-ying  four  men  15  fathoms  or 
more  under  water  in  the  sea,  wliereby  they  may 
work  twelve  hours  together  without  any  danger." 
It  is  stated  to  be  useful  in  raising  sunken  vessels.  It 
had  a  submerged  chamber,  communicating  with  the 
surface  by  a  rigid  tube,  up  and  down  wliich  persons 
might  pass.  Projecting  sleeves  and  hooks  aHbrded 
means  for  directing  gi'apnels  to  sunken  jnoperty. 

Beckmann  mentions  a  print  in  Vegetius  on 
War,  published  in  1511  and  1532,  representing  a 
diver  with  his  cap,  from  which  rises  a  long  leather 
(lipe  provided  with  an  opening  above  the  siuface  of 
the  water.  Lorini  on  Fortitication,  1607,  shows 
a  square  box,  hound  with  iron,  furni.shed  with  win- 
dows and  a  seat  for  the  diver.  Kessler  in  1617, 
Witsen  in  1671,  and  Borelli  in  1679,  gave  attention 
to  the  subject  aud  contributed  to  the  efficiency  of 
the  apparatus. 

A  diving-bell  company  was  formed  in  England  in 
1688,  and  the  operators  ma<Ie  some  successful 
descents  on  the  coast  of  Hispaniola.  In  1664,  can- 
non were  recovered  from  wrecks  of  the  Spanish 
Armada  by  the  Laird  of  Melgim,  near  the  Isle  of 
JIan,  but  not  sufhi-ient  to  jiay.  Previous  unsuc- 
cessful attempts  had  lieen  made  by  Coli]uhonn,  of 
Glasgow,  who  depended  for  air  upon  a  leathern  tube 
reaching  above  the  surface  of  the  water.  Dr.  Halley, 
in  1715,  improved  the  iliving-bell  by  a  contrivance 
for  supplying  it  with  fresh  air  by  means  of  barrels 
lowered  from  the  vessel,  fiom  which  the  bell  was 
suspended,  the  foul  air  escaping  by  a  cock.  This 
also  allowed  the  bell  to  be  completely  filled  with  air, 
rendering  the  whole  of  its  interior  space  available. 
HaUey  also  invented  a  waterproof  cap  to  which 
pipes  leading  to  the  bell  were  attached,  so  that  an 
operator  could  leave  the  bell  and  walk  on  the  bottom 
outside,  being  sup]ilied  with  air  by  the  pipe.  This 
resembled  in  some  respects  the  modem  submarine 
amior,  helmet,  and  diving-dress,  which  had  been  in 
occasional  use  since  early  in  the  sixteenth  century 
(»(  supra).  Spalding,  in  1774,  made  farther  imjirove- 
ments  by  suspending  a  balance-weight  fiom  the  bell 
that  on  striking  bottom  took  off  the  weight  of  the 
bell,  which  with  its  included  air,  being  too  light  to 
sink,  was  more  readily  raised  or  lowered  by  the  ad- 
mission of  air  or  water  into  an  upper  comjiartment, 
placing  it  conifiletely  under  the  control  of  those 
within  it.  For  this  the  British  Government  decreed 
him  a  reward.  The  celebrated  engineer  Sineaton, 
about  the  year  1779,  first  used  it  for  engineering 
purposes,  and  in  1788,  having  to  prepare  the  foun- 
dation for  the  pier  in  Ramsgate  Harbor,  he  contrived 
a  bell  by  which  the  work  was  very  greatly  facili- 
tated. This  consisted  of  a  nearly  conical  box  of 
cast-iron,  of  great  weight  and  solidity,  capable  of 
containing  50  cubic  feet  of  air,  or  sufficient  for  two 
persons  one  hour ;  this  was  constantly  charged  by 
means  of  a  pipe  leading  to  a  force-pump  above.  -The 
diving-bell  has  been  subsequently  applied  with  gi'eat 
success  to  many  importiiut  submarine  engineering 
operations,  and  for  the  pui-pose  of  recovering  valu- 


DIVING-BELL. 


714 


DIVING-BELL. 


ables  from  shiinvrccked  vessels,  etc.,  but  of  late 
years  si'cnis  to  be  nearly  supersejed  by  the  recent 
imjiroveiiieiits  in  .submarine  armor.  The  principle 
of  the  (livinj,'-l)ell  may  be  illustr.ated  by  taliinj;  a 
tumbler,  inverting  it,  and  pressing  it  down  into  a 
vessel  of  water,  when  it  will  be  seen  that,  although 
the  water  will  ri.se  in  the  tumbler  to  an  e.\tent  pro- 
portioned to  its  degree  of  immersion,  yet  the  u]iper 
part  of  the  tumbler  will  remain  perfectly  dry,  and 
if  a  lighted  taper  be  placed  within,  it  will  not  be 
extinguished,  but  will,  on  the  contrary,  burn  with 
even  inereiised  energy,  owing  to  the  condensation  of 
the  air  by  |)re,ssure.  Mr.  Hriiuel  found  that  at  tlie 
depth  of  ;iU  feet  he  could  hold  his  breath  two 
minutes,  or  double  the  usual  time,  the  amount  of 
air  taken  into  the  lungs  at  one  inspiration  being  in 
fact  double  what  it  would  have  been  at  the  surface. 

Dr.  Faraday  relates  the  curious  fact,  that  the 
lungs  are,  in  their  natural  state,  charged  with  a 
large  quantity  of  impure  air  ;  this  being  a  portion 
of  the  carbouic-acid  gas  which  is  formed  during 
respiration,  but  which,  after  such  expiration,  re- 
mains lodged  in  the  involved  passages  of  the  pul- 
monary vessels.  By  breiithing  hard  for  a  short 
tinu%  as  a  person  does  after  violent  exercise,  this 
impure  air  is  e.xjielled,  and  its  place  is  supplied  by 
pure  atmosiiheric  air,  liy  which  a  person  w-ill  be 
enabled  to  holil  his  breath  much  longer  than  with- 
out such  precaution.  Dr.  Faraday  states  that, 
although  he  could  only  hold  his  breath,  after  breath- 
ing in  the  ordinary  way,  for  about  three  quarters  of 
a  minute,  and  that  with  great  ditficulty,  he  felt  no 
inconvenience,  after  making  eight  or  ten  forced  res- 
pirations to  clear  the  lungs,  until  the  month  and 
nostrils  had  been  closed  more  than  a  minute  and  a 
half ;  and  that  he  continued  to  hold  breath  to  the 
end  of  the  second  minute.  A  knowledge  of  this 
fact  may  enable  a  diver  to  remain  under  water  at 
least  twice  as  long  as  he  otherwise  could  do. 

The  experience  of  a  Fi-ench  diver,  who  descendi;d 
for  the  purpose  of  examining  the  wreck  of  a  steamer 
sunk  olf  Ushant  in  1865,  is  interesting.  He  found 
that  at  the  de]ith  of  19j  feet  the  general  pressure  over 
the  whole  body  w'as  so  great  tliat  the  bladder  was 
involuntarily  emptied.  At  this  dejith  he  rested  on 
the  sands  in  which  his  feet  sunk.  He  detaches  one 
end  of  the  guide-cord  ;  he  can  distinguish  this  cord, 
the  weights,  and  his  hands,  and  he  advances  a  few 
steps,  lie  has  great  dithculty  in  withdrawing  his 
feet  from  tlu^  sands,  to  which  he  feels  rooted.  All 
at  once  his  sight  is  obscured,  his  head  turns  ;  he  re- 
turns instinctively  to  the  ladder,  and  asks  to  be  raised. 
He  begins  to  ascend  as  well  ns  his  strength  will 
allow,  feels  himself  impeded  by  his  guide-cord,  which 
he  cuts,  and  then  rises  alone  very  rapidly,  having 
lost  his  .senses.  A  violent  shock  brings  him  to  ; 
he  recognizes  the  side  of  the  ship  from  which  he  had 
descended,  against  which  his  nuisk  has  struck,  and 
regains  his  courage.  He  waves  his  hand  above  the 
surface  of  the  wat(U',  and  feels  himself  sinking.  His 
mask  having  got  displaced,  the  collar  almost  chokes 
him.  He  feels  himself  grasped  by  the  arms,  and 
grasps  a  rope  which  his  hand  happened  to  touch. 
He  again  loses  consciousness  for  a  moment  in  the 
ship's  boat,  and  asks  to  be  raised  on  deck  as  soon  as 
his  mask  sliall  be  unscrewed.  He  suffers  much  from 
his  right  hand,  and  breathes  with  difficulty  ;  his  ex- 
tremities are  cold  and  neck  painful.  Twice  he  nearly 
faints  and  ceases  to  breathe.  His  sight  apjiears 
troubled,  everything  turns  round  with  him,  and  bis 
gaze»  has  no  stendiness.  This,  as  the  idiom  shows, 
is  the  French  account,  and  is  preferably  given  with- 
out impairing  its  graphic  character.  The  conclusion 
arrived  at  on  this  occasion  was,  that  it  was  imprac- 


ticable to  work  for  any  length  of  time  at  a  depth 
exceeding  130  feet. 

In  18ti9,  however,  the  ship  "  Hamilla  Mitchell" 
was  lost  on  the  Leuconia  rocks,  near  [Shanghai  ;  and 
two  English  divers,  provided  with  the  apparatus  of 
Siebe  and  Gormun,  were  subsequently  sent  fi'om 
Liverpool  to  attemjit  the  rescue  of  the  treasure  on 
board.  One  of  these  succeeded  in  ren"iaining  f(nir 
consec'utive  hours  under  water  at  tlie  depth  of  23 
fathoms  upon  one  occasion,  during  which  he  recov- 
ered 64  boxes  of  specie. 

The  engraving  on  the  opposite  page  illustrates 
subnuu'ine  operations  at  the  anchorage  off  Gibraltar,  ' 
as  conducted  with  the  diving-bell  in  conjunction 
with  divers  arrayed  in  the  apparatus  of  Ronquayral 
and  Denayrouze.  In  this,  whether  the  man  be  naked 
or  covered  with  impervious  clothing,  his  respiration 
may  lie  made  to  depend  on  the  exercise  of  his  own 
will  and  the  power  of  his  lungs,  or  the  air-su])ply 
reservoir  niaj'  be  sniqilied  by  air-pumps  above,  as 
shown  in  the  ligure.  The  artificial  lung  or  air-snp- 
jily  regulator  consists  of  a  strong  metallic  reservoir, 
preferably  steel,  capable  of  resisting  great  pressure, 
and  surmounted  by  a  chamber  so  constructed  ;is  to 
regulate  the  efflux  of  air.  This  is  can  led  on  the  div- 
er's back.  A  respiratory  tube  issues  from  the  cham- 
ber, and  is  terminated  by  a  mouth])iece  of  sheet  caout- 
chouc, which  is  held  between  the  lips  and  teeth 
of  the  diver.  This  pipe  is  furnished  with  a  valve, 
wduch  permits  the  expulsion  of  air.  but  op}ioses  the 
entrance  of  water.  The  steel  reservoir  is  separated 
from  the  air-chamber  by  a  conical  valve  opening 
from  the  air-chandier  toward  the  reservoir,  so  as  to 
open  only  under  the  influence  of  an  exterior  )ires- 
sure,  the  tendency  of  the  pressure  of  the  air  in  the 
reservoir  being  to  keep  it  closed. 

This  apparatus  dispenses  with  the  necessity  for 
keeping  the  air-pump  in  continual  operation.  The 
air  which  tin-  diver  inhales  is  stored  up  in  the  steel 
reservoir,  and  from  this  he  supplies  himself  without 
fatigue  in  the  following  manner.  The  air-cluunber 
is  closed  by  a  movable  lid,  to  which  is  attached  the 
stem  of  the  valve  before  referred  to.  The  diameter 
of  the  lid  is  somewhat  less  than  the  interior  diame- 
ter of  the  chamber,  and  it  is  covered  with  caoutchouc, 
to  render  it  air-tight.  It  yields  to  both  interior  and 
exterior  ]iressui-e,  the  former  causing  it  to  rise  and 
the  latter  to  fall .  AVhen  exterior  pressure  is  exerted 
on  this  lid,  the  valve  is  opened,  establishing  a  com- 
munication between  the  reservoir  and  the  air-cham- 
ber, allowing  a  jiortion  of  the  compressed  air  in  the 
reservoir  to  How  into  the  chamber.  If  the  latter 
contains  an  excess  of  air,  its  pressure  against  the 
movable!  lid  keeps  the  valve  closed. 

The  apparatus,  when  under  water,  works  in  the 
following  manner.  In  the  act  of  inhalation,  the  di- 
ver withdraws  a  certain  amount  of  air  from  the 
chamber  ;  exterior  pressure  is  then  exerted  on  the 
movable  lid,  which  falls,  causing  the  conical  valve 
to  open.  Air  passes  in  from  the  reservoir,  reestab- 
lishing an  equilibriimi  of  pressure  between  the  inte- 
rior of  the  air-chamber  and  the  surrounding  water, 
and  the  conical  valve  returns  to  its  seat,  intercept- 
ing the  communication  between  the  reservoir  and 
chamber  until  another  ins|iiration  causes  the  opira- 
tion  to  be  repeated.  As  the  air  is  ex])elled  fiom  the 
lungs,  the  valve  of  the  respiratory  tube  before  de- 
scribed permits  its  escape  into  the  water. 

It  is  evident  that  the  uniformity  of  action  in  thi.s 
apparatus  dejiends  entirely  upon  the  respiration  of 
the  diver,  however  irregular  may  be  the  action  of  the 
air-pump  ;  the  workman  receives  precisely  the  quan^ 
tity  of  air  he  requires,  and  at  a  pressure  exactly  equal 
to  that  of  the  medium  by  which  his  body  is  sur- 


Plate  XIV. 


DIVING-BELL  AND  CORAL-DIVERS. 

OIBRALTAK. 


Seepage  714. 


DIVING-BELL  PUMP. 


715 


DOESKIN. 


rounded.  The  pump  which  supplies  air  to  the  res- 
ervoir is  so  constructed  tliat  liability  to  leakage  di- 
minishes with  the  pressure,  and  the  air  is  compelled 
to  traverse  two  layers  of  water  before  entering  the 
reservoir,  rendering  it  nuich  cooler  than  it  would 
otherwise  be  in  its  greatly  compressed  state  ;  it  is 
farther  cooled  by  expansion  in  passing  from  the  reser- 
voir into  the  air-c:hamber. 

An  important  advantage  possessed  by  this  appara- 
tus is  that  the  expired  air  rises  in  bubbles  to  the 
surface.  .So  long  as  the  diver  breathes  regularly,  the 
intervals  between  the  appearance  of  the  bubbles  is 
sensibly  e({ual.  If  they  come  more  rapidly  or  more 
slowly  than  usual,  it  is  a  sign  that  something  ab- 
normal is  going  on.  If  they  cease  altogether,  the 
diver  must  have  ceased  breathing,  and  should  be 
hauled  up  immediately. 

In  the  old  forms  of  diving-dress  the  air  filled  the 
space  between  the  body  of  the  diver  and  his  imper- 
vious clothing,  the  expired  air  escaping  by  a  small 
valve  in  the  helmet,  through  which  any  excess  of  air 
also  escaped.  Irregularity  in  the  action  of  the  pum;) 
caused  also  irregularities  in  the  escape  of  the  bub- 
bles, and  thus  the  assistants  might  for  a  long  time 
unconsciously  continue  to  send  air  to  a  corpse.  In 
the  new  apparatus,  the  appearance  of  tlie  bubbles 
indicates  tlie  safety  of  the  diver,  and  the  assistants 
on  the  watch  are  at  any  time  warned  of  his  danger 
by  their  nonappearance. 

The  armor  employed  in  connection  with  the  breath- 
ing-apparatus oidy  serves  to  defend  the  diver  from 
cold,  and  may  therefore  be  made  much  lighter,  al- 
lowing  greater    freedom    of  motion.      See    AllMuli, 

SUBM.iKI.SE. 

Div'ing-bell  Pump.  A  pump  having  a  casing 
divided  by  a  vertical  partition  into  two  chambers, 

Pig.  1678. 


^rM^n 


Divijt^-BeU  Pump. 


which  are  provided  with  inwardly  and  outwardly 
opening  valves.  The  chambers  are  kept  partially 
filled  with  water,  which,  together  with  air,  is  ad- 
mitted to  each  tlirough  the  inwardly  opening  valves, 
and  expelled  through  those  opening  outwardly,  to 
supply  the  bell  with  fresh  air.  This  is  effected  by 
the  alternate  recijirocations  of  a  piston  working  in 
the  open-ended  cylinder,  which,  at  each  stroke,  draws 
a  portion  of  the  w.iter  from  one  of  the  chambers 
into  the  cylinder,  lowering  its  level  in  that  chamber, 
and  |)ermitting  the  air  to  enter  through  tlie  inward- 
ly opening  valve  ;  the  return-stroke  causes  the  wa- 
ter to  rise,  forcing  some  of  it,  together  with  the  air, 


into  an  exterior  chamber,  whence  it  is  carried  to  a 
condenser,  and  tlience,  through  a  tube,  to  the  bell. 

Div'ing  -  dress.  A  waterproof  clothing  and 
helmet  for  those  who  make  submarine  explorations. 

See  .\kMOR,  .Sl'BM.VTUNF.. 

Di-vis'ion-plate.  The  disk  or  wheel  in  the  gear- 
cutting  lathe,  which  is  pierced  with  various  circular 
systems  of  holes  ;  eacli  circle  represents  the  divisions 
of  a  circumference  into  a  given  nuniber  of  parts. 

Do'be-rein'er's  Lamp.  An  instrument  invent- 
ed by  Professor  Dobereiner,  in  Jena,  in  1824,  for 
obtaining  light  by  the  projection  of  a  jet  of  hydro- 
gen upon  a  piece  of  spongy  platinum.  See  Hydro- 
gen L.\MP. 

Dock.  1.  {Hydraulic  Enffineeriiig.)  An  arti- 
ficial excavation  or  structure  for  containing  a  vessel 
for  repairs,  loading,  or  unloading. 

Docks  are  of  various  kinds.     See 


AVet-dock. 

Dry-dock. 

Graving-dock. 

Screw-dock. 

Sectional-dock. 


Floating-dock. 
Hydraulic-dock. 
Slip-dock. 
Shipbuilding-dock. 


The  docks  (navalia)  of  Rome  were  used  for  build- 
ing, laying  up,  and  refitting  ships.  They  were  at- 
tached to  the  emporium  outside  of  the  Porta  Tri- 
gemina,  and  were  connected  with  the  Tiber.  They 
were  included  within  the  walls  of  the  city  by  Aure- 
lian. 

The  Athenian  docks  in  the  Pirseus  cost  1,000  tal- 
ents. 

"They  have  a  design  to  get  the  king  [Charles 
II.]  to  hire  a  dock  for  the  herring  busses  to  lie  up 
in."— Pepys,  1661. 

"Sir  N.  CrLsp's  project  of  making  a  great  sasse 
[sluice  or  lock]  in  the  king's  lands  about  Deptford, 
to  be  a  wett  dock  to  hold  200  sail  of  ships." —  Ibid, 
1662. 

Of  the  docks  of  London  ;  — 

Pitt  laid  the  foundation-stone  of  the  "  West-In- 
dia" August  15,  1800  ;  opened  in  1802.  "London" 
docks,  built  1802  -  5.  "  Victoria,"  1855.  The  Liv- 
erpool and  Birkenhead  docks,  1810-57. 

2.  (ffanicss.)  The  divided  piece  forming  part  of  the 
crup]ier,  through  which  the  horse's  tail  is  inserted. 

Dock'er.  A  stamp  for  cutting  and  piercing 
dough  in  making  crackers  or  sea-biscuit. 

Doc'tor.  A  part  in  a  machine  for  regulating 
quantity,  adjusting,  or  feeding  ;  — 

a.  (Paptr-makuiii.)  A  .steel  edge  on  the  pressure- 
roll  of  a  paper-machine  to  remove  any  adhering  fibers. 

b.  [Staim-eyiginc.)  An  auxiliary  steam-engine  to 
feed  the  boiler. 

c.  {Calko-printmg.)  A  scraper  to  remove  super- 
fluous coloring-matter  from  the  cylinder. 

The  color-doctor  of  a  calico-printing  machine, 
which  wipes  superfluous  color  from  the  face  of  the 
engraved  roller. 

The  Unt-ductor,  which  removes  fiuft'  and  loose 
threads  from  the  said  roller. 

The  chaning-doclor,  which  wipes  clean  the  surface 
of  the  roller. 

Dod.  {Tile-mak-ing.)  Apiece  affording  an  an- 
nular throat  through  which  clay  is  Ibrced,  to  make 
drain-pipe.     See  Tile-m.\ciiine. 

Dodg'ing.  Said  of  mortises,  when  they  are  not 
in  the  same  plane  at  the  hub.  By  spreading  the 
butts  of  the  spokes  where  they  enter  the  hub, 
dodrjinq  on  each  side  of  a  median  line,  alternately, 
the  wheel  is  stitlVncd  against  lateral  strain.  The 
wheel  is  said  to  be  simmered. 

Doe'skin.  (Fabric.)  A  single  width  fine  woolen 
cloth  for  men's  wear  ;  not  twilled. 


DOFFEK, 


716 


DOG-NOSE  VISE. 


Dof  fer.  A  comb  or  revolving  card-covered  cyl- 
inder in  a  carding-niachine,  which  strips  the  tleece 
or  sliver  of  tiher  oil'  the  main  card-wheel  after  the 
filaments  have  jiassed  the  series  of  smaller  carding- 
rollers  and  the  Hat  cards. 

It  is  usually  a  comb  with  very  fine  teeth,  which 
penetrate  slii,'htly  between  the  wire  teeth  of  the  card 
as  tlie  c'<iMil>  moves  downward. 

Doff'ing-cyl'in-der.  A  cylinder  clothed  with 
cards  which  are  presented  in  such  direction  and  at 
such  a  rate  of  motion  to  the  main  card-cylinder  as 
to  remove  the  fibers  from  the  teeth  of  tlie  latter. 

The  doffing-eylinder  assumes  one  of  three  forms  :  — 

1.  Con/.iiiuou.i  clothing  ;  removing  a  perfect  tleece 
of  the  width  of  the  machine.  Such  is  the  dojfer  of 
the  scribbling-machiiie,  which  yields  a  continous  laj) 
or  Jlcece. 

2.  Longitudinal  hands  of  card  clothing  ;  removing 
slivers  of  a  width  determined  by  the  breailth  of  the 
bauds  and  of  a  length  equal  to  that  of  the  duffer. 
Such  is  the  dotfer  of  the  slubbiiig-billij.     See  Slub- 

BIX(i-M.\CHINi:. 

3.  Circmnfercntial  bands  or  rings  of  card-clothing  ; 
removing  narrow,  continuous  slivers,  which  ])ass  to 
the  condenser,  whereby  they  are  compacted  and 
brought  to  the  condition  of  stubs.  Such  is  the  doffcr 
of  another  form  of  Sn'iiBixr.-.M.VL'iiiNE  (which  see). 

Doff'ing-knife.  A  Vilade  of  steel  toothed  at  its 
edge  like  a  line  comb,  and  vertically  reciprocated  by 
a  crank  taugentially  to  the  teeth  of  the  doffcr  in  a 
carding-machine,  in  order  to  remove  therefrom  a 
fine  lleece  of  carded  wool  which  is  gathered  into 
a  sliver.     See  Dokker. 

Dog.     A  hold-fast. 

A  device  with  a  tooth  which  penetrates  or  grips 
an  oliject  and  detains  it.  The  analogy  and  inference 
of  the  name  is  that  the  device  has  a  tooth  and  bites. 


Fig.  1679. 


1.  (Pih-d riving.)  A  grappling  iron  or  grab,  usu- 
ally with  jaws,  and  adapted  to  raise  the  monkeg  of 
a  pile-driver.  When  the  jaws  open,  the  object  is 
dropped  or  released.     See  Pile-duiveh. 

2.  (H'ell-horing.)  A  grab  for  clutching  well 
tubes  or  tool.s,  in  withdrawing  them  from  bored, 
drilled,  or  <lriven  wells.     See  Gr.AB. 

3.  (Turning.)  A  clamp  fastened  to  a  piece  sns- 
pended  on  the  centers  of  a  lathe,  ami  by  which  the 
rotation  of  the  chuck  or  face-jilate  is  imparted  to 
the  piece  to  be  turned  (n  b.  Fig.  1679). 

4.  A  click  or  pallet  adai)ted  to  engage  the  teeth  of 


a  ratchet-wheel,  to  restrain  the  back  action.     A  click 
or  pawl.     See  WiXDLA.ss  ;  II.\tchet. 

5.  {M(U'hincrg.)  a.  The  converging  set  screws 
which  I'stablish  the  bed-tool  of  a  punehing-press  in 
direct  coincidence  with  the  punch. 

b.  A  contrivance  for  holding  the  staff  to  the  rest, 
chuck,  or  carriage,  while  being  cut,  sawed,  planed, 
or  drilled. 

c.  An  adjustable  stop  placed  in  a  machine  to  change 
direction  of  motion,  as  in  the  case  of  feed-motion,  or 
ill  Jfickinij,  shaping,  or  planing  machines. 

(i.  (Hoisting  and  Hauling.)  a.  A  grap]iling-iron 
(c)  with  a  fang  which  is  driven  into  an  object  to  be 
raised  or  moved. 

In  the  continuous  system  of  feed  in  .saw-mills,  the 
chain  has  a  number  of  dogs  attached  to  diii'erent 
portions  of  its  length.  Dogs  are  also  used  for  se- 
curing and  towing  floating  logs  and  in  shifting  or 
loading  logs  on  the  ground  or  carriage. 

ft.  A  ring-Ao^  or  spnn-Ao^  (d)  ;  two  dogs  shackled 
together  by  a  ring,  and  used  for  hauling  or  hoisting. 

c.  Sling-dogs  (e)  ;  two  dogs  at  the  end  of  a  rope 
and  used  in  hoisting  barrels.     A  sjxin-skacklc. 

7.  A  brncli-iog  (/)  is  a  clamp,  and  hohls  the  tim- 
ber by  its  tusk. 

8.  (Sau-ing.)  A  rod  on  the  head  or  tail  block  of 
a  saw-mill  carriage,  by  which  the  log  is  secureil  in 
position.  The  dog  (f/)  is  pivoted  to  the  block,  and 
its  tooth  is  driven  into  the  log.  It  varies  in  form 
on  the  head  and  tail  blocks  respectively. 

In  h  and  i  respectively  are  shown  other  forms  of 
the  saw-mill  dog.  See  also  Cikcular  Saw  ;  Head- 
block. 

9.  (Shipbuilding.)  The  last  detents  or  supports 
knocked  away  at  the  lamiching  of  a  ship.  A  dog- 
shore. 

10.  (Locksmithing.)    A  projection,  tooth,  tusk,  or  • 
jag  in  a  lock,  acting  as  a  detent.     Especially  used 
in  tuuilder-locks. 

11.  An  andiron. 

Dog  and  Driv'er  Chuck.  A  chuck  having  two 
parts.  The  dog  slips  u)ion  and  is  fastened  by  a 
set  screw  to  the  object  to  be  tuined.  The  driver 
is  attached  to  the  lathe-mandrel,  and  has  a  ]iro- 
jecting  arm  which  conies  in  contact  with  the  dog, 
and  causes  it  and  the  work  to  revolve  with  the  man- 
drel.     See  Dog  (a  b.  Fig.  1679). 

Dog-bolt.  The  bolt  of  the  cap-square  over  the 
tiuiiiiion  <if  a  gun. 

Dog-cart.  A  sjiortsnian's  vehicle  having  shafts 
and  two  wheels,  with  a  box  beneath  the  seat  for 
setters  or  pointers. 

Dog'ger.  (Xautieal.)  A  two-masted  fishing- 
vessel  with  bluff  bows  and  used  on  the  Dogger  Bank, 
an  extensive  shoal  in  the  center  of  the  North  Sea. 
It  is  about  SO  tons  burden,  and  has  a  well  in  the 
middle  to  bring  fish  alive  to  shore. 

Dog-hook.  1.  A  bar  of  iron  with  a  bent  prong 
to  drive  into  a  log.     See  Dog. 

2.  A  wrench  for  unscrewing  the  coupling  of  iron 
boring-rods,     A  spanner. 

Dog-leg  Chis'el.  A  crooked-shanked  chisel  used 
in  smocithing  tlie  bottoms  of  grooves. 

Dog-legged  Stairs.  A  flight  of  stairs  without 
any  well-hole,  and  used  in  confined  situations.  The 
flight  goes  up,  winds  in  a  semicircle,  and  then  mounts 
again  in  a  direition  parallel  to  the  first. 

Dog-muz'zle.  A  wiie  cage  over  the  nose  and 
jaws,  to  keep  a  dog  from  biting  ;  or  a  strap  around 
the  jaws,  to  kee]i  them  .shut. 

Dog-nail.  A  large  nail  with  a  projecting  tooth 
or  lug  on  one  side  ;  used  under  certain  circumstances 
by  locksmiths  ami  carpenters. 

Dog-nose  Vise.     (Locksmithing.)    A  hand-vise 


DOG-POWER. 


717 


DOME. 


with  long,  sli'iiJer,  pointed  jaws.  Called  also  j'ig- 
nose  vise. 

Dog-pow'er.  A  machine  by  which  the  weight 
of  a  dog  in  traveling  in  a  drum  or  on  au  endless 
track  is  made  to  rotate  a  siiit,  or  drive  the  dasher  of 
a  churn. 

The  turaspit-dogs  of  the  last  and  previous  centu- 
ries ran  on  the  inside  of  a  hollow  tread-wheel,  which 
rotated  with  their  weight  and  communicated  motion 
hy  a  Ijand  to  the  spit.     See  Kuasting-jack. 

In  the  modem  dog-powers,  as  in  the  example,  tlie 
animal  walks  on  au  endless  chain-track,  which  slips 


Fig.  1680. 


Dog-Power, 

to  the  rear,  rotating  a  dram  which  oscillates  an  arm, 
and  vertical  recijirocatiou  is  given  to  a  lever  and  the 
churn-dasher. 

Dog-shore.  (Shipbuildinrj.)  One  of  the  two 
struts  whicli  hohl  the  cradle  of  the  slu))  from  sliding 
on  the  sliji-ways  wlien  the  keel-blocks  are  taken 
out.  The  lower  end  of  each  dog-shore  abuts  against 
the  upper  end  of  the  rib-bnnd  of  the  s!i//-ivai/,  and 
the  upper  end  against  the  doj-c/eaf,  which  is  bolted 
to  the  side  of  the  bilqc-way.  Beneath  each  dor/shore 
is  a  small  block  called  a  trigrjer. 

In  launching,  the  triggers  are  removed,  the  doy- 
sliorcs  knocked  ilown,  and  the  &\\\y-crcidlc  freed,  so 
that,  carrying  the  vessel,  it  slides  down  the  slip- 
wai/s.  The  signal  for  launching  is,  "  Down  dog- 
shores."    See  IjAUXch. 

Dog's-tooth.  A  sharp  steel  punch  used  by  mar- 
ble-workers. 

Dog-stop'per.     (yautical)    A  stopper  put  on 

to  the  cable  to  enable  it  to  be  bitted,  or  to  permit 

the  messenger  to  be  fleeted. 

Fig.  1681.        Dog-vane.  {Xauticnl.)  A  small  vane, 

made  of  cork  and  featliei's,  ])laced  on  the 

weather-rail  as  a  guide  to  the  helmsman 

wlien  sailing  on  a  wind. 

Doi'ly.  (Fabric.)  Formerly,  a  .species 
of  woolen  stuff;  now,  a  table-napkin. 

Doll.  A  child's  toy-baby.  Made  of 
stuffed  cloth,  wood,  india-rubber,  etc. 
The  jointed  wooden  dolls  are  a  marvel  of 
cheapness,  and  are  made  by  the  jieasantry 
of  Europe.     See  Toy. 

Among  other  curiosities  of  the  former 
inhabitants  of  Egypt  are  a  number  of 
dolls  which  are  found  in  the  tombs,  and 
also  are  represented  on  the  painted 
walls.  Just  as  with  us,  some  are  rough, 
F" — ^-^"^  some  comical,  and  some  are  made  as 
V\  //  nearly  symmetrical  as  the  artist  was 
^\/L^'     able. 

Egyptian         Dolly.  1.  (Mctalhirriij.)  A  ])erforated 
DoU.       board  placed  over  a  tub  containing  ore 


\ 


to  be  washed,  and  which,  being  worked  by  a  winch- 
handle,  gives  a  circular  motion  to  the  ore. 

2.  (Pilinij.)  An  e.xtension-)iiece  on  the  upper 
end  of  a  pile,  when  the  head  of  the  latter  is  beyond 
the  reach  of  the  monkeij.     Otherwise  called  a  puneh. 

3.  A  hoisting-]ilatfonn. 

4.  A  tool  with  an  indented  head  for  shaping  the 
head  of  a  rivet.     A  snap-head. 

Dolly-bar.  A  block  or  bar  in  the  trough  of  a 
grindstone  which  is  lowered  into  the  water  to  raise 
tile  latter  against  the  face  of  the  stone  by  displace- 
ment. 

Dolly-tub.  {.Vdallurijy.)  A  vertical  tub  in 
which  metalliferous  slimes  are  washed.  It  has  a 
vertical  shaft  and  vanes  turned  by  a  crank-handle, 
like  some  kinds  of  churns. 

Dol'phia.  1.  {Ordnance.)  One  of  the  handles 
of  an  old-fashioned  bnxss  gun,  nearly  over  the  trau- 
nions,  and  by  which  it  is  lifted. 

2.  (Nautical.)  a.  A  bollard  post  on  a  quay  to 
make  hawsers  fast  to. 

b.  An  anchored  spar  with  rings,  serving  as  a 
mooring-buoy. 

c.  A  .strap  of  plaited  cordage  acting  as  a  preventer 
on  a  yard,  to  sustain  it  in  case  the  slings  are  shot 
away. 

3.  (Ili/draulics.)  The  induction-pipe  of  a  watei'- 
main,  and  its  cover,  ]ilac<'d  at  the  source  of  su|i]ily. 

Dol'phin-strik'er.  {Xaulical.)  A  spar  depend- 
ing from  the  end  of  the  bowsprit.  It  affords  a  strut 
for  the  martingales  of  the  jib-boma  and  Jiifiny-jib- 
loom. 

Dome.  1.  (Architect lire.)  A  vault  on  a  circular 
]ilan.  It  is  usually  hemispherical  in  form,  but  is  sus- 
ceptible of  a  prolonged  or  oblate  spheroidal  variation. 

In  the  data  following,  the  hight  given  is  that 
of  the  apex  above  the  ground. 

The  dome  of  the  I'antheon  at  Rome  is  a  hemi- 
sphere 142  feet  in  diameter,  143  feet  high  above  the 
Hoor  of  the  rotunda. 

The  dome  of  St.  Sophia  at  Constantinople  is  an  ob- 
late semi-spheroid  104  feet  in  diameter,  201  feet  high. 
It  is  said  to  l>e  built  of  earthenware  and  pumice-stone, 
not  of  cut  stone.     It  was  built  in  the  sixth  century. 

The  dome  in  the  Duonio  of  Florence  was  built  by 
Brunelleschi  in  1417.  It  is  of  brick,  octagonal  in 
plan,  139  feet  in  diameter,  and  310  feet  in  hight. 

The  dome  of  St.  Peter's,  at  Rome,  was  built  at  the 
close  of  the  sixteenth  century,  from  designs  left  by 
Michael  Angelo.  It  is  139  feet  in  diameter,  330  feet 
high. 

The  dome  of  St.  Paul's,  at  London,  by  Sir  Chris- 
topher Wren,  is  not  masonry,  but  a  shell  inclosing 
the  brick  cone  which  sujiports  the  lantern.  It  is 
112  feet  iu  diameter,  215  feet  high. 

Internal      Internal 
Diameter.       Ilight. 

Mosque  of  Achmet,  Constantinople  92  120 

Duomo  at  Milan         ...  57  254 

Hall  aux  Bles,  Paris,  by  Moulineau  200  150 

St.  Isaac's,  Petersburg  ...  96  150 

Baths  of  Caracalla      ...  112  116 

The  dome  of  the  Capitol,  Washington,  is  287  feet 
11  inches  above  the  liase-line  of  the  east  front.  The 
greatest  diameter  of  the  dome  at  the  springing  is 
135  feet  5  inches.  The  weight  of  iron  in  the  dome 
and  tholus  is  8,009,200  pounds.  The  rotunda  is 
95.5  feet  in  diameter,  and  its  hight  from  the  floor 
to  the  top  of  the  canopy  is  180.25  feet. 

The  central  rotund"  of  the  Vienna  Exposition 
building,  1873,  sjirings  from  a  circular  facade  of 
piers  426A  feet,  Englisli,  in  dianu'ter  ;  within  which 
is  a  gallery  covered  with  its  own  roof ;  from  the 
interior  perimeter  of  the  gallery  rises  a  conical  roof 


DOME-COVER. 


718 


DOMESTIC  APPLIANCES. 


surmounted  by  a  lantern  10.5  ffiet  in  diameter,  and 
this  by  a  second  lajitern  and  cupola  rising  to  a  liiglit 
of  300  feet  above  tlie  ground. 

2.  (Steam-engine.)  The  steam-chamber  above 
some  forms  of  boilers,  as  the  locomotive.  It  fre- 
quently has  an  arched  crown. 

3.  (Unilroad.)  The  elevated  upper  section  of  a 
passenger-car  projecting  above  the  general  level  of 
the  roof,  forming  a  space  for  ventilation,  light,  and 
ornament. 

Dome-cov'er.  (Steam-engine.)  The  brass  or 
copper  cover  over  the  dome  of  a  locomotive,  which 
serves  to  prevent  the  radiation  of  heat. 

Do-mes'tic.  {Fabric.)  Bleached  and  unbleached, 
unprinted  and  undyed  cotton  cloths  of  the  ordinary 
grades  for  connnon  use. 

Do-mes'tic  Ap-pli'an-ces.  The  implements 
and  conveniences  a)ipertaiiiing  to  the  household. 
Among  them  are  the  following,  which  are  cousidered 
under  their  respective  heads  ;  — 


Almond-peeler. 

Andiron. 

Apple-corer. 

Apple-parer. 

Apple-quarterer. 

Ash-leach. 

Ash-sifter. 

Baby-jumper. 

Baby-walker. 

Baker. 

Basket. 

Bean-sheller. 

Bed. 

Bed-bottom. 

Bedstead. 

Bedstead-fastener. 

Bird-cage. 

Biscuit-machine. 

Boiler.     Culinary 

Boot-jack. 

Bottle-cleaner. 

Bottle-screw. 

Bread-cutter. 

Bread-making  machine. 

Broiler. 

Broom. 

Broom-handle. 

Broom- head. 

Brush.     See  Brashes. 

Butter-dish. 

Butter-mold. 

Butter-tongs. 

Butter-worker. 

Cake-cutter. 

Cake-mixer. 

Candle-snuirers. 

Can-opener. 

Carpet-beater. 

Carpet-cleaner. 

Carpet-fastener. 

Carpet-stretcher. 

Carpet-sweeper. 

Caster. 

Carving-table. 

Chair. 

Chamber-closet. 

Charcoal-furnace. 

Cheese-cutter. 

Cherry-stoner. 

Chopping-niachine. 

Clothes-brush. 

Clothes-dryer. 

Clothes-frame. 


Clothes-horse. 

Clothes-line. 

Clothes-line  hook. 

Clothes-line  reel. 

Clothes-pin. 

Clothes-press. 

Clothes-sprinkler. 

Clothes-tongs. 

Clothes-wringer. 

Coal  and  ash  sifter. 

Coal-scuttle. 

Coat-hook. 

Colfee-mill. 

Coffee-pot. 

Coffee-roaster. 

Colander. 

Comb. 

Comb-brush. 

Cooking-range. 

Cooking-stove. 

Corer  and  slicer. 

Cork -press. 

Cork-pull. 

Coi'ksci'ew. 

Com-cake  cutter. 

Corn-grater. 

Corn-popper. 

Couch. 

Cracker-machine. 

Cradle. 

Cream-freezer. 

Crimper.     Hair 

Crimper.     Ruffle 

Crumb-remover. 

Curling-iron. 

Desk. 

Dish-heater. 

Dish-holder. 

Dish-rack. 

Di.^h-warmer. 

Dish-washer. 

Docker. 

Domestic-press. 

Door-mat. 

Dough-kneader. 

Dough-nii.'cer. 

Dough-trough. 

Drejging-ho.x. 

Dumb-waiter. 

Dust-pan. 

Earth-clo.set. 

Egg-assorter. 

Egg-basket. 


Egg-beater. 

Egg-boiler. 

Egg-carrier. 

Egg-detector. 

Egg-tongs. 

Extinguisher.         Fan. 

Feather-renovator. 

Fender.         Fire-irons. 

Fire-screen. 

Fish-kettle. 

Fish-slice. 

Flat-iron. 

Flat-iron  heater. 

Flour-sifter. 

Fluting-iron. 

Fluting-niachine. 

Foot-stool. 

Fork. 

Freezer.         Fruit-jar. 

Frying-pan. 

Furniture-pad. 

Furniture-spring. 

Furniture-tip. 

Gong.         Grater. 

Griddle. 

Gridiron. 

Hastener. 

Hat-rack. 

Head-rest. 

Hearth-brush. 

Honey-strainer. 

Hospital-bed. 

Ice-chest. 

Ice-cream  freezer. 

Ice-crusher. 

Ice-cutter.         Ice-pick. 

Ice-pitcher.     Ice-plane. 

Ice-safe.         Ice-tongs. 

Ironing-board. 

Ironing-machine. 

Italian-iron. 

.lar.     Fruit 

Kneading-machine. 

Knife-board. 

Knife-cleaning  machine. 

Knife-polisher. 

Knife-rest. 

Knife-sharpener. 

Knock-down  chair. 

Ladle. 

Lamp-chimney  cleaner. 

Lamp-chimney  tongs. 

Lam])-stove. 

Laundry. 

Laundry-stove. 

Lemon-squeezer. 

Line-clamp. 

Looking-glass. 

Mangle.         JIat. 

Matches.         Match-safe. 

Mattress. 

Meal-sieve. 

Meat-chopper. 

Meat-crusher. 

Meat-cutter. 

Meat-hook. 

Meat-mangier. 

Meat-saw.         Meat-spit. 

Meat-tub. 

Milk-can. 

Milking-machine. 

Jlincing-kuife. 

Mincing-machine. 

Mop. 


Mop-head. 
Mop-wringer. 
Music-stand. 
Musipiito-bar. 
Musipnto-canopy. 
Night-chair. 
Nut-cracker. 
Nutmeg-grater. 
Oyster-opener. 
Pallia.sse. 
Peaeh-parer. 
Peach-stoner. 
Pea-sheller. 
Percolator. 
Piano-stool. 
Pie-board. 
Pillow. 
Piuking-iron. 
Piping-iron. 
Plate-rack. 
Plate-warmer. 
Pliant. 

Portable  furnace. 
Portfolio-stand. 
Potato-masher. 
Potato- washer. 
Press. 

Pressing-board. 
Preserve-jar. 
Quilting-frame. 
Raisin-seeder. 
Refrigerator. 
Rimmer.      Pie 
Koasting-jack. 
Rolling-pin. 
Sabotiere. 
Sad-iron. 
Sad-iron  heater. 
Safe.     Meat 
Sausage-machine. 
Saiisage-stuffer. 
Scoop. 

Scru  bbing-brush. 
Scrubbing-machine. 
Scuttle.         Settee. 
Sewing-box. 
Shaving-cup. 
Sieve.         Sifter. 
Skillet. 

Skimmer.         Slicer. 
Smoothing-iron. 
Smoothing-stone. 
Snuffers.         Sofa. 
Spittoon.         Spoon. 
Steak -crusher. 
Steam-cooking  apparatus. 
Steamer. 
Step-ladder. 
Stool. 

Stoves  and  heating  appli- 
ances (which  see). 
Table. 

Toaster.         Tongs. 
Tray. 

Tumbler-washer.         Urn. 
Vegetable-chopper. 
Vegetable-cutter. 
Vegetable-grater. 
Vegetable-slieer. 
Vegetable-washer. 
Waffle-irons. 
Waiter. 
AVarming-pan. 
Wine-cooler. 


DOMESTIC  BOILER. 


719 


DOOR. 


Wasliboaid. 
"Wash-boiler. 
Washing-machine. 
"Wasliiiit'-shield. 


Water-cooler. 
Wire  mattress. 
AVork-basket. 
Wringer. 


Do-mes'tic  Boil'er.  One  for  heating  water  on 
a  somewhat  large  scale  for  the  household.  Such  are 
made  of  sheet-metal,  to  set  upon  the  top  of  a  stove 
occupying  two  of  the  stove-holes  ;  or,  made  of  cast- 
iron,  they  form  reservoir.s  a.s  a  permanent  attach- 
ment to  the  stove.     See  Wash-boileu  ;  Keservoiii- 

STOVE. 

Dioscorides  mentions  tinned  boilers.  Pliny  also 
treats  of  tinning  eo]iper  vessels.  Boilers  with  faucets 
have  been  di.sinterred  at  Herculaneum. 

Do-mes'tic  Press.  One  for  household  use  for 
pressing  honey,  lard,  tallow,  cheese,  sausage,  or  fruit. 


Fig.  1682. 


Fi",  1683, 


Domestic  Press. 


The  press  shown  in  the  example  has  a  sausage- 
stutferrt  farthest  from  the  pivoted  end  of  the  lever/. 
A  lard-presser  next,  with  a  perforated  tin  hoop  b.  On 
the  bench  is  also  shown  a  platform  and  hoo|)  c  for 
fruit,  which  is  substituted  for  the  lard-hoop  when 
required,  rf  is  a  crank  which  oi>erates  the  tackle 
and  depresses  the  lever  /. 

Dom'ett.  (Fabric.)  A  plain  cloth,  with  cotton 
chain  and  woolen  weft. 

Do'ney.  (Nautk'd.)  A  one-masted  native  ves- 
sel on  the  Coromandel  coast,  70  feet  long,  20  feet 
beam,  ami  12  feet  bold. 

Don'key-en'gine.  (SUam-eiigiiie.)  An  auxil- 
iary engine  for  working  the  feed-pump,  hoisting  in 
freight,  etc. , —  work  unconnected  with  tlie  propelling 
engines,  and  which  may  thus  proceed  when  the  main 
engines  are  stopped. 

Don'key-pump.  A  steam -pump  for  feeding 
steam-engine  boilers  ;  frequently  used  for  pumping 
in  water  during  the  cessation  from  working  of  the 
principal  engine.  It  is  used  as  a  substitute  for  the 
feed-pump  portion  of  the  large  engine  ;  also  used  in 
breweries,  distilleries,  gas-works,  tanneries,  chemi- 
cal works.  One  of  the  pumps  is  shown  mounted 
on  legs,  another  adapted  to  be  bolted  to  a  post  or 
wall. 

Doo'dle-sack.  (Mtisic.)  The  bagpipe  (Ger.  du- 
dchack). 

Dook.  A  wooden  plug  or  block  inserted  in  a 
brick  or  stone  wall  for  the  subsequent  attachment  of 
the  finishing  pieces. 

Door.  1.  An  opening  in  a  wall  for  a  passage- 
way. 

2.   A  frame  or  barrier  closing  said  opening. 

The  word  forms  a  part  of  many  compound  words, 
such  as  — 


Donkey-Pumps. 


Door-alarm. 

Door-bell. 

Door-case. 

Door-fastener. 

Door-knob. 

Door-lock. 

Door-nail. 

Door-plate. 

Door-spring. 

Door-stone. 

Door-stop. 

Door-strip. 

Door-way  plane,  etc. 

The  doors  of  ancient  Egypt 
and  contemporary  nations 
swung  upon  vertical  pintles 
which  projected  from  the  top 
and  bottom  of  the  door  into 
sockets  in  the  lint«l  and 
threshold  respectively.  The 
commonest  form  of  door  had 
the  pintle  in  the  middle  of 
the  width,  so  that,  as  it 
opened,  a  way  was  afforded 
on  each  side  of  it  for  ingi'css 
or  egress.  This  is  much  better 
than  the  villianous  system  of 
making  the  doors  of  churches, 
theaters,  and  assembly-rooms 
open  inward,  forming  traps  to  catch  the  peojile  when 
a  stampede  occurs  from  a  fire  or  an  alarm.  It  is  but 
recent  in  our  recollection,  the  account  of  tlie  burning 
of  a  cathedral  at  Callao  or  some  other  city  on  the 
South  American  coast,  when  the  building,  decked 
out  with  paper  and  calico,  in  all  the  frippery  of 
a  saint's  gala-day,  was  burned,  with  800  miserable 
]ieople, —  women  and  children  cbieHy,  for  such  are  the 
principal  patrons  of  churches  in  that  land  of  Mes- 
tizoes. 

It  is  not  to  be  inferred  that  a  simple  valve  swing- 
ing on  a  central  axis  was  the  only  form  of  door,  for 
in  other  structures  we  find  the  sockets  near  the  jiosts, 
showing  that  the  door  turned  upon  an  axis  in  the 
line  of  one  of  its  vertical  edges.  Such  doors,  among 
the  Romans,  were  fastened  by  bars  or  chains.  Door- 
locks  were  known  in  Thebes  centuries  previous  to 
the  Augustan  era  of  Kome,  and  some  are  to  be  found 
in  the  museums  of  Eurojie.     See  Lock. 

The  street  doors  of  Greek  and  Roman  houses 
opened  outward  when  farmed  of  a  single  leaf,  and  an 
issuing  citizen  rang  a  bell  to  warn  ])assengers  in  the 
street ;  or  sometimes  of  a  pair  of  leaves,  each  swing- 
ing on  its  own  pintle  and  forming  a  double  door. 
When  doors  were  made  to  fold,  they  were  swung 
inward  ;  in  this  ease  one  valve  was  hinged  to  another 
and  swung  back  against  its  principal,  the  latter 
having  pivots  which  turned  in  the  threshold  and 
lintel.     Such  doors  were  known  in  ancient  Greece. 

The  doors  of  the  residence  of  the   Inca  Huayna 


DOOR. 


720 


DOORIAHS. 


Capac,  in  the  vicinity  of  (Jotopaxi,  were  similar  to 
those  of  the  Kgyptiau  temples. 

The  doors  of  tlie  oracle  of  Solomon's  Temple  were 
of  olive-tri'e,  and  were  "a  tiftli  part  of  tlie  wall." 
As  tlie  width  of  tlie  lioii.se  was  20  cubits,  the  door- 
way was  aliout  6A  feet  wide.  The  door  was  doiilile. 
The  outer  door  of  tlie  temple  was  of  hr,  and  hung 
upon  olive-tree  posts.  The  doorway  was  about 
eight  feet  wide,  and  the  double  doors  had  each  two 
leaves. 

"  Tlie  two  leaves  of  the  one  door  were  folding,  and 
tlie  two  leaves  of  the  other  door  were  folding." 

It  is  not  easy  to  find  in  any  other  very  ancient 
author  so  clear  a  desiuiption  of  tlie  proportions  and 
construction  of  a  building  as  is  found  in  1  Kings,  vi. 

A  pair  of  doors  have  figured  somewhat  largely  in 
the  liistory  of  Ea.st  Indian  conquest.  It  is  seldom 
that  so  much  I'uss  has  been  made  about  a  pair  of 
doors  since  Samson  took  those  of  Gaza  from  their 
hinges,  aliout  11 '20  B.  c,  and  carried  them  to  tlie 
top  of  a  liill  before  Hebron.  He  took  tliem  "liar 
and  all,"  not  condescending  to  unlock  tlieni,  but 
tearing  them  from  their  foundations. 

The  doors  of  the  Temple  of  Siva,  at  Somnautli,  a 
town  of  Guzerat,  in  Hindostan,  were  of  sandal-wood, 
clalioratcly  carved  in  correspondence  with  the  other 
]iortions  of  the  temple,  which  was  an  oblong  hall 
9t;  X  (i.H  feet,  crowned  by  a  dome.  When  Mahmoud, 
of  (>lii/ni,  at  the  head  of  his  Mohammedan  hordes, 
invaded  India  (a.  d.  1004),  on  a  mixed  mission  of 
Iilunder  and  conversion,  he  mingled  avarice  with 
enthusiasm  and  lust,  so  as  to  attbrd  a  first-rate  mod- 
el for  a  dcinou  to  master  Anaereon  Moore,  some  800 
years  afterward  :  — 

*'  'T  is  lie  of  Ghizni,  fierce  in  wratli 
Ho  comes,  ami  Imlia's  diailema 
Lie  scattered  ill  his  ruinous  path  ; 
His  bloojbouuds  lie  adorns  with  gems 
Tore  from  the  violated  neclcs 
Of  many  a  young  and  loved  sultana ; 
Maidens  within  their  pure  zenana, 
Priests  in  the  very  fane  he  slaughters. 
And  choices  up  with  the  glittering  wrecks 
Of  golden  shrines  the  sacred  waters  " 

of  the  Ganges,  of  course.  It  must  not  be  under- 
stood, however,  that  he  failed  to  strip  off  the  gold 
before  he  pitched  these  things  into  the  muddy  wa- 
ters of  the  river,  which  delivers  yearly  into  the  Bay 
of  liengal  534,«00,0I10  tons  of  .solid  matter. 

Mahmoud,  about  1024,  after  desolating  Northern 
India  for  some  years,  came  to  Somnautli,  and  — 
omitting  the  details  —  plundered  from  the  Temple 
of  Siva  "the  destroyer"  the  rich  offerings  of  centu- 
ries, carrying  them  and  the  doors  of  the  temple  to 
Afghanistan,  where  the  latter  were  made  the  doors 
of  his  tomb. 

Here  they  rested  till  1842,  when  the  English, 
stung  to  madness  by  the  massacre  of  26,000  soldiers 
and  cainp  followers  in  the  Kyber  pas.s,  in  the  month 
of  .lanuary  of  the  same  year,  invaded  Afghanistan 
in  force,  and  conquered  Akbar  Khan.  Lord  Ellen- 
borough,  iutlated  with  an  august  desire  for  poetical, 
historical,  and  every  other  kind  of  retribution, 
seized  njion  the  doors  of  Mahmoud's  tomb  as  re)ire- 
sentatives  of  the  success  of  Mohammedan  domina- 
tion, and  carried  them  back  to  India  )noper,  chant- 
ing a  p;eaii  whose  refrain  was  "tlic  iusuU  ofcifiht  hun- 
dred years  is  avcnqcd,"  and  commanding  that  the 
doors  should  be  "transmitted  with  all  honor"  to 
the  Temple  of  Siva.  The  Briti.sh  government,  goad- 
ed on  the  one  hand  by  E.xeter  Hall,  and  on  the  other 
by  its  fear  of  the  two  unmiiigled  races  who  occupy 
Hindostan,  found  itself  with  an  elephant  on  its 
bauds,  and  stopped  the  gates  at  Agra,  where  they 
remain. 


.'    1 1 

[ 

i " 

/ 

e 

l     ra 

( 

[/ 

/ 

a 

^       11 

A,  batten-door.  Fig.  1684. 

B^  panet-dooT.  A  118 

»,  top-rail. 

h.  middle  or  lock  rail. 

f,  bottom-rail. 

d,  hanging  style. 

f,  lock  style. 

/,  munniou  or  muntin. 

ij,  panels. 

In  a  si.x-panel  door  the 
rail  ni'xt  to  the  top  rail 
is  called  Wk  frieze- rail. 

A  panel  wider  than  its 
hight  is  a  lijinij-pancl.    If 

of  equal  bight  and   width,  a  square  panel.     If  its 
hight  be  greater  than  its  width,  a  staitdinp  paiicl. 

Doitble-doov  ;  two  jiairs  of  folding-doors,  hung  on 
the  angles  of  the  ajiertures  and  opening  toward  the 
reveals  against  which  they  are  hung. 

Folding-doors  ;  a  jiair  whose  respective  leaves  are 
hung  on  opposite  corners  of  the  aperture  in  the  same 
]ilaiie,  so  that  the  styles  meet  in  the  center  when 
closed. 

Lkmblc-margin  doors  are  made  in  imitation  of 
fuldimj-doors,  the  middle  style  being  made  double 
with  an  intervening  bead. 

Sliilinij-doors  are  an  improvement  on  folding  ; 
they  slip  into  grooves  in  the  ]iartition. 

A  propcr-lcdijcd  door  is  one  made  of  boards  placed 
side  by  side  with  battens  called  ledges  at  the  back. 
With  a  diagonal  piece  at  the  back,  in  addition,  it  is 
said  to  \>c  framed  (aid  ledgcd. 

Door-a-larm'.  A  device  attached  to  a  door,  to 
give  an  audible  notice  when  the  door  is  opened  or 
tamiiercd  with.      See  liuUGLAll-ALAliM. 

Door-bell.     A  bell  attached  to  a  door  or  door- 
post,  or   hung    by  a 
fiandle   exposed  out-  Fig- 1685. 

side  of  the  door.  In 
the  example  (Fig. 
1685),  the  end  of  the 
lever,  attached  by  a 
wire  to  the  bell-pull, 
strikes  a  spur  on  the 
cam,  one  end  of 
which,  as  it  turns, 
forces  down  a  bar 
attached  by  a  bent 
wire  to  the  hammer, 
till,  the  s]iur  being 
released,  the  rebound 
causes  the  gong  to  be 
struck. 

In  other  instances,  Door-Gang. 

the  bell  or  gong  is 
sonndeil  by  the  simple  turning  of   the  handle. 

Door-case.  The  frame  of  a  door,  in  which  it 
swings  and  fits. 

Door-fast'en-er.  A  portable  contrivance  for 
fastening  a  door.  It  usually  consists  of  a  piece 
janiined  in  between  the  door  and  the  casing,  having 
spurs  which  catch  in  the  latter  and  a  turn-button 
which  engages  against  the  door.  In  one  example 
shown,  it  is  a  toggle-strut  which  thrusts  again.st  the 
door  and  the  floor. 

Door-frame.  (Carpcntnj.)  a.  The strneture in 
which  the  panels  are  fitted.     It  is  composed  of  :  — 

The  stiles,  or  upright  pieces  at  the  .sides. 

The  luunnion.s,  or  central  upright  pieces. 

The  bottom  rail,  the  lock  or  central  rail,  and  the 
to]i-rail.     Sec  Pcion. 

b.  The  case  into  which  a  door  is  fitted. 

Door'i-ahs.  (Fabric.)  A  cotton  cloth  made  in 
India. 


DOOR-KfrOB. 


721 


DORSOUR. 


Fig.  1686.  Door-knob. 

The  bulb  or  han- 
dle on  tlie  spindle 
of  a  door-lock.   It 
is  made  of  metal, 
glass,   .  porcelain, 
or  clay  of  various 
colors.       Ingenu- 
ity is  employed  in 
devi.sing  means  of 
attaching  the  knob  to  its 
shank,  and  the  latter  to 
the  spindle.     With  glass 
knobs,  tlie  shank  of  thin 
iron  may  be  passed  into 
the  congealing  glass   in 
the   mold.       With   clay 
and   porcelain   the   heat 
of  baking  is  too  great, 
and  the  shanks  are  fas- 
tened to  the  knobs   by 
cement  or  fusible  metal. 
Door-lock.    A  door- 
fastening   whose    bolt  is    re- 
tracted by  a  key  ;    differing 
from   a   latch    or    catoh,    in 
which  the  bolt  is  worked  by 
the  knob  or  handle. 

Door-locks  are   of  various 
kind.s,  known  usually  by  cer- 
tain characteristic  features  of 
Door-Fasteners.         construction,  sometimes  from 
their  purpose  :  — 

Janus-faced  look. 
Lever-lock. 
Mortise-lock. 
Permutation-lock. 
Reversible  lock. 
Rim-lock. 
Safe-lock. 
Sliding-door  lock. 


Alarm-lock. 
Box-lock. 
Car-door  lock. 
Cell-lock. 
Closet-lock. 
Cross-bolt  lock. 
Dead-lock. 
Front-door  lock. 
Jail-lock  (see  Lock). 

Door-mat.  A  texture  for  wiping  the  feet ;  made 
of  tus.socks  of  hemp,  flax,  or  jute  woven  or  tied  into 
a  fabric  ;  also  made  of  sedge,  straw,  rushes,  or  other 
common  material. 

Door-nail.  The  plug  (or  plate)  on  which  a  door- 
knocker strikes. 

Fig.  1687. 
_L 


;!§■ 


Bf^n-Door  Roller, 

46 


Door-plate.     A  name-plate  on  a  door. 

Door-roll'er.  A  suspension  device  for  a  sliding 
door.  The  roller  a  of  the  door-hanger  b  runs  on  a 
track  plate  or  rod  c.  Used  for  doors  of  barns,  waie- 
houses,  freight-oars,  etc. 

Door-spring.  A  spring  attached  to  or  bearing 
againsta  door,  so  as  to  automatically  c'o.seit. 

Of  this  nature  are  the  elastic  "bands  of 
vulcanized  rubber,  which  reach  between 
the  top  of  the   door 

Fig.  1688. 


and  the  lintel,  being 
extended  by  the  open- 
ing of  the  door,  and, 
by  contraction,  clos- 
ing it.  In  another 
form,  a  coiled  spring 
is  attached  to  a  rod  b  on  plate  a  of  the  door 
post,  and  bears  against  a  plate  C  on  the 
door.  As  the  door  opens,  the  spring  is 
coiled  more  tightly  on  its  rod,  aud  thus  opposes 
a  force  which  shuts  the  door  when  the  person  lias 
passed.  Another  form  is  a  torsion-spring;  a  wiie 
whose  ends  are  attached  to  the  door  and  jamb  so  as 
to  be  twisted  by  the  opening  of  the  door. 

Door-stone.     A  threshold  stone. 

Door-stop.  {Carpentry.)  A  knob  or  block  on 
a  skirting-board  or  floor,  against  which  the  door 
shut's.  The  object  is  to  hold  the  door  open  or  to 
catch  it  when  opened  clear  back,  and  prevent  tlie 
door-knob  from  bruising  the  wall. 

Also  a  pad  or  strip  on  a  door-case,  against  which 
the  door  shuts,  to  prevent  slamming. 

Door-strip.  A  .strip  attached  near  the  lower  edge 
of  a  door,  to  shut  down  tightly  upon  the  threshold 
beneath  when  the  door  is  closed.   See  W  EATHKH-STRIP. 

Door'way-plane.  The  space  included  between 
the  intrados  of  a  large  archway  and  the  actual  door 
of  entrance. 

Dop;  Dopp.  The  copper  cup  in  which  a  dvar 
mond  is  soldered  when  it  is  to  be  polished  upon  an 
iron  lap  or  skive  charged  with  diamond-powder.  See 
Diamond-cutting. 

Dor'mant-bolt  A  concealed  bolt  working  in  a 
mortise  in  a  door,  and  usually  operated  by  a  key, 
sometimes  by  a  turning  knob. 

Dor'mant-lock.  A  lock  having  a  bolt  that  will 
not  close  of  itself. 

Dor'man-tree.  A  large  beam  lying  across  the 
ceiling  of  a  room,  and  serving  as  a  joist.  A  dor- 
7no}id  or  dorvianf-trec. 

Dor'mer-'win'dow.  (Btdldinr;.)  A  window 
piercing  a  sloping  roof,  and  having  a  vertical  frame 
and  gable  of  its  own.  The  gaVile  is  sometimes  in  the 
plane  of  the  wall,  or  is  founded  ujion  the  rafters, 
sometimes  a  succes.sion  of  stories  in  tlie  roof  are  pro- 
vided with  dormers,  as  is  commonly  the  case  in  some 
houses  of  Northern  France,  Belgium,  and  the  Neth- 
erlands. 

Dor'nock;  Dor'nic.  (.Fabric.)  A  stout  figured 
linen  {dama.ik),  said  to  be  named  after  the  town  in 
Scotland  (Dornock)  where  it  was  made,  but  proba- 
bly deriving  its  name  from  Tournay  (Flemish,  door- 
nil.),  a  frontier  town  of  Belgium. 

Dor'seL  (From  Latin  rfor.wiH,  the  back.)  1.  A 
pannier  or  basket  to  carry  on  the  back. 

2.  n.  A  cover  for  a  chair-back  ;  hence, 

b.  Tapestry,  or  a  screen  at  the  back  of  a  throne 
or  altar. 

c.  Tapestry  or  wall  hangings  around  the  sides  of 
the  chancel  of  a  church. 

d.  A  canopy  for  a  throne.     A  lambrequin. 

3.  A  kind  of  cloth,  used  for  the  purposes  stated. 
Dor'sour.      (.Fabric.)     Scotch    cloth,    used    for 

hanging  on  walls  of  chapels  and  halls. 


DORY. 


722 


DOUBLE-ACTING  ENGINE. 


Do'ry.  (Nautical.)  A  small,  sharp,  flat-bot- 
tomed boat,  with  very  sloping  sides,  exten- 
liively  employed  in  the  British  fisheries. 
Dos'el.  See  Dobsel. 
Dos'sU.  [Surgical. )  A  small  roll  or  pledg- 
et of  lint  of  a  cylindrical  or  ovoid  form,  to 
keep  open  a  wound.      A  lent. 

{I'rinling.)  A  roll  of  cloth  for  wiping  off 
the  face  of  a  copper-plate,  leaving  the  ink  in 
the  engraved  lines. 

Dotch'in.      Tlie    Chinese    steelyard.      In 
Hong  Kong,  and  other  ports  where  Enropean.s 
trade,  the  beams  are  doubly  graduated 
Fig  1689.  with  circles  of  brass  pins  to  mark   British 
and  Chinese  weights. 

Dots.  (Plaste.rimj.)  Nails  driven  into  a 
wall  to  a  certain  depth,  so  that  their  protrud- 
ing heads  form  a  gage  of  depth  in  laying  on 
a  coat  of  plaster. 

Dot'ting.  A  form  of  engraving  in  which 
geogi-aphical  divisions 
on  maps  are  shown  by 
interrupted  lines  or  se- 
ries of  dots.  Done  by 
a  roidcltc. 

Dot'ting-psn.       A 

pen    having  a  roulette 

which    makes    dots   or 

detached  marks  on  the 

paper  over  which  it  is 

drawn.    See  Roulette. 

Doub'le-act'ing 

Bal'iug-press.       One 

.which  has  two  boxes  in 

which   the    material   is 

compressed  ;  sometimes 

a  single  follower  acts  upon  them 

alternately,  in  other  cases   two 

followers  act  simultaneously. 

In  the  hr.st  example  shown, 
the  press  is  double-ended,  each 
follower  forming  an  abutment 
f ),'  the  other  as  they  are  forced 
together  by  the  toggle-levers. 
Tlie  toggle -levers  D  are  sus- 
}iended  upon  the  cords  or 
chains  F  H,  forming  flexible 
suspension-points,  whereby  bales  of  unequal  size  are 
])ressed  with  equal  force  by  the  platens  C.  The  view 
is  a  plan,  seen  from  above.  The  rope  winds  upon 
the  central  post  O  to  which  the  power  is  applied, 
and  it  thence  passes  over  the  sheaves  c  c  on  the  ends 
of  the  cross-beam. 

In  Fig.  1691,  a  single  follower  D  is  used  for  two 

Fig.  1690. 


Fig.  1691. 


Screiv  Baiing. Press. 


press-boxes  C  C  alternately,  and  is  operated  by  foi;r 
screws  B  B  simultaneously  driven,  one  at  each 
corner,  two  showing  in  the  illustration,  which  is  a 
side  elevation. 

Doub'le-act'ing  En'gine.  { Steam -cnc/ine.)  An 
engine  in  whicli  both  motions  of  the  pi.ston  are  pro- 
duced by  the  action  of  live  steam,  which  bears  upon 

Fig.  1692 


D  ittim 
Pen..' 


Double-Toggle  Bnting-Press. 


Double-Actmg  Engine, 

the  faces  alternately.     In  eontradi.stinction  to  single- 
acting,  in  which  live  steam  is  only  admitted  to  one 
side  of  the  ]>i.ston,  the  weight  of  a  pump-rod  or  the 
pressure  of  the  atmosj  here  giving  the  return  motion. 
This  fonn  of  engine  was  invented  by  Watt.     The 
piston    of   the    Newcomen    atmospheric-engine,   on 
which  Watt  was  ini)iroving,  was  raised  by  steam  at 
a  moderate  pressure,  and  depressed  by  the 
pressure  of  the  atmosphere  when  the  steam 
beneath  the  piston  was  condensed  by  a  wa- 
ter-jet.    Watt  added  the  separate  ccmdcnser, 
air-pump,  and  the  steam-jacket  to  the  cylin- 
der, and  then  sought  for  means  for  kee|iing 
the  atmosphere  from  the  inside  of  the  cylin- 
der  when    the   piston   was   depressed.       He 
added  the  cylinder-cover,  adopted  the  stuff- 
ing-box invented  by  Sir  Samuel  Jlorland,  and 
admitted   steam  above  the  piston  to  occupy 
the  space  formerly  filled  with  air.    The  steam 
retreated  as  the  piston   rose,  and  was  after- 
wards utilized  beneath  the  piston.      Event- 
ually the  steam  was  regularly  inducted  above 
and  below  the  piston  alternately,  in  each  case 
giving  a  positive  pressure  ;  here  we  ha\e  the 
double -a  cling  engine. 

A,  cylinder.  C,  piston-rod. 

B,  piston.  G,  pitman. 


DOUBLE-ACTING  PUMP. 


723 


DOUBLE-BLOCK. 


K,  main-shaft. 

L,  fly-wheel. 

I\  governor. 

a,  8teaia-induction  pipe 

i,  valve-chamber. 

c,  valves. 

</,  steam-eduction  pipe. 

e,  coTidenser. 

g,  injection-cock. 

h,  air-pump. 

t,  discharge-valve. 


I,  hot-well. 
M,  feed-pump. 
71,  pipe  to  feed-pump. 
0,  valves  to  feed-pump. 
p,  feed-pipe  to  boiler. 
r,  air-pump  cistern, 
s,  eccentric-rod. 
X,  band  to  governor. 
y,  bell-crank     to     valve- 
motion. 


2,  governor-gearing. 
Doub'le-act'ing    Pump.     One    which    throws 
water  at  each  stroke  ; 
Fig.  1693.  contradistinguished 

from  the  ordinary  lift- 
pump,  in  which  the 
bucket  only  raises 
water  at  the  up-stroke. 
In  the  upper  pump 
(Fig.  1693),  the  side 
chambers  have  each  of 
them  induction  and 
eduction  valves. 

In  the  lower  pump 
(Fig.  1693),  the  cylin- 
der has  induction  and 
eduction  ports  on  op- 
posite sides  E  F. 

Doub'  le-ao'tion. 
{Music.)  In  a  piano- 
forte movement^  an 
arrangement  of  a 
jointed  upright  piece 
at  the  back  end  of  the 
key,  used  to  lift  the 
hammer  instead  of  the 
stiff  wire  or  lifter  of 
the  single-action.  The 
piece  is  calif  d  a  /topper, 
and  engages  in  a  notch 
on  the  under  side  of 
the  hammer  to  lift  it, 
but,  escaping  or  hop- 
ping therefrom,  allows 
the  hammer  to  fall 
away  immediately  from 
the  string. 

Doub'le-bar'- 
reled  Gun.  One 
having  a  pair  of  par- 
allel barrels  on  the  same 
stock  ;  sometimes  one 
is  a  rifle-barrel  and  the 
other  a  smooth-bore 
for  shot.     See  Fowi.ixg-piece;  Fire-akm. 

Double-bass.  (Music.)  The  largest  and  low- 
est bass  instrument  of  the  stringed  instruments 
.ji'ayed  with  a  bow.     A  conlrabasso. 

Doub'le-bead.  (Joinery.)  Two  beads  placed 
si  li'  by  side  ami  separated  by  a  quirk.  See  Molding. 
Doub'le-beat  Valve.  A  valve  so  arranged  that 
on  opening  it  presents  two  outlets  for  the  water,  one 
at  a  and  the  other  at  b  ;  in  closing,  the  valve  c 
drops  upon  the  gun-metal  rings  d  e,  fixed  in  the 
seat  /,  which  is  of  cast-iron  ;  this  is  cast  with  a 
cylindiical  portion  g,  which  serves  as  guide  to  the 
valve,  [US  do  also  tlie  ribs  h  h.  i  is  a  cap  which 
limits  the  throw  of  the  valve. 

The  lioublc-bcat  valve  is  e.\tensivel}'used  in  England 
fur  deep  wells  and  for  high  lifts,  such  as  the  pumps 
of  mines  and  water-works.  It  is  so  called  from  the 
l".ict  that  its  lower  edge  beats  upon  a  cir{nilar  seat  on 
the  lower  ring  d,  and  a  flange  on  its  upper  edge  upon 
a  ring  c,  on  the  ujiper  plate  of  the  valve-seat. 


Double-Acting  Pumps. 


C  is  an  external  valve  having  in('line<l  seats  des- 
titute of  rings  ;  D  is  an  internal  double-beat  valve. 

In  the  double-beat  or  equilibrium  valve  of  the  Cor- 
nish steam-engine,  steam  is  conducted  by  a  branch 
pipe  into  a  larger  perpendicular  pipe  between  two 
conical  valves  placed  in  it  and  connected  by  a  stem. 
When  the  valves  rest  on  their  seats,  the  steam  will 


Dou6/c-Bca(  Valves. 

exert  a  pressure  on  the  under  side  of  the  upper  valve, 
tending  to  raise  it ;  and  on  the  upjier  side  of  the 
lower  one,  tending  to  keep  it  down  ;  the.-iC  two  pi-es- 
sures  in  opposite  directions  thus  neutralizing  each 
other.  It  is  therefore  evident  that,  the  pressures  be- 
ing nearly  balanced,  but  a  small  amount  of  powr  r 
is  necessary  to  raise  the  valves  from  their  ."ieats,  and 
by  a  slight  opening  a  very  large  steam-way  is  af- 
forded. 

Doub'le-bit'ted  Axe.  The  axe  has  two  oppo- 
site    bits     or 

blades.     It  is  Fig  1695. 

an  ancient 
form  of  battle- 
axe,  being  a 
favorite  weap- 
on with  the 
Flanks  in  the 
time  of  Clo- 
taire,  seventh 
centuiy,  and 
with  the 
Danes  in  the 
time  of  Alfred 
the  Great, 
ninth  cen- 
tury. 

It  is  also  shown  in  the  sculptures  of  Karnak,  in 
Egypt. 

The  battle-axe  of  the  Scythians  in  the  time  of 
Herodotus  was  double-bitted.  It  is  the  Saiian 
sagaris. 

Scylax,  an  historian  of  an  age  preceding  that  of 
Herodotus,  compared  Egypt  to  a  double-bitted  axe, 
the  neck  which  joins  the  two  heads  being  at  the 
narrow  part  of  the  valley  in  the  vicinity  of  Memphis. 

The  double-bitted  axe  is  found  in  the  tumuli  ami 
barrows  of  North  America.     It  is  in   three  forms  : 

1,  with  a  circumferential  groove  for  the  occupation 
of  the  withe  or  split  handle  to  which  it  is  la-shed  ; 

2,  with  an  eye  triiversing  the  head  ;  3,  with  a  socket 
for  the  handle.    See  AxR  ;  Battle-axe;  Hatchet. 

Doub'le-block.  (Nauiiail.)  A  block  with  two 
sheaves  which  are  ordinarily  placed  on  the  same  pin, 
but  rotate  in  separate  mortises  in  the  shell. 


Double-Bitted  Axe. 


DOUBLE-BODIED  MICROSCOPE. 


724     DOUBLE-CYLINDER  STEAM-ENGINE. 


Chisel. 


Other  doiible-blofks  have  the  slieaves  arranged 
one  aliove  the  other.  See  Lono-tacklk  Block  ; 
SiinK-iiLoi'K  :  I''ii>ni.K.-ni.i)i-K  ;  Sistek-bldck. 

Doub'le-bod'ied  Mi'cro-scope.  A  microscope 
invented  by  Nachet,  to  enable  several  observers  to 
view  tlie  same  object  simultaneously.  The  rays 
from  the  objei'tive  are  divided  by  a  prism  :  the  sepa- 
rated rays  received  by  two  other  ])risms,  and  the 
respective  pencils  directetl  through  the  res]>ective 
boilies  of  the  instnunent.  The  princi]de  is  similar 
to  that  of  the  BiNOCUi.Ai:  Microscope  (which  see). 
Doub'le-cap.  A  flat  (unfolded)  writing  or  book 
l'a|)er,  17  X  28  inches. 

Doub'le-chis'el.    A  tool  with  two  chis- 
Fi.;  1333.  el-ed.,'es  to  cut  the  ends  of  a  mortise  .simul- 
taueously,  while  the  chip  e.xtends  into  the 
depression  between  the  bits.      It  is  used  iu 
moitising  sash-bnrs  for  windows. 

Doub'le-cloth  Loom.  One  for  weav- 
ing two  .sets  of  wclis  simultaneously.  These 
may  be  connected  at  certain  parts,  and  cut 
apart  subsecjuently,  and  so  form  a  series  of 
under-garments. 

In  another  form,  the  two  webs  are  so 
knitted  as  to  form  a  tube,  being  joined  at 
their  edges.  At  certain  intervals,  both  webs 
are  thrown  into  one  Hat  web  of  dovtble  thick- 
ness, and  then  again  separated,  forming  a  tube  as 
before.  The  completed  web  is  then  cut  apart  mid- 
length  of  the  doubled  portion,  and  also  mid-length 
of  the  tubular  portion,  and  the  result  is  a  number 
of  bags  with  closed  bottoms. 

Double-com'pass.  An  instrument  whose  legs 
are  prolonged  each  way  beyond  the  joint,  so  that 
either  pair  may  be  used  ;  when  the  legs  on  one  pair 
are  double  the  length  of  the  others,  it  answers  as  a 
bisei-f  i)iff-conipass. 

Doub'le-con'cave  Lens.  A  lens  both  of  whose 
faces  are  concave.     See  Lens. 

Doub'le-con'vex  Lens.  A  lens  both  of  whose 
sides  are  conve.x,  though  they  may  dilfer  in  the  radii 
of  their  curves.  When  the  difference  is  as  6  to  1, 
it  js  a  crossed  lens.     See  Lens. 

Doub'le-cut  File.  One  which  has  two  rows  of 
teeth,  crossing  each  other  at  an  angle,  in  contradis- 
tinction to  the  sinijle-cut  or  float,  which  has  but  one 
row. 

Doub'le-cyl'in-der  Press.  {Printing.)  A 
press  with  one  form,  and  receiving  jiaper  from  two 
cylinders. 

Doub'le-cyl'in-der  Print'ing-ma-chine'.  A 
printing-i)res3  iu  which  the  form  is  placeil  on  a  flat 
bed  and  tlie  impression  taken  by  two  cylinders,  each 
of  which  alternately  takes  a  sheet  and  receives  an 
impression  from  the  form  while  it  is  passing  under 
them. 

Doub'le-cyl'in-der  Pump.  One  having  two 
cylinders  in  which  the  pistons  act  alternately.  They 
may  be  single-acting  or  <louble-acting,  that  is,  the 
cylinder  may  receive  and  deliver  water  at  and  from 
eacli  end.  The  pumps  of  Hero  of  Alexandria,  150 
B.  c,  were  all  single-acting,  but  one  of  them  at  least 
had  a  double  cylindi'r. 

Dou'ble-cyl'in-der  Steam-en'gine.  A  form 
of  engine  having  two  communicating  cylinders  of 
varying  capacities  ;  there  are  many  modifications  in 
the  arrangements  and  modes  of  application  of  the 
steam. 

The  first  engine  of  this  character  was  that  of 
Hornblower,  in  which  two  ]tistou-rods  were  con- 
nected to  the  same  ann  of  the  walking-beam,  but  at 
diffeivnt  distances  from  its  center  of  oscdlation.  As 
usually  imderstood,  the  double-cylinder  engine  in- 
volves the  use  of  the  .same  steam  in  two  cylinders 


consecutively  ;  first  at  a  relatively  high  pressure  in 
a  smaller  cyliuder,  and  then  at  a  lower  pressure  in  a 
larger  cyliuder. 

Working  steam  expansively  was  invented  by 
Watt  and  introduced  in  1778. 

Hornblowcr's  expansive  engine,  patented  in  1781, 
had  two  cylinders,  of  different  sizes,  their  respective 
piston-rods  being  connected  to  the  working-beam. 
An  amount  of  steam  of  the  capacity  of  the  smaller 
cylinder  was  exjiended  at  each  stroke,  the  upper 
part  of  the  said  cylinder  receiving  live  steam  from 
the  boiler,  and  the  lower  part  communicating  with 
the  space  above  the  ptston  of  the  larger  cylinder, 
where  it  was  used  expansively. 

Ilornblower's  engine  occupies  one  notable  point 
in  the  history  of  the  steam-engine,  but  was  not 
adojited  to  any  great  extent. 

Wolf,  in  his  English  patent  of  1804,  improved 
the  arrangement,  and  his  may  be  consiilered  the 
progenitor  of  the  numerous  compound  and  duplex 
steaui-engiues  which  have  proved  so  successful.  See 
also  Tippett's  English  patent,  1828. 

This  form  of  engine  is  extensively  used  in  France, 
and  the  monster  puniping-engines,  with  144-inch 
cylinders,  erected  for  draining  the  Haarlem  Mere, 
from  the  designs  of  Gibbs  and  Dean,  have  double 
cylinders,  one  within  the  other,  the  outer  being 
fitted  with  an  annular  piston.     See  Dkaining-en- 

GINE. 

Maudslay  and  Field's  double-cylinder  steam-en- 
gine     (English) 

is  a  form  of  en-  F>g- 1697- 

gine  having  two 
cylinders,  each 
of  half  the  area 
necessary  for  the 
intended  power, 
combined  so  as 
to  form  one  en- 
gine, and  placed 
so  far  apart,  as  to 
leave  a  space  be- 
tween them  for 
the  connecting- 
rod,  and  the 
lower  end  of  tlie 
T-shaped  cross- 
head,  to  which 
the  connecting- 
rod  is  attached. 
The  piston-rods 
are  attached  to 
the  horizontal 
extremities  of 
the  T  cross- 
head,  whereby  the  combined  action  of  both  jiistons 
is  applied  to  one  crank  of  the  paddle-shaft. 

In  the  illustration,  a  a  are  the  two  connected 
working-cylinders,  worked  simultaneously  by  one 
slide-valve  in  the  chamber  k.  b  b  are  the  pi.ston- 
rods,  the  upper  ends  of  which  are  attached  by  keys 
to  the  cross-head  c  c  c.  At  the  lower  end  of  the 
cross-head  is  a  slider  d  working  between  guides  fixed 
on  the  outer  surfaces  of  the  cylinders.  To  this  slider 
d  one  end  of  the  connecting-rod  /  is  attached,  the 
other  end  of  that  rod  being  attached  to  the  crank  of 
the  propeller-shaft.  The  air-pump  i,  feed-pump,  and 
bilge-pump  are  worked  by  the  lever,  which  is  con- 
nected to  the  slider  d  by  the  rod.  m  is  the  skylight 
of  the  engine-room,     n  is  a  deck-beam. 

This  is  one  form  of  direct-action  steam-engine,  and 
was  designed  to  obviate  the  use  of  a  beam. 

Fig.  1698  shows  an  arrangement  in  which  two 
cranks  on  the  same  shaft  and  of  different  radii  are 


Maudslay  and  Field'.^  Double- Cylinder 
Steajn-Ett^ine. 


DOUBLE-CYLINDER  STEAM-ENGINE.      725    DOUBLE-EXPANSION  STEAM-ENGINE. 


Fig.  1693. 


Huntoon's  Engine. 

respectively  attached  to  pistons  of  varying  diameter 
working  in  cylinders  wh.^re  the  steam  is  used  direct- 
ly in  one  and  afterwards  expansively  in  the  other. 

In  Fig.  1699,  the  cylinders  are  alongside  each 
other.  The  rods  of  the  pistons  of  the  respective 
cylinders  are  united  to  the  cranks,  which  have  a 
relative  angle  of  1S0°  on  the  same  shaft.     Steam  ad- 


Fig.  1699. 


Washburn's  Steam-En^ne, 

mitted  above  the  smaller  pi.ston  is  used  directly,  and, 
tile  valve  being  raised,  is  cut  off;  and  the  annular 
space  between  the  two  disks  form.s  a  means  of  con- 
veying the  steam  below  the  said  piston,  where  it  is 
eipialized  as  to  its  effect  on  that  jtiston,  and  above 
the  larger  piston,  where  it  is  utilized  e.\pansively. 
In  Fig.  1700,  the  smaller  cylinder  is  contained 

Fig.  1700. 


O 


I 


Dactnport's  Stram  Engine 


within  the  larger.     The  outer  piston  is  a  cylinder 
whose  two  heads  are  packed  in  the  main  cylinder. 
The  steam  is  received  through  a  hollow  h-xed  piston 
within  the  larger  piston.     An  axial  pipe  conducts 
the  steam  thereto.     The  steam    hi.st  acts    on    the 
inner  side  of  the  outer 
piston-head,    and     ex- 
hausts   to   act    expan- 
.sively  on  the  outer  end 
of  the  outer  piston.     It 
then  passes  through  the 
annular  .space    between 
the    side  of    the    outer 
piston    and    the    main 
cylinder  to  the  exhaust- 
ports. 

In  another  fomi  the 
steam,  after  acting  at  a 
high  pressure  against  the  piston  in  tlie  upper  cylin- 
der, is  allowed  to  escape  to  work  against  the  larger 
piston  at  a  less  relative 
pressure      ]ier      square  Fig  I'Ol. 

inch.  The  valves  are 
connected  so  as  to  time 
the  movements,  and  the 
st&m  acts  alternately 
above  Iwth  pistons  and 
then  bchnc  both  pistons 
to  combine  the  ett'ects  of 
the  steam  in  the  respec- 
tive cylindei's. 

In  Ellis's  bisulphide 
of  carbon  engine,  the 
heat  of  the  exhaust- 
st">am  from  one  cylinder 
is  made  to  boil  the  bi- 
sulphide of  carlxm, 
whose  vajior  is  used  in 
the  second  cylinder. 
See     also     CumI'hitnd- 

K  .N  G  I  N  E  ;  D  r  P  L  E  X 

Ste.\.m-en(;ixe,  etc. 

Doub'le-dag'ger. 
(PruUinq.)  A  relerence-  Prase's  Sttam-Engint. 

mark  (J)  next  to  the 
dagger  (+t  in  order.     Otherwise  called  a  diesis. 

Doub'le— door.  Two  jiairs  of  folding-doors, 
hung  upon  the  angles  of  the  aperture  and  each  swing- 
ing inward  .so  as  to  open  against  the  reveal.  The 
inner  pair  is  frequently  covered  with  liaize. 

Dou'ble-d'or.  A  French  style  of  jewelry  ;  a 
plate  ot  gold  is  soldered  upon  one  of  copper,  the  re- 
.spective  thicknesses  being  1  and  11  ;  the  (ilate  is 
then  thinned  by  rolling,  and  worked  up  into  the  re- 
quired form. 

Doub'le-drill.  A  drill  with  two  cutters,  mak- 
ing a  countersunk  hole,  so  that  the  head  of  the  screw 
or  rivet  jilaced  therein  shall  not  protrude. 

Doub'le-drawr'ing  Pen.  A  draftsman's  pen  to 
rule  two  Hues  at  once. 

Doub'le-drum.  {itiisie.)  A  large  drum  beaten 
at  both  ends.  In  contr.adistinction  to  other  dnuns 
in  which  but  one  head  is  Iteaten  ;  as,  side,  snare, 
and  kettle  drums.     See  Drum. 

Doub'le— el'e-phant.  A  size  of  drawing  or  flat 
writing-paper,  measuring  26  x  40  inches. 

Doub'le-end  ed  Bolt  A  bolt  having  a  screw- 
thre.id  on  eacli  i-nd  for  receiving  a  nut.  It  is  used  for 
binding  together  three  jiarts  or  pieces  independently 
of  each  other.      (See  5,  Fig.  768.) 

Double-ex-pan'sion  Steam-en'gine.  A  form 
of  engine  in  which  steam,  admitted  to  act  upon  a 
piston  of  relatively  small  area  and  cut  ofl"  at  a  cer- 
tain part  of  the  stroke,  so  as  to  work  expansively 


DOUm.E  FACKD. 


726 


DOUBLE-LIGHT. 


Fig.  1702. 


Double-Files. 


from  that  point  to  the  end  of  the  stroke,  is  then  ad- 
mitted to  the  face  of  a  h>rger  piston,  where  it  under- 
goes a  tiirthrr  expansion.  Such  i.s  the  Allen  engine 
(Kngli.sli),  wuich  li;i.s  a.  large  trunk-piston  having 
two  annular  steani-space.s  between  the  trunk  and 
cylinder,  atlbi'ding  two  anrnilar  pistons  of  relatively 
.siN^d.  area  ;  the  ends  of  the  trunk,  which  are  of  larger 
area,  constituting  two  other  piston-heads  to  receive 
the  force  of  the  steam  at  the  second  expansion.  See 
also  DOUBI.K-CYLI.VDEI!  Ste.v.m-knuine. 

Doub'le-faced.  {Joiner!/.)  A  term  applied  to 
an  architrave,  or  the  like,  having  two  faces. 

Doub'le-file.  A  compound  Hie  (a)  made  of  two 
files  riveted  together,  one  eilge 
projecting  heyond  that  of  the 
other.  Used  Viy  cutlers  and 
gun-makers  in  checkering  their 
work,  as  on  the  ■'iiiiaH  of  the 
gun-.stock. 

Cooper's  douhle-file  (b)  is 
used  for  sharpening  pencils, 
etc. 

Doub'le-flu'id  Bat'ter-y. 
A  galvanic  battery  in  which 
two  tinids  are  used  as  exciting 
liquids.  They  are  kept  apart 
'  by  a  porous  cup,  as  in  the 
Daniell's  battery,  orby gravity, 
as  in  Callaud's  (see  infra). 
Daniell  wa.s  the  inventor  of 
this  form  of  battery,  and  re- 
ceived therefor  the  "I'opley" 
medal  of  the  Royal  Society  in 
1837.  He  used  sulphuric  acid  in  a  porous  cup  placed 
ill  a  glass  cup  containing  sulpliate  of  copper. 

Bansen's,  Grove's,  and  Callaud's  are  also  double- 
ttuid  batteries.  The  name  is  used  in  contradistinction 
to  the  xingle-fiuid  batterie.s,  such  as  the  original 
Volta,  the  Cruikshank,  Babbington,  and  Wollas- 
ton. 

The  gravity-battery  is  a  double-fluid  battery  in 
which  the  porous  cup  is  dispensed  with,  the  ditl'er- 
ence  in  the  specific  gravity  of  the  fluids  used  keeping 
them  separate.  Often  called  the  "Callaud  battery," 
after  the  name  of  the  inventor. 

Doub'le-floor.  (Carpentry.)  One  in  which  both 
binding  ami  bridging  joists  are  employed.  A  double- 
framc'i  floor. 

Doub'le-fur'row  Plow.  One  striking  two  fur- 
rows at  once.     A  gm'j  or  chuhle  plow. 

Doub'le-fut'tocks.  (Shipbnildiari.)  Timbers 
in  the  cant-bodies  extending  from  th»  deadwood  to 
the  run  of  the  second  futtock-head. 

Doub'Ie-gear.  The  nests  of  variable-speed  gear- 
wht'cls  in  the  head-stock  of  a  lathe.  Back-gear. 
Double  Gear-wheeL  A  wheel  which  has  two 
sets  of  cogs  of  varying 
diameter  ;  these  may  drive 
two  pinions,  or  be  driven  of 
one  and  drive  the  other.  In 
the  example,  the  wheel  j 
drives  the  two  pinions  /  g. 
The  cover  k  is  shown  as 
partially  broken  away  to  ex- 
pose the  inner  gear  and  the 
pinion/. 

Double  Half-round 
Pile.  A  Hie  whose  sides  are 
curved,  the  edges  forming 
cusps  ;  the  arcs  of  the  sides 
being  much  le.ss  than  180°. 
Used  for  dressing  or  crossing- 

1  out      balance  -  wheels,     and 

DoiibU  Gtar-\yhtiL        hence  known  as  a  cross-file. 


Fi?.  1703. 


Fig.  1704. 


The  convex  edges  have  usually  ditferent  curvatureji. 
See  FiLK. 

Doub'le-ham'mer.  (Metallurgy.)  A  forging 
device  for  operating  upon  a  bloom  or  puddler's  ball, 
striking  it  upon  ojiposite  sides  siinultaneo.i.sly.  .See 
Griiner's  "  Alannlucture  of  Steel,"  Van  Nostrand. 
1S72  ;   page  152  et  seq.,  and  plates  v,  vi. 

Doub'le-head'ed  Rail,  (llailroading.)  A  rail 
who.se  edges  are  bulbous  and  counterjiarts,  so  (hat 
when  one  is  worn  the  other  may  be  placed  uppei  most. 

This  rail  does  not  rest  so  securely  on  the  sleepei't, 
having  no  Hat  base  like  the  foot-mi',  or  bridge-rail, 
but  requires  a  chair  on  each  sleeper.  This  greatly 
increases  the  expense  in  fastening  to  the  sleepers. 

Doub'le-head'ed  Shot  {Ordnance.)  A  projei-,- 
tile  formerly  used,  consisting  of  two  shot  united  at 
their  bases. 

Doub'le-head'ed  'Wrench.  One  having  a  piiir 
of  jaws  at  each  end,  one  diagonal  the 
other  right-angular.  The  shank  of 
each  outer  jaw  is  connected  to  the 
sleeved  inner  jaw  of  the  other  |iair, 
the  sleeves  sli|>ping  on  the  shanks  of 
the  jaws  to  which  they  are  opjrosed. 
The  double  threads  act  in  conjunc- 
tion, to  expand  or  close  each  pair 
simultaneously. 

Double-hung  'Win'do'W.  One 
with  two  sashes,  each  having  its 
complement  of  lines,  weights,  and 
pulleys, 

Doub'le-im'age  Mi-crom'e- 
ter.  Suggested  by  Roemer  about 
1678  ;  brought  into  use  by  Bonguer 
about  1748.  It  is  formed  by  divid- 
ing diametrically  the  object-glass  of 
a  telescope  or  microscope,  thestraight  I 
edges  being  ground  smooth  so  that 
they  may  easily  slide  by  one  anoth- 
er. The  parts  are  sepaiable  by  a 
screw,  which  moves  an  index  on 
graduated  scale.  A  double  image 
of  the  object  in  the  field  of  view  is  produced  by  the 
separation  of  the  segments  ;  and  by  bringing  the  op- 
posite edges  of  the  two  images  into  contact,  a  meas- 
ure of  the  diameter  of  the  object  is  obtained  in  terms 
of  the  extent  of  the  separation.      A  hcliometer. 

Doub'le-im-pe'ri-al  A  size  of  printing-paper 
32  X  44  inches. 

Doub'le-joint'ed  Com'pass.    One  having,  in 
addition  to  the  main  joint,  additi-..nal  joints 
by  which  legs  may  be  bent  to  secure  a  proper  Fig.  ITOo. 
presentation  of  the  feet  to  the  paper.  -.j, 

Doub'le-knife.    A  knife  having  a  pair    ^ij 
of  blades  which  may  be  set  at  any  regulated 
distance  from  each  other,  so  as  to  obtain  thin 

Fig.  1706. 


Double- HeiuleJ 
Wrenc/t. 


Double-Knife. 

sections  of  soft  bodies.     One  form  of  this  is  _ 
known  as  Valentin's  knife,  from  the  inventor,  f 

Double-let'ter.     (PriiUing.)     Two  let- 
ters on  one  shank,  as^,  ffi. 

Doub'le-light.  A  variety  of  light  as  dis- 
played for  the  warning  and  instruction  of 
mariners  from  lighthouses.  The  light  indi- 
cates land,  rock,  or  shoal,  and,  by  varying 
the  characteristics  of  the  light,  the  seaman 
is  informed  of  the  part  of  the  coast  he  is  on,  j„i„m 
and  of  his  bearings  as  to  his  port  or  course.  Comjiasa. 


Double- 


DOUBLE-LINE. 


727 


DOUBLE  PISTON-ROD  ENGINE. 


Tlie  other  charactf  rs  of  light  are  known  .as  fixed, 
revolving,  iniermitteitt,  flashitig,  colored.  These  are 
vaiioasly  combined. 

The  double-light  is  usually  exhibited  from  two 
towers.  One  of  these  is  sometimes  higher  than  the 
other.  The  duplication  of  the  lights  affords  a  leading 
line  as  a  guide  to  a  channel,  as  well  as  furnishing  an- 
other mode  of  varying  the  lights  on  a  coast  where 
they  are  numerous.     See  Light. 

Double-line.  {Harness.)  a.  A  form  of  driv- 
ing-lines or  reins  in  which  supplementary  reins  are 
afforded,  which  may  be  brought  into  use  in  emer- 
gency, such  as  an  attempt  to  bolt,  lu  some  cases 
it  is  an  extra  rein  to  pull  the  horses'  heads  together  ; 
a  rein  to  pull  a  hood  over  the  eyes  of  a  horse  ;  a  gag- 
rein  to  pull  the  bit  violently  into  the  corners  of  his 
mouth  ;  a  choking-rein  around  the  throat ;  agripi)er 
on  the  muzzle  ;  shutters  on  the  nostrils,  etc. 

b.  A  description  of  driving  reins  or  lines  in  which 
each  main  branch  has  a  check-line  to  the  bit  of  the 
other  horse.  Distinguished  from  the  Western  team- 
ster's single-line. 

Doub'le-lock.  A  canal-lock  haWng  two  parallel 
chambers  connecting  by  a  sluice.  Each  chamber  has 
a  gate  at  each  end  connecting  with  the  upper  and 
lower  pounds  respectively.  The  object  is  to  save  one 
h.ilf  the  water  that  would  be  used  in  locking  boats. 

Doub'le-mar'gin  Door.  (Joinery. )  One  framed 
in  imitation  of  folding-doors,  the  central  style  being 
male  double  with  an  intervening  bead. 

Doub'le-me'di-um.  A  size  of  printing-paper 
24  X  33  inches. 

Doub'le-mold'board  Plow.  (Agriculture.) 
A  plow   having  a  moldboard  on  each  side  of  the 

Fig.  1707. 


which  may  be  pro- 
duced from  either 
the  warp  or  weft. 
See  Crompton's  pa- 
tent, January  31, 
1871. 

Doub'le-pis'- 
ton  Pump.  One 
which  works  two 
pistons  from  a  sin- 
gle lever  or  handle. 
It  may  be  double  or 
single  acting  as  to 
the  separate  pistons. 

In  Fig.  1708  the 
pistons  are  effective 
alternately,  each 
upon  its  up  stroke. 
One  bucket  sliiles  on 
the  rod  of  the  other. 
The  lever  gives  re- 
ciprocating rotation 
to  the  pinion  a 
which  works  the 
racks  h  c,  which 
back  against  rollers 
d  d;  g  h  are  the  up- 
per rod  and  bucket, 
p  and  e  f  the  lower 
pair,  i  is  the  lower 
valve  ;  j  the  induc- 
tion-pipe. 

Another  form  is 
shown  in  Fig.  1709,- 


DoubU-Moldboard  Ploio. 

sheCh,  so  as  to  throw  the  soil  away  right  and  left. 
It  is  used  in  hilling  up  crops,  such  as  potatoes  and 
cabbages.  Not  used  for  com  ;  the  rows  are  too  wide 
apart. 

A  double-moldboard  plow  was  used  by  the  Romans 
in  ribbing  the  ground  for  wheat.  This  left  the  ground 
in  ridges  whose  summits  were  seeded  by  hand-drill- 
ing. 

Double  Pi'CtL  [Printing. )  A  size  of  type  double 
the  hight  of  Pica. 

Double  Pica. 

Great  Primer. 

English. 

Pica. 

Small  Pica. 

Double-piled  Fab'ric-loom.  One  in  which 
a  pile  is  fomied  on  both  .sides  of  l\ie  foundation,  and 


in  which  the  pistons 
are  fast  on  the  same 
rod  and  reciprocate 
in  their  respective 
cylinders,  which  are 
divided  by  a  dia- 
phragm. The  pumps 
are  independent, 
therefore,  except  as 
the  pipes  may  con- 
nect ;  and  may  be 
utilized  for  pump- 
ing fluids  from  two 
sources  and  deliver- 
ing them  together 
or  separately. 

Double"  Pls'- 
ton-rod  Iin'gine. 
A  direct-action 
steam-engine  in- 
vented by  Mandslay 
and  Field,  London, 
and     designed     for 


DoubU-Piston  Pump. 
Kg.  1709. 


DoubU-Ptitjn  Putnp. 


DOUBLE-PISTON  SQUARE-ENGINE.        728 


DOUBLER. 


vessels  of  low  draft  and  shallow  holds,  without  ex- 
posing the  machinery  above  deck.  It  is  one  of  the 
numerous  attempts  to  avoid  the  use  of  a  beam  or 
side-lever.     See  Direct-action  Steam-engine. 

The  double  pislmi-rod  engine  has  two  piston-rods 
to  each  piston,  the  center  of  the  cylinder-cover  is 
plain,  and  this  allows  the  crank  when  lowest  to 
barely  clear  the  sai<l  cover,  thus  saving  the  depth 
of  a  stufting-box.  The  two  piston-rods  issue  from 
opposite  apertures,  but  neither  in  the  longitudinal 
nor  transverse  line  of  the  ship.  It  is  said  to  afford 
the  shallowest  arrangement  yet  known  with  no  beam 
above  deck,  and  is  used  on  the  Rhone,  the  Indus, 
an  1  the  Sutledj. 

Doub'le-pis'ton  Square-en'gine.    An  engine 


Fig.  1710. 


Root^s  Double-Piston  Square-Engine. 

having  two  square  pistons  at  right  angles  to  and  one 
within  the  other.   Fig.  1710 
shows    the     ari'angement ; 
tlie  larger  or  e.vternal  is  in 
the  form  of  a  rectangular 
frame,  working  horizontal- 
ly within  a  box  of  similar 
form,  and  is  marked  E.     The  .smaller,  marked 
F,  works  vertically  within  E.     Through  the 
center  of  F  passes  the  crank  D,  which  is  car- 
ried  around  by  the  simidtaneous  action   of 
both  pistons.    The  .smaller  piston  .Fand  crank 
D  are  shown   separately.      T  is  an    outside 
view  of  the  cover  which  closes  the  steam -box 
or  cylinder,  the  circular  chamber  being  the 
valve-box  /,  wliich  is  closed  by  another  plate  screwed 
over  it.     The  steam  is  admitted  at  K,  passes  by  a 
hidden  passage  to  the  valve-box  /,  and  to  the  cylin- 


der through  openings  G,  whenever  they  are  uncov- 
ered by  tlie  valve  A'.  Through  the  same  o|ieiiings 
the  exhaust-steam  escapes,  not  into  the  valve-box, 
but  into  the  annular  channel  II  through  the  annular 
countersink  M.  The  exhaust-steam  escapes  by  pas- 
sages indicated  by  dotted  lines  leading  to  the  open- 
ings H  II,  and  thence  by  passages  to  a  common 
eduction-pipe.  The  valve-plate  X  is  fitted  to  the 
eccentric  L  on  the  center-pin  V,  and  this  eccentric 
is  carried  around  by  a  stud  S  in  the  end  of  the  crank, 
which  enters  an  arm  on  the  other  side  of  the  plate, 
for  which  space  is  made  in  the  central  circular  rece.ss 
of  the  smaller  piston.  The  valve  is  in  contact  by  its 
circumference  with  the  interior  cylindrical  surface  of 
the  valve-box,  on  which  it  rolls  during  its  revolu- 
tion, and  it  opens  and  closes  the  steam-ports  succes- 
sively as  it  passes. 

Doub'le  Plane-i'ron.  ( IVood-worHng.)  A 
smoothing-plane  iron  Having  a  counter-\Tan  to  bend 
u|i  the  shaving  in  working  cross-grained  stufl'. 

Doub'le-plow.  1.  The  double-plow,  in  which 
a  shallow  share  preceded  the  deeper-running,  longer 
plow,  originated  in  England,  where  it  is  known  as 


Fig.  1711. 


Michigan  Double-Flow. 

the  skim-colter  plow.  This  has  a  .share  attached  to 
the  colter  to  turn  down  the  top  soil  with  its  weeds 
and  trash,  to  be  covered  with  the  main  furrow-slice, 
which  is  turned  over  by  the  larger  plow  following. 

In  England  and  in  the  United  States  another  form 
of  this  plow  has  been  used  in  which  the  precedent 
portion  is  not  merely  a  flange  on  the  colter,  but  is  a 
regular  moldboard  plow  of  small  proportions,  higher 
than  and  in  front  of  the  main  plow.  This  is  known 
in  Ohio  as  the  "  Michigan  double-plow,"  and  is  an 
efficient  implement  requiring  four  horses. 

2.  The  doublc-ploiv,  having  two  plows  to  one  stock, 
or  two  stocks  framed  together  so  as  to  have  but  one 
pair  of  handles  and  be  operated  by  one  man,  is  men- 
tioned by  Walter  Blythe,  who  wrote  during  the  pro- 
tectorate of  Oliver  Cromwell.     See  Gang-plow. 

Doub'ler.  1.  {Electricity.)  An  instrument  to 
increase  the  least  conceivable  quantity  of  electricity 
by  continually  doubling  it,  until  it  becomes  per- 
ceptible upon  a  common  electrometer  or  is  made  visi- 
ble in  sparks. 

It  was  first  invented  by  Bennet,  improved  by 


Englisti  Double-Plow. 

D.arwin,  and  afterwards  by  Nicholson.  See  "Jour- 
nal of  the  Telegraph,"  Vol.  VI.,  No.  1,  December 
2,  1872. 


DOUBLE-REFRACTION  MICROMETER.      729 


DOUBLE-SEAMING  MACHINE. 


2.  (Dislilling.)  A  part  of  the  still  apparatus,  or 
ail  appendage  to  a  still  ill  which  the  low  wines,  one 
of  the  products  of  the  first  distillation,  are  re-dis- 
tilled. The  operation  is  a  turning  back  and  repeat- 
ing, and  is  known  as  doubliiu).  A  part  of  the  still 
is  arranged  to  condense  and  then  intercept  and  re- 
turn the  less  volatile  vapors,  while  tho.se  of  greater 
tenuity  pass  on. 

3.  (Fiber.)  A  machine  in  which  slivers,  stricks, 
or  filaments  of  wool,  cotton,  fla.x,  or  silk  are  laid 
together,  to  be  drawn  out  and  again  doubled  and 
drawn  to  remove  inequalities,  or,  in  the  case  of  silk, 
to  increase  the  thickness  of  the  strand.  See  Doub- 
ling. 

i.  (Cnlicn-prlntintj. )  A  blanket  or  felt  placed  be- 
tween the  cloth  to  be  printed  and  the  printing-table 
or  cylinder. 

Doub'Ie-re-frac'tion  Bdi-crom'e-ter.  The 
Abbe  Koclion  first  applied  the  principle  of  double 
refraction  to  micrometrical  measurements.  His  in- 
strument had  two  prisms  connected  together  so  as  to 
form  a  single  crystal.  The  prisms  are  so  disposed 
that  the  face  of  the  first  is  perpendicular  to  the  axis 
of  the  crystal,  while  in  the  second  the  a.\is  is 
parallel  to  the  line  of  intersection  of  the  two  faces, 
so  that  the  axes  of  crystallization  of  the  two  ])risms 
are  at  right  angles  to  each  other.  The  prisms  are 
placed  in  perfect  contact  and  cemented  by  mastic, 
and  together  foi-m  a  plate,  the 
opposite  sides  of  which  are 
parallel. 

As  the  ray  enters  the  sec- 
ond prism  the  ordinary  ray 
piisses  on,  and  the  extraor- 
dinary ray  is  refracted.  The 
angle  of  divergence  of  the 
rays  is  constant  in  the  same 
prism,  and  is  determined  by 
experiment. 

The  apparatus  is  placed  in 
the  tube  of  a  telescope,  where 
it  may  be  slipped  back  and 
forth.  The  determination  of 
the  diameter  of  the  object  is 
obtivined  by  bringing  the 
images  in  contact. 

Doub'Ie-roy'al.  A  size 
of  printing  paper  26  x  40 
inches. 

Doub'le-aa-w. 


having  two  blades  at  a  regulated  distance,  adapted 
to  cut  kerfs  and  space  the  intervals,  as  in  comb-cut- 
ting.    See  Co  MR. 

Doub'le-seam'ing  Ma-chine'.     A  tool  or  ma- 
chine for  lapping  the  edges  of  sheet-metal  one  over 


Fig.  1714 


Double-  Seamrr 

the  other,  and  then  doubling  over  the  lapped 
portions  so  as  to  preclude  the  possibility  of  the 
portions  slipping  apart.  The  seaming  process  ap- 
pears in  Fig.  1713,  where  a  represents  a  can  top  and 
lid  simply  laid  together  ;  b  shows  the  two  parts 
turned  over  ;  c  shows  the  outer  portion  recurved 
over  the  inner  one. 
d,  in  the  same  figure,  shows  the  parts  of  a  seam 


Double- Seamins  Mac'icne, 


with  an  intervening  strengthening  strip  ;  e  /  are 
two  farther  conditions  of  the  same  .joint,  with  a  rivet 
to  secure  the  parts  in  position  ;  <;  is  a  view  of  the 
machine  <m  whiih  the  bending  re  i  c  is  done  bv  a 
succession  of  disks,  cone-rollers,  «nd  clamping-rollers. 


DOUBLE-SEAT  VALVE. 


730 


DOUBLE-TREE. 


Fig.  171o 


Fig.  1714  is  another  double-seaming  machine  in 
which  the  compressing  di.sk  H  is  jonrnaled  on  top 
of  tlie  standard,  and  is  brought  into  conjunction 
with  the  vertical  disk  G  on  wliieh  the  pan  or  can 
rests,  and  is  revolved  by  the  crank  E. 

Double-seaming  macliines  for  rooting  have  a  num- 
ber of  consecutive  pairs  of  rollers  which  are  run 
along  the  upturned  edges  of  the  adjacent  sheets  so  as 
to  lap  one  over  the  other,  bend  the  two  and  press  the 
folded-over  part  against  the  standing  part.  In  Fig. 
1715  a  shows  the  machine  in  isometric  projection,  a 
series  of  transverse  sections  being  made  to  show  the 
ditfereut  pairs  of  rollers  in  the  succession,  b  shows 
one  of  the  rollers  detached  and  also  sectioned  to 
exhibit  the  structure,  c  d  eft]  A  is  a  series  of  the 
jiairs  of  roUei-s  on  an  enlarged  scale,  and  showing 
the  successive  shapes  assumed  by  the  edges  of  the 
tin  plates. 

Doub'le-seat  Valve.  Terhaps  another  name 
for  the  double-beat  valve,  and 
the  more  appropriate  terra  of 
the  two. 

The  aperture  a  is  beveleil 
around  to  form  the  usual  valve- 
seat,  c  c  are  two  of  tive  or  six 
thin  vertical  plates  radiating 
from  the  center  and  supporting 
the  flat  disk  b,  the  edge  of 
which  is  also  beveled  conically 
to  form  a  second  seat.  The 
valve  itself  is  a  bulging  cylinder 
d,  open-emled,  and  shuts  down 
upon  both  these  seats.  The  eti'ective  pressure  on 
the  valve  is  only  as  the  dilferem^e  in  the  areas  of  the 
two  seats.  A  bar  across  the  top  receives  the  valve- 
rod,  which  passes  through  a  stutiing-box.  The  valve 
being  opened,  the  steam  enters  at  two  ways,  and  c 
large  effective  opening  is  instantaneously  atforJed. 
See  Douni.K-RKAT  V.^lvk. 

Doub'le-shov'el  Plow.  A  plow  for  tending 
crops,  and  having  two  small  shovels  on  as  many 
sheths.     They  are  arranged  a  little  distance  apart. 

Fig.  1717 


Double- Seat  Valu^ 


Doubte-Sfiovet  flow. 


and  one  a  little  behind  the  other.  The  left-hand 
plow  is  a  little  in  the  rear  when  the  right  is  specially 
engaged  in  working  the  crop. 

Doub'le-speed  Pul'ley.  A  contrivance  for 
giving  what  is  termed  double  ifpcr.d  to  the  spindles 
of  the  self-acting  mule.  On  the  spindle  re,  which 
receives  the  motion,  are  three  drums,  bed;  of 
these,  b  is  fast  on  the  spindle,  c  is  loose,  and  d  also 


loo.se,  but  connected  with  the  pinion  e,  which  works 
into  the  spur-wlieei  /,  tixed  on  the  spindle  g,   to 


Fig.  171& 


DoubU-Speed  PulUy.'Tr''"^ 


which  the  motion  is  to  be  communicated.  On  the 
spindle  a  is  ti.xed  tlie  spur-wheel  h,  which  works 
into  the  jiinion  i,  likewise  fixed  on  the  spindle  g. 
When  the  belt  from  the  driving  drum  k  is  on  A,  it 
communicates  a  fast  motion  to  the  si)indle  g' ;  when 
on  c,  the  machine  is  out  of  gear,  and  when  on  d  it 
imparts  a  slow  motion  to  q. 

Double  Su'per-roy'ciL  A  size  of  piinting- 
j'a]>er  27  x  42  inches. 

Doub'le  Steam-en'gine.  A  steam-engine  which 
lias  two  cylinders  acting  coincidently  or  alternately. 
Two  double-acting  o.scillating  cylinders,  acting  upon 
a  two-cranked  .shaft,  woik  coincidently,  and  form  a 
('o»/)/t'-engine.  Leoj  old's  engine,  about  the  middle 
of  the  last  century,  was  a  double-engine,  a  duplica- 
tion of  the  Newcomen  alnio.sj'heric-engine.  It  had 
two  cylinders,  each  working  its  own  pump,  and 
operating  alternately.  The  double  steam-engine 
(Leopold's)  preceded  the  double-acting  (Watt's). 
See  Double-cylinder  Steam-engine  ;  Duplex 
Stfam-engine. 

Doublet.  1.  (Oplics.)  An  arrangement  of  lenses 
in  pairs,  invented  by  Wollaston.  It  consists  of  two 
]ilano-convex  lenses  having  their  focal  lengths  in  the 
proportion  of  one  to  tliree,  or  nearly  so,  and  placed 
at  a  distance  determinable  by  experiment.  Their 
curved  sides  are  placed  towards  the  eye,  and  the 
lens  of  sliortcst  focal  h-nf;th  towards  the  object. 

It  is  a  reversal  of  the  Huyghenian  eye-piece,  and 
its  object  is  similar,  —  to  correct  s]iheiical  abeiration 
, and  chromatic  dispersion.  The  xlip  placed  between 
the  lenses  interce]>ts  extreme  rays  that  might  mar 
the  perfection  of  the  image.  An  amjilitication  of 
the  idea  is  called  a  Tuiplet  (which  see).  See  also 
Lens. 

Sir  John  Herschel's  doublet  consists  of  a  double 
convex  lens  having  the  radii  of  curvature  as  one  to 
six,  and  of  a  plano-concave  lens  xyhose  focal  length 
is  to  that  of  the  convex  lens  as  tliiiteen  to  five.  It 
is  intended  for  a  simple  microscope,  to  be  used  in 
the  hand.     See  Lens. 

2.  A  factitious  gem  made  with  a  colorless  front 
and  a  colored  back,  cemented  together  by  clear 
mastic  on  the  line  of  the  girdle. 

Doub'le-tang  File.  A  tile  with  a  tang  at  each 
end.  to  ada[pt  it  to  receive  the  handles. 

Doub'le-tree.  The  bar  which  is  pivoted  to  the 
tongue  of  a  carriage,  wagon,  or  sled,  or  to  the  clevis 
of  a  plow  or  other  implement.  To  the  ends  of  the 
double-tree  the  single-trees  are  attached,  and  to  the 
ends  of  the  single-trees  the  traces  are  connected. 

The  double-tree  varies  in  shape  with  the  descrip- 
tion of  vehicle,  but  has  such  a  length  that  its  ends 
are  immediately  behind  each  horse,  so  that  the  traces 
of  tlie  animal  may  pull  sipiarely  upon  them  through 
the  medium  of  the  single-trees. 


DOUBLF,  WATER-'.VHEEL. 


731 


DOUBLiyC-XAIL. 


Ill  wagons,  the  dottble-ti"ee  is  axtached  to  the  toii*(ue 
by  muaiis  of  a  bolt  calleil  the  ibai/o,i-hammer,  upon 
which  it  swings  as  one  or  the  other  hoi-se  pulls  the 
more  strongly  upon  it. 

Near  the  ends  of  the  double-tree  and  behind  it  are 
loops  for  the  slay-chains,  which  are  connected  to 

Fig.  1719. 


E^ 


Double  and  Sing'^  Trfe.t. 

hooks  in  front  of  the  fore-axle,  so  as  to  limit  the 
sway  of  the  double-tree. 

For  p'owing  and  similar  duty,  the  double-tree  is 
.sometimes  arranged  with  three  clevises  ;  by  the  mid- 
dle one  it  swings  from  the  clevis  of  the  plow  or  cul- 
tivator, and  by  the  end  clevises  the  single-lrees  are 
attai'hej. 

Doub'le  'Wa'ter-^j-heel.  An  arrangement  of 
two  water-wheels  ou  one  shaft,  as  in  the  case  of  a' 
double-headeil  turbine,  which  has  a  wheel  at  each 
end  of  a  horizontal  shaft. 

Doub'le-win'dow.  One  having  two  sets  of  sash, 
inclosing  a  body  of  air  as  a  non-conductor  of  heat 
and  to  del  In  noise. 

Doub'liag.  1.  The  second  distillation  of  low 
wines.  These  aie  the  product  of  the  first  distillation, 
and  contain  about  one  fifth  alcohol. 

2.  The  double  course  of  shingles  or  slates  at  the 
eavc  of  a  house. 

3.  (Cotton  or  Wool. )   Bringing  two  or  more  slivers 

of  fiber  together 
Fig.  1720.  and     forming 

them  into  one  of 
greater  thick- 
ness, to  be  again 
reduced  by 
drawing  ;  thus 
obtaining  a  sli- 
ver of  uniform 
thickness. 

The  slivers 
from  the  card- 
ing-machine, 
each  in  its  sep- 
arate can  a  a, 
are  conducted 
between  one 
pair  of  rollers  b, 
which  causes 
them  to  coa- 
lesce ;  then 
through  a  second  pair  c,  revolving  at  an  increased 
speed,  which  draws  out  and  lengthens  the  sliver,  and 
then  through  a  third  pair  d,  which  still  attenuates 
the  sliver.  The  operation  is  repeated  as  often  as 
may  be  necessary  to  correct  every  ineijuality  in  the 
thickness  of  the  sliver. 

The  ne.\t  process  is  roving,  which  is  also  performejl 
by  drawing-roUers ;    but  as  the  sliver  has  become  so 


Doubling. 


reduced  in  thicknes.s,  it  receives  a  slight  twisting,  to 
enable  it  to  hold  together.  This  was  formerly  ob- 
tained by  giving  a  rapid  revolution  to  the  receiving- 
can  e.     See  Roving  ;  Dr.wvtno. 

4.  (F'ax-manufacturc.)  The  process  with  flax  is 
similar  to  that  descriln*d  as  pertaining  to  cotton. 

In  the  first  place,  the  slricks  or  handfiils  of  hack- 
led flax  are  spread  on  a  ti-dveling-apron  and  conducted 
to  drawing-rolI-.;i-s,  which  bring  the  filaments  to  an 
attenuated  .sliver  and  deliver  it  into  cans.  The 
slivers  from  a  number  of  cans,  from  six  to  fifteen 
usually,  are  then  conducted  to  drawing-rollers,  be- 
ing thereby  doubled  and  dratcn ;  the  process  is  re- 
peated, as  with  cotton,  until  the  sliver  is  equalizeil 
and  reduced  to  the  reijuired  degree.      See  Dk.^winc. 

5.  (Silk-manvfiicturc.)  The  twisting  together  of 
two  or  more  filaments  of  twisted  .silk.  This  proce-vs 
follows  the  fii-st  spinning  of  the  filaments  of  silk,  ami 
precedes  the  thrountig,  which  is  a  farther  combining 
of  threads  and  twisting^  them  together.  First,  the 
twisted  filaments  ;  then  the  doubling,  forming  dumb- 
singles  ;  then  the  throiring,  forming  thrown-singles. 

The  process  of  doubling  silk  differs  from  that  of 
doubling  cotton  and  flax,  inasmuch  as  the  silk  fila- 
ments are  continuous  and  cannot  be  drawn.  Thu 
doubling  of  tlax  or  cotton  fibers  is  for  the  purjiose 
of  equalizing  the  thickness  of  slivers,  and  the  draw- 
ing which  accompanies  each  o]>eration  is  for  the  pur- 
pose of  lengthening  the  combined  slivers  so  as  to 
make  an  attenuated  sliver.  By  this  means  any  tri- 
fling irregularity  in  the  thickness  of  a  sliver  is  lost 
by  causing  it  to  coalesce  with  others  and  elongating 
the  bunch ;  the  process  being  repeated  again  and 
again,  as  may  be  necessary. 

in  the  doubling  of  .silk,  as  there  is  no  re-attenua- 
tion by  drawing,  the  number  of  filaments  are  com- 
bined into  one  thread  of  the  aggregate  thickness  of 
the  several  fllaments. 

The  bobbins  of  thread  to  he  doubled  are  mounted 
on  a  small  frame,  and  the  ends,  being  collected,  are 
passed  through  a  loop  and  attached  to  a  bobiiin, 
upon  which  they  are  wound.  The  parallel  thri'ads 
are  then  transferred  to  a  horizontal  reel,  from  whenct? 
each  set  of  combined  threads  is  carried  through  the 
eye  of  a  rotating  flyer  and  wound  upon  a  bobbin, 
the  combined  threads  or  strands  being  twisted  into 
a  cord.     The  latter  operation  is  known  as  Ihrouiig. 

The  direction  of  the  twist  is  varied  for  difl'ereiit 
qualities  and  varieties  of  silk  goods. 

In  ordinary  spinning  of  the  silk  filaments  the 
tw  ist  is  to  the  right. 

For  tram ;  the  spinning  of  the  filaments  is  omitted ; 
when  doubled,  the  thread  is  twisted  to  the  right. 

For  organzine  the  filament  is  twisted  to  the  left, 
then  doubled  and  twisted  to  the  right. 

The  twisting  of  the  thread  is  set  or  made  perma- 
nent by  exjiosure  to  steam. 

6.  i'Xnulifal.)  a.  Of  the  bitts.  A  piece  of  fir 
timber  fitted  on  the  back  of  the  cross-piece.  Fir-lining. 

b.  Of  a  sail.  The  double-seamed  border  for  re- 
ceiving the  bolt-rope.     The  edging  or  skirt. 

7.  (Shipivrighting.)  Strakes  of  plank  fastened  on 
the  outer  skin  of  a  ship  ;  used  as  a  fender  against 
floating  ice. 

Doub'ling  and  Twiat'ing  Ma-chine'.   One  by 
which  a  numbei'  of  slivers  of  fiber  are  associated, 
drawn  out,  ami  partially  twisted  ;  or  one  in  which ' 
strands  are  laid  together  and  twisted  into  a  thread ' 
or  cord.      See  Dot'Bi.ixri  ;  Dr.AWiNO-FKAME.  ; 

Doub'ling-frame.  [.^illc-manufncture.)  A  wind- ' 
ing-engine  for  double  -silk  threads. 

Doub'ling-nail.  .\  nail  used  in  securing  sheath- 
ing,.liuing,  or  siipplementary  covering  to-an  object ;" 
such  as  the  lining  of  gun-ports,  etc. 


DOUCHE. 


732 


DOVETAIL. 


Douche.     (Surgical.)     An  instrument  for  inject- 
ing a  liciuid  into  a  cavity.     They  are  usually  known 


Douc/ies. 


by  the  name  of  the  part  to  which  they  are  ap- 
plicable. 

a  is  a  catheter  douche  for  drenching  the  urethra, 
or  reachinj;  the  interior  of  the  blailder. 

4  is  a  douche    for  the  vagina,   having  one  tubs 
for  tlie  water  injected,   and  another  for  the  efflux, 
c  is  a  uterine  douche,  with  a  cup  to  fit  the  cer- 
vix while  tlie  point  enters  the  uterus. 

(i  is  a  holder  to  be  used  with  the  vaginal  or  uterine 
douche. 

Other  douches  are   specially  constructed  for  the 
nose,  the  posterior  nares,  the  eye,  eai',  etc. 
Dough-kuead'er.    A  pair  of  rollers,  one  corru- 
gated   lengthwise 
Fig.  1722.  and      the      other 

transversely, 
workinginafranie 
with  two  inclined 
boards  anil  a  disk 
below  the  lower 
roller  propelled  by 
a  crank,  and  the 
rollers  geared  to- 
gether by  elastic 
cross-bands.  There 
are  other  forms, 
such  as  a  roller 
swiveled  to  a  post, 
like  the  brake  of  a  cracker-maker,  which  is  also  a 
dough-kneader. 

Dough-mix'er.  A  kneading-maehine  consisting 
of  a  vessel  having  two  pipes  entering  through  its 
head  and  a  discharge-pipe  at  the  bottom.  The  flour 
is  placed  in  the  vessel,  and  the  yeast  and  water. 

Fig.  1723. 


Dough-  Kneader. 


highly  charged  with  carbonic  acid  and  mi.\ed  with 
a  proper  quantity  of  salt,  are  jiasseil  into  the  vessel 
through  one  of  the  upiier  pijies,  and  the  whole  in- 
cor]iorate(l  by  the  revolution  of  a  vertical  shaft  with 
stirrers  ;  when  thoroughly  mi.xed,  the  contents  of 
the  vessel  are  discharged  through  the  pijjc  at  the 
bottom.     It  is  a  kind  of  pug-mill. 

In  another  form  of  machine,  the  rotating  annular 
trough  C  has  two  pairs  of  rotating  beaters  //^  //,  to 
which  are  attached  scrapers  b  lor  its  bottom,  while 
the  sides  are  cleared  by  stationary  scrapers  /,  and  on 
the  shafts  are  rods  having  screw-blades  J /,  reaching 
nearly  to  the  bottom,  to  raise  up  and  knead  the 
dough. 

Dough-rais'er.  A  pan  in  a  bath  of  heated  water, 
to  maintain  a  temperature  in  the  dough  favorable  to 
fermentation. 

Dough-trough.  A  baker's  or  household  recep- 
tacle,      in       which 

dough  is  left  to  fer-  Fig.  1724. 

ment.  In  Fig.  1724 
it  consists  of  a  wa- 
ter -  tight,  covered 
vessel  of  tin  or  other 
suitable  material, 
with  a  perforated 
shelf  across  the  cen- 
ter. The  recepta- 
cles containing  the  Dough-Trough. 
dough     are     placed 

upon  this  perforated  shelf,  and  then  covered  with  a 
cloth  to  prevent  the  condensation  of  moisture  upon 
the  surface  of  the  dough.  Warm  water  is  then  poured 
into  the  lower  p,nrt  of  the  vessel,  after  which  it  is 
closed  by  means  of  a  cover. 

i'ife.  1725  is  on  a  larger  scale,  for  the  use  of  bak- 
ers,   and   con- 
sists of  a  box  Fig'  1V25. 
made  with  ta- 
pering     side  J 
and    proviiled 
with  a  steam- 
pipe     extend- 
ing around  the 
sides    at     the 
bottom.       In- 
side of  the  bo-Y 
is    the    bread-                         Dough-Trough. 
chest,     which 

is  provided  with  feet,  so  as  to  elevate  its  bottom 
above  the  steam-pijie.  The  box  is  also  provided  with 
a  thermometer,  and  with  perforated  plates. 

Dous'ing-chock.  (Shipbnilditig.)  One  of  sev- 
eral pieces  fayed  across  the  ajiron  and  lappeil  on  the 
knighthead,  or  in.side  stuff  above  the  u]iper  deck. 

Dove'tail.  (Joinery.)  A  Daring  tenon  ailapted 
to  fit  into  a  mortise  with  receding  sides,  to  prevent 

Fig.  172(5. 


Dough-Mixer. 


Dovetails. 

withdrawal  in  the  direction  of  the  tension  it  will  be 
exposed  to  in  the  structure. 

The    ancient    Egyptians   used  dovetails  of  wood 


DOVETAIL. 


DOVETAILING-MACHINE, 


(jofigles)   to  connect  stones  at   the  comers  of  their 
edifices. 

a  .shows  the  ordinary  dovetail  with  the  parts  de- 
tached ;  b  tlie  parts  put  together. 

Concealed  dovetails  are  maile  in  two  wa3'S  ;  — 
c  d  show  the  lap-dovetail,  in  which  a  fin  of  wood 

rig.  172". 


and 


on  the  return  edge  hides  the  ends  of  the  tenons  and 
mortises. 

e  shows  a  miter-joint,  locked  by  obliriue  keys  of 
veneer.  The  ordinary  mitcr-dovctail  shows  only  a 
single  line  on  the  edge. 

The  series  of  illustrations  to  Fig.  1727  show  the 
several  modes  of  dovetailing  the  edges  of  boxes 
drawers. 

0  is  a  miter  and  key  joint. 

p,  the  common  dovetail-joint. 

g,  the  half-lap  dovetail. 

r,  the  sceref.  dovetail. 

«,  the  Zn/i-dovetail. 

t,  the  mitec-dovetail. 


1728. 


Dovetailing  of  ashlar-work  was  occasionally 
adopted  in  olden  times,  but  was  first  reduced  to  a 
regular  system  by  Snieaton  in  the  construction  of 
the  Eddystoue  lighthouses.  The  solid  lines  in  the 
illustration  show  the  24th  course  of  the  mason-work. 

Dove'tail-box  Plane.  [Joinery.)  A  form  of 
rabbet-plane  for  dressing  dovetails. 

Dove'tail-cut'ter.    A  rotary  cutter  with  a  flar- 
ing bit   used   for 
boiing  dovetails.  fig.  1729. 

Dove  tail- 
file.  A  thin  file 
with  a  tin  or  brass 
back,  like  the 
stiffener  of  a  dove- 
tail or  tenon 
saw. 

Dove'tail- 
hinge.  A  hinge 
whose    leaves  are  Doretail-CuUn. 

wider     at      their 
outer  edges  than  at  their  hinging  edges. 

A  hinge  whose  attaching  portions  are  branching 
and  divergent,  like  a  swallow's  tail. 

Dove'tail-mg-ma-chine'.  A  machine  having 
a  gang  of  chisels  or  saws  for  cutting  dovetail-mor- 
tises or  the  kerfs  therefor.  In  Fig.  1730,  the  hori- 
zontal base  .supports  a  block  B  whose  \ipper  sur- 
face consists  of  two  equally  but  oppositely  inclined 
planes  S  B",  whose  slope  corrcsj)onds  with  the 
chamfer  of  the  desired  dovetails.  0  Care  standai'ds 
guiding  to  a  vertical  path  a  gate  D,  in  which  is  fi.\ed 
a  series  of  chisels  whose  cutting-ends  are  at  such  an 
unequal  elevation  as  to  correspond  with  the  obliqui- 
ty of  the  planes  B'  B".  The.se  chisels  are  readily 
adjusted  to  any  hight  and  degree  of  separation,  and 
are  fixed  to  their  proper  positions  by  screw-bolts. 

Fig  1730. 


Dovelait  Masonry. 


Whitens  Mortising  Dovetail- Machine. 

The  gate  is  elevated  and  depressed  by  means  of  a 
lever  F,  and  is  gaged  or  arrested  in  its  descent  by  a 
stop  or  shoulder.  Stops  on  the  ])lanes  B'  II"  gage 
the  stuff.     7  is  a  gage  for  the  edge  of  the  stuff. 

The  board  containing  the  heading-pins  already 
sawed  is  placed  on  one  of  the  inclines  B'  B",  and  the 
chisels,  being  caused  to  descend,  operate  to  excavate 
on  one  side  the  intervening  stuff  between  the  pins. 
The  stuff  being  then  placed  on  the  other  incline, 
and  the  gate  again  depressed,  the  excavation  is  com- 
pleted by  the  cutting  away  of  the  opposite  sides. 


DOVETAILING-MACHINE. 


734 


DOVETAIL-SAW. 


For  excavating  the  mortises,  the  doubly  inclined 
block  B  is  removed,  and  another  gate  substituted  lor 
the  gate  I),  in  which  substitute  gate  the  chisels  are 
>iO  si'cured  as  to  have  their  lower  ends  in  a  horizon- 
tiil  line.  The  stuff  being  jjlaced  on  the  horizontal 
bed  anil  the  chisels  depresseil,  the  surplus  timber  is 
excavated  at  a  single  stroke. 

In  Fig.  1731  is  shown  a  machine  in  which  the 
work  is  done  by  a  gang  of  saws  on  a  mandrel. 
The  mortise-cutting  iiortion  is  the  right-hand  part 
of  the  lower  figure.     In  it  the  board  is  secured  on 

Fig.  1731. 


lower  figure,  and  is  also  shown  in  end  elevation  in 
the  upjier  figure.  The  board  is  secured  with  its  end 
projecting  over  the  edge  of  the  carriage,  to  which  it  is 
clamped  ;  the  angle  of  the  tenons  being  determined 
by  the  angle  of  the  bed,  as  seen  in  the  ujiper  figure. 
The  board  and  its  bed  are  then  raised  to  tlie  cutters, 
one  side  of  the  tenons  being  cut  at  a  time,  together 
with  a  portion  of  the  wood  between  Ihem,  wliich 
being  done,  the  opposite  sideof,  the  tenon  is  cut,  and 
the  remainder  of  the  wood  between  them,  by  chan- 
ging the  position  of  the  carriage. 

Armstrong's  dovetailing-machine  has  two  disks 
mounted  on  axes  inclined  to  each  other  as  well  as  to 
the  main  driving-shaft,  one  inclined  to  the  right 
and  the  other  to  the  left.  Each  disk  has  on  its 
outer  circumference  a  spiral  groove,  making  one  com- 
plete turn,  into  which  is  fitted  a  saw  composed  of 
segments,  so  arranged  as  in  one  com|ilete  revolution 
to  give  both  the  longitudinal  and  transverse  cut 
necessary  to  finish  a  dovetail,  one  half  being  made 
by  one  disk  and  the  other  half  by  the  other. 

Othei'  kinds  operate  by  means  of  cutters,  of  form 
corresponding  to  that  of  the  recesses  to  be  made. 
The  work  is  presented  and  fed  on  a  table  with  the 
required  adjustments. 

Do ve'taiil-j  oint  The  junction  of  two  pieces 
by  means  of  splayed  tenons  and  corresponding  mor- 
tises of  the  resjiective  parts.     See  Duvktail. 

Dove'tail-mark'er.  A  device  for  marking  the 
dovetail  tenons  or  morti.ses  on  the  respective  boards. 
The  two  plates  of  the  frame  are  set  at  right  angles 
to  each  other,  and  each  has  a  scribing  edge  adapted 
to  mark  its  siile  of  the  dovetail  ;  one  plate  is  adjust- 
able to  regulate  the  widths  and  distances,  the  ad- 
Fig.  1732. 


Dovf  tailing-Machine. 


the  carriage  S,  in  such  position  that  the  edge  of  said 
board  projects  under  the  saws  or  cutters  more  or  less, 
according  to  the  depth  that  the  dovetailing  is  to  be 
cut,  which  will  be  governed  by  the  thickness  of 
the  stuff.  The  board,  on  being  properly  adjusteil, 
is  then  brought  in  contact  with  the  saws  by  elevat- 
ing the  table,  thereby  carrying  the  board  u|)\vard  to 
tlic  saws  D  //,  cutting  the  sides  of  the  mortise,  and 
of  any  angle  that  may  be  required,  by  adjusting 
the  stays  in  which  the  cutters  are  hung  to  the 
i'e<iuired  angle. 

The  central  cutter  H,  as  will  be  seen,  cuts  into 
the  board  at  a  right  line  between  the  side  saws,  and 
as  it  leads  in  the  cutting,  the  central  portion  of  the 
mortise  is  cut  away  ;  the  side  saves,  as  they  follow, 
cut  away  the  remainder,  leaving  a  clean,  angular 
mortise  for  the  adnii.ssion  of  the  tenon. 

The  tenoning  portion  is  on  the  other  side  of  the 


Dovetail-Marker. 


justable  gage-plate  affording  a  guide  in  setting 
the  tnarkcr  for  the  next  scribe. 

Dove'tail-plane.  {Joinery.)  A  side-rabbet 
plane  with  a  very  narrow  sole,  wliich  may  be 
made  by  inclination  to  dress  the  sides  of  dovetail 
tenons  or  mortises. 

Tlie  .side-rabbet  plane  may  ha%'e  an  under-cutting 
bit  with  a  flat  lower  edge,  so  as  to  conform  to  the 
shape  of  the  mortise. 

Dove'tail-sa^nr.  1.  One  for  cutting  the  dove- 
tail-tenon on  the  ends  of  boards  ;  or  cutting  the 
dovetail-mortises  in  the  faces  or  ends  of  boards  to 
receive  the  said  tenons.  There  are  several  varieties. 
One  consists  of  a  pair  of  circular  saws  running  in 
planes,  bearing  such  angular  relation  to  each  other  as 
to  give  the  required  obliquity  to  the  kerfs.  In  dove- 
tniling-niachines  rotary  cutters  work  to  a  given 
line,  and  also  remove  the  material  between  the  cheeks 
of  opiio.'.itH  dovetail-tenons.  Gangs  of  circular  .saws 
on  a  mandrel  .are  constructed  and  arranged  to  do  the 
same.     (Sec  F  g.  1731.) 

2.  -\  tm.iU  tenon-saw  adapted  for  cutting  dove- 


DOVETAIL-WIRE. 


735 


DEAET-BOX. 


tails.      It  has  15  teeth  to  the  iuch,  and  is  usually 
about  9  iuches  in  length. 

3.  A  saw  having  two  cutting  edges,  one  at  right 

Fig.  1733. 


DoeeUzU-SaiB 

angles  to  the  other  ;  one  edge  makes  the  side  kerf, 
the  other  the  bottom  kerf. 

Dove'tail-wire.    A  kind  of  wire,  wedge-shaped 
in  cro<s-seotion. 

Dow.    A  two-masted  Arabian  vessel,    bee  UHOW. 

Dowel.  1.  A  pin  used  to  connect  adjacent  pieces, 

penetrating  a  part  of  its  length  into  each  piece  at 

richt  angles  to  the  plane  of  junction.     It  may  be 

°  permanent  and  glued  into  each 

Kg.  1731.  piece,  as  in  the  boards  forming 

the  leaf  of  a  table.     Or  it  may 

!  serve  as  a  joint  to  hold  detach- 


6 


—I  able  pieces   in    position,    as  the 


Dowel. 


parts  of  a  flxsk. 

The  slabs  of  calcareous  gypsum 
or  "Mosul  marble"  which  line 
the  adobe  palaces  of  Nimroud  were  united  by  wood- 
en and  bronze  dj(0'l-pins.  The  several  blocks  in  each 
layer  of  masonry  in  Smeaton's  Eddy  stone  lighthouse 
were  crampzd  together,  and  the  layei-s  were  prevent- 
ed from  slipping  on  each  other  by  oaken  dowels. 

2.  A  piece  of  wood  driven  into  a  wall,  as  a  means 
of  nu!in=;  lining  or  finishing  work  thereto.    A  dook. 

Dow'el-bit:.  A  wood  borin»-tool  adapted  to  be 
usid  in  a  braes.  The  semi-cylinder  which  consti- 
tutes the  barrel  of  tha  bit  terminates  in  a  conoidal 
cuttin;-ed<;i>.  It  isalso  called  a  sp!)Jft-6i<.  See  Bit. 
Dow'ei^ins-mi-ohine'.  (Ooopcrinq.)  A  ma- 
chine for  bjring  th.-.  do.vel-holes  in  the  meeting  edges 
of  th-  pieces  whi=h  form  the  hea'ls  of  tight  casks. 

Dow'el-joiat  X  junction  formed  by  means  of 
a  dovel  pin  or  pins,  su;;h  as  the  heading  pieces  of  a 
tight  barrel-h'ad. 

Dow'el-pin.  A  pin  or  peg  uniting  two  portions, 
as  the  pieces  of  heading  for  a  cask.     A  dowel. 

Dowlas.  (Fabric.)  Probablv  named  from  Doul- 
lens,  a  town  of  Picardy  in  France.  A  coai-se  linen 
cloth  for  household  uses. 

"  Filtliv  dowlas,"  sivs  the  Bird  of  Avon. 
Down-cast     {.Uiding.)     The   ventilatmg-shaft 
of  a  mine,  down  which  air  pxsses  to  the  workings ; 
as  opposed  to  the  up-cist. 

Down-haul,  (ymtica^)  A  royie  for  hauling; 
down  a  staysiil,  jib,  or  other  fore-and-aft  sail.  With 
staysails  it  passes  along  the  stay  through  the  crin- 
gle; of  the  svil,  and  is  atta:hei  to  the  upper  corner. 
Down-share.  A  turf-paring  plow,  used  in  Eng- 
land, where  the  rolling  treeless  tracts  are  called 
rftiwnt.  These  tracts  in  Sussex  are  the  homes  of  the 
SouthdDwn  sheep.  (.\.  S.  Dun,  dune,  a  hill.>  The 
sand-banks  which  lie  upon  the  sea-shores  of  Holland 
are  called  dutu:s ;  hence  Dnnchurch  in  England, 
Dunkirk  in  the  Low  Countries.  Hence  also  tlie 
Downs,  the  famous  anchorage  off  the  coast  of  Kent, 
England,  where  the  Goodwin  Sands  form  a  break- 
water :  — 

"  For  whilst  our  pinnace  anchors  in  the  Dowries." 

2  Ils-XRT  VT.,1T.  1. 


Dows'ing-chock.     See  DoTsi\r,-cHorK. 

Down'ward-dis'charge  Wa'ter-wheel.  One 
form  of  the  turbine  or  reaction  water-wheel.  The 
water  is  admitted  at  the  periphery,  from  a  spiral  chute 


Doxmreard-Dischar^t  Wattr-Wkeel. 


which  surrounds  the  wheel,  and,  passing  inward  in 
a  radial  direction,  cunes  and  descends  vertically. 

Diab.  1.  (Fabric.)  A  thick  woolen  cloth  of  a 
dun  color,  inclining  to  reddish-brown. 

2.  A  wooden  box  used  in  salt-works  for  holding 
the  .salt  taken  from  the  boiling-pans. 

Drab'bets.     {Fabric.)     A  coarse  linen  duck. 
Drab'ler.     (Xautiad.)     A  piece  of  canvas  laced 
on  the  bonnet  of  a  sail,  being  an  extension  of  the 
bonnet,  as  the  latter  is  of  the  sail  proper. 

Dradge.  The  inferior  portions  ol  ore  detached 
from  other  portions  by  the  cobbing-hanimeT.  The 
better  parts  are  known  zs  prill. 

Draft.  1.  The  current  of  air  which  supplies  a  hre 
When  this  is  not  mechanically  aided,  it  is  called 
a  natural  draft.     When  driven  mechanically,  it  be- 
comes a /orccrf  draft  or  6/as<.    See  Bellows;  Blast; 
Blowing-m.^chine  ;  Fax,  etc. 

It  is  also  known  as  cold  or  hot  blast,  according  to 
the  temperature  ;  that  of  the  external  atmosphere, 
cr  artihciallv  heated.  . 

2.  (Steam-boiler.)  The  course  or  direction  of  the 
hot  air  and  smoke  ;  as,  — 

A  direct,  a  reicrtivij,  a  split,  or  a  uheel  draft. 

3.  A  plan  or  delineation. 

4.  The  drawing  or  pulling  of  a  load  or  vehicle. 
In  this  connection  the  word  forms  a  part  of  many 
compound  words ;  as,  — 

Di-aft-bar.  Draft-rod. 

Draft-hole.  Draft-spring,  etc. 

See  also  Dr.\w  ;  Dkag. 

6  (Masonnj.)  Chisel-dressing  at  thejuigles  ot 
stones,   serving  as  a  guide  for  the   levehng  of  the 

surfaces.  ,    r  x 

6  (Paltern-mak-ing.)  The  amount  of  taper  gi\en 
to  a  1  attem  to  enable  it  to  be  withdrawn  from  the 
mold,  without  disturbing  the  loam. 

7  The  depth  a  ship  sinks  in  the  water. 

8  The  combined  sectional  area  of  the  openings  in 
a  turbine  water-wheel  ;  or  the  area  of  opening  of 
the  sluice-gate  of  a  fore-bay.  „  ,,      .    jji 

9.  ( Jl-cavinq.)  The  arrangement  of  the  heddles 
™  as  to  move  the  warp  for  the  fom.ation  of  the  kiiirt 
of  ornamental  Hgure  to  be  exhibited  by  the  fabnc. 
Knownalso  asdrau-ing,  reedmq-in,  rordingo/lheloom. 

In  everv  species  of  weaving,  whether  direct  or 
cross  the  "whole  difference  of  pattern  or  effect  is  pro- 
duced either  by  the  succession  in  which  the  threads 
f  waVare  introduced  into  the  luddlcs,  or  by  he 
sucTesTion  in  which  those  heddles  are  moved  m  the 
working  The  heddles  being  stretched  between  two 
shafts  of  wood,  all  the  hcdd'es  connecte.l  by  the 
same  shafts  are  calle.l  a  leaf;  and  as  the  operation 
TfTntroduciug  the  warp  into  any  number  of  eaves 
I  "I  cTf  dra'cing  a  narp,  the  plan  of  succession  is 

i  """Draft-bax'     1    A  swingle-tree,  double  or  single. 
2.  The  bar  of  a  railway-car  with  which  the  coup- 
ling is  imm-diately  connected.  . 
1      Draft-box.     Invented  by  Parker.     An  air- tight 


DRAFT-ENGINE. 


736 


DRAG. 


tube  by  which  the  water  from  an  elevated  wheel  is 
condueteii  to  the  tail-race.  It  is  a  means  of  availing 
the  whole  fall  without  placing  the  wheel  at  the  bot- 
tom of  the  same. 

It  is  sometimes  used  to  avoid  extreme  length  of 
wheel-shaft  ;  at  o'her  times  to  conform  the  arrange- 
mi'Uts  to  till'  |ieculiar  location,  rendering  it  necessary 
to  ]ihice  the  vvhnd  at  a  distance  above  tail-water. 

Draft-eu'gine.  (Minai;/.)  An  engine  (usually 
steam)  for  elevating  ore,  coid,  miners,  etc.,  or  for 
liuiiijiin'j  out  water. 

Draft-e'qual-iz'er.  A  treble  tree  ;  a  moile  of 
arranging  tlie  wliitHetrees  when  tliree  hor.ses  are 
pulling  ahriMst,  so  that  all  possess  an  eijual  leverage. 

Draft-fur'nace.  A  reverberatory  air-furnace  ; 
one  in  uliii-li  a  bhist  is  emiiloyed. 

Draft-hole.  The  hole  whereby  a  furnace  is  sup- 
plied with  air. 

Draft-hook.  One  of  the  hooks  on  the  checks  of 
a  giiii-carriage  to  maneuver  it,  or  attach  additional 
dral't-geav  in  stee]i  jilaces. 

Drafting  lu'stru-meuts  and  Ap-pli'anoes. 


Areograph. 

Bow-pen. 

Bow-pencil. 

Camera  (Ubscura  and  Lu- 

cida). 
Ceeograph. 
Centrolinead. 
Chiragon. 
Compasses  (varieties,  see 

CoMP.^ss). 
Copying-instrument). 
Crayon. 
Curve. 
Curvilinear. 
Curvograph. 
Cyclograph. 
Diagonal  scale. 
Dividers. 
Dotting-pen. 
Double  drawing-pen. 
Doulile-jointed  compass. 
Drafting-board. 
Drafting-scale. 
Drawing-compass. 
Drawing-pen. 
Drawing-pin. 
Eidograph. 
Elevation. 
Ellipsograph. 
Everpoint-pencil. 
Fountain-pen. 
Fronde's  compass. 
Geometric  pen. 
Gold  pen. 
Hair-pencil. 
Helicograph. 
]id<-well. 

Isometrical  projection. 
Lead-pencil. 
Leg. 

Lengthening-pen. 
Manifold-writer. 
Map-measurer. 
Micrograph. 
Mu.sic-pen. 

Music  writing-machine. 
Napier's  compass. 
Needle-holder. 
Optigiaph. 
r.dette. 
Pantograph. 


Parallel  ruler. 

Pastel. 

Pen. 

Pencil. 

Pencil-case. 

Pencil-sharpener. 

Pen-holder. 

Pen-knife. 

Pen-maker. 

Pen -rack. 

Perspective  instrument. 

Perspectograph. 

Pillar-compass. 

Plan. 

Planimeter. 

Plotting-scale. 

Polygra]ih. 

Port-crayon. 

Prollle. 

Proportional  compasses. 

Protracting-bevel. 

Protractor. 

Quill-pen. 

Reticulation. 

Right-line  pen. 

Roulette. 

Rule. 

Ruler. 

Ruling-pen. 

Scale.     Drafting 

Sciograph. 

Scorer. 

Scotograph. 

Section. 

Sector. 

Silhouette  instrument. 

Slate. 

Slate-pencil. 

Sliding-rnle. 

Spirals.     Instrument  for 

drawing 
Si[uare. 

Station -pointer. 
Steel-pen. 
Straight-edge. 
Tablet. 

Tangent-scale. 
Tracing-instrument. 
Trammel. 
Triangle. 
Triangular  compass. 


T-square. 

Tube-compass. 

Universal-compass. 


Vertical  plan. 
Whole-and-half  compass. 


Draft'ing-scale.  A  straight  edge  graduated 
with  scales  of  chains  and  tenths,  or  imthes  and 
twelfths,  for  ]ilatting  surveys,  or  drafting  plans  or 
elevations  of  machinery  or  other  .structures. 

Draft-reg'u-la'tor.  A  means  for  opening  and 
closing  furnace-doors,  or  dampers  in  the  air,  draft, 
or  discharge  Hue,  so  as  to  urge  the  fire  or  moileiate 
its  intensity  respectively,  as  it  may  Lag  below  or 
<|uicken  above  the  desired  standard. 

Automatic  devices  for  this  purpo.se  are  actuated 
by  arrangements  known  as  t/iermus/nls.  These 
usually  depend  upon  the  expansion  of  metal  by  hiMt 
and  itsconserjuent contraction  asiteools.  Thelength- 
ening  or  shortening  of  a  metallic  rod  is  the  actuating 
force  which  is  communicated  by  levei-s  or  other 
mechanism  to  the  door,  register,  or  damper.  As  a 
certain  relation  exists — under  ordinary  conditions 
—  between  the  heat  of  steam  and  its  pressure,  the 
heat  or  pressure  of  steam  acting  on  a  colunm  of  mer- 
cury may  be  made  by  electric  connection  to  actuate 
a  magnet,  and  so  operate  the  device  which  governs 
access  of  air  to  tlie  furnace,  or  determines  the  area 
of  the  tlue  by  which  the  volatile  results  of  combus- 
tion are  discharged.     See  D.\.\iPi;i'.. 

Draft-rod.  (Plow.)  A  rod  extending  beneath 
the  beam  from  the  clcois  to  the  shdh  and  taking  the 
strain  otf  the  beam. 

Draft-spring.  A  spring  intervening  between 
the  tug  or  trace  of  a  draft  animal  and  the  load, 
whereby  a  jerking  strain  u])on  the  animal  is  avoided. 
It  was  invented  and  used  by  Sir  Alexander  (Jordon. 
Draft-springs  are  connected  to  the  tiraw-liais  of  rail- 
way cars,  to  lessen  the  violence  of  the  jerk  in  starting. 

13rag.  1.  {Husbandry.)  A  heavy  description  of 
harrow. 

2.  {X'aulical.)  A  floating  anchor,  usually  a  frame 
of  spars  and  sails,  to  keep  a  ship's  head  to  tlie  wind 
and  lessen  the  .speed  of  drifting.   See  Diiag-anchor. 

3.  {Vchieh.)  a.  A  shoe  to  receive  the  wheel  of 
a  vehicle  to  stop  its  revolution,  and  by  liiction  on 
the  ground  lessen  the  speed  of  the  vehicle  down 
hill.     See  Wagon-lock. 

b.  A  rough,  heavy  sled  for  hauling  stones  off  a 
field,  or  to  a  foundation.     A  stone-bout. 

c.  A  kind  of  four-horse  vclucle  used  by  sporting 
characters. 

4.  {Afoliimg.)  A,  the  bottom  part  of  a  mold,  as 
distinguished  from  the  cope. 

Fig  1736. 


rt,  object  cast. 

b,  loam. 

c,  cope. 


d,  drag. 

e,  parting 


5.   {Hydraulic  Engineering.)    B,  a  scoop  having 
a  long  flexible  handle  and  operated  by  a  winch,  for 


DRAG-ANCHOR. 


737 


DRAG-SHEET. 


deepening  a  channel,   scraping  a   place  for  a  sub-  | 
nu'rj,a'd  foundation,  or  removing  the  nuul,  etc.,  from 
the  inside  of  a  coll'er-dain.     A  form  of  dredging-ma- 
chine. 

6.  {Smi'in.g.)  The  carriage  on  which  a  log  is 
dogged  in  a  veneer  saw-mill.  The  drag  has  two 
motions,  one  past  the  saw  to  yield  a  veneer,  and  the 
otlier  at  right  angles  to  the  same  and  equ.il  to  the 
thickness  of  the  veneer,  plus  the  width  of  the  kerf. 
See  Vf..\eer-.s.\w. 

7.  A  net  or  four-clawed  grapnel  used  in  drogghig 
a  pond  or  liarbor  to  recover  the  body  of  a  drowned 
person,  or  property  which  has  been  lost  overboard. 
A  crcqicr. 

8.  (Masonry.)  A  thin,  indented  plate  for  scraping 
and  finishing  the  surface  of  soft  stone. 

9.  (Marine  Engineering.)  The  difference  between 
the  speed  of  a  screw-ship  under  sail,  and  tliat  of  the 
screw  when  the  ship  outruns  tlie  latter.     See  Slip. 

The  difference  between  the  propulsive  effects  of 
the  different  floats  of  a  paddle-wheel. 

10.  A  frame  of  iron  with  an  attached  net  to  scrape 
up  and  gather  oysters  by  dragging  upon  the  bed. 
See  Dkedoe. 

11.  (Husbandry.)     Au   implement  with  liooking 


1737. 


over,  so  as  to   diminish   its  resistance   when  being 
drawn  in. 

In  the  lower  view  the  ribs  of  the  wings  are  hinged 
to  a  hub  on  the  shaft,  so  that  they  may  expand  when 


Manure-Drag. 

tines  to  haul  manure  along  the  surface.     A  manure- 
drag. 

Drag-an'chor.  (N'aidical.)  A  frame  of  wood, 
or  of  spars  clothed  with  sails,  attached  to  a  hawser, 
and  thrown  overboard  to  drag  in  the  water  and  di- 
minish the  lee-way  of  a  vessel  wlien  drifting,  or  to 
keep  the  head  of  a  ship  to  the  wind  when  im- 
manageable  by  loss  of  sails  or  rudder.  It  was  pa- 
tented under  the  name  of  a  drag-sheet,  by  Burnet 
(English)  1826.  It  is  sometimes  made,  in  an  emer- 
gency, of  spars  lashed  together  to  form  a  triangular 
or  rectangular  frame,  which  is  then  covered  with  a 
sail.  When  constructed  and  carried  as  a  part  of  the 
ship's  e(pupment,  it  is  made  to  serve  as  a  raft  or 
drag  as  may  be  required  ;  but  the  peculiarities  are 
generally  confined  to  means  for  compact  stowage  and 
to  spilling-lines  for  their  recovery,  either  by  collapse 
or  reversal  of  position  to  enable  them  to  be  readily 
drawn  in  and  hauled  on  board  after  having  served 
their  purpose.  Treatises  on  navigation  give  illustra- 
tions of  a  variety  of  devices  for  this  purpose,  and  a 
number  are  patented.  One  edge  of  the  drag  may  be 
weighted,  as  it  is  essential  that  it  be  submerged,  and 
that  it  should  assume  a  position  at  right  angles  to 
the  taut  cable  which  connects  it  to  the  ship. 

In  the  upper  view  (Fig.  1738),  the  drag  is  a  wooden 
frame  whose  corners  are  secured  by  bridles  or  angle- 
lines  to  a  cable  which  is  made  fast  to  the  bitts  on 
toard.  A  buoy  is  attached  to  the  upper  edge  of  the 
drag,  and  a  spilling-line  enables  the  drag  to  be  canted 
47 


Drag-Anchors. 

brought  into  use  and  may  contract  when  the  drag 
is  upset  by  the  .<!pilling-Iine  while  it  is  being  di-awn 
in.  A  Ijuoy  is  used,  as  in  the  drag  describeil  a1)o\e, 
to  show  the  position,  and  to  keep  the  drag  in  its  ef- 
fective po.sition.  Braces  connect  the  ribs  to  a  slid- 
ing collar  on  the  shaft,  and  the  frame  is  covered  like 
an  umbrella  with  heavy  sail-cloth  lashed  to  the  ribs. 

Drag-bar.  (Eailway-eiigineering.)  A  strong 
iron  rod  with  eye-holes  at  each  end,  connecting  a 
locomotive-engine  and  tender  by  means  of  the  drag- 
liolt  and  siiriiig. 

Drag-bench.  A  bench  on  which  fillets  of  gold 
or  silver  are  drawn  through  an  aperture,  to  bring 
them  to  even  and  exact  proportions.     See  DitAW- 

BENCH. 

Drag-bolt.  The  strong  removable  bolt  coupling 
the  drag-bar  of  a  locomotive-engine  and  tender  to- 
gether. 

Drag-hook.  The  drag-hook  and  chain  are  the 
strong  chain  and  hook  attached  to  the  front  of  the 
engine  bufler-bar,  to  connect  it  with  any  otlier  loco- 
motive-engine or  tender  ;  also  attached  to  the  drag- 
liars  of  other  railroad  carriages  on  the  English  .sj'stem 
of  connection. 

Drag-link.  A  link  for  connecting  the  cranks  of 
two  shafts  ;  it  is  used  in  marine  engines  for  conntct- 
ing  the  crank  on  the  main-shaft  to  that  on  the  inner 
paddle-shaft. 

Drag'on-beam.  (Cornipted  from  diiigonal\vKm.) 
(Building.)  a.  A  horizontal  timber  or  diagonal 
plate  used  in  hipped  roofs  and  on  which  the  foot 
of  the  hip-rafter  rests.     Dragging-beam. 

b.  A  diagonal  brace  which  stands  under  a  breast- 
snmmer  and  whose  foot  rests  on  a  shoulder  of  the 
king-post. 

Drag-saw.  A  cross-cut  sawing-macliine  in 
which  the  effective  stroke  is  on  the  pull  motion,  not 
the  thrust.  In  the  illustration  it  is  shown  as  ope- 
rated by  horse-power.  The  log  is  clamped  by  levers. 
The  saw  is  held  aloft  by  a  stirrup  while  the  log  is 
fed  forward  for  anotlier  cut. 

Drag-sheet.  [Xautimi.)  A  sail  stretched  by 
spars  and  thrown  over  to  windward  to  drag  iu  the 


DRAG-SPRING. 


738 


DRAINING-AITGER. 


Fig.  1739. 


Drag- Saw. 


water  anrl  lessen  the  lee-way  of  a  drifting  vessel. 
See  Dkac-ani  Hull. 

Drag-spring.  {Railroad. )  a.  A  spring  attached 
to  the  dniy-bar  to  lessen  the  jerk  when  starting  up 
or  increasing  speed. 

b.  A  strong  spring  placed  near  the  hack  of  the 
tender.  It  is  attached  by  tlie  ends  to  the  drag-liar 
which  connects  the  engine  and  tender,  and  by  the 
center  to  the  drag-bar  which  connects  tlie  train  to 
the  tender,  according  to  the  English  mode. 

Drag-staff.  (Vchiolc.)  A  pole  ]iivoted  to  the 
hind  axle  and  trailing  behind  a  wagon  or  cart  in 
ascendini;  a  hill  or  slope.  Used  to  hold  the  vcliicle 
from  rolling  backward  when  temporarily  stopping 
on  a  hill  to  rest  the  team. 

Drain.  1.  A  water-course  to  remove  surface 
water,  or  so  much  from  the  subsoil  as  interferes  with 
the  fertility  of  that  above  it. 

Covered  drains  are  made  in  a  variety  of  ways  :  — 

a.  A  layer  of  stones  in  the  bed,  covered  by  the 
earth  which  had  been  removed  in  digging. 

I.  Where  flat  stone  is  obtainable,  two  side  stones 
and  a  cap,  covered  in  with  the  soil. 


Fig.  1740. 


"T:- 


1/      V    • //i        S, "/"//'"     '///'■      '"    ''"' 


,\ 


t'"        W''^ 


Drains. 


c.  A  duct  formed  with  a  flat  tile 
;  and   an   arched    semicj'lindrical    tile, 

covered  in  with  stones,  to  allow  perco- 
lation of  water,  and  closed  with  soil. 

d.  In  tenacious  soils  a  shoulder  niay 
be  made  in  the  drain  to  support  flat 

stones  which  hear  the  superincumbent  earth. 

c.  Assorted,  large  stones  in  the  bottom,  covered 
in  by  smaller  stones  and  a  filling  of  soil. 

/.  In  peaty  soils  the  drain  maj'  be  covered  in 
with  blocks  of  the  peat  or  by  turfs  which  will  pre- 
serve their  position  for  a  considerable  time  if  laid 
properly. 

g.  A  bed  stone  and  side  stones  to  fomi  a  trian- 
gular duct  covered  in  by  stones,  a  layer  of  turf,  and 
the  filling  of  soil. 

A.  A  duct  formed  of  two  semicylindrical  tiles, 
respectively  above  and  below  a  flat  tile  ;  the  whole 
covered  in  by  stones  and  the  earth  as  before. 

i.  A  perforated  di'ain-pipe  of  cii'cular  or  oval  sec- 


tion  covered    in    by 
stones  and  earth. 

In  the  fen  laTids  of 
Cambridgeshire, 
England,  and  other 
lands  of  the  same  de- 
scription in  adjoin- 
ing counties,  the 
main  drains  have 
generally  been  made 
7i  feet  deep,  or  more 
in  larger  districts,  so  that  the  water  may  never  rise 
higher  than  within  18  inches  or  2  feet  of  the  sur- 
face of  the  ground.  Tlie  ladles  or  float-boards  of 
the  scoop-wheel  dip  5  feet  below  the  surface  of  the 
water,  leaving  a  foot  in  depth  below  the  dip  of  the 
wheel,  that  the  water  may  run  freely  to  it.  The 
main  drain  brings  down  the  water  to  the  engine 
with  a  descent  of  3  inches  in  a  mile ;  5  to  IS  inches 
is  better.  Supposing  that  the  wheel  dips  5  feet 
below  the  surface  of  the  water  in  the  main  drain, 
and  that  the  water  in  the  river  into  which  this 
water  must  be  raised  and  discharged  has  its  level  5 
feet  above  that  in  the  drain,  the  wheel  in  such  case 
will  be  said  to  have  10  feet  head  and  dip,  and  ought 
to  be  made  30  feet  in  diameter. 

The  largest  quantity  of  water  delivered  by  one 
engine  is  frOra  Deeping  Fen,  near  S|ialding  ;  this 
fen  contains  25,000  acres,  and  is  drained  by  two  en- 
gines, one  of  SO  and  one  of  60  horse  power.  The 
Su-horse  engine  has  a  wheel  of  28  feet  in  diameter, 
with  float-boards  or  ladles  measuring  SA  feet  hy  5 
feet,  and  moving  with  a  mean  vclocitj'  of  ti  feet  per 
second  ;  so  that  the  section  of  the  stnam  is  27J 
feet,  and  the  quantity  discharged  per  second  165 
cubic  feet, —  equal  to  more  than  ih  tons  of  water 
in  a  second,  or  about  16,200  tons  of  water  in  an 
hour. 

It  was  in  1825  that  these  two  engines  were  erected, 
and  at  that  time  the  district  was  kept  in  a  half-cul- 
tivated state  by  the  help  of  forty-four  w  indmills, 
tlie  land  at  times  being  wholly  under  water.  It 
now  gi'ows  excellent  wheat,  producing  from  32  to 
48  bushels  to  the  acre.  The  land  has  increased  in 
value  fourfold.     See  Scoop-wheel. 

2.  (Foitndi/iff.)  The  trench  which  conducts  the 
molten  metal  to  the  gate  of  the  mold. 

Drain'ing-au'ger.  A  horizontal  auger  occasion- 
ally used  for  boring  thi'ongh  a  bank  to  form  a  chan- 

Fig.  1741. 


Horizontal  Auger. 

nel  for  water.  It  is  also  used  for  cutting  an  opening 
for  laying  lead-pipe  or  drain-pipe.  In  each  case  it 
is  intended  to  save  the  labor  of  opening  a  trench. 
It  is  also  used  for  draining  marl-pits  or  cellars,  when 
the  circumstances  of  the  level  suit.' 

The  mode  of  operation  is  as  follows  :  the  level 
having  been  determined,  a  spot  is  leveled  on  the 
down-hill  side  for  placing  the  machine.  Tlie  hori- 
zontal a.\is  above  is  turned  by  two  men  at  the  hand- 


DRAIXIJTG-ENGINE. 


DEAINING-ENCINE. 


cranks,  rotating  the  rertical  shaft  and  bevel  pinion 
which  turns  the  larger  wheel  on  the  shaft  of  the 
auger. 

When  the  pod  of  the  auger  is  full,  it  is  withdrawn 
hy  rotating  the  other  liandle.  If  hard  stones  be  en- 
countered, the  auger  is  withdrawn  aud  a  chisel  or 
drill  substituted. 

Drain'ing-en'gine.  A  pumping-engine  for  re- 
moving water  from  mines,  lowlands,  etc.  See 
CuRXisH  Excise. 

The  scoop- wheel  and  the  baling-scoop  are  much 
)ised  in  England.  Tlie  centrifugal  pump  is  used  in 
England  and  the  United  States.  The  puniping-en- 
gines  used  in  Holland  at  the  Haarlem  Here  are  ver- 
tical double-cylinder  condensiug-eugines,  one  cj'lin- 
der  mtliin  the  other,  the  outer  oue  lieing  annular. 

All  other  drainage  enterprises  sink  into  insignifi- 
cance beside  those  of  Holland. 

These  great  public  works,  since  their  commence- 
ment in  1440,  liave  gradually  extended  until  they 
include  an  area  of  '223,06'2  acres  drained  by  mechan- 
ical means.  See  Weale's  ' '  Dictionary  of  Terms  of 
Art,"  pp.  277-2S3. 

One  of  the  latest,  aud  the  largest,  of  these  enter- 
prises, was  the  drainage  of  the  Haarlem  Lake, 
45,230  acres,  which  was  finished  a  few  }-ears  since. 

The  average  level  of  the  boezem,  or  catch-water 
ba.sin,  of  the  district  is  10  inches  below  the  ordinary 
low-water,  and  27  inches  below  higli-water  mark  in 
the  Y  or  Zuyder  Z  -e  ;  and  7  inches  above  low  water, 
and  37  inches  below  ordinary  high  water,  in  the 
North  Sea. 

The  bed  of  the  Haarlem  Lake  is  14  feet  below  the 
^viuter  level  of  the  boezem,  and  the  ma.xiiuum  lift 
may  be  therefore  assumed  to  be  27  inches  4- 14  feet-h 

15  inches,  —  the  last  being  the  required  depth  of 
th?  water  surface  below  the  ground  surface,  to  ren- 
der the  latter  tillable,  —  amounting  in  all  to  1 7 
feet  9  indies. 

The  water  contents  of  the  Haarlem  Mere  to 
be  pumped  out,  including  the  additional  quantity 
arising  from  the  surplus  rain  and  infiltration  during 
the  draining,  was  estimated  at  800,000,000  tons. 

The  greatest  quantity  of  monthly  drainage  when 
the  mere  is  pumped  out  is  e.stimateil  at  36,000,000 
tons,  and  the  annual  average  surplus  of  rain-water, 
etc.,  at  54,000,000  tons,  to  be  liftcil,  on  an  average, 

16  feet. 

The  three  engines  were  named  the  "  Leegliwater," 
erected  about  1847,  the  "  Cruquius,"  and  the 
"  Lynden,"  after  three  celebrated  men  who  had  at 
different  periods  proposed  plans  for  draining  the 
Haarlem  Mere. 

The  "  Leegliwater  "  was  the  first  erected,  to  work 
eleven  pumps  of  63  inches  diameter,  with  10  feet 
stroke  in  pumyjs  aud  steam-cylinders  ;  and  the 
" Cruquius "  and  "Lynden"  were  afterwards  con- 
structed, to  work  eight  pumps  each,  of  73  inches 
diameter  and  with  10  feet  stroke  ;  each  engine  is 
calculated  to  lift  66  tons  of  water  per  stroke. 

In  testing  the  capacity  of  the  engine  for  working 
in  emergencies,  using  the  eleven  pumps  simultane- 
ously without  regard  to  the  consumption  of  fuel,  tlie 
engine  was  found  to  lift  per  stroke  109  tons  net 
of  water  to  a  higlit  of  10  feet.  At  an  economi- 
cal working-rate  the  engine  performed  a  dufij  of 
75.000,000  pounds,  raised  one  foot  high  by  a  con- 
sumption of  94  pounds  of  Welch  coal.  The  net 
effective  force  was  350-horse  power,  the  consumptiou 
of  fuel  2^  pounds  of  coal  per  horse-power  per  lioiir. 

The  accompanying  sketch  is  a  representation  of 
the  interior  of  the  "  Lynden  "  engine  and  engine- 
house,  on  the  upper  floor  ;  the  "Cruipiius"  is  on 
the  same  model;  but  the  "  Leeghwater  "  has  the 


inner  ends  of  its  eleven  pump-beams  arranged  under 
the  great  cross-head,  instead  of  over  it. 

Each  engine  has  two  steani-cylinilcrs,  placed  con- 
centrically, tlie  one  within  the  other,  the  outer  of 
12  feet  diameter,  and  the  inner  one  of  7  feet  diam- 
eter ;  both  are  secured  to  one  bottom,  and  covered 
by  one  cover,  but  the  inner  cylinder  does  not  touch 
the  cover  within  IJ  inch  ;  there  arc  two  pistons,  28 
inches  deep,  the  compartments  of  which  are  fitted 
with  cast-iron  plates  ;  the  outer  piston  is  annuhu', 
and  has  a  packing  on  both  sides  ;  beneath  this  an- 
nular piston  a  con.stant  vacuum  is  maintained  when 
working ;  the  two  pistons  are  connected  by  live 
piston-rods,  as  shown  in  the  sketch,  to  a  great  cro.^s- 
liead  or  cap,  the  whole  mass  weighing  about  S5 
tons,  and  by  eight  connecting-rods  the  cap-yiistoiis 

Fig.  1742. 


The  "  Lyndni  "  Engine,  Haarlem  Jlffre,  Sotitk  Holland. 

are  suspended  from  the  inner  ends  of  eight  cast-iron 
balance-beams,  to  the  outer  ends  of  which  are  hung 
the  eight  pump-pistons. 

The  action  of  the  engines  is  very  simple  ;  the 
steam,  being  applied  under  the  inner  piston,  lifts 
both  the  pistons,  the  gi'eat  cross-head,  and  inner 
ends  of  pump  balance-beams  simultaneously,  and 
the  pump-pistons  descend  at  the  same  time  ;  by  an 
hydraulic  apparatus  attached  to  the  great  cross- 
head,  the  dead  weight  of  the  pistons,  etc.,  is  ar- 
rested at  the  point  to  which  it  lias  been  thrown  up 
liy  the  steanr,  and  time  is  given  for  the  valves  of 
the  pump-pistons  to  close  before  the  down-stroke  of 
the  steam-jristons  is  made  ;  then,  the  equilil.irium- 
valve  being  opened,  the  hydraulic  apparatus  Is 
liberated  at  the  same  moment,  aud  the  steam  passing 
from  l)eneath  the  small  juston  above  both  pistons, 
the  pressure  on  lioth  sides  of  the  small  one  is  equal- 
ized, while  nearly  two  thirds  of  the  steam  acts  upon 


DRAINING-MACHINE. 


740 


DRAINING-PtTMP. 


tile  aniuilar  piston  against  a  vacuum,  and  in  aid  of 
tile  dead  \vei,i;lit  helps  to  make  the  down-stroke  in 
the  steam-e_vlindei'  and  the  up-stroke  in  the  |iunips. 
The  use  of  the  two  cylinders  enables  the  engine- 
man,  liy  judiciously  altering  the  exiiansion  in  the 
sni:ill  cyliiiiler,  to  coniinand  his  work  at  all  times, 
without  sto]ipiiig  the  engine  to  take  out  or  put  in 
dead  weight,  as  would  he  necessary  for  a  single- 
acting  one-cylinder  engine,  where  dead  weight  only 
is  used  for  lifting  the  water.  It  lias  freipiently  oc- 
curred that  the  load  of  an  engine  lias  been  addeil  to 
or  diniiiiisbed  by  ten  or  twelve  tons  in  the  course  of 
lialf  an  hour,  by  the  action  of  gales  of  winil  on  the 
surface  of  the  mere  and  boezem.  Each  engine  has 
two  air-puinjis  of  40  inches  diameter,  and  5  feet 
stroke.  The  steam  is  cut  off  in  the  small  cylinder 
at  I'roni  one  fourth  to  two  thirds  of  the  stroke,  ac- 
cording to  the  load  ;  and  after  expanding  through 
the  remainder  of  the  stroke,  it  is  still  farther  ex- 
panded in  the  large  cylinder. 

The  engines  were  designed  and  constructed  by 
Gibbs  and  Uean,  English  engineers,  and  the  ]iroof 
of  quality  is  that  upon  occasion  the  engines  have 
worked  uj)  to  a  duty  of  S7,<10(1,000  pounds.  The  cost 
of  the  machinery  and  building  was  about  S  750,000. 

The  mere  is  now  a  tract  fully  subdued  to  the  pur- 
poses of  agriculture. 

For  elevation  and  plans  in  details  of  the  engines, 
see  "Civil  Engineer's  and  Architect's  Journal," 
Vol.  X.:  London,  1S47. 

Drain'iug-ma-chine'.  A  fomi  of  filter  or  ma- 
chine for  expediting  the  sejiaration  of  a  liipiiil  from 
the  magma  or  mass  of  more  solid  matter  which  it 

Fig.  1743. 


Draining- Machine. 


saturates.  It  consists  of  a  revolWng  vessel  witli 
perfoi-ated  or  wire-gauze  outer  surface,  which  allows 
the  tlnid  portion  to  escape  while  it  retains  the  .solid 
particles.  It  is  mucli  used  in  draining  sugar.  See 
Centrifugal  M.\eiiiXE. 


Drain'ing-plo'w.  A  ditching-plow.  A  favorite 
Engli.shkind  liusthiee  colters,  two  moldboards,  and  a 
share.  Itisshown  at,//;(Eig.  1744).  Themiddle  col- 
ter is  vertical,  and  splits  the  soil  in  the  middle  of  the 
furrow  ;  the  two  side  cutters  are  inclined,  to  cut  the 
sloping  .sides  of  the  ditch  ;  the  share  cuts  the  bottom 
of  the  ditch,  and  the  moldboards  lift  the  soil  in  two 
slices,  which  are  deflected  laterally  and  delivered  on 
the  respective  sides  of  the  ditch.  The  usual  dimen- 
sions of  a  ditch  thus  made  are  12  inches  deep,  15 
inches  wide  at  top,  and  8  inches  at  the  bottom. 

Fowder's  diaining-plow  ( English)  was  exhibited  in 
1850,  and  was  peculiar  in  the  resjiect  that  it  laid  the 
diain-tile  in  its  rear.     The  plow  had  a  mule  at  th« 

Fig.  1744. 


Ttrainin^-Flows. 


end  of  the  sharp,  broad  standard,  and  attached  to 
the  mole  was  a  rope  upon  which  the  .sections  of  drain- 
tile  were  strung.  As  the  mole  advanced,  it  drew  in 
the  string  of  tiles. 

When  it  is  desired  to  cut  a  trench  deeper  than 
can  he  effected  by  thi^  ordinary  mode  of  using  the 
plow,  the  arrangement  shown  at  C  (Fig.  1744)  is 
employed. 

An  anchor  or  hook  I  is  inserted  in  the  ground, 
affording  a  fixed  point  of  resistance  to  the  jmlley  k. 
Force  is  applied  to  the  handle  at  the  top,  which  com- 
municates motion  to  the  wheel  /(,  with  a  very  great 
increase  of  power,  and  the  acting  portions  of  the 
plow  c.  d  are  forced  through  the  soil.  The  arrange- 
ment at  rt  ft  enables  the  conductor  to  give  the  required 
depth  to  the  furrow.  A  roller  g,  resting  on  the 
ground,  supports  the  forward  portion  of  the  plow. 
See  Exc.4v.\Toit. 

Drain'ing-pot.  (Svgrir-jnanufaclure.)  An  in- 
verted conical  vessel  in  which  wet  sugar  is  placed  to 
drain. 

Drain'ing-pump.  A  pump  (pompe  cctstr'aise) 
for  elevating  water  containing  sand  and  gravel. 
The  single  cylinder  is  open  both  at  top  and  bottom, 
and  is  traversed  by  a  piston  without  a  valve.  The 
cylinder  is  inclosed  in  a  larger  vessel,  water-tight, 
which  is  itself  filled  with  water.  This  larger  vessel 
is  divided  into  two  equal  parts  vertically,  by  a  par- 
tition which  joins  the  working  cylinder,  so  that  the 
cylinder  itself  foims  a  part  of  the  division.  One  ex- 
tremity of  the  cylinder  I'limnniuicates  with  the  cavity 
on  one  side  of  the  partition,  and  the  other  with  the 
opposite.  The  four  valves  are  large  balls  of  india- 
rubber,  loaded  in  the  interior  with  lead.  They  are 
contained  in  separate  boxes  by  the  side  of  the  prin- 
cipal box,  and  are  in  communication  by  pairs  with 
the  two  cavities  into  which  tliat  box  is  divided. 


DEAIJT-PIPE. 


741 


DRAWBRIDGE. 


Draining-  Pump, 


Fig.  1745.  The      figure      giren 

shows  a    section    of 
the   cylinder,   and  a 
view  of  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  pair  of 
valves  corresponding 
to  the  nearer  lialf  of 
the    cylinder     reser- 
voir.    The  piston  is 
represented  as  at  the 
bottom  of  the  stroke  ; 
as  it  rises  the  lower 
valve    is    raised    by 
aspiiation  and  water 
enters  ;  as  the  pi.ston 
descends    the    lower 
valve  closes  and  the 
upper   one    rises    to 
allow    the   water   to 
flow  out.     The  other 
pair  of  valves  (not  shown)  have  their  induction  and 
eduction  by  the  depression  and  elevation  of  ihe  pis- 
ton res]>cctively. 
DraiQ-pipe.    1.  (Brewing.)    The  pipe  through 
which  the  wort  is  drawn  from  tlie 
Fig.  1746.         mash-tab  to  the  under-back. 

2.  {Husbandri/.)  Clay  pipe, 
known  as  drain-tiles,  laid  be- 
neath the  surface  of  the  .soil  below 
plow  depth,  in  order  to  carry  olf 
superfluous  water  and  increase 
the  fertility  and  ease  of  working 
the  soil.     See  Tiles. 

The  tempered  clay  being  placed 

in   a  cylinder,  the  piston   is  de- 

pres.sed     and     the    clay    e.xudes 

through  the  annular  throat  of  the 

dod,  forming  a  continuous  cylin- 

Pipe-Mackine.       der  which  is  cut  by  a  wire  into 

sections  of  the  re<|uired  length. 

Drain-tile.    Drain-tiles  are  of  many  forms.    See 

Tile. 

They  are  usually  laid  by  opening  a  cutting  in 
the  ground  as  narrow  at  top  as  can  be  conveniently 
worked,  and  at  bottom  forming  a  smooth  bed  iu 
which  the  tile  tits.  The  spades  for  this  purpose  are 
made  tapering,  and  of  ditferent  sizes.  See  Spade  ; 
Drais. 

Gibbs's  plow  for  opening  the  ground  was  used  in 
England  about  twenty  years  since,  and  made  a  trench 
with  vertical  sides,  of  the  width  for  the  tile  to  lie 
in. 

Fowler's  machine  for  laying  drain-tiles  was  a 
mole-plow  for  making  holes  in  the  ground  at  a  de))th 
of  from  2  to  i  feet,  and  drawing  into  the  hole  thus 
made  a  rope  upon  wliich  a  succession  of  di-ain-tiles 
was  strung. 

It  has  an  apparatus  attached  for  raising  or  sinking 
the  plow,  so  as  to  lay  a  level  drain  under  an  uneven 
surface  ;  it  is  drawn  by  the  power  of  a  windlass,  and 
one  horse's  power  exerted  there  will  move  the  plow 
a  yard  in  twenty  seconds  at  a  depth  of  2  feet  6  in- 
ches. Three  horses,  four  men,  and  six  boys  will 
keep  two  plows  going,  and  lay  4,000  feet  in  a  day 
at  a  depth  of  3  feet.  See  Dhain-plow  ;  Mole-plow. 
A  hole  rec]uires  to  be  dug  for  the  macliine  at  every 
hundred  yards,  or  six  for  an  acre. 

Drain-trap.  A  device  for  allowing  water  to  pass 
olf  without  admitting  the  passage  of  air  through  the 
duct.     See  Sten'ch-trap. 

Drain-'well.  A  pit  sunk  through  an  impervious 
stratum  of  earth  to  reach  a  pervious  stratum  and 
form  a  means  of  drainage  for  surface  water,  or  a 
means  of  discharge  of  such  liq^uid  waste  from  manu- 


factories as  would  foul  the  running  water  of  streams. 
Such  wells  are  properly  termed  absorbing-icelh  (which 
see),  and  by  Arago  are  called  negative  arlcsian-icells, 
—  a  term  more  curious  than  profound.  In  former 
times  the  plain  of  Faluns,  near  Marseilles,  was  a 
morass,  but  was  drained  by  means  of  absorbing- wells 
dug  by  King  Rene  ;  the  waters  thus  carried  off  are 
.said  to  have  formed  the  fountains  of  Mioti,  near 
Cassis.  The  lake  of  Joux  is  supplied  from  the  river 
Orbe  in  tlie  Jura  and  the  lake  of  Kousses,  and  has 
no  risible  outlet.  It,  however,  maintains  about  an 
even  level,  and  has  evidently,  as  observed b\-  Saussure, 
"subterranean  issues  by  which  the  waters  are  en- 
gulfed aud  disappear."  The  inhabitants  of  this  val- 
ley keep  up  their  absorbing-wells  with  care,  and 
oi>en  new  ones  15  to  20  feet  in  depth  whenever  the 
surface  water  appears  to  be  too  slowly  carried  off. 
The  waters  reappear  in  a  large  spring  called  Orbe, 
two  miles  below  the  southern  extremity  of  tlie  lake, 
issuing  at  a  point  680  feet  below  the  level  of  the 
surface  of  the  lake. 

A  potato-starch  manufactory  at  Villetaneuse, 
three  miles  from  St.  Denis,  France,  is  rid  of  16,000 
gallons  of  fetid  waste  water  per  day,  with  what  eH'ect 
upon  neighboring  or  distant  wells  or  springs  does 
not  appear.  The  town  of  Alexandria,  Virginia,  is 
situated  upon  an  impervious  clay  of  fiom  10  to  15 
feet  thickness,  and  a  common  mode  of  house  and 
closet  drainage  is  by  wells  wliich  reach  through  this 
.stratum  into  the  sand  substratum  beneath.  Good 
for  the  houses,  bad  for  the  wells  of  drinking-water. 

Drap-d'ete.  {Fabric.}  Summer  cloth  twilled 
like  merino. 

Draught.    See  Draft. 

Draughts.    See  Checkers. 

Draw;  Draw'ing.  A  tension.  The  term  forms 
part  of  compound  words  concerned  in  the  draft  of 
railroad-cars.  Such  are  draw  gear,  head,  link,  spring, 
etc. 

It  also  describes  other  attenuating  processes!,  as 
the  pulling  of  wire  thiough  an  aperture  in  the 
Dr.\w-plate  (which  see). 

The  lengthening  of  a  heated  rod  by  hammering. 

Tlie  action  of  rollers  and  other  tension  on  slivers 
or  rolls  of  fiber.     See  Drawing-fkame. 

2.  {Founding.)  Said  of  a  iiattern  who.se  shape  is 
such  that  it  may  be  withdrawn  from  the  sand  without 
breaking  tlie  molded  form.     Dclircry  ;  drtift,  taper. 

3.  (Spinning.)  The  fffimmj  of  the  mule-carriage  ; 
its  progress  after  the  feed  is  stopped  draws  out  the 
yarn. 

Dravr-bar.  An  iron  rod  to  connect  a  locomotive 
witli  a  tiMiiler. 

Draw-bench.  A  machine  for  drawing  slips  of 
metal   througli  a  gaged   opening.     See   Di;.\wiXG- 

BEXC'H. 

Draw-bore.  (Carpentry.)  A  hole  so  made 
through  a  tenon  and  mortise  that  the  yin  will  draw 
up  the  shoulder  to  the  abutment.  Tlie  hole  through 
the  tenon  is  bored  at  a  distance  from  the  shoulder 
less  than  the  thickness  of  the  cheeks  measured  be- 
tween the  hole  through  the  mortise  anil  the  face 
of  the  abutment  against  which  the  shoulder  is 
drawn. 

Draw-bor'ing.  The  operation  of  polishing  a 
muski-t-bariel  after  it  has  been  ritled. 

Dravir-boy.  (IFcaving.)  Formerly  the  boy  who 
pulled  the  cords  of  the  harness  in  figure-n-eaving. 
A  term  sometimes  applied  to  the  mechanical  device 
which  forms  a  substitute  for  the  boy.  See  Jac- 
QU.4P.P. 

Draw'-bridge.  A  form  of  bridge  in  which  the 
span  is  removalile  from  the  opening  to  allow  masted 
vessels  to  pass,  or  to  prevent  crossing. 


DRAW-CUT. 


742 


DRAWING. 


Tlic  earliest  mention  of  these  is  in  tlie  Egyptian 
monuments,  where  Kameses  II.  celebrated  his  vic- 
tories over  fbrtitied  cities,  1355  B.  c.  He  is  sup- 
posed to  be  the  Sesostris  of  Herodotus  and  Diodo- 
rus.  The  sepulchral  and  palatial  paintings  repre- 
sent the  bridges  as  crossing  the  moats  around  castles 
and  foitiKed  towns. 

Drawbridges  are  used  in  crossing  canals,  rivers, 
and  dock  entrances,  wliich  are  occasionally  traversed 
by  masted  vessels. 

Tliey  are  also  used  in  crossing  the  ditches,  fosses, 
and  moats  of  furtitications. 

They  are  of  four  kinds  :  — 

1.  The  lifling. 

2.  The  swinij. 

3.  The  biiscule. 

4.  The  rollinij. 

1.  Tlie  lifting-bridge  is  used  in  Holland  upon  the 
canals  ami  in  fortificatious,  in  places  where  the  road- 
way is  near  the  level  of  the  water.  The  bridge  is 
lifted  bodily  and  supported  by  a  heavy  framework, 
while  the  vessel  passes.     See  LiFTiNG-BumuK. 

2.  The  ^i(Ciij)(i/-bridge  or  si«i/i(/-bridge  moves  on  a 
vertical  pivot,  being  sometimes  in  two  sections  w'hich 
meet  half-way  across  the  water-course.  The  portion 
ou  land  is  a  counterpoise  for  that  projecting  over  the 
water,  and  tlie  bridge  moves  in  arc-shaped  tracks 
resting  ou  cannon-balls.     See  Swing-bkikge. 

It  is  sometimes  supported  by  a  central  post  and 
swings  90°,  opening  two  passages  for  vessels,  one  on 
each  side.     This  is  a pivol-h\\ige, 

3.  The  bascule-bridijc  turns  on  a  horizontal  pivot, 
standing  in  a  vertical  position  ou  the  side  of  the  wa- 
ter-way while  the  vessel  passes  by.  The  inner  end  is 
in  excess  of  the  weight  of  the  roadway  and  descends 

Fig.  1747. 


Dra-w-fil'mg.  Drawing  a  file  longitudinally  of 
a  piece  of  metal  without  giving  the  tile  any  move- 
ment in  the  direction  of  its  length. 

Drawr-gage  Cut'ter.  A  harness-maker's  tool 
for  cutting  strips  of  leather  of  any  set  width.  See 
Gage-kxike. 

Dra'w-gate.  The  valve  of  a  sluice,  either  of  a 
canal,  a  Hushing  arrangement,  or  a  Hume  or  pen- 
stock of  a  water-wheel. 

Dra'wr-gear.  Tlie  coupling  parts  of  railroad-cars. 
See  C'Ar.-iMiri'LiNG. 

Draw-head.  \.  (Railway.)  The  projecting  part 
of  a  draw-bar  in  which  the  coupling-pin  connects 
with  the  link.     See  C'.\u-couplino. 

2.  {Spinning.)  A  device  in  spinning  in  which 
the  slivers  are  lengthened  and  receive  an  additional 
twist. 

A  fonn  of  draw-head  which  lengthens  the  roving 
and  twists  it  simultaneously  is  shown  in  Fig.  1748. 


Rolling-Bridge. 


Drau'hlg  and  Ttvisting  Head. 


into  a  pit  built  with  hydraulic  masonry.  This  pit  is 
not  material,  perhaps,  in  fortifications,  but  is  not 
desirable  in  ordinary  road  or  dock  work.  The  bas- 
cule may  be  seen  at  Havre  and  Hidl.  See  B.ascule- 
BUIDOE. 

4.  The  rolling-bridge  has  been  introduced  on  some 
English  railways.  The  bridge  passes  latei-ally  upon 
a  carriage  until  it  has  passed  the  junction  of  the  line 
of  rails,  and  then  rolls  inward  to  leave  the  water-way 
clear. 

In  the  example,  the  movable  cars  or  platforms  are 
suspended  by  rods  and  form  traveling  trucks,  wdiich 
run  upon  rails  laid  on  the  top  of  metallic  tulies  sup- 
ported on  pillars,  and  which  serve  also  as  viaducts, 
by  which  means  the  crossing  of  streams  is  adbrded 
to  traffic  and  travel.  The  tubes  are  to  be  elevated 
sulficiently  to  allow  vessels  to  pass  under  the  same. 

Draiw-cut.  An  obliijue  motion  of  a  knife,  so  as 
to  move  lengthwise  across  an  object  as  well  as  cut- 
ting into  it. 

Draw'er-lock.  A  form  of  inside  or  mortise  lock 
which  projects  its  bolt  upwardly  into  the  strip  above. 


The  process  is  effected  in  small  space  at  one  oper- 
ation by  means  of  the  combined  condensing-tube  c 
and  draw-rollers  m  m.  These  latter  are  adjust- 
ably journaled  in  a  box  n  at  the  end  of  the  tube  c, 
so  that  they  revolve  with  the  tube  on  a  common 
axis  passing  through  the  center  of  the  tulie  and  be- 
tween the  rollers.  This  revolution  is  effected  by 
belt  and  pulley.  They  have,  however,  an  indepen- 
dent motion  on  their  own  axis,  at  right  angles  to 
this  common  axis,  wdiieh  is  dei-ived  from  iudejien- 
dent  bevel-gears  o  g.  The  I'oving  from  the  spool  F 
is  drawn  by  the  first  set  of  take-up  rollers  a  a''  a^ 
into  the  condensing-tube,  thence  (lassing  through 
the  drawing-rollers  vi  m,  whose  speed  of  rotation  on 
their  independent  axis  may  be  so  adjusted  relatively 
to  their  rotary  motion  in  common  with  the  tube  c 
as  to  give  any  required  degree  of  twist.  The  yarn 
then  passes  to  the  second  set  of  take-up  rollers,  and 
thence  to  the  spindle  D  as  usual. 

Drawing.  1.  (Fiber.)  Extending  a  sliver  for 
the  purpose  of  drawdng  its  fibers  parallel  and  in- 
creasing  its  length.     The   drawing  and  doubling 


DRAWING. 


743 


DRAWING-FRAME. 


process  first  draws  out  the  slirers  as  produced  by  the 
fiiiisliing  card  by  means  of  drawing-rollers,  aud  then 
unites  several  of  these  into  one.  The  object  of  the 
first  operation  is  to  draw  each  fiber  past  the  ne.xt 
one,  thus  placing  them  still  more  completely  parallel 
to  each  other  ;  wliile  that  of  the  second  is  to  neu- 
tralize the  inequalities  in  each  separate  sliver,  and 
to  strengthen    them  after    haWng    been  extended. 

See  DUAWIN'G-FRAME. 

The  drawing  of  long  wool  for  worsted  is  somewhat 
similar  to  the  operation  with  cotton.  The  slivers 
are  combined,  attenuated,  and  twisted  ready  for  the 
farther  operation  ol  spinning. 

Flax  is  drawn  in  substantially  the  same  manner 
as  cotton,  some  modifications  in 
the    arrangements   adapting    the 
machinery  to  the  material. 

Tlie  hackled  tlax,  ha\'ing  been 
carefully  sorted  into  grades  of 
quality  by  the  sorter,  is  spread 
upon  a  feeding-cloth  by  hand,  in 
such  a  manner  that  the  fonvard 
ends  of  each  stricl:  reach  to  the 
middle  of  the  preceding  one,  so  as 
to  preserve  a  uniform  thickness 
ou  the  feed-cloth,  the  stricks  of 
hackled  fiax  being  smaller  at  the 
ends  than  in  the  midtUe. 

The  fiax  is  thus  fed  to  one  pair 
of  rollers,  which  deliver  it  through 
(jilis  or  hackle-points  to  a  second 
pair  of  rollers  revolving  at  a  great- 
er speed.  It  is  then  conducted  to 
a  can. 

These  slirers  are  next  taken  to 
the  spreadiug-frame,  where  a  num- 
ber of  them  are  laid  together  and 
drawn  into  one  length  by  passing 
between  consecutive  pairs  of  roll- 
ers, each  pair  rotating  at  a  rate  above  that  of  its  pre. 
decessor. 

The  arrangements  vary  in  the  production  of  dif- 

Fig.  1749. 


2.  (U'eaving.)  The  arrangement  of  the  heddles 
in  accordance  with  the  requirements  of  the  ornament 
to  be  exhibited.     The  draft  or  cording  of  the  loom. 

3.  The  making  or  copying  of  plans,  and  views  of 
buildings,  machinery,  and  other  structures. 

In  tliis  connection  we  havethe  compound  W'ords  :  — 

Drawing-board.  Drawing-pen. 

Drawing-compass.  Drawing-pencil. 

Drawing-paper.  Drawing-slate,  etc. 

4.  {Mctal-ioorking.)  The  operation  of  hammering, 
rolling,  or  drawing  through  a  die,  by  which  a  bar 
or  rod  of  metal  or  a  wire  is  extended  in  length  to 
form  a  rod,  tube,  or  plate. 


Fig  1750. 


Drawing  Flax. 

ferent  yams,  but  in  a  given  case  eight  slivers  may 
be  drawn  into  one  in  the  first  frame,  twelve  into  one 
in  the  second,  fifteen  into  one  in  the  third. 

The  sliver  when  sufficiently  equalized  and  at- 
tenuated proceeds  to  the  roving-rnaxhinc,  which 
gives  it  a  slight  twist  and  winds  it  on  bobbins  ready 
for  spinning. 


Drawing-Benck, 

Draiv'ing-a'wl.  (Leather.)  A  leather- worker's 
awl,  having  a  hole  near  the  point  in  which  the  thread 
is  inserteil  and  pushed  through  in  sewing,  etc. 

Draw'ing-bench.  An  apparatus  invented  by 
Sir  John  Barton,  formerly  comptroller  of  the  British 
Mint.  Strips  of  metal  are  brought  to  an  exact  thick- 
ness and  width  by  being  drawn  through  a  gaged 
opening,  made  by  two  cylinders  in  the  required  prox- 
imity and  prevented  from  rotating. 

The  cylinders  are  fastened  in  a  liead  a  at  one  end 
of  a  bench,  and  the  sharpened  end  of  the  metallic 
strip  is  thrust  through  them  so  as  to  be  grasjied  by 
a  pair  of  jaws  on  a  carriage  &,  which  is  retracted  by 
an  endless  chain.  AVhen  the  strip  has  passed  through 
the  throat,  it  is  automatically  disengaged  from  the 
jaws,  and  the  carriage  retuins.  The  operation  is 
similar  in  principle  to  that  of  drawing  wire  through 
a  drair  piate. 

Draiw-'iiig-board.  A  square  frame,  with  either 
a  continuous  surface  or  a  shiftable  panel,  for  holding 
a  sheet  of  paper  while  plotting,  projecting,  etc. 

Dravr'ing-com'pass.  An  instrument  with  two 
legs,  used  for  striking  circles  and  curves.  One  leg 
has  Ajyen  or  pencil,  and  it  has  several  modifications, 
such  as  boio-pcn,  boio-pencil,  beam-compass,  etc. 

Compasses  for  measuring  and  transferring  measure- 
ments are  called  div-iders,  bisecting-compass,  pro- 
portional compass,  etc.     See  Compass. 

Dra^y'ing-frame.     1.  A  machine  in  which  the 

slivers  of  cotton  or  other  wool  from  the  carding-ma- 

chine  are  attenuated  by  passing  through  consecutive 

pairs   of  rollers,  each  successive  pair  rotating  at  a 

i  higher  speed  than  its  predecessors. 

The  device  was  first  invented  by  Leon  Paul,  pa- 
I  tented  1738 ;  and  perfected  by  Arkwnght,  patent 


DRAWING-FRAME. 


744 


DRAWING-PEN. 


1769.  It  was  called  a  water-frame,  from  the  cir- 
cumstance tliat  Arkwright's  luacluuery  was  driven 
by  water-power. 

It  was  named  a  throslle  fi'om  the  brisk  singing  or 
humming  sound  made  by  it.     See  Thuostle. 

It  is  u.sed  in  the  process  of  doubling  slivers  (see 
DiiunLKiO,  and  is  indispensable  in  the  bobbiii-and- 
Jiij  iwirhine  and  the  male  (which  see). 

Tile  drairiiKj-frame,  disconnected  with  any  spin- 
ning operation,  is  a  machine  to  elongate  the  spongy 
slivi'rs  produced  by  the  carding-engine,  to  straighten 
the  Hlament.s  and  lay  them  parallel. 

The  drawing-frame  is  also  used  to  equalize  slivers 
by  condensing  a  number  into  one  (see  Doubling), 
and  then  elongating  them  so  as  to  overcome  special 
defei'ts.  Filaments  which  have  become  doubled  over 
the  teeth  of  tile  cardiug-machine  are  also  straightened 
in  the  process  of  doubling  and  drawing. 

The  drawing-frain£  consists  of  three  pairs  of  roll- 
Fig.  1751. 


Doubling  and  Drawing. 


ers,  the  upper  ones  being  covered  with  leather  and 
the  lower  ones  lluted  longitudinally.  The  up- 
per ones  have  an  imposed  weight,  and  the  lower 
ones  are  driven  by  power,  and  carry  those  above. 
The  rollers  are  driven  with  varying  degrees  of  veloc- 
ity ;  the  second  b,  say,  at  a  speed  double  that  of  the 
first  c,  and  the  third  or  delivery  rollers  a  at  a  speed 
live  times  that  of  the  seconil  b. 

The  delivery-rollers,  called  the  /ron<-rollers,  turn 
in  brass  lushes  in  fixed  iron  bearings,  but  the  other 
roller-brasses  are  adjustable  in  grooves  towards  and 
from  each  other  aiul  the  front  roller,  to  adapt  their 
distances  to  the  length  or  staple  of  the  cotton  oper- 
ated upon. 

The  mrd-cmis  or  slivers  n  m,  from  separate 
cans,  are  united  and  pressed  together  between  the 
rollers  {doablintj),  ami  by  the  increased  speed  of  the 
successive  pairs  are  drawn  out  into  a  flat  sliver,  two 
of  which  are  combined,  passed  through  a  funnel  /, 
between  compacting  rollers  K  K,  and  thence  to 
a  can,  A  board  above  the  upper  rollers  has  Haunel 
on  its  lower  surface,  and  acts  as  a  wiper. 

The  operation  is  a.s  follows  :  — 

Suppose  si.t  slivers  from  the  carding-machine,  or 
card-eiulx,  to  be  inserted  and  passecl  through  the 
fust  ]iiirof  rollers,  the  second  pair,  traveling  at  dou- 
ble the  rate  of  the  former,  will  elongate  every  inch 
of  the  compound  sliver  into  two  inches,  ami  the 
third  will  make  it  ten  inches,  so  that  the  combined 
sliver  is  formed  into  one  of  ten  times  the  length  and 
pro|)ortionate  size  ;  this  process  is  repeated  again  and 
again,  so  that  in  very  fine  yarn  the  fibers  are  laid 
parallel  to  each  other  many  thousands  of  times,  and 
with  coarse  yarns  as  many  as  a  thousand  times. 
For  instance  :  — 

Ten  card-emls  formed  into  one  ribbon  of  the  same 
siz"  and  six  times  the  length  ;  six  of  these  ribbons 
similarly  treated  and  formed  into  one  ;  six  of  the 
latter,  by  a  third  operation,  formed  into  one  sliver  ; 
and  live  of  these  drawn  into  one, —  will  have  the  ef- 


fect of  placing  the  fibers  parallel  to  each  other  1080 
times  (li  X  t)  X  6  X  5  =  1080). 

The  drawing-frame  for  long-stapled  wool  is  for 
drawing  out  and  extending  the  slivers  which  have 
already  been  oj)erated  upon  by  the  Bkeaking-fiia.me 
(which  see).  This  is  a  repetitive  operation,  and  it 
is  usual  to  pass  the  wool  through  the  break ing-frame 
and  four  times  through  the  draicincj -frame  before 
roving.  These  slivers  are  united  at  each  drawing, 
and  are  extended  to,  say,  four  times  the  length.  The 
result  is  an  actual  extension  and  an  oft-repeated  lay- 
ing of  the  slivers  alongside  of  each  other,  so  as  to 
blend  them  and  reduce  inequalities. 

2.  {Silk-machinery.)  A  machine  in  which  the 
fibers  of  floss  or  refuse  silk  are  laid  parallel,  prepara- 
tory to  being  cut  into  lengths  by  the  cuUing-engme, 
to  be  afterwards  worked  like  cotton. 

The  order  of  the  machines  is  as  follows  :  — 

Hackling. 

Filling-enPfINE  (which  see). 

Drau:iny-frame  ;  the  filaments  are  held  finuly  by 
one  end,  and  a  comb  travels  over  the  surface  to  re- 
move imjinrities  and  short  fibers. 

Culliiig-cngiiie  reduces  the  filaments  to  a  staple 
al-iout  IJ  inches  in  length. 

Scutcher. 

Cleanser  and  dryer. 

Carding-machine. 

From  whence  the  staple  is  treated  like  cotton. 
See  C.\iiDiN"G-MACinNK  ;  DiiAWiNG  ;  Doum.iXG  ; 
RoviNG-MACHiXE  ;  TuRcsTLE  ;  Bobbin-.\ni>-Fly 
FiiAME,  etc.     See  list  under  Cotton,  etc.,  p.  631. 

Dravr'ing-iii.  (JFcaving.)  The  process  of  ar- 
ranging the  yarn  threads  in  the  loops  of  the  respec- 
tive hnldles. 

DraTwlng-kuife.  1.  A  blade  having  a  handle 
at  each  end,  and  used  by  coopers,  w^agon-makers, 
and  carpenters.  It  is  usually  operated  in  connection 
with  a  shaving-horse,  which  holds  the  stave,  spoke, 
.shingle,  axe-handle,  or  other  article  which  is  being 
shaved. 

2.  A  tool  used  for  cutting  a  groove  as  a  starting 
for  a  saw-kerf 

Dra'w'ing-ma-chine'.  1.  One  for  elongating 
the  soft  roving  of  fiber.     See  Drawing-fuame. 

2.  One  for  drawing  a  strip  of  metal  through  a 
gaged  opening  to  equalize  its  size.     See  Dk.a.wixg- 

BENCII. 

3,  A  form  of  spinning-machine  for  ductile  sheet- 
metal, 

Draw'ing-pa'per.  A  variety  of  large  white 
pa]ier,  made  preferably  of  linen  stock,  and  of  14 
sizes. 

The  sizes  of  drawing-paper  are,  — 


Cap  . 

.     13 

X 

16    inches 

Demy    . 

15.5 

X 

18.5    " 

Medium    . 

.     18 

X 

22 

Royal    . 

19 

X 

24 

Super-royal 

.     19 

X 

27        " 

Imperial 

21.2J 

X 

29        " 

Elephant  . 

.     22. 2£ 

X 

27.75  " 

Cohimbier 

23 

X 

33.75  " 

Atlas 

.     26 

X 

33 

Theorem 

28 

X 

34 

Double  Elephant 

.     26 

X 

40        " 

Antiquarian  . 

31 

X 

52        " 

Emperor    . 

.     40 

X 

60 

Uncle  Sam     . 

48 

X 

120 

These  are  about  the  usual  sizes,  but  the  scales  of 
different  makers  vary  to  some  extent. 

DraTXT'lng-pen.  A  pen  for  ruling  lines,  consist- 
ing, in  its  most  usual  form,  of  a  pair  of  steel  blades, 
between  which  the  ink  is  contained,  the  thickness  of 


DRAWING-PENCIL. 


45 


DRAW-PLATE. 


Kg.  1752 


the  line  beiug  determined  by  the  adjust- 
ment as  to  distance  of  the  said  blades. 

The  ends  of  the  steel  blades  are  ellip- 
tical, sharp,  and  exactly  even.  A  rul- 
ing-pen.    A  slraight-line  pen. 

a  is  a  sin<//e- drawing  pen. 

h,  a  rfoaj/c-drawing  pen,  for  ruling 
two  lines  at  once. 

A  doUing-yy^n  makes  a  succession  of 
dots,  being  formed  of  a  roulette  rotat- 
ing in  a  stock.     See  Dottisg-pex. 

IJra-w'ing-pen'cil.  A  black-lead 
pencil  of  hard  quality,  made  especially 
for  diawing  lines.     See  Lead-pen"Cil. 


Draicing-P^ns. 


Dratoing-Pins. 


DraTW'ing-pin.  A  flat-headed  tack  for  tempo- 
rarily securing  drawing-paper  to  a  board.  A  thumb- 
tack. 

Draw'ing-pli'ers.  ( Wire-drmcing. )  The  nip- 
pers wUereby  the  wire  is  grasped  when  pulling 
through  the  draw-jilate. 

Dravr'ing-point.  A  steel  tool  for  drawing 
straight  lines  on  metaUic  plates.  A  scriber  for 
metal.  The  draw-point  or  dry-point  of  an  engraver 
makes  its  mark  directly  upon  the  metal,  and  not  as 
the  etching-point,  which  makes  a  mark  through  a 
ground,  the  line  being  subsequently  eaten  into  the 
metal  by  acid.     See  Etciiixg. 

Dra-wr'ing-rorier.  The  fluted  roller  of  the 
drawing-machine,  elongating  the  sliver.    See  Draw- 

IXG-FRAME. 

Dra'vr-kiln.  A  lime-kiln  arranged  to  afford  a 
continuous  supply  of  lime  from  below,  fuel  and 
limestone  being  fed  in  above  from  time  to  time. 
Also  called  a  running-kiln,  or  continuous  kiln. 

Dra'w-link.  A  connecting  link  for  railroad  cars. 
See  CAP.-corPLiNG. 

DraTv-loom.  ( Weaving.)  The  draw-loom  was 
the  predecessor  of  the  jacquard.  It  is  used  in  figure- 
weaving.  The  number  of  the  heddles  being  too  great 
to  be  worked  by  the  feet  of  the  weaver,  the  warp- 
threads  are  pa.ssed  through  loops  fomied  in  strings, 
aiTanged  in  a  vertical  plane,  one  string  to  every 
warp-thiead  ;  and  these  strings  are  arranged  in  sepa- 
rate groups,  which  are  pulled  by  a  draw-bo;/,  in  such 
order  as  may  be  required  to  produce  the  pattern. 
The  groups  are  drawn  by  pressure  on  handles,  the 
required  order  being  detenniued  by  reference  to  a 
design,  painted  on  paper,  which  is  divided  up  into 
small  squares. 

A  mechanical  draw-boy  has  been  contrived,  to 
dispense  with  human  assistance.  It  consists  of  a 
half-wheel  with  a  rim  grooved  so  as  to  catch  into 
the  strings  requiring  to  be  pulled  down.  The  half- 
wheel  travels  along  a  toothed  bar,  with  an  oscillating 
motion  from  right  to  left,  and  draws  down  the  par- 
ticular cords  rei|uired  for  the  pattern. 

Dra'WTi-bnish.  One  in  which  the  tuft  or  kw)t 
is  drawn  into  the  hole  in  the  stock  by  a  loop  of 
copper  wile. 

This  generic  descriprion  includes  hair,  scrubbing, 
shoe,  clothes,  nail,  and  tooth  brushes. 

Dra'^- plate.  A  drilled  steel  plate  or  ruby 
through  which  a  wire  or  ribbon  of  metal  is  drawn  to 
reduce  and  equalize  it. 

a  represents  a  ruby  draw-plate  for  gold  or  silver 
wire. 


Kg.  1754. 


1  fwx^'^ 


■JC^-J-'vlJt 


.  or 


.jn. 


in 


TJ 


Draip-Ptates  and  Bench. 


* 


b  a  draw-plate  for  evening 
the  pendulum  springs  for 
chronometers. 

c  is  a  draw-plate  of  metal 
for  tube  drawing.  d 

d  are  sections  of  wire  of 
various  shapes  drawn  through 
plates. 

e  represents  forms  of  pinion 
wire.  w 

/  shows  fancy  forms  of  wire 
used  with  others  as  pins  in  the  surface  of  a  wooden 
block  used  in  calico-printing. 

The  essential  feature  of  wire-drawing  is  the  draw- 
plate.  This  was  probably  known  at  Nuremberg 
early  in  the  fourteenth  century,  and  how  much 
before  is  not  apparent.  The  ' '  History  of  Augs- 
burg," 1351,  and  that  of  Nuremberg,  1360,  mention 
the  "wire-drawer"  (Drahtzichcr).  The  draw-plate 
was  imported  into  France  \<y  Arehal,  and  into  Eng- 
land by  Schultz  (1565).  The  drawplate  is  probably 
an  Oriental  invention. 

The  draw-plate  is  made  of  a  cylindrical  piece  of 
cast-steel,  one  side  being  flatted  off'.  Several  holes 
of  graduated  sizes  are  punched  through  the  plate 
from  the  flat  side,  and  the  holes  are  somewhat  coni- 
cal in  form.  The  wire  is  cleaned  of  its  oxide  in  a 
tumbling-bos,  and  is  then  annealed.  It  is  then 
drawn  through  as  many  of  the  holes  in  succes-sion 
as  may  he  necessary  to  bring  it  to  the  required  size. 
The  wire  is  occa-sionally  annealed  to  remove  the 
hardness  incident  to  compression  in  the  plate,  and 
the  wire  pickled  to  remove  scale. 

The  sharpened  end  being  passed  through  a  hole 
in  the  plate,  the  wire  is  drawn  through  sufficiently 
to  attach  it  to  the  wheel.  This,  being  revolved, 
draws  the  wire  through  the  plate  and  reels  it  up  as 
drawn.  The  coil  from  which  it  is  drawn  is  dampened 
with  starch-water  or  beer-grounds  as  a  lubricator. 
The  Hindoo  Sonars,  who  are  noted  for  their  dex- 
terity in  drawing  gold-wire,  use  castor-oil  as  a  lubri- 
cator.    Wax  and  tallow  are  commonly  employed. 

Strips  and  angle-iron  of  metal  are  made  by  passing 
through  draw-plates  of  the  required  shape.  The 
pinion-wire  for  watches  is  thus  made,  and  also  strips 
and  rods  of  various  forais,  which  are  cut  in  sections 
and  driven  like  pins  into  the  hubs  of  calico-roUei-s, 
forming  the  dots,  leaves,  etc.,  of  patterns. 

For  fine  work,  such  as  the  drawing  of  gold  and 
silver  wire,  the  draw-hole  is  made  of  a  drilled  ruby. 
The  wire  for  pendulum-springs  of  watches  is  drawn 
through  a  pair  of  flat  rubies  with  rounded  edges. 


DKAW-POINT. 


746 


DREDGE-BOAT. 


Fig.  1755. 


Tubes  for  telescopes  are  drawn  upon  a  mandrel. 
Gun-barrels,  boiler  and    condenser   tubes,    lead- 
pipe,   slijis  for    music-type,   window-lead,   etc.,   are 
also  driiwn,  or  miy  be. 

French  dniw-phucs  are  described  as  being  made 
by  the  following  process  :  — 

A  ]iiece  of  wrought-iron  is  prepared  1  inch  thick, 
2  bioad,  and  12  long.  This  is  furrowed  on  one  side 
by  the  peen  of  a  hannuer,  so  as  to  receive  a  layer  of 
partially  deearburetted  cast-iron,  called  potiii.  This 
potin  is  made  by  breaking  up  pieces  of  a  new  iron 
jiot,  fusing  them  again  and  again  with  charcoal, 
and  fjuencliingin  water.  The  iron  partially  "conies 
to  nature,"  a.ssnming  the  condition  of  steel,  and  is 
eventually  melted  on  to  the  wrought-iron  Jjlate 
and  welded  thereto. 

The  holes  are  made  by  a  punch  while  the  iron  is 
hot,  and  are  very  numerous  in  a  single  ]ilate.  Tlie 
lioles  are  tapered,  the  base  of  the  cone  being  on  the 
side  of  the  wrought-iron. 

Brockedou's  English  patent,  1819,  specities  the 
use  of  diamonds,  rubies,  sappliires,  and  other  hard 
gems,  drilled  for  draw-eyes  and  mounted  in  iron 
plates. 

Draw-point.  (EngraHnij.)  The  etching-nee- 
dle used  on  tile  bare  plate.     JJnj-point. 

Draw-spring,  Thc^  spring  of  a  draw-head.  A 
spring  coupling-device  for  railroail  ears. 

Draw-tube.  The  ad- 
justable tulie  of  acompound 
microscojie,  having  the  eye- 
piece at  its  outer  end,  and 
the  erecting-glass  (if  any) 
at  its  inner  end. 

Dray.  A  low  cart  of  an 
ancient  type.  The  shafts 
are  prolonged  to  form  the 
rails,  and  the  load  is  I'olled 
upon  the  rear  of  the  inclined 
bed. 

Dread'naught.  (Fab- 
ric.) a.  A  heavy,  woolen, 
felted  cloth,  used  as  a  lin- 
ing for  hatchways,  etc.,  on 
board  ship. 

b.  A  heavy  goods  for 
sailors'  wear. 

Dredge.  A  scraper  or 
drag-net  for  gathering  nmd, 
sand,  or  oysters,  as  the  case 
;  may  be,  from  the  bottom. 
Jlud  is  dredged  to  improve 
the  channel,  sand  for  mak- 
ing mortar,  oysters  from 
their  beds,  for  food. 

A  bucket  or  scoop  for 
scraping  mud,  sand,  or  silt 
from  the  bed  of  a  stream, 
HI  pond,  or  other  body  of  wa- 
1/  ter.  Such  are  usually  on 
endless  chains.  See  Dkedg- 
IXG-MACHINE. 

The  "  clam-shell"  dredge 
used  for  removing  the  ex- 
cavated material  from  the 
working-chamlier  of  the 
East  River,  New  York, 
bridge  caisson,  consists  of 
a  pair  of  scoops  whicli  are 
hinged  to  an  a.\is  and  close 
upon  the  load,  whether  a 
^^^-.7^^  mass  of  mud  or  gravel,  or 
'■"■"  boulder  of  moderate   size. 

" Clam- SJietl"  Dredge.      The    dredge   ascends    and 


descends  in  a  vertical  watei--shaft  in  which  the  water 
rises  as  high  as  its  natural  level  on  the  outside  of 
the  caisson.  The  view  shows  a  portion  of  the  woik- 
ing-chamber  through  wliich  the  dredge-shaft  passes, 
and  the  numerous  layers  of  timbers  \\hich  form  the 
roof  of  the  working- 
chamber  and  sup-  Fig.  1756. 
port  the  masoni'y  of 
tlie]iier.  Thedredge 
is  lifted  with  its  load 
by  the  tackle  above, 
and,beingsuspended , 
above  the  car,  the  ' 
contents  are  dumped 
into  the  latter  by 
shifting  the  points  of  Oysier-Di-edge. 
suspension    of    the 

latter  to  the  chains  which  are  connected  to  its  outer 
corners  ;  this  causes  the  scoop  to  gape  open  and 
spill  its  contents.  The  car  is  then  run  down  an  in- 
cline, and  dumps  its  load  into  a  lighter  alongside  the 
caisson. 

A  rake  and  bag  dragged  over  an  oyster-bed  to  de- 
tach and  gather  the  bivalves.     The  dredge  is  towed 

Fig.  1757. 


Oyster-Dredge. 

by  a  sail-boat,  and  by  hand  or  tackle  is  lifted  by  a 
lever  swung  from  a  davit,  and  is  eased  over  the  side 
by  a  roller  mounted  on  the  gunwale,  as  shown  in 
Figs.  1756,  17.57.     See  Net;  Tuawl. 

Dredge-boat.  A  form  of  dredging-machine  in 
which  the  boat  becomes  its  own  grubber,  the  de)ith 
at  which  the  mud-fan  shall  ojieiate  being  regulated 
by  introduction  of  water  into  compartments  of  the 
vessel.  The  dredger  nuiy  oju-rate  by  plowing  a 
channel  through  a  sand  or  mud  bar,  the  latter  pre- 
sumably, as  it  has  been  constructed  to  keep  ojien 
the  mouths  of  the  Mississippi,  allowing  the  current 
to  carry  ofl'  the  loosened  matter.  A  scoop  is,  how- 
ever, to  be  rigged  forward  to  plow  into  the  nuid, 
when  the  di'eilger  will  back  off  with  its  load,  carry 
it  out  to  sea,  and  dump  it.  The  length  of  the  ves- 
sel is  154  feet  8  inches  ;  depth  of  hold,  30  feet,  and 
about  23  feet  beam.  She  has  a  screw  at  the  after 
end  with  3  blades,  12  feet  diameter  and  14  feet  pitch, 
for  propelling  exclusively  ;  and  one  at  the  forward 
end  with  six  blades,  14  feet  diameter,  and  weighing 
23,900  pounds.  This  screw  performs  two  offices  : 
impelling  the  vessel  through  the  water  by  a  draw- 
ing-on  process,  and  digging  into  the  mud  and  .sand. 
It  is  worked  by  two  oscillating  engines,  40-incli  bore 
and  4-feet  stroke.  The  three-bladed  jiropeller  is 
driven  by  a  similar  single  oscillating  engine.  The 
steam  is  generated  in  five  tubular  boilers  aniidship. 
Besides  the  six-bladed  screw  for  digging,  there  is 
also  a  large  scoop  or  dr.ag,  in  the  shape  of  a  half- 
cylinder,  12  feet  deep,  20  feet  Ion",  and  will  drag 


DREDGER. 


747 


DREDGING-MACHIXE. 


away  fifteen  tons  of  miKl  or  sana  at  a  load.     This 
scoou  is  saspenJed  from  two  davits  overhanging  the 
how,  and  is  managed  by  a  pair  of  hoisting- 
engines  forward.  J 

The  usual  mode   of  working  is  this :   The 
boat  is  first  driven,  light,  as  far  into  the  mud- 
bank  as  possible.      Tlien   the   scoop,   which 
hangs  suspended  from  the  davits,  is  let  go  on 
the  run.      Its  great   weight    carries  it  far 
into  tlie  mud.    Then  the  liig 
six-bladed   screw   is  set  in 
motion,    and   at   the    same 
time  the  propeller   at  the 


1758. 


other  end  commences  whirling  to  pull  the  boat  off. 

The  sbc-bladed  propeller  loosens  up  the  mud  and 
adds  to  the  impelling  power,  which, 
when  both  are  working,  is  tremen- 
dous, dragging  the  great  scoop,  with 
its  freight  of  fifteen  tons  of  mud,  out 
to  sea. 

The  dredge-boat  is  registered  at 
1,000  tons  capacity,  yet  she  has  pow- 
er sufficient  for  a  vessel  of  4,000  tons, 
or  four  vessels  of  her  own  size.  As 
the  mud  is  worked  away,  the  sinking 
tanks  are  gradually  filled,  the  boat 


Dredge-Boat  for  Excavating. 


settles  deeper  in  the  water,  and  the  digging-appara- 
tus works  in  deeper  mud. 

Dredg'er.  1.  (Hijdraalic  Engineering.)  A  bal- 
last-lighter. A  barge  or  scow  which  scrapes  silt 
from  the  bottom  of  a  stream.     See  Duedgixg-m.a.- 

CHISE. 

2.  {Domestic.)  A  box  with  a  perforated  lid  for 
sprinkling  flour  upon  dough  or  a  dough-board.  A 
drrrjgr.-hn.i:. 

Dredg'ing-ma-chine'.  {HiidmuUc  Enghicer- 
ing.)  A  machine  for  raising  silt,  mud,  sand,  and 
gravel  from  the  bed  of  a  stream  or  other  water,  to 
deepen  the  channel  or  to  obtain  the  material  for  bal- 
last or  for  filling  low  grounds. 

The  dredging-machine  with  a  bo.x  shovel  on  the 
end  of  an  oscillating  arm  is  supposed  to  have  origi- 
nated in  Venice.  It  had  a  beam  50  feet  in  length, 
moving  on  a  pivot-post  erected  in  a  barge  whose 
length  was  50  feet  and  breavlth  2-2.  The  beam  was 
hooped  with  iron,  and  worked  by  a  perpendicular 
screw  of  beech  30  feet  long  ami  15  inches  in  diameter, 
traversing  in  a  uut  in  the  beam,  and  moved  by  bars 
in  the  manner  of  a  capstan.  A  large  iron  spoon, 
holding  2i  cubic  yards  and  provided  with  a  lid,  was 
fixed  to  the  outer  end  of  the  beam.  To  this  spoon 
a  certain  rotation  was  given  by  means  of  ropes  and 

Fig.  1759. 


"=^.r-- 


Dredgers, 

pulley,  the  lid  opening  by  one  motion  and 
the  spoon  filling  with  mud  by  a  second 
motion.  Rotation  of  the  screw  then  de- 
pressed the  inner  end  of  the  beam,  raising 
the  outer  end.  It  took  fifteen  minutes  to 
raise  a  single  scoopful.  Eight  men  in  a 
day  would  raise  60  culiic  yards. 
A  common  and  cheap  form  of  this  machine,  by 
which  sand  is  procured  from  the  bottom  of  rivers, 


consists  of  a  large  shovel  on  a  long  handle,  sus- 
pended by  a  rope  either  from  a  crane  or  a  sweep- 
pole.  The  shovel,  being  lowered,  is  thrust  into  the 
.sand  by  one  man,  when  the  assistant  proceeds  to 
raise  it  and  swing  it  round  over  the  boat,  where  the 
contents  are  dumped. 

This  is  something  similar  to  the  hatj  and  sjJoon 
(Fig.  517),  which  consists  of  an  ii'on  ring  with  a  steel 
lip,  and  a  bag  of  strong  leather  laced  through  holes  in 
the  ring.  The  means  for  working  it  is  a  long  handle, 
a  suspending  rope,  and  a  crane  or  sweep-pole  from  a 
post  in  a  barge,  as  in  the  last  example. 

About  1680,  Meyer,  a  Dutch  engineer,  had  a 
dredging-machine  on  the  principle  of  the  French 
chapelet ;  a  long  trough  being  lowered  to  the  mud, 
and  tr.aversed  by  au  endless  chain  provided  with 
boards  at  intervals.  The  boards  scraped  up  the 
mud  and  carried  it  up  in  the  tiougli,  from  whose 
upper  end  it  was  discharged  into  lighters.  A  horse- 
wheel  was  employed. 

In  the  reign  of  Charles  I.,  Balme  made  a  vertical 
wheel  with  six  buckets,  which  worked  between  boats 
and  raised  mud.  It  was  employed  in  the  fens  of 
Lincolnshire. 

About  1708,  Savery  patented  a  steam  dredging- 
machine  for  raising  ballast  from  the  Tliames. 

In  1796,  AVatt  made  a  steam  dredger  for  deepening 
Sunderland  Harbor. 

The  dredging-machine  described  by  the  Marquis 
of  Worcester  was  "a  water-screw,  but  the  bottom 
made  of  iron  plate,  spade-wise,  which  at  the  side  of 
a  boat  emptieth  the  mud  of  a  pond  or  raiseth 
giavel." 

The  dredging-machine  described  in  the  Theatntm 
Inst  rumen  I  orum  ct  Machinannn,  1578,  was  rather  an 
elevator  than  a  dredger.  The  buckets  were  attached 
to  endless  chains,  which  passed  over  two  drums, 
driven  by  winch-power.     Laborers  filled  the  buckets. 

The  chapelet,  used  by  Perronet  and  other  French 
engineers  in  the  last  century  for  deepening  channels 
ami  removing  the  mud  from  the  interior  of  coff'er- 
dauis  in  preparing  foundations  for  bridges,  was  com- 
posed of  three  rollers,  two  of  which  touched  the 
ground,  and  the  other  was  placed  upon  an  elevated 
timber  scatl'old,  where  the  mud  and  silt  were  de- 
posited. Round  these  rollers  worked  an  endless  chain 
formed  of  large  links,  to  which  were  attached  four  or 
more  sheet-iron  scoops  or  scuttles,  placed  at  regular 


DREDGING-MACHINE. 


748 


DREDGING-MACHINE. 


distances.     Tliese  scoops  were  pierced  with  holes  to 
allow  the  water  to  runoff",  and  had  strong  projecting 


Fig.  1760. 


1.    fmy 


Steam- Dredger. 

teaks  which  dug  into  the  mud  or  earth  below.  The 
chain  was  moved  by  cylinders  whose  projecting 
spikes  entered  the  links  of  the  chain  ;  the  cylinder 
was  rotated  by  a  winch.  As  the  buckets  became  in- 
clined after  turning  over  the  upper  roller,  their  con- 


tents were  discharged  into  a  trough  wliich  conveyed 
away  the  mud. 

The  steam  drcdging-machine,  now  so  commonly 
in  use  in  harbors  liable  to  become  silted  up,  has  a 
succession  of  buckets  on  an  endless  chain,  which 
traverses  on  a  frame  whose  lower  end  is  vertically 
adjustable  so  as  to  regidate  the  depth  at  which  it 
works,  like  the  French  chapelet. 

It  was  first  successfulh'  used  in  England  by 
Huges  in  1804,  who  succeeded,  after  repeated  trials, 
in  making  a  machine,  costing  .?40,0U0,  which  raised 
2,000  tons  per  day  from  a  depth  of  water  of  30  feet. 

The  machine  is  driven  by  a  steam-engine  through 
the  intervention  of  gearing,  steailied  by  a  fly-wheel. 
A  long  shaft  amidships  conveys  the  motion  from  the 
gearing  about  the  engine  to  the  u]i|>erdrum,  around 
which  the  endless  chain  works.  The  Ijuckets  dis- 
charge at  the  stern  of  the  vessel,  dropjiing  the  mud 
into  a  lighter.  The  lower  end  of  the  swiugiug-franie 
is  adjusted  as  to  depth  by  means  of  a  suspensory 
chain,  which  is  wound  upon  a  drum  rotated  by 
clutch-connection  with  the  spur-gearing  when 
necessary. 

The  illustrations  show  a  longitudinal  vertical  sec- 
tion a  ;  a  transverse  section  b,  on  a  larger  scale, 
affording  a  view  of  the  gearing  ;  a  plan  of  the  link 
c,  and  an  elevation  of  the  bucket  d.  Each  alternate 
link  can-ies  a  bucket,  which  is  of  sheet-iron  riveted 
to  a  link.  The  bucket  and  link  are  shown  on  a  still 
more  enlarged  scale. 

The  best  working-angle  for  the  frame  is  45°. 

The    ch'edging-machine    used  in   excavating   the 


1761. 


Dredgins-Machines,  Suez  Canal. 


South  Boston  flats  has  a  scow  80  feet  long,  40  wide, 
and  a  dredge-shovel  and  chain  of  elevating-buckets 
on  each  side.  They  are  advanced  by  chains  running 
to  anchored  scows,  the  shovel  beneath  each  elevator 
raising  the  mud  and  silt,  and  the  buckets  elevating 
the  scooped-up  mass,  which  is  deposited  in  a  scow 
attached  to  the  dredger. 

Duncan's  dredger,  used  on  the  Clyde  in  Scotland, 
has  an  iron  hull  l(il  feet  long,  29  feet  beam,  10  feet 
9  inches  depth  ;  has  water-tight  compartments,  en- 
gine-room, and  quarters  for  the  crew.  It  has  one 
bucket-chain,  thirty-nine  buckets  having  a  capacity 
of  13  cubic  feet  each  ;  dnven  by  gearing  from  a  ma- 


rine engine  of  75  nominal  horse-power.  It  is  moved 
forward  by  a  steam-winch  and  a  chain  to  a  mooring. 
Sixty  dredging-machines  have  been  at  work  at  one 
time  in  excavating  the  Suez  Canal.  They  are  of  two 
kinds,  as  shown  in  the  cuts,  which  need  but  little 
description  to  make  them  perfectly  intelligible.  The 
hulls  are  of  iron,  are  72  or  S2  feet  long ;  one  form 
has  a  lighter  which  gives  stability,  and  foi-ms  a  rest 
for  the  chute,  230  feet  long,  which  deposits  the  ex- 
cavated material  on  spoil-banks,  whose  crests  are  197 
feet  distant  from  the  center  line  of  the  canal.  The 
transjiorting-buckets  have  a  capacity  of  about  5 
cubic  feet,  and  the  delivery  is  twenty  buckets  per 


DREDGING-MACHIKE. 


749 


DRIFT. 


minute.  In  the  other  view  the  chute  rests  on  a  car- 
riage traveling  a  track  on  the  canal-bank.  In  each 
case  the  buckets  are  loaded  by  the  dredging-spoons, 
travel  along  the  chute,  capsize  at  the  end,  and  return 
for  another  load.  The  spoil  not  deposited  on  the 
banks  is  dumped  into  lighters,  and  caiTied  out  and 
disgorged  into  the  deep  waters  of  the  Mediterranean. 
Another  form  of  dredger,  used  at  Chatliam  Dock- 
yard, England,  is  of  the  rotary -pump  class,  having 

Fig.  1762. 


Chatkam  Dockyard  Dredger. 

a  revolving  disk  A  with  an  excavating  screw  B, 
an  up-cast  shaft  E,  and  a  spout  F  which  discharges 
the  material  into  a  lighter  alongside.  The  up-ca,st 
shaft  is  telescopic,  and  is  stayed  by  guys  D.  The 
upwardly  projecting  rod  G  is  the  shaft  of  the  re- 
volving wheel,  and  is  e.xtensible  coincidently  with 
the  telescopic  tube.  H  is  the  steam-engine  con- 
necting by  band-wheel  and  belt  with  the  shaft  G  of 
the  screw  which  excavates  the  mud  C  .ST  is  a 
transverse  beam  of  the  frame  which  rests  on  twin 
boats  1 1. 

Another  mode  of  raising  sand,  silt,  and  mud  is  by 
an  exhausted  receiver  in  the  barge,  connected  by 
an  adjustable  pipe  and  flexible  connections  with  a 


Fig.  1763. 


proposed.     It  differs  in  no  substantial  respect  from 
the  water-ejector.     See  Ejectok. 

Drench'ing-ap-pa-ra'tus.  A  jaw-opener  and 
head-lifter  by  which  drenches  may  be  administered 
to  animals  without  their  being  able  to  bite  the  bottle 
or  horn,  or  the  arm  of  the  operator. 

Drench'ing-horn.  A  cow's  horn,  closed  at  the 
butt-end  and  perforated  at  the  point-end  (like  a 
powder-flask),  to  administer  drenches  of  medicine  to 
aOing  animals. 

Dress.  Applied  to  the  system  of  furrows  on  the 
face  of  a  mill-.stone.     See  JIill-stoxe  DitE-iss. 

Dres'ser-cop'per.  A  vessel  in  which  warps  or 
threads  are  passed  through  boiling  water. 

Dress-guard.  A  wing  on  the  side  of  a  can-iage 
entrance,  to  ijreveut  the  brushing  of  the  dress  against 
the  wheel. 

Dress'ing.     Sizing  of  fabric,  yarn,  or  thread. 

Ttiixrliiig,  or  raising  the  nap  on  woolen  cloth. 

Pri'paiation  of  mineral  ores  for  the  funiace. 

rre]iaration  of  the  surface  of  a  mill-stone. 

Smoothing  the  surface  of  plank  or  of  stone. 

Glossing  of  crape-warp. 

Arranging  symmetrically  the  form  in  the  chase. 

The  complete  planishing  of  sheet-metal  ware  into 
symnjctrical  form,  on  a  stake  or  anvil. 

Dress'ing-bench.  A  bricklayer's  bench  having 
a  cast-iron  plate  on 
which  the  sun-dried  ^^  Fig.  1764 
brick  is  rubbed,  pol- 
ished, and  beaten 
with  a  paddle  to 
make  it  symmetrical. 

Dress'ing-ma- 
chine'.  (Fur  imrn.) 
A  machine  invented 
by  Johnson,  England, 
in  ISOO.  The  hard- 
twisted  yarn  is  sized, 
scraped,  brushed,  and 
dried  by  heat  and  a 
blast  of  air.  The 
object  is  to  remove  the  fuzz  and  give  it  a  slight 
gloss. 

Dress'ings.  The  moldings  and  sculptured  deco- 
rations used  on  a  wall  or  ceiling. 

Drift.  1.  (Machinery.)  A  round  piece  of  steel, 
made  slightly  tapering,  and  used  for  enlarging  a  hole 
in  a  metallic  plate  by  being  driven  through  it. 

The  drift  may  have  a  cutting  edge  merely  upon  its 
advance  face,  or  it  may  have  spirally    cut  grooves 
■which  give  thesides  of  the  drift 
a  capacity  for  cutting,   as  in  Fig.  1765. 

two  of  the  examples  annexed. 


Dressing-Bench. 


spout,  which  is  adapted  to  suck 
in  the  mud,  upon  which  it  rests, 
and  discharge  it  into  the  receiver 
for  removal  and  subsequent  dis- 
charge at  the  lower  valve. 
The  steam  jet  or  ejector  has  also  been  used,  or 


Drifts. 

2.  (iFinivg.)  a.  A  passage  in  amine,  horizontal  or 
nearly  so,  forming  a  road  for  the  extraction  of  ore, 
or  a  drain  for  carrjing  off  the  water.  The  name  is 
derived  from  its  being  driven  in.  Driving  is  horizon- 
tal work  ;  sinking  and  rising  refer  to  the  direction 


DRIFT-ANCHOR. 


750 


DRILL. 


of  work  eitlier  in  shafts  or  in  fullowing  the  course  of 
a  vein.     See  Adit  ;  Gallery. 

b.  The  course  or  direction  of  a  tunnel  or  gallery. 

3.  (ArchUeciurc.)  The  push,  shout,  or  iiorizou- 
tal  thrust  of  au  arch  or  vault  upon  the  abut- 
ments. * 

4.  (Shipbui/diny.)  a.  Drifts  ill  the  sheer  draft 
are  where  the  rails  are  cut  ofl'  and  ended  with  a 
scroll.  Pieces  fitted  to  form  the  drifts  are  called 
drift-jiieces. 

b.  The  difference  in  size  between  a  treenail  and  its 
hole,  or  a  hooj)  and  the  spar  on  which  it  is  driven. 

c.  Tlie  jKirt  of  the  upper  strake  between  the  coach 
and  the  quarter-deck,     hri/l-rail. 

5.  (Gunnery.)  A  priming-irou  to  clean  the  vent 
of  a  piece  of  ordnance  from  burning  particles  after 
each  discharge. 

6.  A  stick  used  in  charging  rocket-cases. 

7.  [Xaitticil.)  The  direction  of  a  current.  The 
leeway  of  a  ship. 

Drift-an'clior.  (Xautical.)  A  triangular  frame 
of  wood,  or  other  similar  contri\'auce,  having  just 
sufficient  buoyancy  to  float,  to  which  a  line  that 
leads  from  the  bows  of  the  ship  is  attached.  It 
keeps  the  vessel's  head  to  wind  when  dismasted,  or 
wlieu  it  is  impossible  to  carry  sail.  See  DiiAu- 
AXCIIOR. 

Drift-bolt.     A  rod  used  to  drive  out  a  holt. 

Drift-iiet  A  tishing-net  about  120  feet  long  and 
20  feet  drrp  ;  corkcd  at  the  ujiper  edge.  Several  of 
these  may  be  connected  lengthwise  and  attached  to 
a  drift-rope, 
ing  to  the  size  of  fish. 

Drift-piece.  {Shipbuilding.)  One  of  the  up- 
right or  curved  pieces  of  timber  that  connect  tlie 
pliiiik-shcr  with  the  (jaiiwalc. 

Drift-pin.  A  hand  tool  of  metal  driven  into  a 
hole  to  sliape  it ;  as  the  drift  which  makes  the 
square  socket  in  the  watch-key.  Holes  in  casting* 
which  are  made  by  cores  may  be  trued  and  trimmed 
in  this  way  better,  sometimes,  than  by  drill  or  tile. 
The  tool  is  of  steel,  shaped  to  suit  the  work,  and 
gro'ind  square  on  the  face.      See  DiiIFT. 

Drift-sail.  One  dragging  overboard  to  diminish 
leeiv.iy.     A  Dkag  or  Duag-anohou  (which  see). 

Drift'way.  (Mining.)  A  passage  cut  under  the 
earth  from  shaft  to  shaft. 

Drill.  1.  A  metallic  tool  for  boring  a  hole  in 
metal  or  hard  material  such  as  stone. 

Its  form  varies  with  the  material  in  which  it 
works.  The  action  in  metal  is  usually  rotative,  aud 
the  tool  has  two  or  more  cutting  edges. 

In  stone  drills  tlie  action  is  rotative  or  reciprocat- 
ing ;  in  the  latter  case  the  tool  is  alternately  lifted 
and  drop|ied.     See  RocK-DUtLL. 

To  drill  a  hole  the  Japanese  have  a  short  awl  in- 
serted in  a  round  piece  of  stick  eight  or  nine  inches 
long.  They  take  the  wood  between  their  toes,  squat 
on  the  ground,  and  make  the  hole  by  rubbing  the 
handle  of  the  awl  between  their  hands. 

The  bone  needles  of  the  ancient  tumuli  builders  of 
Europe  were  drilled  with  stone  drills  ;  tlie  eyes  are 
small,  round,  and  regular.  The  New-Zealanders,  in 
the  time  of  Captain  Cook,  were  able  to  drill  holes 
through  glass  with  bone  tools. 

Of  form  of  drills  :  — 

a  affords  two  views  of  the  ordinary  double-cutting 
drill  used  with  a  bow  ;  the  two  edges  forming  the 
point  meet  at  an  angle  of  from  80°  to  100°. 

i  is  a  drill  fur  cast-iron  with  two  circular  chamfers. 

c  is  a  fiat-ended  drill  for  flattening  the  bottoms  of 
holes. 

d  is  a  duplex  expanding  drill  for  inlaying  es- 
cutcheons on  knife-handles,  etc. 


e  is  a  drill  formed  of  a  cylindrical  wire  tiled  olf  to 
the  diametric  line  and  having  two  facets  on  the  end. 

/  is  a  square  couutersink  drill,  having  a  guide- 
pin  in  the  center. 


Drills, 

g  is  a.  drill  for  cutting  in  one  direction. 
/(,  a  drill  for  horn  and  otlier  objects  liable  to  ag- 
;lutinate,  and  requiring  great  cleaiance. 
i  is  the  usual  form  of  iron  drill. 
j  is  the  cone  countersink. 
A-  is  the  half-round  or  cylinder  lathe-bit. 
I  is  the  rose-bit  for  the  lathe. 
7/1.  is  the  flat-bit  for  the  lathe. 
n  is  the  twist-drill. 
See  under  the  following  list :  — ■ 


Air-drill. 

Archiniedeau-drill. 
Bench-drill. 
Hone-drill. 
Boring-drill. 
Bow-drill, 
lirai'c-drill. 
Breast-drill. 
Burr-drill. 
Cat-rake. 
Center-drill. 
Centrifugal-drill. 
Cherry-driU. 
Churn-drill. 
Corner-drill. 
Colter-drill. 
Cramp-drill. 
Dental-drill. 
Diamond-drill. 
Ditferential-feed  drilling- 
machine. 
Double-drill. 
Drill. 

Drill-barrow. 
Drill-bit. 
Drill-bow. 
Drill-chuck. 
Drill-extractor. 
Drill-grinding  machine. 
Drill-gage. 


Drill-harrow. 
Drill-holder. 
Drilliug-jig. 
Drilling-attachment    for 

lathe. 
Drilliug-macliine. 
DiiU-jar. 
Drill-pin. 
Drill-plow. 
Drill-press. 
Drill-rod. 
Drill-rod  grab. 
Drill-spindle. 
Drill-stock. 
Drill-tongs. 
Ex]iaiiding-drill. 
FIv-drill. 
Grali-drill. 
Grain-drill. 
Hand-brace. 
Hand-drill. 
I'allrtte. 
Persian-drill. 
Piercer. 
Pin-drill. 
Pneumatic-drill. 
Ratchet-drill. 
Rock-drill. 
Socket-drill. 
Tappiug-drill. 


DKILL-CLAMP. 


751 


DEILLIXG-JIACHINE. 


Tire-diill.  Vertical-drill. 

Traverse-driU.  'Well-drill. 

Twist-drill.  Wimble-drill. 

2.  .\  m.icUine    for  sowing  gi-ain   in  rows.     See 
Gr.iix-drill. 

3.  {Fabric. )    A  heavj%  cotton  twilled  goods,  u.sed 
especially  for  lining.     Drilling. 

Drill-clamp.   A  fastening  device  a  for  attaching 
a  drill-holder  or  stock  6  to  a 
Fig  1767.  work-bench. 

Drill-bar'row.  A  seed- 
ing -  machine,  driven  by 
manual  power  in  the  man- 
ner of  a  wheelbarrow.  A 
hand-ilriven  grain-drill. 

Drill-bo'w.  The  bow 
whereby  the  drill  is  recip- 
rocally rotated.  See  Bow- 
Diiai-. 

Drill-chuck.    A   chuck 
in  a  lathe  or   drilling -ma- 
chine for  holding  the  shank 
Drill-Clamp.  of  the  drill.     See  C'HUCK. 

Drill-ex-tract'or.       A 

tool  or  implement  for  extracting  from  deep  borings 

a  broken  or  a  detached  drill  which  in- 

Fig.  1768.      terferes    with    farther    boring.      See 

-<S^i^  Artesian  -  well  ;      AVell  -  boring  ; 

^^^B  Grab. 

f^^^L^^        Drill-gage.  A  tool  for  determining 


the  angle  of  the  basil  or  edge  of  a 
nj  drill.  In  the  example,  the  angular 
/  piece  C  slides  by  means  of  the  thumb- 
screw E  upon  the  part  B,  and  the 
angle  subtended  by  the  two  parts  is 
the  proper  angle  for  the  drill-point. 
The  set-screw  allows  its  adjustment  to 
any  sized  drill. 

Drill-grind 'ing  Ma-chine'.     -\n 
emer}"-wheel  a  and  a  clamp  consisting 
of  a  stationary  part  h  and  a  movable 
part  c  b}'  which  the  drUl  d  is  held  near 
the   point,   while    the  .shank   is  sup- 
ported   by    the    rod    and    extensible 
socket  g.     The  machine  is  arranged  to 
giind  twist  and  fly  drills,  making  cnt- 
ting  edges  of  uniform  angle  and  length, 
thus   insuring   equality  of  cut   upon 
DriU-Gage     both  sides.     Twist-drills  up  to  1  inch 
in  diameter  are  held  in  the  jaws  of  the 
clamp ;  spHt  thimbles  hold  drills  over  1  inch   in 
diameter.      Fast    and 
Fii  1769.  loose  pulleys  on   ma- 

chine, 6  inch  diameter, 
3  inch  face,  which 
should  run  500  revo- 
lutions per  minute. 

Drill-har'row.  A 
harrow  whose  teeth  are 
adapted  to  traverse  in 


the  balks  between  the 
rows  of  plants  in  drUls. 

Drill-hold'er.  A 
stock  for  holding  a 
drill.    See  Chuck. 

Drill'ing-jig.  A 
portable  drilling-ma- 
chine which    may   be  Sellers'!  Drill-  Grinding  Machine. 


dogged  to  the  work,  or  so  handled  as  to  be  readily 
presented  to  it  and  worked  by  hand. 

Drill'ing-lathe.  A  drilling-machine  on  horizontal 
ways  or  shears,  and  thus  resembUng  a  lathe.  See 
Drilling-machixe. 

Drill'ing  -  ma-chine'.  A  machine  carrj-ing  a 
rotating  tool  and  a  means  for  chucking  the  object 
to  be  bored.  These  machines  differ  gi'eatly  in  size 
and  appearance,  in  the  mode  of  presenting  the  tool, 
presenting  and  chucking  the  work. 

The  larger  machines  are  frequently  known  as  bor- 
ing-machincs  (which  see). 

Fig.  1770  has  a  vertical  drill-stock  e  and  vertical 
adjustment  d  b  c  to  the  bed-plate.  The  driving 
portions  h  ij  k  I  and  feeding  devices  m  n  are  evident. 

Fig.  1771  is  a  radial  drilling-machine  in  which 
the  tool,  in  addition  to  the  hoiizontal  and  vertical 

Fig. 1770. 


Vertical  Drill. 

adjustment  of  the  overhung-bcam  b,  has  a  circular 
adjustment  of  the  drill-stock  o  />  in  a  vertical  plane, 
so  as  to  present  the  tool  obliquely  to  the  work.  The 
whole  machine  swings  around  a  stationarv'  post  in  the 
center  of  the  hollow  column  n,  and  the  overhung-beara 
is  verticallj'  adjustable  on  the  latter  by  means  of  a 
screw  c,  actuated  by  power,  brought  into  acrion  by 
the  lever  d  seen  at  the  top  of  the  column.  As  it  is 
desirable  that  no  belts  should  intervene  to  mar  the 
complete  revolving  sweep  of  the  machine,  the  driv- 
ing is  applied  through  the  center  direct  by  shaft  e, 
pulley/,  and  gears  5"  A,  and  transmitted  to  the  up- 
right shaft,  whence  the  horizontal  shaft  carries  it  to 
the  spindle  by  means  of  two  pairs  of  miter-gears,  one 
of  which  is  shown  at  j.     This  arrangement   also 


DRIL1.-JAR. 


752 


DRILI^TONGS. 


Fig.  1771.  provides  furtheconiplete  swivel- 

fh  iiig  ciniiieity  of  tlie  di'ill-spiiidle, 

""^^TllL  ^^  ""'^  ''  '^^^^  '^'-'  used  horizon- 

'__pfe=r=jjaj|/  tally,  vertieallv,  oral  any  angle 

■=^j|=«39'  with  eijual facility.     The  move- 

"^^Mj^  nient  of  the  liead,  inward  and 

"'^"WSrSSSStetS  "'i'^^'"''^  0"  the  arm,  is  acconi- 
^iffSuT"-  "  '~*C^  plished  hy  the  horizontal  screw. 
?'  /  m  n  0  are  the  parts 
for  feeding  forward  or 
^'uf^^*5i|,  retracting  the  drill  2>. 


Radi'at  DriUing-I\Tac/uiie. 


The  table  q  is  for  the  convenience  of  the  smaller 
class  of  work. 

Fig.  1772  shows  Sellers's  horizontal  drilling  and 
boring  machine  for  car-boxes,  with  self-acting  variable 


Fig.  1772. 


speed  TO  drilling-spindle.  See  also  Boi;iXG-M.\cinyE. 

Drill-jar.  A  form  of  stone  or  well-boring  tool  in 
whii/Ii  the  tool-holder  is  lifted  and  dropped  suc- 
cessively. The  drill-rod  is  raised  sufficiently  be- 
tween each  impulse  to  loosen  the  tool  from  its  im- 
pression in  tlie  stone,  and  is  then  dropped  to  give  a 
blow  to  the  tool.  The  tool-shank  screws  into  the 
socket  at  the  lower  end  of  the  piece/'. 

Drill-pin.  (Locksmithing.)  The  pin  in  a  lock 
whii.'li  enters  the  hollow  stem  of  a  key. 

Drill-plate.     A  breast-plate  for  a  hand-drill. 

Drill-plo'w.  A  plow  for  so\ving  grain  in 
drills. 

Drill-press.  1.  A  drilling-machine  in  which  a 
screw  is  made  to  feed  the  drill  to  its  work.  In  the 
illustration,  the  press  is  sliown  in  elevation  and  ver- 
tical section.     It  has  feet  for  bench-work,   and  a 


Fig.  177a 


Fig.  1774 


Drill-Press. 

sling  chain  and  adjustable  sockets  when  used  for 
tapping  pipes. 

2.   A  diilling-machine  of  large  size.     See  Drill- 

ING-,M.\CliINK  ;    BoRlNG-MAnilNE. 

Drill-rod.  The  long  rod,  made  of  sections 
couided  together,  which  reaches  to  the  surface  of 
the  ground  and  carries  the  well-boring  tool  on  its 
lower  end. 

Drill-rod  Grab.  A  clutching-tool  lowered  into 
a  hole  to  engage  with  and  form  a  means  of  \\ith- 
drawing  a  diill-rod  whose  ujiper  jiortion  has  been 
broken  off  or  become  detached. 

Drill-spin'dle.  The  axis  in  which  a  drilling- 
tool  is  stocked  and  on  which  it  rotates  in  a  drilling- 
machine  or  lathe. 

Drill-stock,     a.  A  handle  or  holder  for  a  drill,  in 

Fig.  1775. 


Drill- Stock 

which  it  is  socketed,  and  by  which 
it  is  worked.  Fig.  1775,  a  shows 
the  manner  in  wliicli  the  reciproca- 
tion of  the  nut  in  the  sjiiral  grooves 
of  the  shank  revolves  the  drill  in  a 
uniform  direction. 

i  is  a  drill  with  a  breast-plate  and  a  stock  rotated 
by  lievel-gearing  and  crank.  See  Ratchet-drill  ; 
PEr,si.\N--iii;n.r.,  etc. 

Drill-tongs.    A  tool  in  wliich  one  jaw  forms  a 


BRIP. 


753 


DRIVING-REIN. 


bearing  below  the  object,  and  the  other  cai'ries  the 
tool  and  rotative  apparatus.  The  pressure  is  obtained 
by  pressing  the  handles  together,  and  an  adjustable 
rest  allows  the  purchase  to  accommodate  itself  to 
oblique  surfaces. 

Drip.    The  projecting  edge  of  a  molding  or  corona, 

channeled  beneath. 

Drip-joint     {Plumhing.)     A    mode   of  uniting 

two  sheets  of  metal   in  roofing 

Fig.  1776.  where  the  joint  is  icilh  the  cur- 

,1 rent,  so  as  to  form  a  water  con- 

^^^^^  ductor, 

Drip-Joint.  Drip'ping-vat.     A  tank  be- 

neath a  boiler  or  hanging  frame, 
to  catch  the  overflow  or  drip,  as  that  which  receives 
the  solution  of  indigo  running  from  the  boiler  in 
indigo-factories. 

Drip-pipe.  A  small  copper  pipe  leading  from 
the  waste-steam  pipe  inside,  to  carry  off  the  con- 
densed steam  and  other  hot  water  which  may  be 
blown  into  the  "trap"  at  the  top. 

Drip-stick.  (Stonc-sriwing,)  A  wooden  stick 
whi  li  forms  a  spout  to  lead  water  slowly  from  a  bar- 
rel to  the  stone,  so  as  keep  the  kerf  wet. 

Drip-stone.     1.  A  corona  or  projecting  tablet  or 
molding  over  the  heads  of  doorways,  windows, 
arch-ways,   niches,    etc.      Called   also  a  label  ; 
weather-inoldinrj  ;  tvatcr-fablc  ;  hood-molding,        — ^ 
2.  A  porous  stone  for  filtering. 
Drive.     (Forging.)     A  matrix  formed  by  a  steel 
punch,  die,  or  drift. 

Drive-bolt.    A  dri/l.     A  bolt  for  setting  other 
bolts  home,  or  depressing  the  heads  below  the  gen- 
eral surface. 
Driv'en-well.    A  well  formed  of  a  tube  driven 
into      the      ground 
Fig.  1777.  Fig.  1778.  until   its  perforated 

end  reaches  a 
stratum  containing 
water.  When  the 
tube  is  driven  to  the 
desired  depth,  the 
outer  tube  is  ele- 
vated sufficiently  to 
expose  the  slots  of 
the  tube,  which  is 
secured  to  the 
barbed  point. 

When  the  proper 
depth  has  been 
reached,  a  plunger 
is  placed  in  the 
tube,  which  thus 
forms  a  pump-stock 
of  limited  bore. 

Driv'en--well 
Pump.    A  pump  of 
proportions   and 
construction  adapt- 
ed to  occupy  a  tube 
Driven-Well  Tube,  which       has      been 
driven      into      the 
ground     till     its    lower     end 
has    reached    a    watery   stra- 
tum . 

Drive-out.  (Printing.)  To 
space  widely,  to  make  a  line  of 
copy  fill  out  the  line,  as  when 
a  mass  of  solid  matter  is 
dinded  into  several  talrs, 
each  being  required  to  begin 
■ijid  end  a  line. 

Driv'er.  1.  {OoojKring.)  A 
tool  u.sed  by  coojjers  in  driving 
48 


on  the  hoops  of  casks,  its  tooth  resting  on  the 
hoop. 

2.  (Machin£ry. )  a.  The  wheel  of  a  locomotive  to 
which  the  power  is  communicated.  A  pair  of  drivers 
are  arranged  on  an  axle,  their  cranks  or  wrist-pins 
being  at  an  angle  of  90°,  so  that  one  is  always  in 
an  advantageous  position  for  duty,  relatively  to  the 
piston.  Several  pairs  of  drivers  are  coupled  together 
by  connecting-rods. 

b.  In  gearing,  the  main-wheel  by  which  motion 
is  imparted  to  a  train  of  wheels.  A  mastcr-irliccl,  as 
in  the  example,  where  the  tread-wheel  of  the  har- 

Fig.  1779. 


DHven-Well  Pump. 


Driver. 

vester  is  the  agent  in  driving  the  miter-wheels  and 
crank  of  the  cutter-bar. 

3.  {Milli'ng.)  The  term  is  applied  to  that  which 
communicates  motion,  as  the  cross-bar  on  the  spindle 
by  which  motion  is  communicated  to  the  runner  of 
a  griuding-mill.     A  peg,  catth,  tappet. 

4.  (Bla.sting. )  The  copper  bar  by  which  the 
tamping  is  driven  around  the  pricker  on  to  the 
charge  in  a  bla.st-hole.     A  tamping-ircyn. 

5.  (Xautiail.)  A  four-cornered  fore-and-aft  sail, 
on  the  lower  mast  of  a  ship  ;  its  head,  is  extended 
by  a  gaff,  and  it?,  foot  by  a  hoora.  or  sh^et.    A  s)}anker. 

A  ring-tail  is  a  sail  added  at  the  lee-leech  of  a 
driver. 

6.  (Turning.)  A  bent  piece  of  iron  fixed  in  the 
center-chuck,  and  projecting  so  as  to  meet  the  carrier 
or  ch>g  on  tlie  mandrel  to  which  the  work  is  attached. 

7.  ( IVeariiig.)  The  piece  of  wood  which  impels 
the  shuttle  through  the  shed  of  the  loom. 

8.  A  drift  for  enlarging  a  hole  or  giving  it  an 
angular  shape  not  attainable  by  a  drill.     See  Drift. 

9.  A  stamp  or  punch  ;  the  salient  tool  which  acts 
in  conjunction  with  the  bed,  bottom,  or  bolster, 
tlirough  whose  aperture  the  excised  piece  of  plate  is 
driven. 

10.  {Shipbuilding.)  The  foremost  spur  in  the 
bulge-ways,  the  heel  of  which  is  fayed  to  the  fore- 
siiie  of  the  foremost  poppet,  and  the  sides  placed  to 
look  fore  and  aft  in  a  ship. 

Driv'ing-ax'le.  (Machinery.)  The  axle  of  a 
driving-wheel  ;  the  bearing  portion  rests  in  the 
dri%-ing-box.  The  weight  of  that  portion  of  the  en- 
gine is  supi>orted  by  a  driving-S)_>riiig  upon  the  bo.v. 

Diiv'ing-bolt.  A  -wheelwright's  tool  used  for 
driving  in  nave-boxes. 

Driv'ing-chis'el.    A  chisel  basiled  on  each  face. 

Driv'ing-gear.  That  portion  of  a  machine  which 
is  especially  concerned  in  the  motion  ;  as  the  ])arts 
from  the  cylinder  to  the  wheels,  inclusive,  of  a  loco- 
motive ;  the  ground-wheel  to  the  cutter-bar  pitman, 
inclusive,  of  a  harvester  ;  the  hand-crank  and  gear- 
ing of  a  winch  or  crab,  etc. 

ijriv'ing-rein.  (Snddlery.)  A  rein  which  is 
buckled  or  snapped  to  the  bit-rings  and  passes  back 


DRIVING-SHAFT. 


754 


DROP-HAMMER. 


to  the  driver.  Driving-reins  are  known  in  the  West 
as  lines. 

Driv'ing-shaft.  A  shaft  communicating  motion 
from  the  umtor  to  the  niacliinery. 

Shafting  transmits  power,  but  the  driving-shaft  is 
more  imniciliate  to  the  jiower  ;  the  motor. 

Driv'ing-springs.  The  springs  ti.xed  upon  the 
boxes  uf  the  ihiviiig-axle  of  p  locomotive-engine,  to 
suiiport  the  weight  and  to  deaden  the  shocks  caused 
by  ine<;uhuities  in  the  rails. 

Driv'ing-wrheel.  1.  (Steam-engine.)  One  of  the 
lar;;e  wheels  of  a  loeomotive  to  wliich  the  connecting- 
rods  of  the  engine  are  attached. 

In  the  American  practice  the  eonnecting-rod  is 
usually  coupled  to  a  wrist  on  the  di'jver.     This  may 

Fig.  17 


deeper  than  the  rest,  at  the  sides  of  a  caponniere  or 
in  front  of  an  embrasure. 

Iti.   A  falling  trap-door,  or  hatch. 

Drop-box.  (  Weaving.)  A  shuttle-bo.x  used  in 
tigure-weaving  looms  in  which  each  shuttle  carries 
its  own  color.  The  box  is  vertically  adjustable  by 
means  of  a  pattern-chain  or  otherwise  at  tlie  end  of 
the  shed,  and,  by  automatic  adjustment,  the  shuttle 
holding  the  required  color  is  brought  opposite  to  the 
shed  and  so  as  to  he  struck  by  the  picker. 

Drop'per.  1.  One  form  of  a  reaping-machine  in 
which  the  grain  falls  upon  a  slatted  platform,  which 
is  dropped  occasionally  to  deposit  the  gavel  upon  the 
ground.  (Sieberling's  patent.)  Simultaneously  with 
the  bringing  into  action  of  the  dropper,  a  cut-oH'  is 
brought  down  to  arrest  the  falling  grain  till  the 
iilatform  is  reinstated. 

(Mining.)  2.  Adivaricating  vein,  which  leaves  the 


Driving-Wheel, 

be  coupled  by  outside  connecting-rods  to  other  wheels^ 
of  the  same  size,  so  as  to  make  drivers  of  the  latter. 

In  the  English  practice,  with  cylinders  inside  of 
the  frame,  the  connecting-rods  are  coupled  to  cranks 
on  the  axle  of  the  drive-wheels. 

2.  (Harvester.)  The  wheel  which  rests  upon  the 
ground,  and  whose  fractional  adherence  thereto,  as 
the  frame  is  dragged  along  by  the  team,  is  tlie  means 
of  moving  the  gearing  and  giving  motion  to  the  cut- 
ter and  reel. 

Drog.  (yautical.)  A  bnoy  attached  to  the  end 
of  a  harpoon  line. 

Drogh'er.  (Nautical.)  A  West  India  cargo-boat, 
employed  in  coasting,  having  long,  light  masts  and 
lateen  sails.     Droger. 

Droitzsch'ka.  A  Russian  traveling -caniage. 
See  DllusKV. 

Drone.  (Music.)  The  base-pipe  of  a  bagpipe 
(which  see). 

Drop.  1.  A  machine  for  lowering  loaded  coal-cars 
from  a  high  staith  to  the  vessel,  to  avoid  the  break- 
ing of  the  coal  by  dropping  it  from  a  hight.  It  is  a 
perpendicular  lift  in  wliieli  the  car  is  received  in  a 
movalile  and  counterpoised  cradle  which  is  lowered 
and  returned.  A  falling  leaf  is  projected  outward, 
to  bring  tlie  wagon  over  the  hatchway  of  the  ves- 
sel. 

2.  A  swaging-hammer  which  drops  between 
guides.     See  Drop-hammer. 

3.  {.Architecture.)  An  ornament  depending  from 
the  triglyphs  of  the  Doric  order,  gutta. 

i.  A  suiiplementary  gas-tube  to  lower  a  gas-jet. 
See  Droi'-lkiht. 

5.  A  theatrical  stage-curtain. 

6.  The  depth  of  the  hanger  by  which  shafting  is 
snp[iorted  overhead. 

7.  A  prismatic  pendant  for  a  chandelier,  to  in- 
crease the  brilliancy  of  the  display  by  the  refraction 
of  the  rays  of  light.  It  is  made  of  a  glass  lump 
molded  in  a  pinching-tongs. 

8.  (Nautical.)     The  depth  of  a  sail  amidships. 

9.  (Fortification.)    That  part  of  the  ditch  sunk 


Harvester-  Dropper. 

main  lode  ;  or  a  lode  which  assumes  a  vertical  di- 
rection. 

Drop-flue  Boil'er.  One  in  which  the  caloric 
current  ih'scends  by  one  or  more  steps  or  gradations, 
bringing  it  into  contact  with  parts  of  the  boiler  in 
descending  series  ;  the  object  being  to  cause  it  to 
leave  the  boiler  at  the  lower  part,  where  the  feed- 
water  is  introduced. 

Drop-ham'mer.  A  hammer  in  which  the  weight 
is  raised  by  a  strap  or 


sinular  device,  and 
then  released  so  as  to 
drop  upon  the  object 
below,  which  rests 
upon  the  anvil.  It 
is  used  in  swaging, 
die-work,  striking  up 
sheet-metal,  jewelry, 
etc.  In  Fig.  1782 
the  hammer-strap  is 
drawn  upward  by 
means  of  two  pulleys, 
which  are  brought 
together  so  as  to 
compress  the  strap 
between  them.  One 
of  these,  the  driving- 
pulley,  is  fast  upon  its 
axle  and  turnsin fixed 
bearings,  while  the 
other  turns  loosely 
upon  an  eccentrically 
journaled     axis,    ar- 


rig.  1782. 


Drop- Hammer. 


ranged  also  in  fixed  bearings,  but  so  as  to  be  in- 
capable of  turning  therein  except  as  force  is  applied 
to  it  to  effect  that  object.  To  one  end  of  the  latter 
shaft  there  is  attached  a  horizontal  arm,  the  outer 
end  of  which  is  connected  to  a  hand-lever  or  treadle 


DROP-LIGHT. 


755 


DROVE. 


by  a  connecting-rod. 
By  means  of  these  ap- 
pliances the  eccentri- 
cally journaled  shaft 
can  be  turned  at  will, 
so  as  to  remove  its 
roller  from  contact  with 
the  strap,  and  allow  the 
hammer  to  fall  through 
any  length  of  space  de- 
sired, within  the  limits 
of  the  machine. 

In  Fig.  1783,  the 
hammer  is  raised  by  a 
strap  which  winds  on 
to  the  main-shaft.  By 
means  of  a  clutch,  the 
loose  pulley  is  engaged 
with  or  disengaged 
from  the  driving-shaft, 
to  raise  the  hammer  or 
let  it  fall.  An  elliptical 
pin  is  journaled  in  an 
arm  keyed  to  the  shaft, 
and  works  in  an  an- 
nular groove  in  the  side 
of  the  pulley.  In  one 
position  of  the  pin  it 
will  bite  between  the 
walls  of  the  groove  and 
hold  the  pulley  fast, 
and  when  turned  on  its 
axis  it  will  release  it. 

Drop-Ught     1.    A 

means  foi-  placing  the 

gas-buiTier  at  such  elevation  as  may  be  convenient 

for  reading  or  work,    and    supporting    it   in  place 

without  extraneous  help.     In  Fig.  1784,  a  gas  pas- 


Drop-Hammer. 


Jig.  1784. 


Drop-Lighl. 


sage  being  formed 
through  the  arms 
of  the  lazy-tongs, 
the  bell-light  is 
either  raised  or 
lowered  by  the 
cord  and  pulley  at- 
tached. 

2.  A  stand  for  a 
gas  -  burner  and 
chimney,  adapted  to 
be  placed  on  a 
table,  and  connect- 
ing by  an  elastic 
tube  w'ith  the  gas- 
pipe. 

Drop- 
me'ter. 
An  instru- 
ment     for 
measuring 
out     liquid    drop    by 
drop.     Otherwise 
named     a     dropping- 
botlU  ;  dropping-lube ; 
burette  ;  pipette. 
Drop'ping-tube.  A 
tube     open     at     both 
ends,  the  lower  aper- 
ture being  quite  small. 
The    tube    being 
charged   with   liquid, 
the    finger    is    closed 
upon   the   upper    end, 
and  is  then  relax<'d  to 
such  extent  as  to  allow 


the  hquid  to  exude  in  drops  from  the  lower  end.  It 
is  a  small  velinche. 

The  droppiitg -bottle,  pipette,  burette,  and  droji- 
mctcr  have  a  similar  purpose. 

Drop-press.  A  form  of  power-hammer,  not  un- 
commonly called  a  press,  and  used  for  swaging  as 
well  as  for  ordinary  forging.  The  machine  represented 
has  a  hammer- block  a,  swung  by  a  spring  d  c  from  a 


Fig.  1785. 


Drop- Press, 

wrist  on  a  disk  /,  which  is  rotated  by  the  wheel  g 
on  its  axis  when  the  idler-pulley  h  tightens  the 
band  k  against  the  wheel.     This  is  done  b 


jy  pulling 

on  the  swinging  rod  j  i,  and,  as  soon  as  the  roil  is 
released  and  the  idler  falls  back,  the  loose  band 
runs  over  the  wheel  without  rotating  it.  h  is  the 
anvil.  .See  Duop-Ha.mmei:  ;  DEAD-srituKK  Hammeii. 

Drop-roll'er.  (Printing.)  A  roller  dropping  at 
intervals  tu  draw  in  a  sheet  of  paper  to  the  press. 

Drop— ta'ble.  A  machine  for  lowering  or  raising 
weights,  as  in  the  hatchways  and  cellar-ways  of  city 
warehouses. 

A  machine  for  withdrawing  car  and  locomotive 
wheels  from  their  axles. 

Dros'ky.  A  Sclavonic  four-wheeled  vehicle  in 
which  tlie  passengers  ride  astraddle  of  a  bench,  their 
feet  resting  on  bars  near  the  ground.    A  droitzschka. 

Dro-som'e-ter.  An  instrument  for  measuring 
the  quantity  of  dew  that  collects  on  the  surface  of  a 
body  exposed  to  the  open  air  during  the  night. 

Weidler's  instrument  was  a  bent  balance,  wliieh 
marked  in  grains  the  adilitional  weight  acquired  by 
a  piece  of  glass  (or  a  pan)  of  certain  dimensions,  ow- 
ing to  the  globules  of  dew  adhering  thereto  ;  on  the 
other  end  of  the  balance  was  a  protected  weight. 

Another  drosuinctcr  is  substantially  like  a  rain- 
gage. 

Wells's  drosometer  was  a  tussock  of  wool  weighed 
dry,  and  again  after  the  accession  of  dew.  Gideon 
on  one  occasion  wrung  out  of  a  fleece  ' '  a  bowl  full 
of  water  "  which  was  collected  in  this  way. 

Dross.  The  scum,  .scoria,  slag,  or  recrement 
resulting  from  the  melting  of  metals  combined  with 
e.xti'aneous  matters. 

Drove.  1.  (Masonry.)  a.  A  broad-edged  chisel 
for  stone-masons. 


DROWNED-LEVEL. 


756 


DRUM. 


b.  A  mode  of  jiiirallul  tooling  by  iierpeuJicular 
flutiii;:;  on  the  iiiccs  ol'  hard  stones. 

2.  [Hi/draulic  Engineering.)  A  narrow  irrigating 
ch  mnel. 

Drovrned-level.  (Mining.)  A  depressed  level 
or  ilr:iiiiM.;c'-^'allriy  in  a  mine,  which  aets  on  the 
|n'iii'-i])h'  of  an  inverted  siphon.      A  hlind-Ievci. 

Drowu'ing-bridge.  A  sluice-gate  for  overflow- 
in,:,'  niendows. 

IJrug'get.  (Fabric.)  A  coarse  woolen  fabric, 
fi'lted  or  svoven,  self-colored  or  printed  on  one  side  ; 
used  to  ]irotect  carpets. 

A  similar  but  finer  article  forms  piano  and  table 
covers. 

Drug-mill.  One  for  grinding  medicines  ;  vary- 
in.;  Lu  size  and  construction  according  to  tlie  kind 
of  drug  and  the  resources  of  the  establishment.  The 
Chilian  mill  is  used  for  some  purposes  ;  in  the  more 
usual  form  it  has  a  rotating  cone  in  a  serrated  case, 
like  A  cotTee-mill,  or  adjacent  disks,  like  a  paint- 
mill.      See  Ol;lNIlINi;-MILL. 

Drug-sift'er.  A  perforated  tray  or  sieve  either 
reciprocatinf;  or  lotatory,  inclosed  in  a  casing,  and 
having  a  diawer  beneatli  for  receiving  the  powder. 
It  is  usually  operated  by  a  crank. 

Drum.  1.  {M'lchinenj.)  A  cylinder  over  which 
a  belt  or  liand  jnis-ies. 

When  the  cylinder  bears  a  load,  it  becomes  a  roller. 

A  roller  freijuently  has  gudgeons  to  allow  it  to  be 
dragged,  as  the  agriciUtural  and  garden  rollers. 
Such  a  roller  (having  gudgeons  or  axle),  by  the 
diminishing  of  its  length  sufficiently,  becomes  a 
wheel. 

A  narrow  druin  (belt -hearing  cylinder)  becomes  a 
sheiwe,  pulley,  or  rigger. 

The  barrel  of  a  crane,  windlass,  winch,  or  capstan 
on  which  the  rope  or  chain  winds. 

The  cylinder  on  which  wire  winds,  and  whose 
rotation  pulls  it  through  the  draw-plate. 

The  grinding-ey'inder  or  cone  of  some  mills,  as 
the  coll'ee  or  the  plantation  mill,  etc. 

2.  [Paper-making.)  A  washing-drum  for  rags 
consists  of  a  framework  covered  with  wire  gauze,  in 
the  interior  of  which,  connected  with  the  shaft  or 
spindle,  which  is  hollow,  are  two  suction-tubes  by 
which  the  water,  after  circulating  through  the  rags, 
is  carried  away  in  a  constant  stream. 

3.  (Calico-printing.)  One  name  of  the  cask  in 
whii'li  steam  is  applied  to  printed  fabrics  in  order  to 
fix  the  colors.  It  consists  of  a  hollow  wooden  cylin- 
di-r  with  interior  conveniences  for  suspending  the 
cloths  and  covering  them  with  llannel  ;  after  which 
the  cover  is  a]>])lieil  and  steam  admitted  for  twenty 
or  thirty  minutes. 

i.  (Architcclwre.)  The  bell-formed  portion  of  a 
Corinthian  or  composite  capital. 

5.  (.I/it.si'c.)  A  musical  instrument,  formed  by 
stretching  parchment  over  the  ends  of  a  cylinder  of 
wood  or  over  a  bowl-shaped  metallic  vessel.  The 
skin  of  the  ass  is  a  very  superior  article  for  the  pur- 
pose. If  it  were  veiy  sonorous,  it  would  not  be  sur- 
|M'ising.  The  Greeks  used  the  bones  of  the  ass  for 
making  Hutes,  so  the  animal  hns  almost  as  great  a 
CO  npass  in  death  as  in  life,  which  is  saying  a  great 
deal.     His  range  includes, 

"The  ear-piercing  fife,  the  spirit-stirring  drum/' 

The  drum  was  a  martial  instrument  among  the 
ancient  Egyiitians,  as  the  sculptures  of  Thebes 
testify.  Their  long  drum  (a)  was  like  the  Indian 
tam-tam,  and  was  beaten  by  the  hand.  It  was  about 
IS  imdips  long,  had  a  case  of  wood  or  metal,  and 
heads  of  prepared  skin,  resembling  parchment. 
These  were  braced  by  cords  in  a  maunei-  somewdiat 


similar  to  the  modern.  The  instrument  was  carried 
by  a  belt,  and  was  slung  behind  tlie  back  on  a 
march. 

An  insti'ument  similar  to  the  darabooka  of 
modern  Egypt  is  found  represented  in  the  tombs  ol' 
Thebes.  It  consists  of  a  jjarchment-head  strained 
over  a  funnel-shaped  body  of  pottery,  and  is  played 
like  a  tambourine. 

The  cuts  e  e  show  a  dram  which  was  found  in 
Thebes  by  D'Athanasi,  and  show  how  the  strin{;s 
were  braced.  The  sticks  d,  accomiianying,  show  that 
it  was  beaten  in  the  modern  manner. 

The  derbekkeh  of  modern  Syria  is  similar  to  the 
Egyptian  darabooka,  as  their  names  indicate.  Much 
ornament  is  lavished  upon  the  ca.ses  of  the  Syrian 
instruments,  as  may  be  seen  in  Thomson's  "The 
Land  and  the  Book."  Oriental  nations  have  very 
imperfect  ideas  of  melody  and  harmon}",  but  are 
very  industrious  players  on  the  drum,  castanets,  and 


Fig.  1786. 


jyrums. 

tambourine,  accompanied  by  the  twanging  of  guitars 
and  the  clapping  of  hands. 

The  invention  of  the  drum  is  ascribed  to  Bacchus, 
who,  accoiding  to  I'olygcenus,  gave  his  signal  of 
battle  by  cymbal  and  drum.  It  was,  however,, 
known  in  very  early  ages,  and  in  some  form  or  other 
among  almost  all  nations. 

Drums  of  the  barrel  and  kettle  variety  were  used 
in  Ancient  Greece,  and  were  beaten  by  hand  and  by 
sticks.  The  instrument  came  from  Egypt,  and 
passed  from  Greece  to  Home. 

After  an  interval,  in  which  the  classic  civilization 
made  a  pause,  the  di'tim  was  re-imported  into 
Europe  by  the  Saracens  about  713  ;  its  Arabic  name, 
aUmnhor,  becoming  tambor  in  Sjiain,  tainbour  in 
France. 

The  native  drums  or  tam-tams  of  the  Asiatics  are 
made  of  sonorous  bronze  with  a  skin  covering, 
prcl'erably  a  lizard  skin,  and  are  beaten  by  the  hand. 
They  are'allieil  to  the  dnrahooka  of  Egypt  and  the 
Syrian  drum. 

The  Chinese  and  Maudshu  words  for  drum  are 
onomato|ioetic,  and  are  respectively  kdn-kdn  and 
twiq-tnng. 

The  forms  of  drums  among  the  Japanese  are 
various,—  kettle-drums,  table-drums,  tam-tams,  sus- 
pended tambourines. 

The  drum  of  the  Yucca  Indians  of  Sonora  is  about 
20  inches  in  diameter,  and  consists  of  a  skin 
stretched  on  a  wooden  hoop.  The  .skin  is  apparently 
that  of  a  bufl'alo  calf,  and  is  tightened  by  cords.  It 
has  but  one  head,  like  a  tambourine. 


DRUM-CURB. 


757 


DRUMMOND  LIGHT. 


John  Ziska,  the  Hussite,  ilied  of  the  plague,  and 
before  he  e.xpired  ordered  that  liis  skin  be  made  into 
the  covering  of  a  drum,  to  be  beaten  in  tlie  advance. 

*'  His  name  shall  beat  the  advance,  like  Ziska's  drum." 

This  noted  Pole  fought  the  Emperor  Sigismund, 
1420-22.  Tlie  latter  had  given  a  .safe-conduct  to 
John  Huss,  \sho  was  cited  before  the  Council  of 
Constance.  Huss  was  abandoned  by  the  Emi>eror 
to  his  enemies,  and  was  burned  by  the  Roman 
Catholics,  July  6,  1-115. 

The  modern  drum /is  a  cylinder  of  brass  or  wood, 
overthe  endsof  which  parchment  heads  are  stretched. 
The  tension  is  obtained  by  a  system  of  cords,  and  is 
regulated  by  sliding  knots  of  leather.  The  head 
which  is  beaten  is  called  the  batter-head,  and  the 
opposite,  across  which  two  cords  are  stretched,  the 
snare-head. 

The  snare  dram  has  a  catgut  string  stretched 
across  its  lower  head  to  impart  a  certain  quality. 

The  smaller  drums  are  beaten  with  sticks.  The 
larger,  bass  drum,  is  beaten  with  padded  drum- 
sticks. 

The  large  drum,  beaten  at  both  ends,  is  calleil  a 
double-drum.  Those  hanging  by  the  side  of  the 
druiumer  are  called  side-drums. 

The  kettle-drum  g  is  so  called  from  its  re-semblance 
to  a  hemispherical  kettle.  It  is  formed  of  thiu 
copper,  and  has  a  head  of  parchment  or  vellum. 

The  small  military  drum  is  frequently  called  by 
this  name.  Tliey  are  still  used  in  pairs,  in  the  Eng- 
lish and  Prussian  armies  and  elsewhere,  slung  on 
each  side  of  the  withers  of  a  cavalry  horse.  One 
drum  was  tuneil  to  the  key-note,  and  the  other  to 
the  fifth  of  the  key.  The  tuning  is  by  a  hoop  and 
screws. 

They  are  now  usually  supported  upon  a  trijiod 
ami  used  in  orchestras.  The  tam-tam,  is  the  original 
kettle-drum. 

6.  (Mechanics. )     A  chamber  of  a  cylindrical  form 
used    in    heaters,    .stoves, 
Kg.  1787.  and  Hues.    It  is  hollow  and 

thin,  and  generally  forms 
a  mere  casing,  but  in  some 
cases,  as  steam -drums,  is 
adapted  to  stand  consider- 
able pressure.  The  drains 
in  Fig.  1787  are  radiators, 
and  the  caloric  current  is 
compelled  to  follow  a 
sinuous  course  through  the 
drum. 

7.   A    small    cylindrical 
box  for  holding  fruit.     A 
keg  with  straight  sides. 
Slave-Drum.  Driun-curb.     A  cylin- 

der of  wood  or  cast-iron 
inserted  in  a  hole  which  forms  the  commencement 
of  a  shaft,  to  support  a  brick  structure  or  shaft 
lining.  The  earth  is  dug  awaj'  below  the  edge  of 
the  drum,  and  as  the  latter  sinks  the  courses  of 
brick  aj*e  continually  added  at  the  top. 

Drum  Cyl'in-der-press.  (Printiiui.)  One  hav- 
ing a  large  hollow  cylinder.  A  feature  in  several 
forms  of  jiresses. 

Drum-head.  {Nautical.)  The  head  of  the 
capstin,  having  square  holes  to  receive  the  bars. 

Drum'mond  Light.  Invented  by  Lieutenant 
Drammond,  Royal  Engineers,  during  the  progress 
of  the  Ordnance  Survey  in  England,  about  1826,  to 
supply  a  deficiency  which  wa-s  found  to  e.\ist  in 
the  means  of  making  distant  stations  visilile  from 
each  other.  It  is  made  by  exposing  a  small  ball  of 
quicklime  to  the  action  of  the  oxy-hydrogen  blow- 


pipe, or  the  lime  may  be  placed  in  the  fiame  of  a 
spirit-lamp  fed  by  a  jet  of  pure  oxygen  gas. 

Drummond's  apparatus  was  so  constructed  tliat 
the  lamp  fed  itself  automatically  with  s]pirit  and 
with  oxygen,  supplying  itself  with  balls  of  lime  as 
they  weie  gradually  consumed,  and  was  ]iroviiled 
with  a  parabolic  silvered  co]iper  mirror.  A\'ith  this 
apparatus  the  light  produced  by  a  ball  of  lime  not 
larger  than  a  boy's  marble,  at  Londonderry,  was 
visible  at  Belfast,  a  distance  of  nearly  .seventy  miles, 
in  a  direct  line.  Subseipiently,  Colonel  Colby  made 
a  lime-light  signal  visible  from  Antrim,  in  Ireland, 
to  Ben  Lomond,  in  Scotland,  a  distance  of  ninety- 
five  miles  in  a  straight  line. 

It  is  stated  that,  intensified  by  a  paraliolic  re- 
flector, it  has  been  observed  at  a  distance  of  112 
miles. 

It  is  understood  that  the  first  application  in  prac- 
tice was  when  it  was  required  to  see  Leith  Hill,  in 
Sun-y,  from  Berkhanipstead  Tower,  in  Hertford- 
shire. 

The  practical  application  was  desciibed  in  two 
]iapers  published  in  the  "  Philosophical  Transactions 
of  1826  and  1831." 

The  apparatus  consists  of  a  lamp  which  admits 
oxygen  and  hydrogen  gas  at  the  resjiective  ajier- 
tures  0  h.  The  gases  come  from  separate  holders, 
and  do  not  mix  till  they  reach  the  chamber  c.  Here 
they  pass  tlu'ough  several  thicknesses  of  wire-gauze. 


Drummond^s  Lamp. 

which  prevent  explosion  by  the  reflex  action  of  the 
flame,  and  then  issue  at  two  points,  being  jirojected 
upon  the  liall  b,  which  revolves  once  in  a  miinite  to 
prevent  wasting  at  the  two  points  where  the  fiame 
impinges  upon  it.  A  ball  of  lime  lasts  about  forty- 
five  minutes,  and  a  reserve  of  them  is  kept  upon  the 
wire  a  m,  one  being  released  jieriodically,  and,  falling 
upon  the  curved  support  f,  is  held  in  focal  position, 
the  former  ball  ha\'ing  (b'opped  into  the  cistern 
below,  b  represents  the  focal  ball  in  positifpii  ;  the 
ball  at  7  falls  into  a  position  where  it  liecomes 
gradually  heated  ;  at  the  end  of  that  time  the  curved 
support  t,  moving  on  a  pivot,  is  temporarily  thrown 
out  of  its  normal  position  by  means  of  the  weight 
fF.  The  exhausted  ball  falls  away,  and  a  fresh 
ball   falls   into    the   focus.     The   wire   a    b   jiasses 


DEUM-SAW. 


758 


DRYING-HOUSE. 


through  the  focus  of  the  parabolic  reflector,  and 
holes  are  cut  in  the  reflector  for  the  passage  of  the 
balls  and  for  the  curved  jet-pipes,  which  are  pivoted 
to  the  stand-pipe. 

Drum-saw.  A  cylindrical  saw  for  sawing  curved 
stuff,  staves  I'spi'cially.     A  cijlinder-sav) ;  barrel-saw. 

Drum-wheel.  A  very  ancient  Oriental  form 
of  water-niisini4  wheel  which  was  originally  drum- 
shaped,  but  afterwards  had  scoop-shaped  buckets 
which  dipped  up  water  and  conducted  it  towards  the 
axis,  at  or  near  which  it  was  dischai'ged.  See  Tym- 
panum. 

Drunk'en-cut'ter.  An  elliptical  cutter-head, 
placed  at  such  olilinuity  on  the  shaft  as  to  i-evolve 
in  a  circular  path.     A  vmhblcr. 

Drux'ey.  Timber  in  a  state  of  decay,  with  white 
spouijy  veins. 

Dry-arch.  (Building.)  An  arch  employed  in 
tlie  foundations  of  buildings  for  the  purpose  of  keep- 
ing them  dry. 

Dry-cast'ing.  The  process  of  casting  in  which 
the  uiulds  are  made  from  sand,  and  subsequently 
drird. 

Dry-dock.  A  dock  from  which  the  water  is 
withdrawu  after  the  vessel  has  floated  into  it.  Ad- 
vantage is  genei'ally  taken  of  the  flow-tide  to  in- 
troduce the  vessel,  and  of  the  ebb  to  withdraw  the 
water.  Tlie  water  flows  out  by  sluices,  and  the  gates 
l)oint  outward  to  resist  the  re-entrance  of  the  water. 
A  graviii'j-do'-Jc. 

After  the  great  shiji  of  Ptolemy  Philopator  was 
afloat,  "a  Phoenician  devised  a  new  method  of 
docking  it  by  digging  a  trench  close  to  the  harbor, 
equal  to  the  ship  in  length.  In  this  trench  he  built 
props  of  solid  stone,  5  cubits  high,  and  across  them 
he  laid  beams  crosswise  running  the  whole  wiilth 
of  the  trench  at  four  cubits  distance  from  each  other  ; 
and  then  making  a  channel  from  the  .sea  he  tilled 
the  e.'ccavated  space  with  water  and  floated  in  the 
vessel.  Then  reolosing  the  entrance,  he  drained  the 
water  olf  by  means  of  engines  ;  and  when  this  had 
been  done  the  vessel  rested  securely  on  the  cross- 
beams."—  Callixenus's  Account  of  Alexandria, 
quoteil  by  AtheNiEUS  in  his  Deipnosophisls,  A.  D. 
2-20. 

This  ship  was  200  cubits  long  ;  38  cubits  beam  ; 
48  cubits  midsliip-hight. 

Of  the  United  States  dry-docks  at  South  Brooklyn, 
No.  1  is  500  feet  long,  60  feet  wide  at  bottom,  anil 
capable  of  receiving  ves.sels  of  12  feet  draft  at  low 
water,  or  18  feet  at  high  water.  No.  2  is  447  feet 
long,  and  receives  vessels  drawing  17  feet  at  low  wa- 
ter, and  22  feet  at  high  water.  By  means  of  a  cen- 
tral gate  this  dock  may  be  divided  into  two  separate 
parts,  each  forming  an  independent  dock.  The 
pumping  is  done  by  means  of  a  superior  horizontal 
engine  of  100-horse  power,  and  two  oscillators  of 
50-horse  power  and  30-horse  power  respectively. 
The  former  of  these  engines  connects  with  a  double 
centrifugal  pump  of  mammoth  ]iroportions,  and  with 
a  capacity  for  pumping  and  discharging  40,000  gal- 
lons of  water  per  minute.  At  this  rate  the  average 
time  required  for  completely  relieving  the  docks 
from  water  is  about  three  and  a  half  hours  ;  the 
docks  when  full  contain  8,000,000  gallons  of  water. 
The  oscillators  are  attached  to  centrifugal  pumps 
used  for  drainage,  or  keeping  the  docks  free  from 
water  wlien  occupied  by  vessids.  Their  average 
ca]iacity  is  about  1,000  gallons  each  per  minute. 

Dry'er.  A  machine  or  apparatus  for  evaporating, 
driving  off  superfluous  moisture,  desiccating.  The 
term  is  applied  to  a  certain  class  of  machines,  and 
yet  no  absolute  line  can  be  drawn  between  it  and 
ovens,  kilns,  etc.     See  :  — 


Bagasse-dryer. 

Barrel-dryer. 

Cloth-dryer. 

Feather-renovator. 

Fruit-dryer. 

Grain-dryer. 

Kiln. 

Lumber-diyer. 


Malt-dryer. 

Jlanure-desiccator. 

Oast. 

Ottal-dryer. 

Oven. 

Paper-dryer. 

Wool-dryer. 


1.  The  heated  tables  or  cylinders  which  expel  the 
moisture  fi-om  the  just-formed  paper,  in  the  nuichine. 

2.  Tlie  oven  which  evaporates  the  moisture  from 
ceramic  work,  giving  the  pieces  a  certain  degree  of 
rigidity  and  desiccation,  when  they  are  fit  for  the 
subsequent  operations,  according  to  their  purpose 
and  quality.     See  Pottery. 

3.  An  oven  for  drying  fruit. 

4.  A  kiln  or  heated  cylimler  for  drying  grain. 

5.  A  closet  for  drying  clothes  or  cloth. 

6.  A  core  stove. 

7.  In  painting,  a  preparation  to  increase  the  dry- 
ing and  hardening  properties  of  paint. 

a.  Litharge  ground  to  a  paste  with  drying  oil. 

b.  AVliite  co]qieras,  or  sugar  of  lead,  and  drying  oil. 
Dry-gild'ing.     A  mode   of  gilding,  by  steeping 

linen  rags  in  a  solution  of  gold,  burning  the  rags, 
and  then  with  a  piece  of  rag  dii>ped  in  salt-water 
rubbing  the  ashes  over  the  silver  intended  to  be  gilt. 

The  method  was  invented  in  Gemiany,  and  is  first 
described  in  England  in  the  "Philosophical  Trans- 
actions" fur  ItiBS. 

Dry-grind'ing.  The  cutler's  mode  of  sharpen- 
ing and  polishing  steel  goods  on  a  grindstone,  with- 
out water. 

It  is  very  injurious  to  the  health.  Two  remedies, 
or  rather  protections,  are  afforded  :  1.  Aer.\h All's 
nwgnclic-rctjnriitm;  which  arrests  the  particles  of 
steel.  See  Kespiratcjr.  2.  Exposure  of  liut  a  small 
portion  of  the  stone,  and  a  tube  in  the  immediate 
vicinity  of  the  work  to  carry  off  all  the  dust. 

Dry'ing.  The  exposure  of  crystallizing  magma 
sirup  in  a  centrifugal  niacdiine, where  the  molasses  is 
diained  from   it  by  mechanical  action.     See  Cen- 

TRIFfRAL-MAlHINE. 

Dry'ing- 
house.     An 

apartment  in 
which  any- 
thing is  ex- 
posed to  a  cur- 
rent of  air  mod- 
erately heated  ; 
it  is  not  easy  to 
draw  the  line 
between  an  ov- 
en, a  di'yer,  and 
a  kiln  :  the 
words  are  used 
with  some  de- 
gree of  care- 
lessness, and 
have  become 
technical  in 
trades.  Cores 
are  dried  in 
oven.s ;  pottery 
in  ovens  or  bis- 
cuit -kilns  ; 
fruit,  lumber, 
and  wool  in  dry- 
ers :  grain  in 
drijrrs  or  Icilns  ; 
malt  in  oasts; 
clothes   in  hot-  Drying- House. 


Tig.  17: 


DRYING-MACHINE. 


759 


DUCK'S-FOOT  PROPFXLER. 


closets:  feathers  in  renovators.  The  illustration 
shows  a  dryer  which  has  a  drying-chamber  com- 
prising a  central  chamber  and  one  or  more  wings 
hinged  thereto,  and  mounted  on  wheels  or  casters  for 
the  purpose  of  ready  access  to  the  chamber  and  for 
removal  from  place  to  place.  On  one  side  is  a  suitable 
provision  for  drying  clothes,  and  on  the  other  for 
drying  fruits.  In  the  central  chamber  is  a  stove 
and  apjiaratus  for  heating. 

Dry'mg-ma-chine'.  The  machine  for  drying 
pnnted  calicoes  is  shown  by  a  vertical  longitudinal 
section  at  A,  Fig.  1790.  The  apparatus  is  in  a  hot 
room,  and  has  a  series  of  heated  steam  chests  and  cyl- 


Fig.  1790. 


Ctotk  drying  Machine. 

inders  with  upper  and  lower  rollers,  over  which  the 
cloth  is  exposed  to  the  drying  air  of  the  apartment. 
The  arrows  indicate  the  course  of  the  cloth. 

B,  Fig.  1790,  is  a  perspective  view  showinga  series 
of  heated  cylinders  upon  which  starched  cotton  or  lin- 
en cloth  is  successively  wound,  drying  and  ironing  it. 

Similar  drying  cylinders  are  used  in  paper-making 
machines,  both  the  cylinder  machines  and  those  of 
the  Fonrdrinier  pattern,  in  which  the  sheet  of  pulp 
is  felted  on  an  agitated  horizontal  web. 

Dry'ing  Off.  The  operation  in  gilding  by  which 
the  amalgam  of  gold  is  evaporated. 

Dry'ing— room.  The  apartment  in  which  articles 
or  initerials  are  dried  ;  as,  gunpowder,  calico,  cores, 
and  what-not.      Sometimes  a  kiln. 

Dry'ing-stove.  A  place  where  cores  for  casting 
are  dried. 

A  stove  for  desiccating  fruit,  drj-ing  clothes,  etc. 

Dry-me'ter.  A  form  of  gas-meter  in  which  no 
liijuid  is  used.     See  G.\s-meter. 

Dry-pile.  A  voltaic  battery  in  which  the  plates 
are  separated  by  layers  of  farinaceous  paste  com- 
bined with  a  deliquescent  salt.  Known  as  De  Luc's 
Column. 

Dry— pipe.  {Steam -engineering.)  A  pipe  which 
conducts  dry  steam  from  the  boiler.  The  steam  is 
collected  in  snch  a  manner  as  to  be  free  from  priming. 

Dry-point.  (Eiuiraving.),  The  work  of  an  etch- 
ing-point upon  a  plate,  unaccompanied  with  the 
use  of  acid,  to  deepen  the  line  so  made. 


Dry-press.  (Printing. )  One  in  which  the  printed 

sheets  are  pressed  smooth. 

Dry-sand.  (Custi7itj.)  A  mixture  of  sand  and 
loam  which  are  enijiloyed  in  making  molds  subse- 
quently dried  in  an  oven. 

Dry-Stove.  A  hot-house  whose  atmosphere  is 
adapted  hygrometrically  for  preserving  the  plants  of 
arid  climates. 

Du'al-ine.  Carl  Ditmar's  patent,  Ko.  98,854, 
January  IS,  1870.     The  composition  is  :  — 

Nitro-glycerine    .         .         .50  per  cent. 
Fine  sawdust    .         .         .         30         " 
Nitrate  of  potassa         .         .20         " 

Compared  with  dynamite,  it  is,  1.  More  sensitive  to 
heat,  and  also  to  mechanical  disturbances,  especially 
when  frozen,  when  it  may  even  be  exploded  by 
friction  ;  2.  The  sandust  in  it  has  little  affinity 
for  the  nitro-glycerine,  and  at  best  will  hold  but  40  to 
50  per  cent  of  nitro-glycerine,  and  on  this  account 
very  strong  wrappers  are  needed  for  the  cartridges  ; 
3.  Its  specific  gravity  is  1.02,  which  is  50  per  cent 
less  than  that  of  dynamite,  and  as  nitro-glycerine 
has  the  same  explosive  power  in  each,  its  explosive 
power  is  50  per  cent  less  than  that  of  dynamite  ; 
[bulk  for  bulk  ?]  4.  The  gases  from  explosions,  in 
consequence  of  the  dualine  containing  an  excess  of 
carbon,  contain  carbonic  oxide,  and  otiier  noxious 
gases.  Lithofractenr  and  dualine,  however,  can  be 
exploded,  when  frozen,  by  means  of  an  ordinary 
fulminating  cap,  which  is  not  the  case  with  dy- 
namite. —  Journal  of  Applied  CIteinistnj. 

DubTjing.  1.  {Leather  Manufuclurc.)  A  mix- 
ture of  fish-oil  and  tallow  which  is  used  to  protect 
leather  against  the  action  of  water.  It  is  rubbed 
into  the  hide  after  currj'ing,  and  is  also  freely  used 
upon  the  hose  of  fire-engines  and  the  boots  of  per- 
sons exposed  to  wet.     jjaubing. 

Another  recipe ;  Resin,  2  pounds ;  tallow,  1 
pound  ;  train-oil,  1  gallon. 

2.  {Plastering.)  Filling  up  with  coarse  stuff  ir- 
regularities in  the  fiice  of  a  wall  previous  to  finishing 
it  by  plaster. 

3.  Dressing  off  smooth  with  an  adze. 

Dub'bing-out.  (Plustering.)  A  system  of  bring- 
ing an  inieven  surface  to  a  plane  by  attaching  ]iiecea 
of  tile,  slate,  lath,  or  other  matters,  to  the  w  all  be- 
neath. 

A  projection  may  he  made  on  a  wall  by  the  same 
means  ;  jneces  being  attached  to  the  wall  and  cov- 
ered with  plaster  brought  to  shape  by  the  trowel. 

Dub'bing-tool.  An  instrument  for  paring  down 
to  an  e\'en  surface.      An  adze. 

Du-cape'.     {Fabric.)     A  rich  silk. 

Duck.  (Fabric.)  A  flax  fabric  lighter  and  finer 
than  canvas. 

Duck's-bill  Bit.  A  wood-boring  tool  adapted 
to  be  used  in  a  brace. 

It  has  no  lip,  but  the  screw-cylinder  which  forms 
the  barrel  of  the  tool  terminates  in  a  rounded 
portion  whose  edge  is  shai-pened  to  form  the  cutter. 
See  Bit  ;  Boiung. 

Duck's-foot  Pro-pener.  A  collapsing  and 
expanding  propeller  which  oH'ers  but  little  resistance 
in  the  non-effective  motion,  but  expands  to  its  full 
lireadtli  in  delivering  the  effective  stroke,  fomiing  a 
kind  of  folding  oar  which  opens  to  act  against  the 
water  when  pushed  outward,  and  closes  when  dra^vn 
back  at  the  end  of  the  stroke. 

The  idea  was  taken  from  the  foot  of  a  duck,  and 
was  first  tried  by  the  celebrated  Bernoulli,  after- 
wards by  Genevois,  a  Swiss  clergyman,  about  1757  ; 
then  by  Earl  Stanhope  about  1SC3.  It  was  used  on 
the  river  Thames  about  1830. 


DUCTILIMETER. 


760 


DUMB-WAITER. 


Nairn's  propclUny  apparatus,  English  ijatent, 
1828,  has  the  contractile  retreat  and  expanding  ad- 
vance, the  advance  being  understood  to  mean  the 
elieetive  stroke. 

Duc'ti-lim'e-ter.  An  instrument  invented  hy 
M.  Ri'gnier  lor  ascertaining  the  relative  ductility  of 
metals.  The  metal  to  be  tested  is  subjected  to  the 
action  of  blows  from  a  mass  of  iron  of  given  weight 
attached  to  a  lever,  and  the  effect  produced  is  shown 
upon  a  gnuluated  arc. 

Duc-til'i-ty.  The  quality  of  adaptedness  for 
di-awing  into  wire  ;  as  malleability  is  for  being 
beaten  into  leaves. 

The  order  of  metals  in  these  two  respects  is  as 
follows  :  — 


Ductility. 

Gold. 

Silver. 

Platinum. 

Iron. 

Copper. 

Zinc. 

Tin. 

Lead. 

Nickel. 


Malleability. 
Gold. 
Silver. 
Cojiper. 
Tin. 

Platinum. 
Lead. 
Zinc. 
Iron. 
Nickel. 


Duc'tor.  A  gage  or  straight-edge  to  remove 
superlluous  material,  as  one  on  the  color-roller  of  a 
calico-printing   machine,   inking-roUers,   etc.      See 

DllOTllR. 

Duc'tor-roll'er.  {Printing.)  A  roller  to  con- 
duct ink  to  anotlier  roller  or  cylinder. 

Duffels.  (Fabric.)  A  thic^k,  coarse  kind  of 
woolen  cloth  having  a  thick  nap  or  frieze. 

Dug-out.  A  canoe  formed  of  a  single  log  hol- 
lowt'il  out,  or  of  parts  of  two  logs  thus  hollowed  out 
and  al'terwards  joined  together  at  the  bottom  and 
ends.     .See  Cvnoe. 

Dul'ci-an'a.  (lUasic.)  A  metallic  mouth-pipe 
stop  tuned  in  unison  with  diapason,  and  having  rela- 
tively long  and  narrow  pi])es  which  produce  a  certain 
sweetness  of  tone.     See  Stop. 

Dul'ci-mer.  The  dulcimer  is  supposed  to  be 
identical  with  the  psaltery  of  the  Hebrews.  It  is 
frequently  mentioned  in  Scripture.  The  modern 
dulcimer  consists  of  a  bo.x  with  a  cover  which  forms 
a  sounding-board,  and  has  a  number  of  wire  strings 
stretched  over  a  bridge  at  each  end.  It  is  played 
by  elastic  rods  with  pellets  of  cork  at  the  ends.  The 
number  of  strings  is  usually  about  fifty. 

"  Here  [at  the  puppet  play  in  Covent  Garden], 
among  the  tiddlers,  1  first  saw  a  dulcimere  [ilayed 
on  with  sticks  knocking  of  the  strings,  and  is  very 
pretty."  —  Pkpys's  Diary,  May  24,  1662. 

"The  Javanese  gimhang  has  wooden  and  brass 
bars  of  dilferent  lengths  placed  cro.sswise  over  a 
wooden  trougli.  They  are  struck  by  small  sticks 
with  a  ball  of  pith  at  the  end."  —  Bick.more's 
2'riivc's  ill  t/w.  Indian  Archipelago. 

Du'ledge.  The  dowel-pins  of  the  fellies  of  a 
gnn-carriagi'  wheel. 

Dum.  (Mining.)  A  frame  of  wood  like  the  jambs 
of  a  door,  set  in  loose  gi-ound  in  adits  and  places  that 
are  weak  and  liable  to  fall  in  or  tumble  down. 

Dumb-bell.  An  exercising  weight  consisting  of 
a  handle  with  an  olilate  sphere  at  each  end. 

a  is  the  ordinary  dumb-bell. 

ft  is  a  dumb-bell  in  which  the  weight  is  graduated 
by  constfJcting  it  of  a  series  of  shells,  one  over  the 
other,  which  may  be  removed  at  pleasure. 

c  is  Windship's  dumb-bell,  which  has  a  number 
of  weights  slipping  on  a  tube,  and  having  washers 
and  keys  to  hold  firmly  any  number  that  may  be 
desired. 


The  haltcres  of  the  Romans  and  Greeks  were 
weights  used  for  exercising  and  leaping.  One  was 
grasped  in  each  hand  and  they  were  swayed  to  in- 
crease the  momentum  of  the  body  when  vaulting. 

The  disctis  was  a  circular  stone  or  plate  of  metal, 
and  was  thrown  from  a  fixed  spot  to  a  distance. 

Fig.  1791. 


Our  quoits  are  rings  which  are  thrown  on  to  or  as 
near  as  possible  to  a  stake,  being  a  game  of  skill 
rather  than  of  strength.  In  country  places  horse- 
shoes are  often  used. 

The  Scotch  game  of  "putting  the  stone."  or 
throwing  the  hammer,  resembles  the  hurling  of  the 
lump  of  iron  in  the  funeral  games  of  the  Greeks.  A 
heavy  mass  of  a  spherical  form  (solos)  was  perforated 
at  the  center  to  receive  a  thong  or  rope  which  formed 
the  handle.  In  the  form  of  the  discobolia  it  is  yet 
used  by  the  mountaineers  in  the  canton  of  Appen- 
zell,  in  Switzerland. 

In  the  Scotch  game  of  curling,  the  stone  or  iron 
block  is  propelled  along  the  ice  to  a  stake  or  base, 
called  the  "pee,"  the  object  being  to  land  it  as  near 
"home"  as  possible  and  dislodge  opponents. 

Dumb-fur'nace.  A  ventilating  furnace  for 
mines,  so  con- 
trived that  the  Fig.  1792. 
foul  inflam- 
mable air  from 
the  more  re- 
mote parts  of 
the  mine  shall 
not  be  brought 
in  contact 
with  the  fire 
at  the  mouth 
of  the  up-cast 
shaft  a.  This 
is  effected  by 

causing  the  air  from  those  parts  to  be  introduced 
into  the  shaft  by  a  separate  passage  b  entering  the 
shaft  some  distance  above  that  from  the  furnace. 

Dumb-plate.  (Steam.)  The  dead-plate  ot  jiot- 
tion  of  the  furnace  bottom  close  to  the  doors,  which 
has  no  air  apertures  or  spaces. 

Dumb-^rait'er.  A  movable  frame  for  conveying 
food,  etc.,  from  one  story  or  room  of  a  building  to 
another. 

The  ordinary  form  is  a  suspended,  counterpoised 
cupboard  a,  moving  within  a  vertical  chute,  which 
has  openings  at  the  respective  stories,  at  whiidi  the 
dishes  may  be  placed  on  the  shelves  and  removed 
therefrom. 

The  dumb-waiter  of  the  Pentonville  Prison,  Eng- 
land, consists  of  a  cupboard  b  hoisted  by  means  of  a 
winch,  and  containing  trays  which  are  removed  from 
the  cnpboai-d  and  placed  on  a  carriage  c  which  |-uns 
on  the  hand-railing  a!*  of  the  balconies  on  opposite 
sides  of  the  corridor.  This  prison  is  conducted  on 
the  separate,  silent  system,  and  as  the  carriage  trav- 


Dumb-FuTnace. 


DUMMY. 


761 


DUMPING-CAR. 


Fig.  1793.  erses    along     the 

corridor,  attend- 
ants at  each  end 
stop  the  carriage 
opposite  the  doors 
of  the  cells  in 
succession,  and 
distribute  the 
food  to  the  in- 
mates. 

Duin'my.  1 . 
A  locomotive  with 
condensing  en- 
gines for  city 
travel,  and  con- 
sepiL'utly  avoid- 
ing the  noise  of 
escaping  steam. 
See  Street-loco- 
motive. 

2.  A  floating 
barge  connected 
with  a  pier. 

3.  (Hat-mak- 
ing.) A  tool  of 
bo.\-\vood,  shaped 
like  a  smoothing- 
iron,  and  used  by 
hat-makers  in 
glossing  the  sur- 
face of  silk  hats. 

Dum'my-car. 
A      passenger-car 
having  an  engine 
ami   boiler  in   an 
ent-lcompartment. 
Dumb-sin'- 
gles.  Silk  thread 
foi'med  of  several 
spun      hlaments, 
associated    and 
twLsted   togetlier. 
Several        dumb- 
singles   combined 
ami    twisted    to- 
gether     form 
thrown-sinrjlcs. 
Dump-bolt.      {Shipbuilding.)     A     short    bolt 
driven    in    to   liold   planks   temporarily,    until   the 
through  liolts  are  driven. 

Dump'ing-buck'et  (Mvaincj.)  A  hoisting- 
bucket  in  a  sliaft  so  swung  as  to  be  tipped  for  the 
disch:irge  of  its  load,  or  having  a  bottom  which  is 
closed  by  a  latch,  but  may  be  swung  open  for  drop- 
ping the  contents. 

Dvunp'ing-car.  Dumping-cars  are  used  in  con- 
structing and  ballasting  railroads,  excavating  and  fiU- 
mg  in,  canal  and  dock  building,  for  carrying  ores, 
etc. 

Fig.  1794. 


Dumb-  Waiters. 


The  car  a  has  shutters  in  the  bottom  which  ari 

allowed  to  fall  when  a  bolt  or  button  is  withdrawn. 

The  tilting  car  6  has  a  bed  secured  by  a  longitudina) 

bolt  to  the  frame,  and  may  be  tilted  sideways  so  aa 

Fig.  1795. 

1  n 


Al 


Dumping-  Cars. 

to  discharge  its  load  over  the  wheels  outside  the 
track.  Hooks  retain  the  bed  in  a  level  position  till 
the  car  reaches  the  place  to  dump  the  gravel.  Dump- 
ing-cars are  made  to  discharge  at  end  or  side  (rf),  or 
to  swivel  and  dump  in  any  direction  (e).  The  load 
is  about  2A  cubic  yards. 

Fig.  1798. 


Dummy- Car. 


English  Dumping- Car. 


DUMPING-CART. 


762 


DUPLEX-ESCAPEMENT. 


Fig.  1797. 


Fig.  1800. 


Dumping-  Cart. 

Dump'lng-cart.  One  having  a  bed  hinged  to  the 
axle  and  ca|]iible  of  being  tipped  to  discharge  its 
load.  Ill  the  example,  as  the  cart  or  wagon  body 
is  tipped  up  to  duni|i  tlie  load,  tlie  tail-board  will  be 
raised  autoniatioally,  and  will  drop  back  again  into 
place  and  I'asten  itself  as  the  said  body  is  again 
raised  into  a  horizontal  position. 

Dump'iiig-reel.  An  arrangement  in  a  harvester 
for  dropping  tlie  gavels  of  grain.  The  cut  grain  falls 
against  one  of  the  reel-bars,  which  hold  it  up  till  a 
gavel  is  collected.  The  reel  then  makes  a  partial 
rotation,  dropping  what  has  been  collected  in  the 
rear  of  the  cntter-bar,  and  bringing  another  bar  into 
po.sitioii  for  collecting  another  gavel. 

Dump'ing-sled.  One  with  an  arrangement  for 
sliding  back  the  bed  so  that  it  may  overbalance  and 
tip  out  the  load.     The  bo.x  is  hinged  to  the  rear 

Fig.  1798. 


Ihtmping-Sied. 

bolster  so  as  to  tip  and  dump  the  contents  when  the 
bed  is  run  back.  This  is  done  by  removing  a  catch, 
when  the  draft  of  the  team  on  the  tongue  draws 
upon  a  rope  and  runs  the  box  to  the  rear. 

Dump'ing-'wag'on.  One  with  an  aiTangement 
for  discliarging  tlie  contents.  In  Fig.  1799  the 
hinged  sections   constituting  the  bottom  may  be 

Fig.  1799. 


Dutnpins-  Wason. 


GTavel^Wag<yn. 

swung  down  to  dump  the  load.  Each  section  is  in- 
dependently held  by  a  latch,  and  each  latch  may  be 
operated  by  its  appropriate  lever  at  the  right  hand 
of  the  driver,  so  as  to  deposit  the  contents  of  the 
wagon-bed  in  three  separate  piles. 

Fig.  1800  has  a  wagon-bed  which  runs  back  on 
rollers  by  power  applied  through  a  winch  and  ropes. 
By  a  change  of  the  tackle  the  bed  is  replaced. 

Dump'y-lev'el.  Gravatt's  level.  A  spirit-level 
having  a  short  telescope  with  a  large  aperture,  and 
a  compass  ;  used  for  surveying  purposes. 

The  telescope  is  made  of  sufficient  power  to  enable 
the  sur%'eyor  to  read  the  graduations  on  the  stall' 
witho'.t  depending  on  an  assistant. 

Dun'der.  (Siujar-malcivg.)  The  distillable  lees 
and  dregs  of  the  cane-sugar  boiling. 

Dung-batb.  Used  in  calico-printing  works. 
See  l)UN(;ixi;. 

DuMg-fork.  A  4-tiued  fork  for  pitching  and 
siircailing  manure. 

Dung-hook.  {Agriculture.)  An  implement 
for     dragging 

out  manure  or  Fig.  1801. 

scattering  that 
which  has  been 
previous  ly 
dumped  in 
heaps. 

Dung'ing. 
(Calicti-prittt- 
inri.)  Kemoval 
of  the  superflu- 
ous mordant 
by     passing 


Hi  =3 


Dung-Hook. 


dried  calico  through  a  warm  mixture  of  cow-dung 
and  water.  It  is  passed  through  two  cisterns  6  feet 
by  3  and  4  feet  deep,  the  first  of  whii.'h  has  two 
gallons  of  dung  to  its  contents  of  water,  and  the 
other  a  solution  of  half  the  strength.  It  is  (|uickly 
passed  through  them  in  succession,  washed  in  a 
wince-pit,  and  then  in  a  dash-wheel. 

A  solution  of  phosphate  of  lime,  phosphate  of  soda, 
and  gelatine,  is  sometimes  substituted  for  the  cow- 
dung. 

Dun'nage.  {Nnuiical.)  On  sliipboard,  the 
name  applied  to  loose  wood  at  the  bottom  of  a  hold 
to  raise  the  cargo  above  the  bilge-water,  and  also  to 
chock  it  and  keep  it  from  roll- 
ing when  stowed. 

Du'o-dec'i-mo.   (Prinling. ) 
A  sheet  folded  so  as  to  have  12 
leaves,  —  24   pages.     Generally  i 
written  "  12ino. " 

Du'plex-eB-cape'ment. ' 
The    rf«/</c.c-escapement    is    so 
called  from  the  double  character 
of  its    scape-wheel,   which    has    Duplex-Escapement, 
spur    and     crown    teeth.       It 
was  invented  by  that  wonderful  mechanician,  Dr. 


Fig.  1802. 


DUPLEX-LATHE. 


r63 


DUPLEX-TELEGRAPH. 


Hooke,  about  1658.  The  duplex-escajiement  was 
i.niproved  by  Dyiei-  and  breguet. 

The  balmux-arbor  carries  a  pallet  which  at  each 
oscillation  receives  an  impulse  from  the  croimi- 
teeth.  In  the  arbor  is  a  notch  into  whicli  the  spur- 
teeth  fall  in  succession  as  the  crown-teclh  consecu- 
tively pass  the  impitlse-jiallet. 

Dii'plex-lathe.  A  lathe  invented  by  Fairbairn  for 

Fig.  1803.  turning-otr 

screwing,  and 
s  u  r  f  a  c  i  n  g. 
The  peculi- 
arity in  this 
lathe  consists 
in  the  em- 
ployment of  a 
cutting-tool  at 
the  back  of 
the  lathe  in 
addition  and 
opposite  to  the 
tool  in  front, 
but  in  in- 
verted posi- 
tions to  each 
other.      The 

T-t-.T,,      ,,  transverse 

Fairbairn  .1  Duplex- Lathe.  r 

'  lorcesare 

thus  balanced,  and  time  is  saved. 

a,  tool  in  front. 

b,  inverted  tool  at  back. 

c,  bed  and  standard. 

d  and  rf,  two  compound  slide-rests. 

c,  a  right  and  left  screw  for  moving  the  two  .slide- 
restssimultaneouslytoand  from  the  centerof  the  lathe. 

In  another  form  the  stationary  ring  is  supported 
on  pedestals,  and  fits  closely  to  the  outer  surface  of  a 
ring  within  it,  each  being  formed  in  two  parts  held 

Fig.  1804. 


Bogartius^s  Duplex-Lathe. 

together  by  bolts  passing  through  projecting  flanges. 
The  inner  ring  has  flanges  projecting  inward  from 
its  rim,  upon  which  the  cutters  are  arranged,  and  a 
continuous  row  of  short  cogs  on  the  outer  surface  of 
the  ring-gear,  with  a  worm-wheel  working  in  a  mor- 
tise made  through  the  outer  ring. 

Du'plex  Pump'ing-en'gine.  An  arrangement 
in  which  two  steam-engines  of  equal  dimensions  are 
placed  side  by  side,  one  operating  the  .steam-valves 
of  the  otlier. 

The  "  Worthington  "  compound  engine  illustrated  is 
composed  of  two  steam-engines  each  working  a  i)ump. 
Each  engine  has  two  steam-pistons,  which  operate  in 
the  smaller  high-pressure  anci  the  larger  low-pressure 
cylinder  respectively,  on  the  same  rod,  which  is  pro- 


longed into  the  pump-cylinder  to  form  the  pump- 
rod. 

Each  engine  drives  its  plunger  at  a  speed  uniform 
throughout  its  stroke,  during  wdiich  it  opens,  by  a 
rock-shaft  and  appropriate  connections,  the  steam- 
valve  of  its  neighbor,  and  pauses  at  the  end  of  its 
own  stroke  till  its  own  steam-valve,  being  opened 
by  the  motion  of  the  other's  piston-rod,  causes  it  to 
return.  Other  than  this,  there  is  no  mechanical 
connection  between  the  engines,  but  either  piston 
can  remain  at  rest  while  the  other  is  in  motion. 

The  combined  and  reciju'ocal  action  of  tlie  two 
double-acting  i)lungers  thus  driven  at  unvarying 
piston  speed  by  the  combined  ]iressures  in  the  high 
and  low  pressure  steam-cylinders  (whose  sum  is  a 
practically  uniform  i|uantity)  forces  the  water  in 
a  steady  stream,  and  the  water-valves  are  seated 
by  their  own.  giavity  through  the  erjualization  of 
pressures  in  the  water-cylinder,  during  the  pause  of 
each  engine  at  the  end  of  its  stroke,  allowing  the 
incoming  currents  to  subside. 

The  engine  works  expansively,  and  also  condenses 
the  steam  ;  but  no  cut-off  is  used,  the  steam  being 
used  at  high  pressure  in  the  smaller  cylinder  and 
e.xliausting  into  the  large  low-pressure  cylinder 
which  is  immediately  behind  and  in  line  with  it, 
and  where  it  is  used  expansively.  The  motions  are 
all  reciprocating  ;  no  materials  are  emjiloyed  for 
counterbalances,  to  pass  dead-centers,  or  as  conser- 
vators of  power  (fly-wheels)  to  oH'set  by  accjuired 
momentum  the  diminishing  pressure  of  steam  in  the 
cylinder  when  steam  is  cut  off  at  a  part  of  the 
stroke.  The  mean  pressure  resulting  from  the  action 
of  the  two  cylinders  being  almost  constant  when  the 
parts  are  properly  proportioned,  the  result  is  a  uni- 
form piston  speed. 

The  single-acting  air-pumps  are  driven  by  rock- 
shafts  off  the  main  piston-rod,  and  are  in  a  con- 
venient and  accessible  position  below  the  open 
cradle-rods,  which  connect  the  steam  and  pump- 
cylinders.  Tlie  valves  are  rubber  disks,  backed 
with  iron,  working  vertically  on  fixed  spindles. 
They  are  reached  through  the  hand-holes,  and  are 
purposely  made  numerous  in  order  to  subdivide  any 
trouble  from  the  possible  failure  of  any  one  of  them. 
The  duty  trial  of  the  Newaik  engine,  reduced  to  the 
actual  delivery  of  water  in  the  reservoir,  was  by  an 
average  of  the  modes  of  calculation  about  76,500,000 
pounds  lifted  one  foot  high  by  100  pounds  of  coal. 
See  Duty. 

Du'plex-punch.  Fig.  180-5. 

1.  One  having  a  coun- 
ter -  die  mounted  on  an 
opposite  jaw,  as  the 
ticket-punch. 

2.    One   having   a 

force  derived  from  the 

rolling  action  of  two 
levers  on  a  common  ful- 
crum,  forming  a  toggle. 

Du'plex-tel'e- 
graph.  A  telegiaph 
so  arranged  that  mes- 
sages can  be  simulta- 
neously transmitted  in 
opposite  directions  on 
the  same  line-wire. 

The  first  telegTaph  of  this  kind  was  devised  by 
Dr.  Gentl  of  Austria,  in  1853,  and  modified  by 
Frieschen  and  Siemens- Holske  in  1854  ;  but  it  is  only 
within  the  past  few  years  that  any  duplex  systems 
have  been  put  into  successful  operation,  and,  up  to 
this  time,  only  on  American  lines. 

The  system  invented  by  Joseph  B.   Steams,  of 


Duplex-Punch. 


DUPLEX-TELEGRAPH. 


rc4 


DUSTER. 


Boston,  based  upon  GentVs  plan,  is  represented  in 
Fig.  ISOti,  in  wliieli  tlie  relay  or  receiving  instru- 
ment is  composed  of  two  pairs  of  electro-magnets 
m  VI  acting  in  opposite  directions  upon  a  common 
armature  lever  A.  The  key  is  the  armature  of  an 
electro-magnet,  which  is  in  a  local  circuit  controlled 
by  a  Morse  key  K.  L  B  is  the  local  battery.  The 
main  battery  (.1/  B)  current  is  equally  divided  be- 
tween the  relay-magnets  m  m,  one  half  passing 
through  one  set  of  magnets  to  the  line  /,  and  the 
otlu'r  liiilf  passing  through  the  other  magnets,  and 
a  rheostat  Ji  —  equal  to  the  resistance  of  the  main 
line  —  to  earth  £.  The  relay-magnets  are  thus 
equally  e.xcited  and  their  inlluenee  upon  the  arma- 
ture neutralized,  so  that  the  outgoing  current  gives 
no  signal  at  the  sending  station.  A  current  received, 
however,  traverses  only  one  set  of  tlie  electro-mag- 
nets, destroying  the  equililiriurn,  and  causingasignal. 
The  key  is  so  constructed  tliat  it  closes  one  cii'cuit 
to  the  earth  before  breaking  another,  thus  always 
preserving  the  continuity  of  the  circuit,  a  condition 
essential  in  systems  of  this  kind.  A  condenser  C  is 
placed  in  a  shunt  circuit  to  the  magnets  in  the  short 
or  home  circuit,  in  order  to  neutralize  the  effect 
of  the  extra  current  on  the  line-magnets  of  the  relay. 
Another  system  of  Mr.  Stearns  is  shown  in  the 

Fig.  1806. 


DtipUx-  Telegraph. 

lower  part  of  the  same  figure.  It  is  based  on  the 
arrangement  of  circuits  known  as  the  "  Wheatstone 
bridge,"  the  relay  or  receiving  instrument  being 
placed  on  the  bridge.     The  cuiTent  of  the  main  bat- 


tery is  divided  by  the  rheostats  r  r  and  R  li'  to  points 
X  2.  If  the  resistances  of  circuits  C  to  s  and  C  to  x 
are  proportionately  to  each  other  a-s  resistances  of 
circuits  x  y  or  Hue,  and  z  to  earth,  there  will  be 
no  current  in  transmitting  across  the  bridge  x  z,  in 
which  the  relay  or  receiving  instrument  is  placed. 
The  larger  jiortion  of  the  incoming  current,  however, 
passes  througli  and  actuates  the  relay,  as  it  offers 
the  path  of  least  resistance. 

Jloses  G.  Farmer,  of  Boston,  invented  a  duplex 
system  in  1858,  in  which  he  used  a  key  which  pre- 
served the  continuity  of  the  circuit,  and  al.so  re- 
versed the  battery  at  the  sending  station,  this  re- 
versal making  the  signals  at  the  distant  station,  the 
relay  being  prevented  from  responding  by  the  cur- 
rent of  a  local  equalizing  battery  closed  siniulta- 
neou.sly  by  this  key. 

Du'plex-type.  (Photography.)  A  name  given 
to  a  mode  of  taking  two  photographs  of  the  same 
person  in  different  positions  by  two  operations,  so 
tliat  he  shall  appear  in  two  characters  —  say,  for  in- 
stance, playing  the  piano,  and  —  acconqianying 
him.self — on  the  violin.  It  is  done  by  two  ex- 
posures, with  some  skillful  mode  of  hiding  the  di- 
vi.sion  line.  Slave's  dujilicating  reflector  is  con- 
structed for  this  purjiose. 

Du'rance.  A  stout  woolen  stufi"  formerly  made 
in  imitation  of  bulf  leather,  and  used  for  garments. 
Dvriiiil.     failed  also  Tammy. 

Du-rom'e-ter.  An  instrument  invented  by 
Behrens,  designed  for  testing  the  relative  hardness 
of  steel  rails.  This  "  duronjeter,"  as  it  is  .style<l,  is 
virtually  a  small  drilling-machine,  ^¥orking  by  hand 
or  machine  power,  whicli  registers  the  number  of 
revolutions  of  the  drill  sjiindle  and  also  the  amount 
of  feed,  the  latter  being  given  by  thea]i]dieation  of  a 
known  weight  to  the  back  of  the  drill-s]iindle.  The 
friction  of  the  macliine  and  the  state  of  the  cutting 
edges  are  supposed  to  be  constant  quantities,  and 
as  such  are  thrown  out  of  the  calculation.  Tlie 
hardness  of  a  metal  is  considered  to  be  inversely 
proportionate  to  the  depth  of  feed  obtained  with  a 
given  number  of  revolutions. 

Du-roy'.  (Fabric.)  A  common  quality  of  woolen 
serge. 

ijvist'er.  1.  (Paper.)  A  machine  for  removing 
the  dust  from  rags  or  other  paper-making  material 

Pig.  1807. 


jj^: 


Bran-DiistiT. 

before  sorting,  cutting,  and  pulping.  It  consists  of 
a  revolving,  wire-eloth  cylinder  inclosed  in  a  box 
which  receives  the  dust. 

2.   (Milling.)     A  machine  for  rubbing,  brushing, 


DUSTING-BKUSH. 


765 


DUTY. 


ami  blowing  bran  to  remove  particles  of  flour  ad- 
hering tliereto.  The  bran  is  fed  in  at  a  spout  at  the 
smaller  enil,  and  is  driven  and  blown  through  the 
nu'^lll'S  of  the  conical  screen. 

Dust'ing-brush.  One  which  has  the  thick  end 
of  the  liaiulle  driven  into  the  middle  of  the  tuft  of 
bristles.     Or  a  feather  brush. 

Dust-pan.  A  domestic  utensil  for  catching  crumbs, 
lint,  or  dust,  as  they  may  be  brushed  from  a  table-cloth 

Fig.  1808. 


Dust-Pan. 

or  carpet.  The  example  shown  has  a  lid,  handle, 
and  an  inclined  plane  with  oltset  at  the  front  edge. 

Dust-shot.     The  smallest  size  of  shot. 

Dutch-case.  (Mining.)  A  shaft-frame  composed 
of  four  pieies  of  plank,  used  in  shafts  and  galleries. 
A  )nining-'y'sc. 

Dutch  Clink'er.  A  yellow,  hard  brick  made  in 
Holland. 

Dutch  Foil.  A  copper  alloy,  rolled  or  hammered. 
See  Du  rcH  (jiiLD,  called  also  DuTCii  Leaf  ;  Dutch 

MkT-\I.  ;     DlTTCH  MlXEU.\L. 

Dutch  Gold.  The  alloy  used  at  the  works  of 
Hegeniuihl,  near  Potsdam,  is  composed  of  :  — 

CupixT,  11  ;  zinc,  2. 

This  is  rolled  into  .sheets,  and  is  made  into  the 
Dutch  leaf  used  in  broaziwj. 

Dutch'ing.  The  process  of  removing  the  mem- 
bi'aneous  skin  from  the  barrels  of  ipiills,  and  drying 
up  the  vascular  membrane  in  the  interior. 

They  are  heated  by  plunging  in  hot  sand_,  and 
then  scraped  to  remove  the  skin.  The  heat  shrivels 
the  interior  membrane  and  dissipates  the  oily  mat- 
ter of  tile  rjuill,  rendering  it  transparent. 

Dutch'man.  (Carpcntri/.)  A  playful  name  for 
a  bloL-k  or  wedge  of  wood  driven  into  a  gap  to  hide 
the  fault  in  a  badly  made  joint. 

Dutoh-ov'en.  (Oon/ciicj.)  a.  A  spider,  skiUct, 
or  caiiip-oceii  used  by  those  who  cook  by  hot  eonls 
on  the  hearth.     A  mode  yet  common  in  the  West, 

Fig.  1809. 


Dutch-  Ovens. 


ancf  unsurpassed  in  its  results  with  skillful  house- 
wives. The  pot  stands  in  hot  emliers,  and  more  of 
the  same  are  piled  on  the  dish-.shajied  lid. 

h.  A  cooking-chamber  suspended  in  front  of  a  fire 
so  as  to  cook  by  radiation.  Also  eminently  satis- 
factory in  its  results,  in  just  such  degree  as  toast- 
ing exceeds  baking  ;  grilling  or  broiling  than  frying. 
It  says,  "  Aha  !    I  have  seen  the  fire." 

Dutch-scoop.  A  bo.x  shovel  suspended  by  cords 
from  a  tripod  and  used  for  irrigation. 

Dutch-tile.  A  variegated  or  painted  glazed  tile 
made  in  Holland  and  formerly  used  for  lining  their 
capacious  fireplaces. 


Dut'tees.     Coarse,  unbleached  calicoes  of  India. 

Du'ty.  The  useful  eH'ect  of  an  engine  in  work 
performed. 

This  term  was  first  explained  in  a  definite  and 
precise  manner  by  Davies  Gilbert,  President  of  the 
Royal  Society,  in  a  paper  read  before  that  body  in 
1827.  "The  criterion  of  the  eflieiency  of  ordinaiy 
machines  is  force,  multiplied  by  the  space  through 
which  it  acts ;  the  effect  which  they  produce, 
measured  in  the  same  way,  has  been  denominated 
duty,  a  term  first  introduced  by  Mr.  Watt  in  ascer- 
taining the  comparative  merit  of  .steam-eugine.s, 
when  he  assumed  one   pound  raised  one  foot  liigh, 

for  what  has  been  called  in  other  countries  the 

dynamic  unit  ;  and  by  this  criterion  one  bushel 
of  coal  ha.s  been  found  to  ]ierform  a  duty  of  thirty, 
forty,  and  even  fifty  millions."  This  has  been  more 
than  doubled  since  the  writing  of  the  paper  of  Mr, 
Gilbert. 

The  duty  is  not  an  expression  of  the  work  done, 
as  this  would  include  the  power  to  overcome  fric- 
tion and  other  resistances,  but  is  the  actual  useful 
efi'ect,  expressed  in  pounds  weight,  of  water  actually 
raised. 

The  duty  of  the  Newark  water-work  duplex- 
pumping  engine,  as  obtained  by  multiplying  to- 
gether the  area  of  the  plunger  in  s([Uare  inches 
(373.85),  and  the  pressure  in  pounds  per  square 
inch  (75.68),  to  obtain  the  load  in  pounds,  and  this 
by  the  travel  of  the  piston  in  feet  per  hour  (10,908.4), 
and  dividing  this  product  by  the  number  of  hundreds 
of  pounds  of  coal  consumed  per  hour  (4),  was 
77,157,840  foot-pounds.  As  obtained  by  multiply- 
ing the  displacement  per  stioke  in  cubic  feet 
(10,4042),  into  the  number  of  strokes  per  hour 
(2722),  the  weight  in  pounds  of  a  cubic  toot  of 
w.ater  (62.5),  and  the  height  in  feet  to  which  the 
water  was  raised  for  delivery  (174.82) ;  and  dividing 
this  product  by  the  number  of  hundreds  of  pounds 
of  coal  consumed  per  hour  (4),  the  duty  was 
77,358,478.  As  reduced  to  the  actual  delivery  of 
water  in  the  reservoir,  it  was  76,386,262  and 
76,584,894  by  the  two  methods  respectively. 

The  following  is  the  duty  officially  given  for  the 
engines  cited  :  — 

Brooklyn,  No.  1,  double-acting  beam  .  60,140,700 
P.elleville  (Jersey  City),  Cornish  .  62,823,300 
Hartford  (3  experiments),  crank 

58,779,300  to  64,669,400 
Brooklj-n,  No.  3,  double-acting  beam  .     72,000,000 
Cambridge  (2  experiments),  Worthing- 
ton  double-cylinder,  not  duplex 

66,941,100  to  67,574,600 
Spring  Garden  (PhQadelphia),  Cornish     58,905,300 

The  duty  or  useful  eifeet  of  the  Cornish  puniping- 
engine  has  been  more  closely  observed  and  recorded 
than  that  of  any  other  engine.  Tlie  duty  is  re- 
ported monthly,  and  is  reduced  to  tabulated  form, 
from  which  the  yearly  report  is  made  out. 

The  duty  of  these  engines  has  been  gradually 
impi'oved.  It  is  estimated  liy  the  number  of  pounds 
raised  one  foot  high  by  a  bushel  of  Welsh  coals,  94 
pounds. 

Pounds,  1  foot  high. 

In  1769,  the  Newcomen  engine    .         .       5,500,000 

In  1772,  the  Newcomen  engine,  im- 
proved by  Snieaton      .         .         .       9,500,000 

In  1778  to  1815,  the  Watt  engine     .         20,000,000 

In  1820,  the^improved  Cornish  engine, 

average  duty       ....     28,000,000 

In  1826,  the  impiroved  Cornish  engine, 

average  duty      ....     30,000,000 


D-VALVE. 


766 


DYE-VAT. 


Pounds,  1  foot  high. 
In  1827,  the  improverl  Cornish  engine, 

iiveragi"  duty  .  .  .  .  32,000,000 
In  1828,  the  improved  Cornish  engine, 

average  duty  ....  37,000,000 
In  1829,  tliH  improved  Cornish  engine, 

average  duty  .  .  .  _  .  41,000,000 
In  1830,  tlie  improved  Coniish  engine, 

average  .luty  ....  43,350,000 
In  1839,  the  improved  Cornish  engine, 

average  duty  ....  54,000,000 
In  18J0,  the  improved  Cornish  engine, 

average  duty  ....  60,000,000 
Consolidated  mines,  highest  duty  1827  67,000,000 
Fowev     Consols    (Cornwall),     highest 

duty  1834 97,000,000 

United  mines,  highest  duty  1842     .        108,000,000 

D-valve.  A  species  of  slide-valve,  employed 
chielly  in  the  steam-engine,  and  ada|ited  to  bring 
each  steam-port  alternately  in  connnunicatiou  witli 
the  steam  and  exliaust  respectively. 

Dw^ang.  1.  A  large  iron  bar- wrench  used  to 
tighten  nuts  on  bolts. 

2.   A  crow-bar  usetl  by  masons. 

Dvrarf-raft'er.  (CarpnUry.)  Little  jack.  A 
short  ralti'r  in  the  hip  of  a  roof. 

Dwarf-'wall.  A  low  wall  serving  to  surrouml 
an  inclosure  ;  such  a  wall  as  that  on  which  iron-rail- 
ing is  commonly  set. 

Dye'iilg.  Dyeing  is  a  subject  not  involving 
much  luacUinery,  and  is  therefore  hardly  within  our 
limits. 

Dyes  are  organic  and  inorganic. 

The  former  are  vegetable,  except  cochineal,  sepia, 
and  the  purple  of  the  murex. 

ilost  of  the  vegetable  colors  do  not  exist  naturally 
in  plants,  but  are  obtained  by  subjecting  vegetable 
substances  to  special  chemical  treatment  ;  as  in  the 
case  of  ijaraiiciiu;,  obtained  from  madder. 

Tne  art  of  dyeing  consists  in  impregnating  fiber, 
in  the  state  of  cloth  or  otherwise,  with  coloring  sub- 
stances. 

Filirous  materials  differ  in  their  relative  disposi- 
tion to  lake  color.  Their  disposition  to  absorb  and 
retain  color  is  iu  the  following  order,  beginning  with 
the  one  which  has  the  greatest  attraction  for  color  :  — 

Wool.  Flax. 

Silk.  Hemp. 

Cotton. 

Woolen  goods  dyed  before  weaving  are  called  ivool- 
dyed ;  if  after  weaving,  piccc-dyed. 

Dye-colors  are  substantive  or  adjective. 

The  former  act  directly,  irajiarting  their  tints  by 
simple  immersion  iu  tlieir  infusions  or  decoctions  ; 
the  latter  intermediately,  and  are  the  more  numer- 
ous, reijuiririg  ftxintj  or  striking. 

The  intermediate  substances  are  called  mordants. 

The  mordant  is  first  applied,  and  causes  the  dye 
which  follows  to  adhere  to  the  fiber,  often  .singular- 
ly alfecting  its  tint.  Thus  :  cotton  dipped  in  a  so- 
lution of  copperas  (morditnt)  and  then  in  a  solution 
of  logwood  (dye)  becomes  black.  If  a  solution 
of  tiu  (munlniit)  be  substituted  for  the  salt  of  iron, 
the  tint  imparted  by  the  logwood  will  be  violet. 
Mordants  were  used  in  China  and  India  from  very 
distant  periods,  and  are  described  by  Pliny.  See 
Calico-piunting. 

Moses  (1490  B.  c.)  speaks  of  stuff  dyed  "blue, 
purple,  and  scarlet  "  ;   "  rains'-skins  dyed  red." 

Joseph  (1729  B.  c.)  had  a  coat  of  many  colors  ; 
probably  a  product  of  Damascus. 

Dyeing  is  attributed  to  the  Phcenicians.     Solomon 


(1000  B.  c.)  sent  to  Hiram  of  Tyre  for  a  man  "  cun- 
ning to  work, in  .  .  .  purple  and  crimson  and  blue." 
Ezekiel  speaks,  in  his  burden  of  Tyre,  of  the  "  bine 
and  jHirple  from  the  isles  of  Elisha, "  which  may 
mean  the  Peloponnesus  and  adjacent  islands. 

The  most  celebrated  dye  of  antitiuity  was  the 
Tyrian  purple,  derived  from  a  s]iecies  of  murex. 
Pliny  cites  two,  the  buainiini  and  purpura.  A  .sin- 
gle drop  of  Huid  was  obtained  fiom  a  sac  in  the  throat 
of  each  animal.  A  quantity  was  heated  with  sea- 
salt,  ripened  by  exiiosure  tor  three  days,  diluted 
with  five  times  its  bulk  of  water,  kept  warm  for  six 
days,  being  occasionally  skinnned  ;  then  clarified 
and  applied  as  a  dye  to  white  wool  previously  pre- 
pared liy  the  action  of  lime-water  or  fucus.  The 
wool  was  first  plunged  into  the  jnirpura  and  then 
into  the  buccinum.  Sometimes  a  preliminary  tint 
was  given  with  coccus  (kernies).  The  dye  and  dyed 
goods  are  celebrated  in  the  Hebiew  and  other  ancient 
sciiptures. 

This  color  seems,  from  its  extreme  beauty,  per- 
manence, and  costliness,  to  have  become  regal,  and 
the  royal  taste  is  for  the  same  down  to  our  day.  The 
color  of  the  velvet  in  the  crown  of  the  Queen  of  Eng- 
land is  a  shade  of  purple  ;  tlie  velvet  loronation 
robes  of  George  IV.  were  of  that  color.  Pliny  (A.  D. 
70)  says  that  the  robes  of  triumjih  in  the  time  of 
Homer  (900  B.  o.)  were  colored.  Purple  habits  were 
given  to  Gideon  by  the  Israelites  from  the  spoils  of 
the  kings  of  Jlidian.  Achan  secreted  a  Babylonish 
garment,  and  sutt'ercd  for  it.  Plutarch  says  that 
when  Alexander  took  Susa,  the  Greeks  took  from 
the  royal  treasury  jjurple  stufl's  to  the  value  of  5,000 
talents  (1  talent  |860  x  5,000  =  §4,300,000),  which 
still  retained  their  beauty,  though  they  had  lain 
there  190  years. 

Prussian  blue  was  discovered  by  Diesbach,  at  Ber- 
lin, 1710  ;  aniline,  in  1826,  by  Unverdorben.  In 
1856,  Perkin,  experimenting  with  aniline,  treated 
it  with  bichromate  of  potassa,  and  obtained  ^naure. 
Arsenic  tried  as  a  substitute  for  bichromate  of  po- 
tassa produced  mcKjenta ;  blue,  green,  violet,  and 
other  colors  were  subsequently  produced. 

(Hat-muking.)  Hats  (black)  are  dyed  in  a  solu- 
tion of  sulphate  of  iron,  verdigris,  and  logwood,  at 
a  temperature  of  180°  F.  They  are  alternately 
diiiped  and  aired,  the  process  being  re]ieated  peiliaps 
a  dozen  times.  The  hats  are  all  on  thin  blocks,  and 
a  suit  of  five  dozen  fills  a  crate,  which  is  swung fi-om 
a  crane,  and  thus  raised  and  lowered  as  required. 

Dye-ket'tle.  (Hat-making.)  The  vat  of  dyeing 
liquid  in  which  hats  are  dipped  to  color  them.  It 
contains  %  solution  of  suljihate  of  iron,  verdigris, 
and  logwood,  is  maintained  at  180°  ¥.,  and  the 
crate  of  hats  on  their  blocks  is  repeati'dly  dipped 
and  aired  to  confer  the  requisite  depth  and  gloss  of 
color. 

Dy'ers'-bath.  The  Fig.  1810. 

dyeing  material  in  the 
vat  in  which  the  fabric 
is  immersed. 

Dy'ers'  Spir'it. 
Nitro-muriate  of  tin. 
Employed  as  a  mor- 
dant. 

Dye-vat.  A  beck  or 
tub  in  which  goods  in 
piece  or  otherwise  are 
saturated  with  a  dye 
or  a  mordant  in  solu- 
tion. In  Fig.  1810, 
the  piece  of  cloth,  its 
ends  being  sewed  to- 
gether and  rounded  in 


Dye-  Vat. 


DYE-WOOD  CUTTER. 


767 


DYNAMOMETER. 


form,  is  coiled  around  the  rollers  in  a  devious  course, 
so  that  the  whole  jiieee  h,is  continuous  movement, 
in  which  it  is  alternately  carried  beneath  and  raised 
from  the  liquid  dye.  When  the  cl^th  has  been  suf- 
ficiently dipped  the  ends  are  unsewn,  and  the  for- 
ward eiid  is  passed  between  the  wringing  '."oilers  in 

a  Hat  form. 
Kg.  1811.  In    another 

form ,  the  goods 
are  contained  in  a 
basket,  which  is 
dipped  into  the 
vat  and  raised  by 
crank  and  rope. 
Dye-Tvood 
Cut'ter.  A  ma- 
chine for  shaving 
wood   into   small 


chips ; 
S  has  a 
cutter, 
sembles 
planer, 
that     it 


usually 
revolver- 
and     re- 
ft  rotaiT 
except 
reduces 


Dipping-  Vat. 

the  whole  body 
of  the  log  to  chip.  The  rotating  drum  has  adjust- 
able serrated  cutters.  The  wood  is  fed  on  an  in- 
clined slide,  and  propelled  by  a  toothed   follower, 

Kg.  1812. 


Dye-Wood  Cutter. 

actuated  by  a  spur-wheel  and  rack.  See  also  Bark- 
planing  Machine  ;  Rossing-machine. 

Dyke.  1.  {.Uiainff.)  A  bank  of  basalt  or  whin 
by  which  the  strata  or  lodes  are  frequently  divided. 

2.   A  sea-wall.     See  Dike. 

Dy-nac'td-nom'e-ter.  An  instrument  described 
by  M.  Claudet  ("  Philosophical  Magazine,"  June, 
185U,  for  measuring  the  intensity  of  the  photogenic 
rays  of  light,  and  computing  the  power  of  object- 
glasses.      See  -ACTINO.METER. 

Dy-nam'e-ter.  An  instrument  for  measuring 
the  magnifying  power  of  a  telescope. 

The  magnifying  power  is  the  ratio  of  the  solar 
focal  distance  of  the  object-glass  to  the  focal  dis- 
tance of  the  eye-piece  considered  as  a  single  lens  ; 
and  this  ratio  being  the  same  as  the  ratio  of  the 
diameter  of  the  aperture  of  the  telescope  to  the 
diameter  of  its  image  or  disk  fonned  at  the  solar 
focus,  and  seen  through  the  eye-piece,  the  object  of 
the  instrument  is  to  measure  the  exact  diameter  of 
this  image,  which  can  be  either  projected  on  mother- 
of-pearl  or  measured  by  optical  means. 

Ramsden  pro]iosed  for  this  purpose  the  double- 
image  micrometer,  an  instrument  formed  by  divid- 
ing the  eye-lens  of  a  positive  eye-piece  into  two 
equal  parts,  and  mounting  them  so  that  the  divided 
edges  are  made,  by  means  of  a  fine  screw  apparatus, 
to  slide  along  each  other.  Each  semi-lens  thus 
gives  a  separate  image  ;  and  the  distance  of  the 
two  centers,  measured  by  the  revolutions  of  the 
screw,  when  the  borders  of  the  two  images  are 
brought  exactly  into  contact,  gives  the  distance  of  j 


the  centers  of  the  images,  or  the  diameter  of  one  of 
them. 

Dyn'a-mite.  An  explosive  compound  invented 
by  Nobel.  "  It  is  a  mixture  of  75  per  cent  of  nitro- 
glycerine with  25  per  cent  of  infusorial  silica.  The 
silica  renders  the  powder  less  liable  to  explode  from 
concussion.  This  is  the  djTiamite  proper,  but  dyna- 
miti  is  also  used  as  a  generic  name  for  other  mix- 
tures of  nitro-glycerine, — as  colonia  powder,  which  is 
gunpowder  with  a  mixture  of  40  per  cent  of  nitro- 
glycerine ;  dualine,  which  contains  30  to  40  per 
cent  of  nitro-glycerine  mixed  with  sawdust  saturated 
with  nitrate  of  pitassia  ;  lithofracteur,  which  con- 
tains 35  per  cent  of  nitro-glycerine  mi.xed  with 
silica,  and  a  gunpowder  made  with  nitrate  of  baryta 
and  coal." — JournnJ  of  Applied  Chemistry. 
Dyn'a-mom'e-ter.  A  power  measurer. 
Graham's  dynamometer,  improved  by  Dr.  Desa- 
guliers,  is  an  application  of  the  ordinary  steelyard, 
in  which  the  power  to  be  measured  is  exerted  ujpon 
the  short  arm  and  ascertained  by  a  weight  on  the 
longer,  graduated  aim. 

Leroy's  dynamometer  is  a  spiral  spring  in  a  tube. 
Power  is  applied  to  condense  the  spring,  and  the 
pressure   indicated   by   a   gi'aduated  bar.       This  is 
equivalent  to  the  ordinary  spring-balance,  and  is  a 
very  ready  form  of  dynamometer  for  moderate  forces. 
Regnier's   dynamometer   (1,    Fig.    1813)   consists 
of  an  elliptic  spring  whose  col- 
la]>se  in  the  direction  of  its  minor 
axis   is    made   to  move  an  in- 
dex-finger on  graduated  arcs. 

The  power  may  be  applied  in 

two  ways  :  when  it  is   applied 

to  draw  the  ends  s  s  apart,  the 

index-finger    registers     myria- 

gramines   on   the   outpr   scale  ; 

but  when  the  two  leaves  of  the 

I     HI'  spring  are  grasped  by  the  hands 

(^—^  and   thus   pressed   by  a  power 

applied  at  right  angles  to  the 

former,  and  in  the  most  eff'ective 

direction,  a  shorter  pin  on  the  same  pointer  registers 

kilogrammes  on  the  inner  arc  of  graduations. 

The  giaduated  plate  with  its  ]>ointers  belongs  to 
one  leaf  of  the  spring,  —  the  upper  leaf  in  the  illus- 
tration, —  while  the  other  leaf  connects  by  a  small 
copper  lever  with  an  arm  which  pushes  the  index- 
finger  as  the  elliptical  spring  is  collapsed  by  force 
applied  to  it.  The  index-finger  moves  freely  and 
retains  the  attained  j)osition,  being  unaffected  by 
tlie  relaxation  of  the  force. 

For  moderate  forces  the  power  is  applied  to  con- 
dense the  spring  by  directly  pressing  the  leaves  to- 
gether in  the  line  of  the  minor  axis.  For  superior 
forces  the  spring  is  collapsed  by  clirect  draft  outward, 
upon  the  loops  s  s  at  the  ends  of  the  spring. 

Braby's  djaiamometer  (2,  Fig.  1813)  has  an  ellip- 
tic spring  like  Regnier's,  but  a  somewhat  different 
recording  connection.  Like  Regnier's  heavier  draft, 
it  is  attaclied  by  the  ends  c  d,  between  the  power 
and  the  load,  and  the  application  of  force  collapses 
the  leaves  of  the  spring,  oscillating  the  index-finger 
on  its  axis,  and  recording  upon  the  graduated  arc  the 
amount  of  power  exerted. 

The  Sector  dyn.amometer  (3,  Fig.  1813)  is  made 
of  a  bar  of  steel,  bent  in  the  midille,  and  having  a 
certain  flexibility.  To  each  limb  is  attached  an  arc 
which  passes  through  a  slot  in  the  other  limb. 
Loops  at  the  ends  of  the  arcs  permit  the  device  to 
be  i>laced  between  the  power  and  tlie  load,  so  that 
the  limbs  are  approached  when  power  is  applied. 
One  arc  is  graduated  so  as  to  indicate  the  power  ex- 
erted in  bringing  the  limbs  nearer  together.     The 


V» 


DYNAMOMETER. 


768 


DYNAMOMETER. 


jfraduations  made  on  the  arc  are  in  accordance  with  the 
result  of  the  sus[iension  of  weights  ccperinientally. 

Tlie  above  forms  are  specihcally  ada[>ted  for  jmll- 
ing  forces,  such  as  testing  strengths  of  cords,  jioiver 
of  animals,  force  reiiuired  to  draw  plows,  carriages, 
etc.  When  the  jjroblem  is  to  ascertain  the  force 
transmitted  through  a  revolving  shaft,  the  case  is 
somewhat  more  complicated.     "A  mechanical  con - 

Fig.  1813. 


Dyna7vo>fitters 

trivance  for  measuring  the  force  exerted  by  a  prime 
mover,  or  the  amount  of  force  consumed  in  driving 
a  machine  or  all  the  machines  of  an  industrial  es- 
tablishment. It  involves  generally  the  expedient  of 
interposing  between  the  motor  and  the  machine,  as 
a  medium  through  which  the  power  is  to  be  trans- 
mitted, some  combination  of  springs,  or  .some  mech- 
anism of  which  springs  are  the  essential  parts,  pro- 
vided with  a  scale  on  which  are  marked  the  ilegrees 
of  static  force  corresponding  to  different  states  of 
tension,  and  sometimes  also  with  automatic  machin- 
ery for  making  periodical  record  of  the  marking  of 
the  index  on  the  scale."  —  Barnard. 

Prony's  friction-brake  is  a  test  which  involves  the 
loss  of  ])ower,  as  it  consists  in  ojiposing  a  frictional 
impedime.it  to  the  motion.  The  measure  is  relative 
as  compared  with  other  machines  similarly  tested,  and 
is  determined  by  the  power  evinced  to  resist  given 
frictional  opposition  to  the  continuance  of  the 
motion. 

Thompson's  friction-brake  dynamometer  has  been 
contrived  for  estimating  the  amount  of  ])ower  trans- 
mitted through  a  shaft  by  means  of  clamping-blocks. 


a  lever,  and  suspended  weights.  The  requirement 
of  a  perfect  dynamometer  is  that  it  shall  not  be 
itself  a  charge  upon  the  power  ;  that  is,  that  by 
its  interposition  the  expenditure  of  driving  force  re- 
quired shall  not  be  sensibly  increased.  This  property 
belongs  to  all  that  class  in  which  the  power  of  the 
motor  acts  directly  with  all  its  force  to  produce 
tiexure  in  springs,  while  the  spiings  by  the'ir  ell'ort 
of  recoil  transmit  it  undiminished  to  the  machine. 

Taurine's  dynamometer  forms  a  section  interposed 
between  two  lengths  of  a  shaft  in  line.  Two  aiTns 
are  attached  to  the  part  of  the  shaft  on  either  siile  of 
this  joint,  in  a  radial  direction  ;  those  on  the  same 
side  being  diametrically  opposite  to  each  other, 
while  those  of  each  pair  are  ninety  degrees  from 
those  of  the  other.  Stout  springs  in  the  form  of 
circular  quadrants  connect  the  extremities  of  these 
arms  on  two  opposed  quarters  of  the  circle,  and  the 
force  of  the  motor  is  transmitted  through  these 
springs  by  a  pushing  effort.  The  eflect  is  to  bend 
the  arches  outward,  and  the  degree  of  this  bending 
is  indicated  by  a  spring  which  connects  their  middle 
points.  The  flexuie  of  this  spring  is  diminished, 
and  in  straightening  it  moves  an  index  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  axis  of  rotation. 

Bourdon's  dynamometer  depends  upon  the  trai;.s- 
mission  of  the  ]iower  by  iiu>ans  of  .'.lightly  spiral 
gearing,  the  tendency  of  which  is  to  give  the  arbor 
cjf  the  gear  a  longitudinal  motion  in  its  bearings. 
This  motion  is  opposed  by  a  spring,  and  the  degree 
of  compression  of  the  spring  is  the  measure  of  the 
power  transmitted. 

Horn's  dynamometer  acts  upon  the  principle  of 
the  torsion  of  the  connecting-shaft. 

The  dynamometer  (4,  I'ig.  1813)  used  by  the 
jury  of  Class  V.  {iiiachincs  for  clim-t  use)  in  the 
International  Exhibition,  London,  1851,  was  the 
inventiDii  of  Colonel  Moriii  of  France. 

To  the  shaft  A  is  secured  a  pulley  C,  and  on  the 
same  shaft  is  a  loose  pulley  J>  which  has  a  spring 
bar  E  extending  between  cheeks  on  pulley  C,  which 
is  the  only  connection  between  them.  \Vhen  a 
force  is  applied  to  ZJ  and  a  resistance  to  C,  the 
spring  E  is  flexed,  and  the  degree  of  flexure  is  the 
measure  of  resistance.  To  measure  tiie  degree  of 
bending  of  the  spring  a  frame  is  attached  to  the 
boss  of  the  spring  E  supporting  a  series  of  rollers 
g  h  i  3.  fusee  j  and  pencil-holder  k.  On  the  edge 
of  the  pulley  D  is  another  ]iencil-holder.  AVhen 
the  dynamometer  is  to  be  used,  a  long  ribbon  of 
paper  is  wound  on  the  roller  h,  and  its  outer  end 
being  cai'ricd  over  the  roller  r/  is  made  last  to  /, 
which  is  driven  by  a  string  from  the  fusee  j,  \\liich 
bears  on  its  axis  a  wheel  7n  gearing  into  one  on  the 
shaft  A.  Until  resistance  is  applied  to  the  wheel  C 
the  two  pencils  make  a  single  line,  but  when  the 
spring  is  flexed  the  lines  of  the  pemils  ilivcrge,  one 
pencil  continuing  to  draw  a  straight  line  ami  the 
other  tracing  a  line  at  a  distance  from  the  first, 
varying  with  the  degree  of  tiexure. 

Emer.son's  lever-dynamometer  (5,  Fig.  1813)  is 
also  designed  for  measuring  power  in  transmission. 
The  pulley  A  is  loose  on  the  shaft,  and  receives  the 
power.  Its  connection  with  the  shaft  is  made  by 
means  of  a  wheel  keyed  to  the  shaft  and  connected 
to  the  pulley  by  certain  levers  wdiicli  have  connec- 
tion BCD  with  a  pendulous  weight  E  which 
registers  on  a  scale  F  the  amount  of  ]>ower  exerted 
ujion  A  to  |iroduce  the  motion  of  the  pulley  G,  which 
is  fixed  to  the  shaft  and  delivers  the  power. 

For  medical  uses  a  dynamometer  is  made  com- 
pressible in  the  hand. 

Dyn'a-mo-met'ri-cal-br£ike.  A  form  of  Dvna- 
MOMEl'EK  (which  see). 


EAR. 


769 


EARTHEN-PIPE. 


E. 


Ear.  A  small  projection  on  an  object,  u.sually  for 
support  or  attacluneiit  ;  as  :  — 

1.  The  ear  of  a  bucket  or  cooking-pot  to  which 
the  bail  is  attached.  The  car  or  /ng  of  a  .sugar  or 
salt  boiling  kettle  by  which  it  is  supiiorted  on  the 
walls  of  the  furnace.  The  ear  of  a  sliell  is  inibeildeil 
in  the  metal,  and  serves  for  inserting  the  liuoks  by 
which  the  projectile  is  lifted. 

2.  (Music.)  In  the  metallic  mouth-pipe  of  an 
organ  ;  one  of  the  pair  of  solt  metal  jilates  at  each 
end  of  the  slit  or  mouth  of  the  pipe,  which  may  be 
bent  more  or  less  over  the  opening,  to  cpuilify  the 
tone. 

3.  The  canon  of  a  bell,  the  part  by  which  it  is 
suspended. 

4.  (Printinii.)  A  projection  on  tlie  edge  of  the 
frisket ;  or  one  on  the  edge  of  the  composing-rule. 

5.  Tlie  loop  or  ring  on  the  ram  of  a  pile-driver  by 
which  it  is  lifted. 

6.  One  of  the  two  projecting  parts  on  the  portions 
of  an  eccentric  strap  by  which  they  are  bolted  to- 
gether. 

Ear,  Ar'ti-fi'cial.  An  auiicle  having  the  shape 
of  the  natural  ear,  and  worn  as  an  ear-trampct,  to 
collect  the  waves  of  sound  and  cond.ict  then)  by  a 
tube  to  the  meatus  audilorius.  Us  lally  made  of 
gutta-percha  colored  to  resemble  nature,  and  at- 
taclieil  liy  cdasps  to  the  natural  ear.      See  AuuiCLE. 

Ear-brush.  A  toilet  instrument  for  cleaning  the 
ear.     A  luill>  of  sponge  on  a  handle.     An  aurilavc. 

Ear-cor'net.  A  small  auricle  which  is  contained 
within  the  liuUow  of  the  outer  ear  ami  has  a  .short 
tube  to  k('ep  open  the  meatus  auditorius  in  cases  of 
contraction  or  the  presence  of  polypi.  An  car- 
trumpet. 

E-lec'tro-mag-net'ic  Bat'ter-y.  One  in  which 
the  current  is  generated  in  the  voltaic  battery,  as 
distinguished  from  the  electric,  the  magneto-electric, 
or  the  thermal  battery. 

Ear'ing.  [Nautical.)  The  rope  which  lashes  the 
upper  coiner  of  a  sail  to  its  yard. 

The  recf-cariiigs  are  used  to  lash  the  ends  of  the 
reef-band  to  the  yard. 

Ear  of  Di'o-nys'i-us.  An  ai'oustio  instrument 
named  after  the  sound-conducting  orifice  in  the  roof 
of  the  dungeons  where  the  old  Sicilian  tyrant  kept 
his  prisoners. 

It  has  a  large  mouth-piece  to  collect  the  sound, 
which  a  Hexible  tube  conducts  to  the  ear  of  the  per- 
son. It  is  especially  adapted  for  enabling  the  very 
deaf  to  hear  general  conversation,  lectures,  sermons, 
etc.     See  AcoiTSTrc  In.stru.mknts. 

Ear-pick.  (Surgical.)  A  small  scoop  to  extract 
hardened  cerunu'U  from  the  mr.atus  auditorius,  or 
foreign  matters  from  the  external  ear. 

Ear-spec'u-lum.  (Sargicnl.)  An  instrument 
for  distending  the  exterior  canal  of  the  ear,  in  re- 
moving iniUu-ited  wax,  or  other  explorations  and 
operations.     An  otn.^cope. 

Ear-syr'inge.  An  instrument  for  injecting  the 
ear  with  a  liquid  or  medicated  vapor.  An  ordinary 
syringe  may  answer  the  usual  ])urposes  of  cleanli- 
ness, softening  indurated  wax,  etc.,  liut  the  instru- 
ment shown  has  a  farther  capacity,  a  is  an  india- 
rubber  air-bag,  b  a  flexible  tube,  c  a  bulb  of  hard- 
rubber,  ma<le  in  two  pieces,  which  screw  together  and 
contain  a  sponge  to  hold  chloroform  or  other  liquid  ; 
d  is  the  jierforated  bulb.  It  is  particularly  used 
in  treating  diseases  of  tlie  middle  ear.  The  sponge 
49 


Fig  1815. 


being  previouslj'  moistened,  the  nozzli;  Fi?  tS14 
of  the  bulb  is  placed  in  one  nostril, 
the  other  is  closed  by  the  linger  of  the 
surgeon,  the  mouth  is  also  closeil,  and 
the  [latient,  having  jireviously  taken  a 
mouthful  of  water,  is  told  to  swallow, 
and,  just  as  he  is  doing  this,  the  sur- 
geon compresses  the  air-bag,  and  sends 
the  iodized  air  into  the  faucial  orifice 
of  the  eustachian  tube,  and,  if  the 
drum  be  perforated,  into  the  cavity  of 
the  tympanum. 

Earth.  { Telegrajih.)  The  ground 
in  its  relation  to  the  circuit  js  the 
means  of  conducting  the  return  cur- 
rent. The  conductor  is  led  to  a  buried 
ground-plate  or  to  a  gas  or  water  main, 
which  forms  an  admiiable  ground  con- 
ductor. 

Earth-bat'ter-y.  A  large  plate  of 
zinc  and  a.  plate  of  cop]  er,  or  a  quan- 
tity of  coke,  buried  at  a  certain  dis- 
tance asumler  in  damp  earth.  The  moisture  of  the 
earth  acts  as  the  exciting  lluid  on  this  voltaic  couple, 
and  a  feeble  but  constant  current  is  produced. 

Earth-board.     The  mold-board  of  a  plow. 

Earth-bor'er.  A  form  of  auger  for  boring  holes 
in  the  ground,  where  the  .strata 
are  sufficiently  soft  and  loose. 
The  shaft  has  a  screw-jioint  and 
a  cutting- face.  The  twisted 
.shank  revolves  inside  a  cylindri- 
cal case,  which  retains  the  earth 
till  the  tool  is  withdrawn.  The 
valve  opens  to  admit  the  earth, 
and  closes  as  the  tool  is  lifted. 
See  .AroF.i!. 

Earth-car.  A  car  for  trans- 
porting g^a^•el  and  stone  in  rail- 
way opeiations.  See  DuMPING- 
CAi:. 

Earth-clos'et.  A  commode 
or  night-stool  in  which  a  body 
of  earth  receives  the  feces,  or  is 
dropped  upon  them  to  absorb  the 
efHuvia  ;  the  resultant  is  to  be 
utilized  as  a  fertilizer. 

.^  is  a  pan  piovided  with  an 
absorbent ;  when  full,  the  lining 
and  the  contents  are  removed 
and  buried,  and  another  lining 
of  earth  placed  in  the  pan  by 
packing  around  the  mold  .B. 

C  has  a  seat  a, which  descends 
with  the  person  and  brings  a 
charge  of  earth  in  readiness  to 
fall  upon  the  feces.  As  the  per- 
son rises,  the  quantity  of  earth 
released  by  the  former  operation 
is  dropped  upon  the  feces  in  the 
pan  below,  b  is  the  earth  reser- 
voir, and  c  the  dumping-spout. 

Earth'en-pipe.  The  Romans 
used  earthen  jiipes  where  economy 
was  an  object.  They  pireferred 
lead.  The  earthen  pipes  had  a 
thickness  of  at  least  two  inches, 
and  the  ends  were   respectively 


Earth-Borer. 


contracted  and  enlarged  to  fit  into  and  to  r 


eceive  tlie 


tin 


EARTHEN-WARE. 


770 


EAR-TRUMPET. 


FL'.  131 J 


Earth-  Closets. 


arljaeent  pipes.  The  .joints  of  the  pipes  were  Intel 
with  quicklime  and  oil.  The  thickness  was  increaseil 
at  the  hottoin  of  a  bei\il,  as  in  crossing  a  valley  or 
hollow,  or  the  pipe  at  this  ]iart  was  "  secnred  by  liga- 
tures or  a  weight  of  ballast  "  (ViTKL'Vius).  Earthen 
jiip'sare  fouml  in  the  walls  of  the  liaths  and  the  Coli- 
seum, of  various  diami.'ters,  none  less  than  "2  inches 
diameter.  The  elaborate  arrangement  of  pi|ies  in  the 
amphitheater  of  Vespasian  has  prjbably  never  been 
excelled.  Fifty-si.K  drains  constructed  within  the 
thickness  of  tlie  walls  wliich  sujiported  the  stair- 
cases of  the  ground- lloor  served  to  carry  off  the  rain- 
water which  fell  in  the  building,  and  also  the  con- 
tents of  the  urinals  in  the  third  and  fourth  stories. 
The  drains  were  cylindrical  ])ipes  of  12  inches 
diameter,  hollowed  out  of  freestone  blocks  20  inches 
in  hight.  The  drains  were  led  down  from  the  upper 
stories  tlirongh  pijies  in  the  masonry  of  the  stairs, 
and  united  with  liundreds  of  other  drains  at  the 
larger  conduits,  which  conducted  the  water  to  the 
Clo\ea  Ma.xima. 

The  arrangement  of  the  aqueduct  and  distributing 
jiipes  which  conducted  the  water  from  the  fountain 
of  Nismes  was  as  fdaborate  as  the  eomnctories  de- 
scril]e.l.      See  "t're.sy,"  ed.  lS6,i,  pp.  1(18-118. 

Earth'en-'ware.  A  general  expression  which 
covers  all  eei'aniie,  work,  such  as  stone-ware,  delft, 
porcelain,  etc.  See  Pottf.iiv.  The  term,  as  far  as 
it  may  have  a  less  general  meaning,  includes  merely 
the  commoner  classes  of  clay-ware,  otherwise  known 
as  crockery. 

The  clay,  having  been  properly  tempered,  is  formed 
on  the  wheel  and  dried  under  cover  until  it  has 
acquired  considerable  solidity.  The  glaze,  of  the 
consistence  of  cream,   is  then  put  on  as  evenly  as 


possible  by  means  of  a  brush.  Small  articles  are 
ghized  by  pouring  in  the  glaze  and  then  pouring  it 
out  again,  sufficient  adhering  for  the  puipose. 

The  glaze  consists  of  galena  ground  to  powder  and 
mixed  with  "slip"  ;  that  is,  a  thin  solution  of  clay. 
This  is  a  clear  glaze,  and  is  made  black  and  opaque 
by  the  addition  of  manganese  :  galena,  9  ;  manga- 
nese, 1  pait.  The  glaze  having  dried,  the  wai-e  is 
piled  in  the  kiln. 

A  low  liea.t,  applied  for  twenty-four  hours,  drives 
off  the  moisture  ;  an  increased  heat  for  another 
twenty-four  hours,  as  high  as  can  be  borne  without 
fusion,  bakes  the  clay,  drives  oil'  the  sulphur  from 
the  galena,  and  causes  the  lead  to  form  a  glass  with 
tin!  chry  to  which  it  adheres.  With  increase  of  heat 
this  glass  spreads  over  the  surface  of  the  ware. 
.Vfter  the  furnace  is  cooled,  the  ware  is  removed. 
The  glaze,  consisting  of  o.xide  of  lead,  is  soluble  in 
acids,  such  as  vinegar  and  those  of  fruit,  and  is  de- 
sti'oycd,  rendering  injurious  the  food  with  which  it 
combines.  A  more  lefractory  clay  admits  the  use 
of  a  less  fusilile  glaze  of  a  harnde.ss  character. 

Eaithen-ware  is  found  among  almost  all  nations 
and  tribes,  though  not  all  have  the  art  of  glazing, 
nor  liave  all  the  ait  of  baking.  Uri/ing  is  not 
bakitiff,  anil  it  recpiires  a  good  heat  to  make  a  good 
I'inging  article.  The  Egyi>tians  and  Etruscans  had 
pottery  at  a  date  before  the  historic  period.  We 
know  more  of  the  former  than  of  the  latter  at  early 
periods.  The  resemblance  of  the  Greek  and  Etrurian 
ceramic  works  is  remarkable.  Glazing  came  from 
t'liina.  Wedgwood's  jjatents  about  1762.  See  specific 
list  under  PoTTKKY  AND  Clay. 

Earth-plate.  {Telegraph.)  A  ]ilate  buriiMl  in 
the  earth,  or  a  system  of  gas  or  water  pipes  utilized 
for  tile  purpose,  connected  with  the  terminal  or  re- 
turn wire  at  a  station,  so  as  to  avail  the  earth  it.self 
as  a  part  of  the  eirciut,  instead  of  u.sing  -two  wires, 
as  was  the  practice  jucvious  to  1837. 

Earth'quake-a-larm'.  An  alarm  founded  on 
the  discovery  or  supjiosition  that  a  few  seconils 
previous  to  an  eartliquake  the  magnet  temporarily 
loses  its  jiower.  To  an  armature  is  attachi-d  a 
weight,  so  that  upon  the  magnet  becoming  paralyzed 
the  weight  drops,  and,  striking  a  bell,  gives  the 
alarm. 

Earth-ta'ble.  The  lowest  visible  course  of  stone 
or  bricks  in  a  wall  or  building. 

Earth'work.  An  engineering  term  applied  to 
cuttings  and  embankments. 

Ear-trum'pet.  An  instrument  for  the  collection 
and  conductiiin  of  sounds.  By  increa.sing  the  size 
of  the  auiiide,  a  larger  \-olume  of  sound  is  gathered 
than  by  the  natural  ear. 

The  ear-trumpet  for  the  a.ssistanee  of  the  partially 
deaf  is  believed  to  have  been  invented  liy  I'laiJtista 
Porta  about  1600.  Kircher  describes  the  funnel 
and  tube  for  conveying  .sound,  the  device  wliich  is 
now  so  common  for  conveying  intelligence  between 
apartments  and  shops,  in  dwellings,  warehouses, 
and  factories. 

Dr  Arnott  of  England,  who  became  partially  deaf 
from  a  cold  contracted  in  traveling,  lirst  devised 
the  pair  of  shells  or  artilicial  ears  wdiich  extend  the 
surface  displayed  to  gather  the  tremulous  air. 

There  are  two  qiialities  required  in  a  speaking- 
tube  :  that  it  shall  concentrate  a  large  amount  of 
sound  in  a  small  space  ;  and,  secondly,  that  it  shall 
not  stille  t\v:  sounds  within  the  tube  itself.  Gutta- 
percha seems  to  answer  the  latter  conditions  better 
than  any  other  material. 

The  ear-trumpets  are  of  several  descriptions  :  — 

1.  T\\e  /iinr/  c'ir-trumpet  a,  with  a  wide  o|iening 
at  the  sound-reception  end,  and  a  small  opening  at 


EAR-TRUMPET. 


771 


EBONITE. 


the  dolivery  eiuL  This  is  made  portahle  and  com- 
pact l>y  bending,  b  Ixas  a  rotatable  section  ;  o  is  a 
shorter  trumpet  ;  d  d  cane  trumj)ets  ;  c  a  sliort  one. 

2.  Tlie  ear-cornet  /  is  a  small  and  neat  atlair, 
adapted  to  be  worn  on  the  head. 

3.  Tlie  pambohid  triiinpct,  in  which  the  sound  is 
echoed  from  a  large  concave  receiver  before  it  enters 
the  tul)e. 

4.  The  auditorium  trumpet,  which  is  adapted  to 
collect  the  sound  of  a  speaker's  voice  and  convey  it 
to  one  or  more  parts  of  the  room  where  the  partially 
deaf  persons  may  be  sitting. 

Tlie  uses  of  the  acoustic  tubes  are  various,  form- 


Ear-  Trumpets 


ing  means  of  communication  between  a  captain  and 
his  engineer  or  steersman  ;  a  conductor  and  driver 
on  a  street-car  ;  a  conductor  and  engineer  on  a  train  ; 
a  messenger  at  the  door  and  a  doctor  in  his  apart- 
ment ;  a  housekeeper  with  the  kitchen  ;  an  office 
with  a  factory  ;  an  editor  with  the  cnm[iositor's 
room  ;  a  hospital  office  an<l  the  wards,  etc. 

In  the  auricle  /  the  tube  of  the  ear- trumpet  near 
where  it  enters  tlie  ear  is  intersected  liy  a  passage 
communicating  with  an  artificial  ear  which  is  in- 
tended to  lead  such  vibrations  as  fall  on  it  to  unite 
with  the  vibrations  passing  round  tluough  the  tube. 

A  sonifcr  is  a  bell-shaped  instrument  of  metal 
placed  on  a  table  with  the  mouth  turned  in  the  cli- 
rection  whence  tlie  sound  proceeds  ;  the  sound  col- 
lected in  the  bottom  of  the  instrument  is  conducted 
by  a  flexible  tube  to  the  ear  of  the  person. 


(MkrocoiiiStic.)  An  instrument  to  assist  the  hear- 
ing. 

Eas'el.  A  wooden  frame  for  supporting  a  picture 
during  its  execution. 


Fig.  1818, 


Eave.  The  lo-sver  edg«  of  a  roof  overhanging  the 
wall. 

Eave-board.  A  feather-edge  boartl,  nailed  aliove 
and  acro.ss  the  lower  emls  of  the  rafter.s  to  tilt  up 
the  lower  edge  of  the  lowest  conr.se  of  slates  so  that 
the  next  course  may  lie  flatly  ni>ou  them. 

Eave-lead.  (Bailding:)  A  leaden  gutter  iiiade 
a  parapet. 

Eave-mold'ings.  (Jrcldtcctnre.)  Tho.sc  imme- 
diatidy  Ijelow  tlic  eaves,  a.s  a  cornioe. 

Eave-trough.  A  brougli,  usuilly  of  tinned  iron, 
susjieuded  beneath  an  eave  to  catch  the  drip.     It  is 

f^.  1819. 


Eave-Ti'ough  Hangers, 

held  by  a  strap  or  hanger,  which  may  have  means 
for  the  vertical  adjustment  of  the  trough,  so  as  to 
give  it  the  reipiired  fall  in  the  length  of  the  eave. 

Eb'on-ite.   Wr.  Goodyear's  name  for  what  is  gen- 
erally known  as  hard  rubber.    It  is  a  vulcanite  with 
a  larger  proportion  of  sulpliur  and  certain  added  in- 
I  gredients.    The  proportion  of  suljihur  is  from  thirty 


EBULLIOSCOPE. 


772 


ECCENTlilC-WHEEL. 


to  sixty  per  cent,  and  to  this  may  be  added  certain 
amounts  of  shellac,  gutta-percha,  chalk,  jiipc-clay, 
sulphates  of  zinc,  antimony,  or  copper.  It  is  used 
of  many  colors,  as  may  bt!  gathered  from  the  above 
list  of  ingredients,  and  of  hardness  and  consequent 
facility  for  taking  polish.  The  compound,  mauger 
its  name,  may  resemble  horn,  ivory,  bone,  wood,  etc. 

E-bul'li-o-scope.  An  instrument  for  determin- 
ing the  stn-ngtii  of  a  li(iuid  by  ascertaining  its  boil- 
ing-point. 

Eccal-e-o'bi-on.  A  chamber  for  hatching  eggs 
by  aitiliiial  heat.     See  Incubator. 

Ec-ceu'trio.  A  disk  or  wheel  a  fi.xed  upon  a 
shaft  at  some  distance  from  its  geometric  center. 
Around  it  is  placed  a  ring  d,  within  which  it  is  at 
liberty  to  tui'u  ;  the  ring,  however,  does  not  turn. 


'"^"illj&r/'' 


but  rotates  around  the  axis  of  «.,  so  as  at  its  quar- 
terly points  to  oeeu|)y  the  places  indicated  by  the 
dotted  circles,  the  effect  of  which  is  to  rock  the  bell- 
crank  lever  g  rj. 

The  up])er  portion  of  the  figure  show.s  a  shiftable 
eccentric  for  varying  the  throw. 

The /ore  eccentric  and  back  eccentric  impart  forward 
and  backward  motions  respectively  to  the  valve-gear 
and  the  engine. 

The  eccentric  is  used  in  many  other  machines  be- 
sides steam-engines,  to  convert  a  rotary  to  a  recipro- 
cating motion. 

Ec-cen'tric-catch.     See  Eccentric-hook. 

Ecceii'tric-chuck.  A  chuck  attached  to  the 
mandrel  of  a  latlie,  and  having  a  sliding  piece  which 
carries  tlie  center.  This  piece  is  adjustable  in  a  plane 
at  right  angles  to  the  axis  of  motion  by  means  of  a 
set  screw,  and  carries  the  center  to  one  side  of  the 
axis  of  motion.  By  its  means  circular  lines  of  vary- 
ing size  and  eccentricity  may  be  produced.  No  oval 
or  ellipse  is  produceil  thereby,  but  circles  on  the 
face  of  the  work  with  their  centers  at  such  distance 
from  the  axis  of  the  mandrel  as  may  be  desired. 

Ec-cen'tric-cut'ter.  A  cutting-tool  placed  upon 
the  .sliilc-rcst,  and  having  a  rotation  by  means  of  a 
wheel  and  .shaft,  the  cutter  being  attachi-il  to  the 
end  of  the  latter.  The  rotation  is  obtaineil  by  an 
overhead  molinn,  aiul  the  eccentricity  by  fixing  the 
cutter  at  different  distances  from  the  center  by  means 
of  the  groove  and  screw.  The  action  of  the  eccen- 
tric-cutter dillers  from  that  of  the  eccentric-chuck 
in  this  ;  in  the  latter  the  work  is  rotated  and  the 
tool  is  stationary  ;  in  the  former  the  work  is  .station- 
ary and  the  tool  revolves. 

When  the  motions  are  used  in  conjunction,  the 
patterns  are  capable  of  almost  unliinite<l  variation. 

Ec-cen'tric-en-grav'ing.     An  arrangement  of 


diamond  tracers,  operated  by  elaborate  machinery, 
acting  upon  a  varnished  roller  designed  for  calico- 
printing.  The  effect  is  analogous  to  that  produced 
by  tlie  rose-engine  lathe. 

Ec-cen'tiic-fan.  A  fan-wheel  with  radial  arms 
and    vanes,   and 

having    an    a.xis  Fig  1S21. 

which  is  eccen- 
tric with  the  case 
in  which  it  re- 
volves. The  case 
hasa  scroll  form, 
and  the  effect  is 
to  make  the  dis- 
charge of  air 
more  perfect  and 
avoid  carrying 
a  body  of  air 
ai'ouinl  between 
tile  vanes. 

Ec-cen'tric- 

gab.       See     Ec-  Eccentric-Fan. 

iKNTi;ic-HiiOK. 

Ec-cen'tric-gear'ing.  Cog-wheels  set  on  ec- 
centric axes  givi-  a  varialile  circular  motion,  as  in 
the  case  of  the  eccentric  cuntrate  irhecl  and  pinion, 
and  the  eccentric  spur-wheel  and  intermediate 
shifting  pinion.  Links  connect  the  axis  of  the 
pinion  with  those  of  the  driver  and  driven  wheel.s, 
and  preserve  the  pinion  at  proper  mashing  distance, 

Fig,  1822. 


Ecce7ltric- Gears.  '' 

SO  as  to  engage  with  the  motor  and  communicate  the 
motion  to  the  next  wheel  in  series. 

Ec-oen'tric-hook.  (Steam-ciigine.)  One  used 
to  connect  the  eccentric-rod  with  the  wrist  on  the 
lever  of  the  rock-shaft  which  actnati's  the  valve  ; 
otherwise  calleil  a  (jiili. 

Ec-ceii'tric-hoop.  The  strap  on  the  ecientric 
of  an  engine. 

Ec-cen'tric-pump.  A  hollow  cylinder  in  «  hicli 
is  a  revolving  hub  and  axis  eccentrically  arranged. 
On  the  hub  are  flaps  wliich  act  as  pistons  in  the 
space  between  the  hub  and  the  case'  to  expel  the 
water,  which  enters  at  one  opening  and  departs  by 
aiiotlier.  The  same  construction  is  seen  in  rotary 
steam-engines,  only  that  in  one  case  the  shaft  re- 
volves to  force  water,  and  in  the  other  the  steam 
passes  tlirongli  to  drive  the  shaft. 

Ec-cen'tric-rod.  The  rod  connecting  the  eccen- 
tric stra]!  to  the  liver  which  moves  the  slide-valve. 

Ec-cen'tric-strap.  {Maehiiien/.)  The  ring  in- 
closing an  eccentric  sheave  and  connecting  by  a  rod 
to  the  object  to  be  reciprocated  ;  as,  the  slide-valve 
of  a  .steam-engine.     See  Eccenthic. 

Ec-cen'tric-'wheel.  A  cam  consisting  of  a  cir- 
cular disk  attached  eccentrically  to  a  shaft.  ^  It  is 
used  for  communicating  a  reciprocating  motion  to 
the  valve  of  a  steam-engine.  Its  axis  of  revolntion 
is  out  of  the  center  of  its  figure,  and  the  rectilinear 
motion  imparted  is  called  the  throw. 

The  ring  around  the  eccentric  is  the  eccentric-strap. 


ECCOPEUrf. 


773 


EDGE-TOOL. 


Fig  1S23 


The  rod  connecting  the  strap  to  the  part  to  be 
actuated  is  the  ccceulric-rod. 

The  hook  at  the  end  of  the  rod,  by  which  it  is  con- 
nected to  the  rock-shaft  of  the  valve  motion,  is  the 
eccoitric  Iwak  or  gab. 

The  wliole  apparatus  is  the  ccccTitric-gear.     See 

ECCEXTIIIC. 

Ec-cop'e-us.     {Surgical.)     A  surgeon's  knife. 
A  raspatory  ;  an  ancient  instrument  for  trepan- 
niuj;. 

E-chi'nus.  A  member  of  the  Doric  capital  ;  so 
called  from  its  resemblance  to  the  echinus,  or  large 
vase,  in  wliicdi  drinkiiig-eups  were  washed. 

E-chom'e-ter.  {.Uiisic.)  A  scale  or  rule  marked 
with  lines  wliicli  serve  to  indicate  the  duration  of 
sounds,  and  to  ascertain  their  intervals  and  ratios. 

E-clipse'-speed'er.  (Cotton,  etc.)  A  form  of 
spiuiiin^-inachiue. 

E'coute.  (Fortification.)  A  gallery  built  in  front 
of  the  glacis  of  a  fortification,  as  a  lodgment  for 
troops  to  intercept  the  miners  of  an  attacking  force. 
Ec-pho'ra.  The  projection  of  any  member  or 
molding  before  the  face  of  the  member  or  molding 
uext  below  it. 

E-cra'seur.  A  steel  chain  tightened  by  a  screw, 
and  used  for  riMnoving  piles,  polypi, 
malignant  growths,  etc  Used  also  in 
obstetrical  piactice. 

Ec-ty-pog'ra-phy.  A  mode  of 
etching  whicli  gives  the  design  in  re- 
lief The  plate  is  cicposed  by  the 
etching-needle  between  the  lines,  in- 
stead of  at  the  lines. 

Edge-cut'ting.  The  process  of  giv- 
ing a  smooth  edge  to  books  by  cutting 
oft'  the  folds  and  making  the  margins 
of  all  the  pages  equal.  The  hook  is 
held  in  a  culting-prcss  and  the  work 
done  liy  a  plow  or  t rimm i iiij- maehiiie. 
Edge-joint.  (Carpentnj.)  A  joint 
formed  by  two  eidges,  foi-ming  a  cor- 
ner. 

Edge-mill.  An  ore -grinding  or 
oil-mill  in  which  the  stone.s  travel  on 
their  edges.  In  addition  to  the  crush- 
ing action,  the  cdric-mill  lias  a  fric- 
tional  or  grimling  action,  whose  rela- 
tive value  may  be  considered  as  equal 
to  the  dilference  of  distance  performed 
by  the  inner  and  outer  edges.     See  CuiLi-iX-MiLL. 

E  d  g  e  - 
n«  1824  plane.    1. 

( ll'ood-irork- 
iiig.)  A  plane 
for  edging 
boards,  hav- 
ing a  fence, 
and  a  face 
with  the  re- 
quiivd  shape  ; 
flat,  hollow, 
or  round. 

2.  (.S' hae- 
makincf.)  A 
plane  for  shav- 
ing the  edges 
of  boot  anil 
shoe  soles.  It 
has  a  knife 
curved  to  the 
shape  desired, 
a  projecting 
edge  whicli 
forms  a  guide 


Eeraaeur. 


Plaof/ojr  £/ioe  Solts. 


and  gage,  and  means  for  adjustment.  The  mouth- 
piece is  adjustable,  and  lioliis  the  curved  paring- 
knife  by  means  of  its  jaws  and  set-screw. 

Edg'er.  A  circular  saw  or  pair  of  circular  saws 
by  which  the  bark  and  "wane//  "  portions  are  ripped 
from  slab-boards  or  boards  made  by  ripping  logs 
through  and  through,  without  squaring. 

A  double-edger  has  one  ]iennanent  saw  and  one 
capable  of  regulation  as  to  distance  from  the  foiiner 
one,  so  as  to  adapt  the  jsair  of  saws  to  edge  boards 
of  varying  width. 

Edge-rail.  {rMilrmd.)  a.  One  fomi  of  rail- 
road-rail, which  bears  the  rolling  stock  on  its  edge. 
The  rail  is  contradistingiiislied  by  its  name  from  the 
fiat-rail,  which  was  first  used  ;  the  angle-rail,  which 
succeeded  that  ;  the  bridge-rail,  which  presents  an 
arched  tiead  and  has  lateral  flanged  fret  ;  the  foot- 
rail,  which  has  a  tread  like  the  edge-roil,  but,  un- 
like it,  has  a  broad  base  formed  by  foot  flanges. 

Tlie  first  public  railway  laid  with  e<ige  rails  was 
made  bj'  Jessop  of  Loughborough,  Englan<l,  1789. 
They  were  of  cast-iron  in  3  or  4  feet  lengtlis,  and 
had  vertical  holes  near  each  end  by  which  they  were 
womlen-pinned  to  the  .sleei>ers.  They  were  fish- 
bellied,  and  subsequently  laid  on  cast-iron  chaii'S. 

Wyatt's  {latent  in  1800  was  an  oval  cast-iron  rail. 
The  upper  surface  was  afterwards  flattened. 

I!olled-iron  edge-rails  were  made  in   1820  under 
Birkenshaw's  jiatent. 
See  R.^il;  Railway. 

b.  A  rail  placed  by  the  side  of  tlie  main  rail  at  a 
switch  to  prevent  the  train  from  running  off  the 
trark  w  hen  the  diivection  is  changed. 

Edge-roll.  [Bookbinding.)  A  bra.ss  wlieel,  used 
hot,  in  running  an  edge  ornament  on  a  book  cover, 
eitlicr  golil  or  blind. 

Edge-shot.  A  Ixjard  with  its  edge  planed  is 
said  to  be  ediic-shot. 

Edge-tooL  {ffardimrc.)  A  general  name  which 
includes  the  heavier  descriptions  of  cutting-tools,  — 
axes,  adze-S,  chisels,  gouges,  jilane-bits. 

Other  cutting-tools  come  within  the  province  of 
the  aiTuorer  or  cutler,  and  are  included  umler  cut- 
lerif,  —  knives,  scissors,  shears,  surgical  instru- 
ments, and,  by  theanalogj- of  as.sociati'd  u-se,  forks. 
See  Adze  ;  Axe  ;  Hatchet  ;  Knife. 

Tlie  making  of  swords  was  anciently  the  work  of 
the  amiorer,  but  has  [unbably  merged  into  eutlerg. 

Wood-cutting  tools  are  divided  by  Holtzapffel 
as  follows  :  — 

1.  Paring  o\  splitting  tools,  with  thin  edges,  the 
angle  of  the  basil  not  exceeding  60°  with  the  straight 
face.     This  includes  broad-axes,  diisch,  goiigcs,  etc. 

Double^hosil  tooLs,  such  as  iwxs. 

2.  Scraping-tools  with  thick  edges,  the  angles 
measuring  from  60°  to  120°.  These  remove  the 
filjers  in  the  fonn  of  dust.  The  veneer-scraper  is  an 
instance.  One  angle  of  the  edge  of  the  steel  plate 
is  turned  over  to  fonn  a  bur,  known  as  a  wire-edge. 

3.  Shearing-tools  ;  such  are  usually  in  jiaiis,  acting 
from  opposite  sides  of  the  object,  the  basil  and  face 
having  an  angle  of  from  60°  to  90°. 

Iron  and  steel  for  edge-tools  have  been  combined 
in  a  fagot  and  rolled  so  as  to  have  a  thickne.ss  of 
steel  between  layers  of  iron,  for  chopping-axes  and 
some  other  tools,  and  with  a  layer  of  steel  on  one 
side  for  broadivxes,  chisels,  etc.,  which  have  but 
one  basil.     ( Bouydell's  jmtent,  English. ) 

4.  A  burnisher  tor  rubbing  the  edges  of  boot  and 
shoe  soles.     See  also  Edge-plane. 

5.  {Saddlery.)  A  tool  used  for  removing  the  an- 
gular edge  from  a  leathern  strap. 

For  chamfering  down  the  edges  of  a  strap  more 
broadly,  another  tool  is  used  having  a  blade  and 


EDGE-WHEEL. 


774 


EGG-MOLDING. 


«g  1825. 


Edge-  Tool. 


guides  wliich  travel  along  the  edge  and 
lace  respectively  of   the  leatlier.     See 

ClIAMFKI!ING-TUOL. 

Edge-wrheel.  A  wheel  traveling 
on  its  filge  iii  a  circular  or  aunular  bed, 
a.s  in  the  ancient  Pluenician  oil-mills, 
the  Chilian  ore-mills,  and  many  other 
crnshinjj-niills.     See  t'iiiu.A.N  Mill. 

Edg'ing.  The  ornamentation  of 
hook  cd^t's  by  — 

1.  Color  sprinkling. 

2.  M.vuBLixu  (which  see). 

3.  Gilding. 

4.  Coloring  ;  as  the  rubric  style  now 
so  common. 

Edg'ing -ma-cliine'.  A  machine 
for  cili,'iii'.;  liauds  to  a  given  pattern. 
An  -•-?;/,',•.' 

Edg'iag-shears.  X  gardener's  shears 
fur  triDiniing  the  edges  of  sod  around 
walks  or  IhmIs. 

Edg'ing-tile  Tiles  for  borders  of 
garden-lieils,  in  )ilace  of  grown  edgings, 
such  as  bo.x,  thrift,  etc.  Such  tiles  for 
pleasure-gardens  ai-e  made  ornamental ;  for  kitchen- 
gardens,  plainer. 

E-duc'tion-pipe.  {Stcam-enifinc.)  Tlie  pipe 
which  carries  otf  the  e.\liaust  steam  from  the  cylin- 
der. 

E-duc'tion-port.  One  through  wliich  the  steam 
passes  from  the  valves  to  the  comlenser.  Exhaast- 
poit. 

E-dul'co-ra'tion.  Tlie  efl'usioii  oj'  water  on  any 
substance  for  the  purpose  of  removing  the  portion 
soluble  in  that  lii[uid.  The  article  is  usually  agi- 
tated in  water,  wliicli  is  removed  by  decantation 
after  sulisidenee  of  the  heavier  portion. 

E-duVco-ra'tor.  A  droii]iiiig-tube  for  applpiig 
sm  ill  quantities  of  sweet  solutions  to  a  mi.xture, 

Ef-fect'.  Tlie  amount  of  work  performed  by  a 
ste;uii-i'ni,'i}ie  or  other  machine.     See  Duty. 

Egg-as-sort'er.  A  deviije  by  which  eggs  are 
assorted  according  to  ijuality  ;  being  so  jilaced  that 
a  strong  light  is  brought  upon  them  when  stuck  into 
holes  in  a  Imard,  their  comparative  translncency  is 
observed,  ;iiid  is  accepted  as  an  eviilence  of  quality. 
Egg-bas'kfit.  One  for  standing  eggs  in  to  boil, 
and  also  to  hold  them 
\S'hen  placi'il  on  the  table. 
Egg-beat'er.  A  wliip 
of  wiri'S  tM"  a  set  of  wire 
loops  rotiiteil  by  geai-  while 
plunged  in  the  egg  con- 
tained in  a  bowl. 

Another  form  is  a  vessel 
contained  in  another,  an<l 
a  wire  gauze  d!aphragn> 
through  which  the  eggs 
pass  when  tlie  vessels  are 
reciprocated. 

Egg-boU'er.  A  domes- 
tic device  which  sounds  an 
alarm  when  the  eggs  hn\'e 
been  e.xposeil  to  tlie  water 
&  sufficient  length  of  time 
to  ex])and  the  water  in  the 
lower  reservoir,  raise  the  |>lug  (',  and  release  the 
trigger  of  the  s]iring  bell-ham mer. 

Egg-car'ri-er.  A  means  forliolding  eggs  in  the 
Jiroper  canyiiig  po.sition  without  jolting  against 
each  other  (luring  transportation.  Tlie  frames  have 
cloth  pockets  for  the  eggs.  In  other  forms  the  eggs 
are  supported  by  ]iockets  of  wire  or  netting. 
Egg-de-tect'or.    An  apparatus  for  showing  the 


Fig.  1826. 


Basket. 


Fig.  1S27. 


Egg-Btaters. 


cpiality  of  eg"s.     They  are  placed  upright   in  the 
holes  in  the  lid  of   the  dark  chamber,   and  theii' 


Fig.  1S23. 


Esg-Bmter. 

transmitted  light  observed  upon  a  mirror  C;  being 
viewed   through 

a      peep-hole.  Kg.  182a 

their  ipiality  is 
determined  by 
their  translu- 
cency  as  evinced 
by  the  relative 
transmission  of 
light,  as  an  egg 
becomes  more 
cloudy  and 
opafine  as  it  be- 
comes sjioiled. 

Egg-glass.  1. 
A  glass  for  liolding  an  egg  while  eating  it. 

2.  A  sand-glass  running  about  tliree  minutes,  as  a 
timist  for  egg-boiling. 

Egg-hatch'ing  Ap'pa-ra'tus.  An  ajiparatus 
for  tlie  artilirial  hatcliing  of  eggs.  It  has  been  prac- 
ticed from  time  immemorial  in  Egjirt.  See  In'CU- 
EATOR  ;  Calouifere. 

Egg-mold'ing ;  Egg  and  Tongue.  (Arcliitec- 
turc.)     A  peculiar  molding  in  which  a  tongue  de- 


Egg-  Camrr. 


EGG-TONGS. 


775 


EJECTOR. 


rig  1830. 


Egg-Detector, 

ppndent  from  the  corona  alternates  with  an  oval 
lioss  whose  major  diameter  is  vertical,  like  an  egg 
set  on  end. 

Egg-tongs.     A  grasping    implement  for  seizing 
and  liuldiiig  an  egg. 

Fig  1832. 
Fig.  1831. 


Ehlograph. 

Ei'do-graph.  .\n  instniment 
for  copying  dniwing,  invented  by 
Professor  Wallace.  It  consists  of 
a  central  beam  of  mahogany,  slid- 
ing backwaid  and  forward  in  a 
socket  whose  a.\is  passes  through 
a  longitudinal  slit  in  the  beam. 
Two  equal  wheels,  one  below  each  end  of  the 
beam,  turn  on  axes  that  pass  tlirougli  pipes  fixed  at 
a  b,  near  its  extremities,  ami  a  steel  chain  passes 
over  the  wlieels  as  a  band  by  wliicli  motion  may  be 
communicated  from  one  to  the  otlier.  Two  arms 
/  /"  slide  in  sockets  along  the  lower  face  of  tlie 
wheels,  just  under  their  centers,  one  of  which  bears 
at  its  extremity  /'.  a  metallic  tracer,  having  a  handle 
by  which  its  point  may  lie  carried  over  the  lines  of 
any  design,  while  at  the  extremity  r/  of  the  other 
arm  is  a  pencil,  fixed  in  a  metallic  tube  wliii-h  slides 
in  a  pipe  and  is  raised  by  a  string,  when  i-eipiired, 
the  pressui'e  on  the  paper  being  maintained  by  a 
weight. 

The  wheels  being  exactly  equal  in  diameter,  the 
arms  attached  to  them,  when  once  set  parallel  to 
each  other,  w-ill  remain  so  when  the  wheels  are  re- 
volved. 

For  use,  the  instrument  is  set  by  sliding  the  cen- 
tral be.am,  so  that  the  distance  b  <■  shall  bear  the 
same  |iroportion  to  d  c  as  the  drawing  to  be  copied 
is  intended  to  bear  to  the  copy. 

Tlie  distances  h  g,  ri  h,  are  also  regulated  to  the 
same  proportion.  The  center-piece  and  a.Tns  are 
graduatecl  for  this  purpose,  so  as  to  admit  of  beipg 
set  to  any  desired  ratio. 

Ei'do-scope.  An  instrument  on  the  principle 
of  the  kaleidoscope,  which  prodm^cs  an  infinite 
variety  of  geometrical  figures  by  the  independent 
revolution  of  two  perforated  metallic  disks  on  their 
axes.  It  may  be  employed  in  conjunction  witli  tlie 
magic-lantern,  when  rapidly  rotated  causing  flashing 


rays  of  light,  forming  singular  combinations  to  ap- 
pear upon  the  screen.  Variously  colored  glass  di.sks 
may  be  used,  producing  striking  variations  and  com- 
binations of  color.  —  Mechanical  Maijaziae,  N.  S. , 
Vol.  XVII.  p.  35. 

Eight-een'-mo.  A  book  whose  sheets  are  folded 
to  form  eighteen  leaves.  Sometimes  written  oclo- 
di'.cimfi;  and  usually  indicated  18mo,  or  18°. 

Eight-line  Pica.  (Priulinij.)  A  type  whose  face 
has  eight  times  tlie  depth  of  pica.  French,  double- 
canon. 

E-ject'or.  1.  A  device  wherein  a  body  of  elastic 
fluid,  such  as  steam  or  air,  un- 
der pressure  and  in  motion  is 
made  the  means  of  driving  a  liq- 
uid such  as  water  or  oil.  The  ef- 
fect of  a  body  of  escaping  steam 
in  setting  liquids  in  motion  was 
otwerved  longsince,  but  the  most 
notable  instance  is  the  Gitt'ard  1  n- 
jector  (see  Injectok),  which 
used  as  a  feed-water  pump  for 
steam-boilers.  Thec;'cdoractson 


Fig  1833 


n 


Ipi 

1     1 

1    1 

1 
1 

1 

Ejector. 


Pcnsf's  Oil  Well  Ejector. 


a  similar  princi]ile,  but  is  applied  to  eject  or  lift 
liquids,  as  in  tlie  example  (Fig.  1S33),  where  it  is 
an  oil-well  jiump.  i'  is  a  pipe  wliich  proceeds  from 
the  surface  of  the  ground  to  near  tlie  bottom  of  the 
well ;  its  lower  end  is  closed  by  a  valve  which  opens 
ujiward.  A  steani-pi))e  pa  sing  down  alongside  the 
main  pipe  is  recuiTed  upwardly,  and  emits  steam 

Fig.  1835. 


Ejector. 


just  in  the  throat  of  the  contracted  aperture.     The 
effect  is  to  draw  up  liquid  by  the  force  of  the  steam- 


EJECTOR-CONDENSER. 


776 


ELASTIC  TYPE. 


blast  and  carry  it  through  tlio  aiierture,  and  so  up- 
wardly to  the  top.  See  also  B'igs.  59  to  64,  inclusive. 
Fig.  1834  is  upon  the  same  principle,  the  steam 
or  air  issuing  through  the  sujall  axial-pipe  and  pass- 
ing into  the  up-cast  pipe,  draw'ug  with  it  the  lii[uid 

IVom  the  lower  pipes 
Fig.  1S36.  which  surround  the 

ejector-nozzle. 

Fig.  1835  only  dif- 
fers in  tlie  mode  of 
application,  the 
bent  pipe  having  an 
unobstructed  pas- 
sage in  the  nozzle 
for  th(^  admission  of 
steam  or  air,  com- 
municating with 
the  said  passagi^  on 
its  back  or  outer 
curved  side  at  a 
point  directly  oppo- 
site to  and  in  line 
with  the  outlet  or 
discharge  oijcning. 

2.  That  device  in  a  breech-loading  fire-arm  wliicli 
withdraws  tlie  empty  cartridge-case  from  the  boi-e  of 
the  gun. 

3.  A  device  on  shipboard  (Fig.  1836)  for  carryingup 
the  ashes  from  the  stoke-holes  of  steamsliips  and  dis- 
charging them  overboard.  The  ashes  ai'e  shovidcd 
into  a  bo.'i,  and  a  steam-jet  being  driven  into  the 
raouth-picc(^  of  the  pipe  causes  an  induced  current 
of  air  which  carries  the  ashes  along  with  it,  up  the 
pipe,  and  overboard  above  the  water-line. 

E-ject'or-con-deus'er.  {Steani-enyine.)  A 
form  of  condenser  woi'ked  by  thee.xhaust  steam  from 
the  cylinder.  Jn  the  example  it  is  shown  as  applied 
to  a  pair  of  engines.  The  apjxiratus  consists  essen- 
tially of  three  concentric  tubes  terminating  in 
conoidal  nozzles,  and  opening  into  the  hot-well  or 
waste-water  receptacle  by  a  common  and  gradually 

Fig.  1837. 


AsJies-SJector. 


Those  having  elastic    cords, 
fabric  or  between  two 


Hforton^s  Ejector-  Conifemer. 


widening  or  tnimpet-shaped  niouth-pieie  D;  the 
inlet-tube  B  is  in  communication  with  the  water- 
tank  from  which  the  current  of  injection -water  is 
obtained,  while  eiich  of  tlie  other  tubes  C  conveys 
the  e.xhaust  steam  from  one  of  the  cylinders. 

^  is  a  regidating-spindle  for  adjusting  the  water- 
su])ply  ;  S,  the  watei'-inlet ;  0  C,  the  cxliaust  ]ias- 
sages  ;  D,  the  discharge  passage  ;  E,  the  steam- 
inlet ;  .P,  a  .self-adjusting  steam-valve.  Installing, 
steam  is  admitted  at  E,  and  passing  along  the  axial- 
pipe,  issues  at  the  nozzle,  drawing  witli  it  ivater  fmni 
cold-water  pipe  £,  which  condenses  the  steam  from 
the  e.xhaust  passages  C  C  of  the  respective  cylinder.s 
and  has  momentum  enough  to  cany  the  condensed 
steam  and  itself  to  the  hot-well. 

Eke'ing.  (Shipbuildiiitt.)  a.  A  piece  fitted  to 
make  good  a  deficiency  in  length  on  the  lower  part 
of  the  .supporter  under  the  cat-head,  etc. 


h.  The  piece  of  carved  work  under  the  lower  end 
of  the  quarter-piece  at  the  aft  part  of  the  quarter- 
gallery. 

E'lai-om'e-ter.  An  instrument  tor  detecting 
the  adulteiaticiii  of  olive-oil. 

E-las'tic-bulb  Syr'inge.  A  syringe  having  a 
buUi  of  caouti:liouc,  wliuse  expansion  and  contraction 
acts  as  a  pump.      Sre  liKEAsr-ruMP  ;   A'ld.MiZKi;. 

E-las'tic  Bands.  JIade  of  caontclioue,  naked  or 
covered.  The  funm-r  are  cut  from  tlattened  cylindi^rs 
of  rubber  of  proper  diameter  and  thickness  between 
a  duplicate  series  of  circular  knives  acting  after  the 
manner  of  shears  ;  the  latter  are  made  by  cutting 
continuous  slips  from  a  sheet  of  vulcanized  rubljer  of 
the  required  thickness,  wound  upon  a  reel,  by  means 
of  a  knife  with  slide-rest  motion.  These  strips  are 
then  covered  with  cotton  or  silk,  and  woven  in  an 
endless  web.      See  C.\iiUTClIOUC. 

E-las'tic-fab'ric  Loom.  One  having  mechani- 
cal devices  for  stretching  the  rubber  threads  mahirrs, 
and  holding  tliem  at  a  positive  tension  while  the 
fabric  is  woven. 

E-las'tic  Goods. 
called  shins,  inserted 
thick  nessi's. 

E-las'tic  Mold.  Elastic  molds  of  glue  for  tak- 
ing casts  of  undcreiU  objects  were  invented  by  Doug- 
las Fox,  Derby,  England. 

The  body  to  be  molded  is  oiled  and  secured  alvait 
an  inch  above  the  .surface  of  a  board,  and  is  then 
surrounded  by  a  wall  of  clay  rather  higher  than  it- 
self, and  about  an  inch  distant  from  its  periphery. 
Into  this,  warm  melted  glue,  just  fluid  enough  to 
run,  is  poured,  completely  enveloping  the  object. 
When  cold,  the  clay  wall  is  removed,  and  the  mold 
delivered  by  cutting  it  into  as  many  jiieces  as  are 
ix'iiuired,  either  with  a  shar]p  knife  or  by  threads 
previously  placed  in  jiroper  situations  about  the  ob- 
ject. The  pieces  are  then  placed  in  their  prcijier 
ptksitions,  and  bound  together.  The  mold  is  designed 
particulaily  for  taking  casts  in  plaster-of-paris,  but 
molten  wax,  if  not  too  hot,  may  also 
be  eiii|iloyed. 

E-las'tic  Pis'ton-pump.  A  ]uini]i 
described  in  Dr.  Gregory's  "Jtechan- 
ics  "  consists  of  an  elastic  biig  ]in>\ided 
with  a  valved  board  on  to|i,  and  o]ii'r- 
ating  over  a  valved  dia|ih]agni.  The 
trunk  in  which  it  operati's  is  a  square 
box,  and  the  piston  nin\'es  without 
friction  against  the  truid<  in  which  it 
works.  The  bag  is  of  watiM-proof  can- 
vas or  leather,  wdth  occasional  rings. 

A  somewhat  similar  jainqi,  recom- 
mended for  a  bilge-water  punqi,  and 
for  pumping  out  leak-water,  is  known 
as  Cracknell's,  and  was  somewhat  famous  in  Eng- 
land forty  ye;irs  since.  It  had  a  plialjle  diaphragm 
of  leather  attached  to  the  ]iluiiger-rod,  and  a  valve  on 
toji  like  the  pump  just  ilescribed.  As  the  leather 
dia[>hragm  was  driven  down  and  drawn  up  alter- 
nately, it  filled  with  water  ami  then  lifted  it,  the 
lower  valve  rising  as  the  plunger  lifted.     See  Bao- 

Pl'Mf. 

E-Ias'tic  Pro-pel'ler.  A  form  of  ship's  propel- 
ler invented  by  Macintosh,  in  which  the  blades  are 
of  flexible  steel,  which  assume  a  more  and  more 
nearly  disk  form  as  the  speed  and  consequent  resist- 
ame  nf  till'  water  is  inerea.sed. 

E-las'tic  Type.  Type  m:ide  of  compounds  of 
caoutchouc,  which  will  accommodate  tlieniselves  to 
a  somewhat  uneven  surface  in  printing,  and  in  which 
a  form  of  said  type  may  be  lapped  ai-ouiid  a  curved 
printing-surface. 


ELATEROMETEE. 


777 


ELECTRICAL  APPLIANCES. 


E-lat'er-om'e-ter.     A  pvessure-gage   for  air  or 

El'bow.  1.  The  junction  of  two  parts  having  a 
bent  joint.    A  knee  or  lotjglc  joint.    An  abrupt  angle. 

2.  A  bend,  as  of  a  stove-pipe,  a  wall,  a  parapet. 

3.  A  support  for  the  arm,  elbow  high,  as  the  ami 
of  a  chair. 

4.  A  TOii.ssoir  of  an  arch  which  also  forms  part  of 
a  horizontal  course.     An  obtuse  angle  of  a  wall. 

5.  (Joinery.)  The  sides  or  flanks  of  a  paneled 
recess ;  esj)ecially  the  two  small  pieces  of  framing 
which  occur  on  each  side  of  a  window  immediately 
below  the  shuttei-s  when  the  window-jambs  are  ear- 
lied  down  to  the  floor,  foiming  a  slight  recess.  ' 

El'bo^-board.  {.Carpcnlnj.)  The  hoard  at  the 
bottom  of  a  window  on  which  the  elbows  of  a  per- 
son are  supported  when  leaning. 

El'bow-tongs.  A  crucible  tongs  with  jaws  bent 
between  the  joint  and  chajts. 

E'lec-trep'e-ter.  .\n  instrument  for  changing 
the  direction  ol'elei'tric  currents. 

E-lec'tri-cal  Ap'pa-ra'tus.  Gilbert,  in  his 
book  "  De  ilagnete,"  lijiiu,  first  introduces  into  the 
nomenclature  of  the  sciences  the  word  "electric," 
deriving  it  from  chdroii  (Gr.  nmbcr),  which  was 
the  only  substance  known  to  the  ancients  that 
acquired  the  projierty  of  atti'acting  light  bodies  when 
rubbed.  He  gives  a  list  of  bodies,  as  diamond, 
sapphire,  crystal,  glass,  sulphur,  sealing-wax,  and 
others,  possessing  the  electric  property,  which  he 
very  properly  distinguishes  from  magnetic  power, 
the  former  attracting  all  light  hoilii's,  the  latter  iron 
only.  He  regarded  niiignetisni  and  electricity  as  two 
emanations  of  one  fundamental  force.  He  con- 
sidered the  earth  as  a  magnet,  and  the  lines  of  equal 
declination  and  inclination  as  having  their  intlec- 
tions  determined  by  distribution  of  mass,  or  by  the 
forms  of  continents  ami  by  the  extent  of  the  deep 
intervening  oceanic  basins.  Gilbert  was  surgeon  to 
Queen  Elizabeth  and  James  I.,  ami  died  in  1603. 

The  electric-telegraph  preceded  the  electro-mag- 
netic by  many  years.     See  ELECTr.ii-TELF.Gn.\Pll. 

Otto  Guericke,  of  Magdeliurg,  discovered  that 
there  was  a  repulsive  as  well  as  an  attractive  force 
in  electricity,  observing  that  a  globe  of  suli>hur, 
after  attracting  a  feather  to  it,  repelled  it  until  the 
feather  had  again  been  placed  in  contact  with  some 
other  substance.  Newton,  in  1675,  observed  signs 
of  electrical  excitement  in  a  rubbed  ]date  of  gla.ss. 
Hawkesbee,  who  wrote  in  1709,  also  observed  similar 
phenomena;  and  Dufay  in  the  "Memoirs  of  the 
French  .Academy,"  between  1733  and  1737,  general- 
ized so  far  as  to  lay  down  the  principle  that  electric 
bodies  attract  all  those  which  are  not  so,  and  repel 
them  as  soon  as  they  have  become  electric  by  the 
vicinity  or  contact  of  the  electric  body. 

Dufay  also  di.scovered  that  a  body  electrified  In- 
contact  with  a  resinous  substance  repelled  another 
electrified  in  a  similar  way,  and  attracted  one  which 
had  been  electrified  liy  contai't  with  gla.ss. 

He  thence  concluded  that  the  electricity  derived 
from  those  two  soui'ces  was  of  difl"erent  kinds,  ami 
applied  the  names  vitreous  and  resinous  to  them. 
Franklin  attriliuted  this  ilifli-rence  to  an  excess  or 
deficiency  of  the  electric  fluid,  the  former  condition  ; 
existing  in  electrified  glass  and  the  latter  in  resins,    j 

Otto  Guericke  had  observed  that  his  suljjhur 
globe,  when  rublied  in  a  ilark  place,  emitted  i'aint 
flashes  of  light,  and  shortly  afterward  it  was  noticed 
that  a  similar  phenomenon  occurred  at  the  surface  of 
the  mercury  when  the  barometer  was  shaken  ;  a  fact 
■which  one  of  the  celebrated  mathematicians,  Ber- 
noulli, attem])ted  to  ex]dain  on  the  Cartesian  sys- 
tem, but  which  was  afterwards  correctlj'  attributed  j 


by  Hawkesbee  to  electricity.  Wall,  in  170S,  ob- 
served the  sparks  jiroduced  from  amber,  and 
Hawkesbee  noticed  the  sparks  and  "snapping" 
under  various  modifications. 

Dufay  and  the  Abbe  Nollct  were  the  first  to  draw 
sparks  from  the  human  body  ;  an  experiment  which 
attracted  great  attention,  and  became  a  species  of 
fashionable  diversion  at  the  time. 

The  discovery  of  the  Leyden  jar  is  attributed  to 
Cunreus  of  Leyden,  in  17-1(5,  who,  while  handling  a 
vessel  containing  water  in  communication  with  an 
electrical  machine,  was  surpriseil  at  receiving  a  se- 
vere shock  ;  a  similar  event  had  happened  the  year 
previous  to  Von  Kleinst,  a  German  prelate 

Gray  in  1729  discovered  that  certain  substances 
were  possessed  of  a  conductive  in  contradistinction 
to  an  electric  power  ;  and  afterwards  NoUet  ))assed  a 
shock  through  a  circle  of  ISO  men  of  the  French 
guards,  and  along  a  line  of  men  and  wires  900  toises 
in  length,  while  "Watson  in  fjUgland  a.scertained 
that  the  transmission  of  the  shock  through  12,000 
feet  of  wire  was  sensildy  iust:int;#ii'Ous. 

Franklin  in  1747  pointed  out  the  circumstances 
on  which  the  action  of  the  Leyden  jar  depends, 
showing  that  the  inside  is  positively  and  the  outside 
negatively  electrified,  and  that  the  shock  is  pro- 
duced by  the  restoration  of  the  equilibrium  when 
communication  is  establisheil  between  them.  Mon- 
nier  the  younger  discovered  that  thi'  electricity 
which  bodies  can  receive  depends  on  their  surface 
i-ather  than  their  mass,  and  Franklin  soon  found 
that  "the  whole  force  of  the  bottle  and  power  of 
giving  a  shock  is  in  the  glass  itself"  ;  he  farther,  in 
1750,  suggested  that  electricity  and  lightning  were 
identical  in  their  nature,  and  in  1 752  demonstrated 
this  fact  by  means  of  his  kite  and  key  ;  about  the 
same  time  D'Alibard  and  others  in  France  erected  a 
pointed  rod  forty  feet  high  at  Marli,  for  the  purpose 
of  verifying  Franklin's  theory,  which  was  found  to 
give  sjiarks  on  the  passage  of  a  tliunder-cloud. 
Similar  experiments  were  repeated  thioughout 
Europe,  and  in  1753  Eichman  Wixs  instantly  killed 
at  St.  Petersburg  by  a  discharge  from  a  rod  of  this 
kind. 

The  more  imjiortant  discoveries  since  those  days 
relate  rather  to  electricity  producul  by  voltaic  or 
magnetic  action.    See,  under  the  following  heads  :  — 

E-lec'tii-cal  and  Mag-net'i-cal  Ap-pli'- 
an-ces. 


Annunciator. 

Anode. 

Armature. 

Astatic  needle. 

Battery. 

Calorimotor. 

Carbon-battery. 

Catelectl-ode. 

Cathode. 

Cell. 

Circuit. 

Circuit-breaker. 

Circuit-closer. 

Commutator. 

Compound  battery. 

Condenser.     Electric 

Conductor. 

Constant  battery. 

Couple. 

Current-regulator. 

De  Luc's  column. 

Dip. 

Dipping-needle. 

Discharging-i;od. 


Doubler. 
Dry-jiile. 
Earth-batteiy. 
Earth-plate. 
Electrepeter. 
Electrical  apparatus. 
Electric  alarm. 
Electrical  machine. 
Electric  aniuinciator. 
Electric  balance. 
Electric  battery. 
Electric  bridge. 
Electric  cable. 
Electric  clock. 
Electric  esi/apement. 
Electric  fuse. 
Electric  govenior. 
Electric  harpoon. 
Electric  heater. 
Electric  heli.x. 
Electric  indicator. 
Electric  lamp. 
Electric  light. 
Electric  log. 


ELECTRICAL  APPLIANCES. 


778 


ELECTRICAL  MACHINE. 


Electric  loom. 

Electric  iiirtcr. 

Electric  ijcikUiIuiii. 

Electric  piano. 

Electric  railway-signal. 

i;iectric  regulator. 

Electric  signal. 

Electric  steam-gage. 

Electric  switch. 

Electric  telegrajOi. 

Electric  time-ball. 

Electric  torcli. 

Electric  waml. 

Electric  wciglung-aii]>ara- 
tus. 

Electric  whaling-apiiara- 
tus. 

Electro-ballistic    apimra- 
tus. 

Electro-blasting. 

Electro-chemical      tele- 
graph. • 

Electro-chronograph. 

Electrode. 

Electro-dynamic  engine. 

Electro-engraving. 

Electro-etching. 

Electro-gilding. 

Electrolyte. 

Electro-magnet. 

Electro-magnetic  clock. 

Electro-magnetic  engine. 

Electro-magnetic  machine 

Electro-magnetic  regula- 
tor. 

Electro-magnetic      tele- 
graph. 

Electro-magnetic  watch- 
clock. 

Electro-medical  battery. 

Electrometer. 

Electro-motor, 

Electro-negative. 

Electronome. 

Electrophorus. 

Electro-plating. 

Electro-positive. 

Electro-puucturing. 

Electroscope. 

Electrotint. 

Electrotype. 

Filings-separator. 

Galvanic  battery. 

Galvanizing-iron. 

Galvaiiography. 

Galvanometer. 

Galvanometric  multiiilier 

Galvanoplastic  process. 

Galvanoscope. 

Geisler-tube. 

Hydro-electric  machine. 

Inclinatorinm. 

Inclinometer. 

Induction  apparatus. 

Induction  coil. 

Inductometer. 

Insulated  wire. 

Insulating-stool. 

Insulator. 

Inversor. 

Leydeu  battery. 

Leyden  jar. 

Lighting  gas  by  electri- 
city. 


Lightning-arrester. 

Lightning-conductor. 

Lightning-rod. 

Line- wire. 

Magnet. 

Magnetic  battery. 

Magnetic  compensator. 

JIagnetic   curative-appli- 
ances. 

Magnetic  guard. 

Magnetic  hone. 

Magnetic  needle. 

Magneto-electric    appara- 
tus. 

Magneto-electric  machine. 

Magneto  -  electric    tele- 
grajih. 

Magnetograph. 

Magnetometer. 

Manipulator. 

Mariner's  compass. 

Meteorometer. 

Multiplier. 

Negative. 

Organ.     Electric 

Pan  telegraph. 

Paragrandine. 

Paragrele. 

Pendulum.     Electric 

Pile. 

Polarized  armature. 

Pole. 
.Positive. 

Prime-conductor. 

Receiving-magnet. 

Reel-telegraph. 

Relay-magnet. 

Repeatei'. 

Resistance-box. 

Re.sistance-coil. 

Rheometer. 

Rheomotor. 

Rheophone. 

Rheoscope. 

Rheostat. 

Rheotome. 

Rheotrope. 

Rubber. 

Ruhmkorff  battery. 

Sideroscope. 

Signal-bo.f. 

.Sounder. 

Submarine-cable. 

Switch. 

Telegraph    (varieties,    see 
TelegimphK 

Telegi-aph-cable. 

Tidegraph-clock. 

Telegraphic  signal. 

Telegraph-indicator. 

Telegraph-instrument. 

Telegraph-key. 

Telegraph-wire. 

Terminal. 

Thermo-electric  pile. 

Torsion-balance. 

Torsion-electrometer. 

Trough. 

Unit-jar. 

Variation-compass. 

Volta-electrometer. 

Voltaic  battery. 

Voltaic  light. 

Voltaic  jiile, 


Voltameter. 
Volta]dast. 


Voltatype. 
Zambonis-pile. 


E-lec'tric  A-larm'.  An  instrument,  otherwise 
known  as  a  tj^'ruioslat^  used  for  giving  an  alarm 
when  the  temperature  rises  to  a  point  at  which  the 
instrument  completes  the  circuit.  This  is  used  in 
stoves  and  hot-houses,  to  indicate  e.xcess  or  lack  of 
temperature,  and  as  a  maximum  thermometer-alarum 
or  tire-alarm,  which  is  made  by  carrying  one  plati- 
num wire  in  connection  with  a  battery  and  bell  into 
the  bulb  of  a  mercurial  thermometer,  and  another 
wire  down  the  tube  to  the  degree  it  is  not  desiied  to 
exceed.  When  the'  mercury  ri.ses  to  this  point,  the 
circuit  is  completed,  and  notice  is  given  by  the  ring- 
ing of  the  bell.  One  torm  of  the  niiiiiuium  temper- 
ature alarm  consists  of  a  spii'it  -  therniomctei',  the 
bulb  of  which  is  placed  above  and  the  tube  curved 
in  a  U-shape.  A  ]ilat!nuni  wire  is  carried  into  the 
luilb  and  down  to  the  degree  of  heat  it  is  wished  to 
notify.  Below  tliis  minimum  the  curvature  is  tilled 
withmereury,  which  is  in  li-ee  communication  with 
a  second  platinum  wile.  As  the  alcohol  contracts 
with  the  cold,  the  mercury  will,  of  course,  rise,  and, 
reaching  the  first  platinum  wire,  complete  the  circuit 
and  give  the  warning.  One  bell  and  tlie  same  bat- 
tery will  serve  for  the  two  tliermometers  ;  lait  it  will 
be  necessary  to  interpose  a  commutator  to  ascertain 
through  which  circuit  the  current  is  jiassing,  and 
whether  a  rise  or  fall  is  indicated  when  the  bell  is 
rung. 

Fire-a'arms  constructed  on  the  same  ]uinciple  are 
placed  in  ditferent  apartments  of  a  building,  the  in- 
creased temperature  in  that  where  fire  happens  to 
first  break  out  expands  a  wire  or  column  of  mercury, 
which,  by  completing  a  circuit,  sounds  an  alarm. 
The  most  compact  form  of  the  thermostat  is  that 
resembling  the  chronometer-balance.      See  TlIEUMO- 

.ST.\T  ;    FlltE-.VI.AIiM. 

E-lec'tri-cal  Ma-chine'.  An  iipparatus  for  gen- 
erating, or  rather  collecting  or  exciting,  electricity 
by  means  of  friction. 

The  Gre(!ks  were  aware  that  amber,  when  rubbed, 
acquired  the  power  of  attracting  and  repelling  light 
bodies  ;  and  for  many  ages  this  la-operty  was  sup- 
posed to  be  peculiar  to  amber,  from  tlie  Greek  name  of 
which  (TJXeKTpop)  the  word  " electricity  "  was  deriied. 
It  was  subsequently  discovered  tiiat  tlie  same  effect 
was  jjioduced  by  resinous  substances  rubbed  with 
flannel,  and  by  glass  when  rubbed  with  silk  ;  and 
our  readers  may  have  noticed  that  by  stroking  a 
cat's  back  smartly  with  the  haml  in  clear  frosty 
weather,  a  crackling  noise  accompanied  by  a  tin- 
gling sensation  is  produced. 

Substances  in  the  condition  referred  to  are  said  to 
be  electrically  excited.  This  excitement  is  termed 
positive  if  glass  be  the  material  employi-d,  and  nega- 
tive if  resin  be  used  ;  the  kind  of  electricity  devel- 
oped by  each  substance  having  a  tendency  to  attract 
that  derived  from  the  other,  and  to  rc|icl  tluit  of  the 
same  kind  as  itself.  Accordhig  to  the  theory  of  Du- 
fay,  tlie  two  kinds  were  called  vitreous  and  resinous  ; 
the  former  being  derived  from  glass  and  correspond- 
ing to  the  positive  of  Franklin,  and  the  latter  from 
resin,  con-esponding  to  the  negative.  It  is  by  the 
latter  terms,  positive  or  -I-,  and  negative  or  — ,  that 
the  two  kinds  are  now  universally  known.  See 
supra,  page  777. 

In  macliines  for  developing  frictional  electricity 
in  quantities,  glass  is  the  material  em]iloyed,  either 
in  the  form  of  a  hollow  cylinder  rounded  at  the  ends 
or  of  a  circular  plate.  These  are  rotated  in  contact 
with  a  leather-covered  cushion,  upon  tlie  surface  of 
which  a  thin  layer  of  an  amalgam  comiiosed  of  tin, 


ELECTRIC  ANNUNCIATOR. 


779 


ELECTRIC  BRIDGE. 


zinc,  and  mercury  is  spread,  and  a  suspended  flap  or 
apron  of  silk. 

Gilbert,  in  1600,  conjectured  the  fundamental 
identity  of  the  forces  known  as  magnetism  and  elec- 
tricity, and  measured  the  strength  of  the  electricity 
excited  by  rubbing  amber,  glass,  resin,  etc.  His 
electrometer  was  an  ii'on  needle  poised  on  a  pivot. 

Otto  Guericke,  of  Magdeburg,  recognized  phe- 
nomena of  repulsion.  "He  heard  the  first  sound 
and  saw  the  first  light  in  artificially  e.xcited  elec- 
tricity." Newton  saw  the  first  traces  of  an  "elec- 
tric charge  "  in  1675,  in  some  e.vperiment  with  a 
I'ubbed  plate  of  glass. 

Although  Wall  in  1708,  Gray  in  1734,  and 
NoUet,  conjectured  the  identity  of  frictional  elec- 
tricity and  lightning,  yet  Franklin  was  the  first  to 
attain  the  experimental  certainty  by  his  well-known 
kite  experiment  in  1752. 

Electrical  machines  were  formerly  made  cylindrical, 
but  are  now  more  fref|nently  made  with  a  circular 
glass  disk  rotated  by  a  hand-crank.  The  glass  passes 
between  rubbing  surfaces,  and  the  electric  current 


Fig  isas. 


Electrical  Machine. 

which  is  generated  passes  to  the  conductors  on  each 
edge  of  the  disk,  and  tlience  to  the  prime  conductor, 
when  it  ]>asses  to  a  Leyden  jar  or  other  object,  as 
may  be  desired.  The  plate-machine  of  the  Univer- 
sity of  Mississippi  has  two  iilates  each  6  feet  in 
diameter.  One  made  for  the  London  Polytechnic 
Institute  has  a  plate  10  feet  in  diameter  driven  by  a 
steam-engine  of  4-hoise  power. 

See  Dcichanel's  "Natural  Philosophy,"  Part  HI. 
pp.  533-  545. 

E-lec'tric  An-nun'ci-a'tor.  A  form  of  an- 
nunciator in  whiili  a  circuit  wire  is  the  means  ol' 
shifting  the  shielil  covering  the  number  aperture  on 
the  dial,  or  performing  other  duty  to  expose  the 
number  of  the  room.  The  guest  in  his  room  touches 
a  stud  upon  the  wall ;  the  circuit  being  made  or 
broken,  the  effect  is  evidenced  by  the  exposure  of  the 
room  number  in  the  hotel-office.  It  is  an  electro- 
magnetic expedient  as  a  substitute  for  a  pulling 
wire.     .See  AxNr.xci.VTnr,. 

B-lec'tric  Bal'ance.  An  instrument  for  measur- 
ing the  attractive  or  rejiulsive  forces  of  electrified 
bodies.     A  form  of  electrometer. 

It  consists  of  a  graduated  arc  a  h  supported  by  a 
projecting  plate  of  brass  which  is  attached  to  the 
Iierpendicular  column.  A  wheel  d,  the  axis  of  which 
is  supported  on  anti-friction  rollers  //,  and  is  con- 
centric with  that  of  the  gi'aduated  arc  a  b,  carries 
an  index  c. 

Over  this  wheel,  in  a  groove  on  its  circumference, 
passes  a  line,  to  one  end  of  which  is  attached  a  light 
ball  of  gilt  wood  rj,  and  to  the  other  a  float  i'  /,  which 
consists  of  a  glass  tube  about  two  tenths  of  an  inch 


Fig.  1839. 


Electric  Balance. 


in  diameter,  terminating  in  a 
small  bulb  I  at  its  lower  end, 
which  contains  a  small  portion 
of  mercury  or  some  very  fine 
shot,  ])ut  into  it  for  the  pur- 
pose of  adjusting  the  instru- 
ment, so  that  the  index  c 
may  point  to  the  zero  division 
or  center  of  the  graduated 
arc.  The  diflerence  between 
the  weights  of  the  float  when 
in  and  out  of  water  is  known, 
and  the  diameter  of  the  wheel 
carrying  the  index  is  such 
that  a  certain  amount  of  rise 
or  fall  of  the  float  causes  the 
index  to  move  over  a  certain 
number  of  graduations  on  the 
arc.  The  body  whose  elec- 
tricity is  to  be  measured  is 
pi-esenteil  at  A,  and  its  attrac- 
tive or  repulsive  power  on  the 
ball  (/  is  estimated  by  the  ri.sing  or  falling  of  the 
float  in  the  fluid,  and  consei|ueut  motion  of  the  in- 
dex c,  as  shown  by  the  graduated  arc. 

When  the  attractive  force  of  the  two  bodies  is  to 
be  estimated,  the  line  passing  over  the  wheel  d  must 
be  formed  of  two  parts,  the  lower  part  being  of 
silver  thread  and  the  remainder  of  .silk  ;  when  their 
repulsive  force  is  to  be  estimated,  the  whole  is  of 
silk.     See  ELECTiio.METFU  ;  Galvanometer. 

E-lec'tric  Bat'ter-y.  A  series  of  Leyden  jars 
having  all  their  interior  and  exterior  coated  surfaces 
connected  with  each  other  by  means  of  conductors, 
so  that  the  accumulated  electricity  of  the  whole  may 
be  made  to  act  together,  resembling  the  effects  of 
lightning  itself. 

A  large  battery  of  this  kind  is  capable  of  polariz- 
ing bars  of  iron  or  steel,  and  instantaneously  melt- 
ing iron  or  tin  wire  into  globules,  which  are  dis- 
persed in  all  directions,  the  fusion  of  the  latter 
metal  being  accompanied  by  a  cloud  of  blue  smoke, 
a  dazzling  flash,  and  a  lo\id  report.  Small  animals 
are  killed  by  it,  and  a  violent  shock  given  to  the 
human  system.      See  LeyI)EN-j.\k. 

E-lec'tric  Bridge.  {Elcdricity.)  A  term  ap- 
])lied  to  an  anaiigenu-nt  of  electrical  circuits  used 
for  measuiing  the  i-esistance  of  an  element  of  the 
circ-uit.  The  most  generally  known  and  used  are 
the  Wheatstone  "bridge  "or  "balance,"  and  that 
of  the  British  Association.  The  former  in  sub- 
stantial respects  is  adopted  in  the  Siemen's  uni- 
versal gal- 
vanometer, Fig 
in  such  gen- 
eral use. 

The  jirin- 
c  i  ]>  1  e  i  n  - 
vol  ved  is  that 
an  electrical 
circuit  being 
divided  into 
two  branch- 
circuits,  and 
again  united, 
nected  bv  a  ' 


Electric  Bridge. 


and  tlie  bi'anclies  "bridged"  or  con- 
short  cut,"  if  the   resistances  in  the 

branchi's  on  one  side  of  the  "bridge"  are  in  the 

same  ratio  to  each  other  as  the   rc^sLstances  on  the 

other  side,  no  current  will  traverse  the  "bridge"; 

if  the  ratios  are  not  equal,  a  current  will  traverse 

the  bridge. 

A  A,   metallic    circuit    from   battery   B   divided 

into   branches   1,   2,  and  3,  4,  which  again   unite. 

Calling  resistance  "R,"when  R  1  :  K  3  :  :  R  2  :  R  4, 


ELECTRIC  CABLE. 


80 


ELI-XTRIC  LIGHT. 


Eiectric  Cub'.«. 


an  I'cjuilibrium  or  "balance"  is  established,  and 
there  is  no  appreciable  current  in  the  "  bridge  "  a  b, 
in  wliich  is  inserted  the  galvanometer  G. 

In  use,  the  resistance  of  one  of  the  members,  say 
4,  being  known,  the  unknown  resistance  is  inserted 
in  2  and  its  resistance  calculated  from  the  dellections 
of  the  needle  in  the  galvanometer,  caused  by  the 
current  thrown  through  the  "  bridge."  See  Duplb.x- 
TEi.r.oi'.Arri. 
E-lec'tric  Ca'ble.     Various  forms  of  telegraph 

cable  lor  sub- 
Fig.  1S41  marine  uses 
have  been  pro- 
posed. That 
5-.  between  Bug- 
s' land  and  Ire- 
land is  com- 
posed of  a  single 
copper  wire 
covered  with 
gutta-percha,  surrounded  by  hempen  yarn,  and  the 
whole  protecteil  by-  ten  No.  8  iron  wires  twisted. 
Tluit  between  Dover  and  Calais  has  fnur  copjier 
wires  covered  witli  gutta-percha  twisted  into  a  ro[ie, 
and  protected  in  similar  manner.  It  weighs  seven, 
and  the  Irish  two,  tons  to  the  mile.  The  lirst 
Atlantic  cable  was  composed  of  seven  No.  22  copper 
wires,  covered  with  gutta-percha,  hempen  yarn,  and 
an  outside  coating  of  iron  wire,  This  weighed  19 
cwt.  to  the  mile.  The  cut  shows  a  cable  with  coils 
diversely  twisted.     See  Tklecu.vpii  C.\iiLE. 

E-lec'tric  Clock.  .\  dial  with  hands  and  going- 
train  imiielleil  hy  recurient  impulses  from  an  electro- 
nmguet.  The  lirst  known  clock  of  this  kind  was 
invented  by  Wheatstone  and  exhibited  by  him  in 
1840.  Appold,  Baiu,  Shepherd,  and  others  have 
contrived  clocks  on  the  same  principle.  See  Elec- 
TP.o-M.\f:NKTic  Clock. 

E-lec'tric  Es-cape'ment.  X  device  actuated 
by  eleetiic  impulse  which  intermittingly  arrests  the 
motion  of  the  scape-wheel  and  restrains  the  train  to 
a  p  ilsative  motion,  — acting,  in  fact,  in  the  place  of 
a  pendulum.  An  electric  pendulum  at  a  central 
station  may  be  the  regulator  of  numerous  distant 
clocks  with  electric  escapements,  with  each  of  which 
it  is  connected  by  circuit  or  circuits.  In  some  cases 
tliJ  device  has  alternately  a  detent  and  impulse 
action,  and  is  the  motor  as  well  as  regulator. 

Devices  in  which  a  train  is  set  in  motion,  or  a 
machine  started  or  stopjied,  are  not  strictly  escape- 
m  'iits,  b  it  may  be  considered  as  elcctriad-govcrnurs 
or  elcdrtca^ -ixy tL^idors. 

In  that  illustrated,  the  lever  i  and  its  correspond- 
ing one  on  the  opposite  side, 
not  shown,  are  caused  to 
vibi-ate  to  the  action  of  the 
circuit ;  these  cause  the  anchor- 
shaped  piece  L'  T  T  to  strike 
alternately  against  each  of  the 
pallets  P  P,  which  are  fastened 
by  springs,  ami  yield  in  either 
direction,  so  as  to  alternately 
retain  and  release  the  scape- 
wheel  ir. 

E-lec'tric  Fuse.  A  device 
used  in  blasting  to  explode  the 
charge.  The  fulminate  or  the 
charge  itself  is  lighted  by 
means  of  an  electric  spark  or 
a  resistance  section  of  fine 
platinum  wire,  which  is  heated 
to  redness  by  the  pa.ssage  of 
an  electric  current  induced  by 
a  voltaic  or  magneto-electric  battery.     See  Fuse. 


E-lec'tric  Gov'ern-or.  One  in  which  a  part 
of  a  lly-»heel,  say  a  segment  of  the  rim,  is  made  to 
move  radially  outwanl  when  the  wheel  revolves  at  a 
rate  above  a  preappointed  speed,  and  tlieieby  comes 
in  contact  with  a  metallic  tongue  completing  an 
electric  connection,  which  is  utilized  to  move  a  but- 
terlly-valve  or  other  device  which  concerns  the  trans- 
mission of  power. 

Governor-balls  flying  out  to  a  certain  distance  may 
make  or  break  an  electric  conuection  to  jiroduce  the 
same  result,  or  sound  an  alarm. 

Eleetio-magnetic  action  is  also  used  to  start  and 
stop  macliines,  antl  ojierate  stop-motions. 

E-lec'tric  Har-poon'.  An  aiiiplication  of  the 
electric  force  to  the  explosion  of  a  bui'sting-charge 
in  a  harpoon  or  bondj-lance.  A  co|i]ier  wiie  is  car- 
ried through  the  line,  and,  when  a  circuit  is  estab- 
lisheil  by  the  harpooner,  a  resistance-section  in  the 
fuse  of  the  bomb-lance  ignites  the  charge.  See  Haii- 
I'liiiy  ;   Bdmii-lancf.. 

E-lec'tric  Heat'er.  A  device  in  which  a  fine 
platinum  wire  heated  b\'  a  passing  eh'ctric  current  is 
made  to  communicate  sensible  heat  as  a  means  of 
warming  or  burning,  as  the  case  may  be.  It  has 
been  used  as  a  local  cautery,  has  been  suggested  for 
amputating,  and  for  some  other  purpose,  which  it 
would  excite  a  smile  to  name. 

It  is  a  lower  application  of  the  same  i>rinciple  as 
is  developed  in  the  electric  light  ;  a  body  of  rela- 
tively gi-eat  resistance  is  included  in  a  ciri-uit,  and, 
failing  to  carry  the  electricity,  a  part  of  the  latter 
takes  tlie  form  of  heat. 

E-lec'tric  He'lix.  A  coil  of  copper  wire  around 
a  bar  of  soft  iron  ;  the  coil  forms  part  of  an  electric 
circuit,  and  confers  polarity  upon  the  iron.  The 
twf)  constitute  an  electro-magnet. 

E-lec'tric  In'di-ca'tor.  The  apparatus  shown 
in  Fig.  1S43  is  fur  indicating  electro-magnetic  cur- 

Fi^'.  \UZ 


E!tc;t 


Electric  Indicator. 

rents,  and  consists  of  a  wheel  having  figures  upon 
its  periphery  turned  by  a  star- wheel  E'^  upon  its  shaft. 
The . star-wheel  isactuated  by  pawls, A  J^ A' AT,  connected 
with  armature  levers  G  ff-  turning  one  cog,  enual  to 
one  figure,  at  each  completion  of  tlie  circuit  through 
one  of  the  spool-magnets  P  P.  The  two  magnets  are 
arranged  to  cause  opposite  rotation,  and  either  may 
be  connected  with  the  operating-key  by  a  switch. 
Tlu'  lircuit  passes  through  the  axis  of  the  key  and 
thrnugh  numbered  buttons  upon  a  di-k.  Tlu»  key 
being  brought  in  contact  with  a  Imtton  causes  one 
movement  of  the  numbere<l  wheel,  ami  each  time 
the  key  comes  in  contact  with  a  button  the  wheel  is 
moveil  one  figure,  and  no  more. 

E-lec'tric  Lamp.  A  bo.x  or  case  provided  with 
an  eli-itric  liuditiiiy-apparatus.    See  Eleotkio  Light. 

E-lec'tric  Light.    An  intense  light  generated  by 


ELECTRIC  LIGHT. 


rsi 


ELECTRIC  LIGHT. 


passing  an  electric  current  between  two  pieces  of 
charcoal  fixed  at  the  positive  and  negative  ends  of 
the  circuit. 

The  electricity  developed  may  be  either  derived 
from  voltaic  action  or  from  magnets  in  connection 
with  a  series  of  helixes  arranged  on  a  rotating  wheel, 
the  latter  source  l)eiiig  preferred  for  practical  appli- 
cation to  illuminating  purposes. 

The  lights  of  the  natural  lanterns  carried  by  fire- 
flies, glow-worms,  and  some  species  of  nocturnal 
moths,  may  be  consiilered  ns  ehcfric  lights.  Though 
classed  as  phosphorescent,  some  of  them  are  inter- 
mittent, and  we  suppose  the  nervous  action  by 
which  they  are  flashed  into  brilliancy  to  be  in  the 
nature  of  what  we  call  a  voltaic  impulse  from  the 
battery,  —  tile  brain. 

The  electric  light  was  first  brought  into  notice  in 
1846.    The  patent  of  Greener  and  >itaite  of  that  year  ' 
embraced  an  arrangement  wherel)y  small  lumps  of 
pure  carbon,  inclosed  in  air-tight  vessels,  were  ren- 
dered     luminous  ' 
by     eun-ents     of 
galvanic         elec- 
tricity.    Two 
small  cylindi'rsor 
bits  of  pure  car- 
bon  were   placed 
nearly  in  contact 
with  their  points 
t  o  w  a  r  d     e  a  c  h 
other,  and   main- 
tained at  a  con- 
stantly efpial  dis- 
tance    a])art     by 
means    of    clock- 
w  o  rk,      w  h  i  c  h 
slowly    advanced 
them      as      they 
wei'e      consumed 
by     combustion. 
Through       these 
the   current  of  a 
L  ilvanic    battery 
■1    transmitted, 
so  that  the  circuit 
would      not      be 
comiih'te  without  \ 
traversing        the  j 
small    space    be- 
tween the  points  | 
of  the  two  jueces 
of    carbon  ;    this 
generated  an    in- 
tense heat  at  this  j 
spot,  causing  the  ' 
combustion  of  the  ' 
carbon,        which  j 
was  accompanied 
by  an   extremely 
brilliant       light,  j 
The    chief    prac- 
tical       difficulty 
was  found  to  be  in  maintaining  the  points  at  sucli  a 
distance  from  each  other  as  to  render  the  light  con-  ' 
tinuous  instead  of  intermittent. 

This  is  now  ell'ected  by  means  of  an  electro-mag- 
net and  a  clock  movement,  the  duty  of  the  latter 
lieing  to  bring  the  two  points  together  as  they  are 
gradually  worn  away  by  the  passage  of  the  electric 
current,  while  the  former  checks  the  clock  action  I 
when  not  required.  The  positive  carbon  pencil  is 
found  to  wear  much  more  rapidly  than  the  negative  ; 
and  in  order  to  maintain  the  point  where  the  light 
is  produced  at   a    uniform  ele^'ation,   the  cord   by  \ 


K' 


E'ecntc  Lisnc 


which  each  point  is  advanced  is  caused  to  pass 
around  a  barrel,  larger  for  the  positive  and  smaller 
for  the  negative,  so  as  to  take  up  uneijual  ipiantities 
of  cord. 

When  the  battery  employed  is  very  powerful,  the 
electricity  between  the  points  assumes  the  form  of 
an  arc  of  dazzling  brilliancy.  With  600  Bnnsen's 
cells  arranged  consecutively,  an  arc  7.8  inches  in 
length  was  oVitained  ;  and  when  the  600  cells  were 
arranged  in  six  parallel  series,  a  still  more  powerful 
light  was  produced. 

According  to  Fizeau  and  Foucault,  the  intensity 
of  the  electric  light  with  a  batterj^  of  46  pairs  of 
Bunsen  burners  was  235,  that  of  the  sun  being  taken 
at  1,000,  while  with  80  pairs  it  was  but  238. 

During  the  excavation  of  the  docks  at  Cherbourg 
two  apparatus  of  this  kind  were  emjiloyed,  main- 
tairied  liy  a  single  battery  of  50  pairs  of  Bunsen, 
aH'ording  sutiicient  light  for  800  workmen. 

The  nnigneto-electric  light  was  ap]>lied  for  illumi- 
nating the  lightlionse  at  Dungeness,  Englanil,  in 
1862,  and  was  introduced  at  La  Heve,  France,  a 
year  or  two  later.  The  machines  employed  at  each 
ale  very  similar  in  construction  and  entirely  so  in 
piinciph',  the  English  apparatus  being  ananged 
after  tlic  following  manner  :  — 

Eighty-eight  bobbins  or  coils  of  copper  mre  are 
wound  aliout  an  equal  numbei'  of  cores  of  soft  iron, 
anil  aiTanged  in  two  parallel  rings,  forty-four  in 
each  ring,  at  the  circumference  of  a  wheel  5  feet  in 
diameter,  their  axes  being  pai-allel  to  that  of  the 
wheel.  The  axes  of  each  set  are  placed  midway  be- 
tween those  of  the  other.  Sixty-six  powerful  horse- 
.shoe  magnets  are  tirnily  fixed  in  three  rings  exterior 
to  the  wheel  and  parallel  to  each  othei',  twenty-two 
in  each  ring,  their  poles  being  in  the  planes  of  their 
respective  rings,  and  distant  liom  each  other  a  space 
equal  to  that  which  sejiarates  the  centers  of  the 
bobbins. 

The  magnets  of  the  several  rings  are  similarly 
situated  upon  the  circumference,  their  poles  being 
alternate  ;  but  the  poles  of  those  in  the  inner  and 
outer  rings  face  contrary  poles  in  the  central  ring. 

As  the  wheel  is  turned,  which  is  effected  by  con- 
nection from  a  .vteam-engine  working  at  a  ]iower  of 
one  and  a  half  to  two  horses,  the  cores  MJth  their 
bobbins  pass  between  the  successive  poles  of  the 
tixi'd  niagnets,  anil  as  the  spaces  between  the  bob- 
bins are  equal  to  those  between  the  jioles  of  the 
magnets,  all  the  bobbins  of  one  ring  pass  the  poles 
simultaneously  ;  but  as  these  are  ananged  inter- 
mediately lietween  those  of  the  other  ring,  it  follows 
that  while  one  set  of  bolibins  is  passing  the  poles 
the  other  set  is  half-way  between  them  ;  thus  alter- 
nate currents  of  iqqio.sitc  character  are  generated  in 
each  set  of  hobViins,  the  polarity  being  changed  at 
the  monn'ut  of  polar  passage,  so  that  while  the  cur- 
rent in  one  set  of  bobbins  is  in  the  middle  of  its 
flow  the  other  undergoes  a  sudden  rever.sal. 

By  means,  however,  of  "conmiutators,"  all  the 
successively  opposite  currents  are  turned  in  the  same 
direction  in  the  circuit  which  conveys  the  electricity 
to  the  carbon  jioints ;  any  fluctuations  in  the 
strength  of  the  currents  are  thus  compensated  so  as 
to  render  the  resulting  intensity  very  nearly  con- 
stant. The  velocity  of  rotation  imparted  to  the 
wheel  is  about  110  turns  per  minute,  causing  nearl)" 
10,000  changes  of  polarity  in  that  time.  The  in- 
tensity of  the  light  produced  depends  on  the  velocity 
of  rotation,  being  comparatively  feeble  at  a  slow 
speed  and  increasing  up  to  a  certain  point,  when  an 
acceleration  of  the  velocity  seems  rather  to  diminish 
than  increase  the  light. 

In   the  French  machine,  sixty-four  bobbins  arc 


ELKCTRIC  LIGHT. 


782 


ELECTRIC  ?W^0. 


arraiigt'd  in  four  sets,  and  ivvulvu  between  five  sets 
of  magnets,  eight  in  a  set.  Tliey  are  so  ai'rangeil  as 
to  pass  the  poles  of  the  magnets  simultaneously, 
and  a  eomiiuitutor  is  dispensed  with.  This  arrange- 
meiit,  by  making  eaeli  (jf  the  carbon  points  alter- 
nately the  positive  and  negative  poles  of  the  circuit, 
insures  their  etpuil  wear,  and  permits  the  use  of  a 
.simpler  aiiparatiis  for  maintaining  a  uniform  dis- 
tance between  them. 

The  apparatus  actually  employed  at  La  Ueve 
lightliouse  comprised  two  of  the  above  machines, 
each  driven  by  a  seiiarate  engine,  allbrding  a  light 
eiiuivalent  to  3,500  fared  burners,  or  more  than 
sl.\  times  that  of  an  oil  light  of  a  similar  class.  Its 
fog-penetrating  power  is  said  to  be  very  superior  to 
that  of  the  latter. 

In  Browning's  electric  light,  worked  by  a  battery 
of  six    (Jrove   cells,   the 
Fig.  1845.  principle    adopted    is  to 

let  the  carbon  points 
touch  each  other,  and  to 
clamp  them  in  that  posi- 
tion, so  that  the  current 
has  to  burn  an  interval 
between  the  two  points 
for  itself.  In  the  ac- 
companying cut,  Xl  is  a 
brass  rod  carrying  the 
up]ier  carbon  point,  and 
sliding  easily  in  its  ver- 
tii-'al  bearings  by  its  own 
weight.  IJirectly  the 
upper  point  touches  the 
lower  one,  the  current  is 
established,  and  the  little 
electro-nuignet  A  at  once 
pulls  down  its  amiature, 
which  clamps  the  up]ier 
brass  rod  at  li.  Directly 
the  current  is  broken  by 
the  wasting  away  of  the 
carbons,  the  electro-mag- 
net A  ceases  to  hold  the  brass  rod,  which  then  falls, 
and  re-establishes  the  communic;ation. 

Professor  Tyndal,  in  his  experiments,  concealed  the 
electric  light  in  what  he  termed  a  (hirk-box,  in  order 
that  all  the  issuing  beams  may  be  emitted  at  one 


Browiung^s  Electric  Light. 


orifice,  and  the  experiments  be  the  more  vivid  in  the 
absence  of  ditfused  light  in  the  room,  I  is  the  elec- 
tric lamp,  the  I'ays  of  which  are  I'ocused  at  any  de- 
sired point.  The  a]iparatus  is  ailapted  for  a  large 
range  of  expel  iments,  but  in  tin-  figuie  is  shown  with 
Tyndal's  ray-fitter  c,  in  which  the  lumiiious  rays  are 
filtered  out  by  pas.sing  the  beam  through  an  opai|ue 
solution  of  ioiline  in  bisulphide  of  carbon,  wlnle  the 
iiivisilile  heating  or  ultra-red  rays  are  transmitted. 
A  current  of  cool  water  circulates  in  the  jacket  on 
the  outside  of  the  cell  to  keep  the  volatile  liisulphide 
cool.  2'  represents  a  piece  of  blackeneil  jdatinum 
held  in  the  focus  of  the  mirror  to  be  heated  to  red- 
ness by  the  invisibht  heat-rays,  although  no  light 
passes  out  through  the  solution. 

The  electric  light  on  the  Victoria  tower  of  the 
British  Houses  of  Parliament  at  Westminster  is  gen- 
erated by  a  Grauuue  magneto-electric  machine, 
driven  by  an  engine  in  a  v.anlt  of  the  House  of 
Commons,  and  conn<'Cted  with  thi'  signaling-point 
by  two  copper  wires  half  an  iucdi  in  iliameter  and 
flOO  feet  long.  The  machine  consists  of  a  permanent 
horseshoe-magnet,  lietween  the  poles  of  which  re- 
volves an  elec-tio-magnet,  consisting  of  a  ring  of  soft 
iron  round  which  is  wound  an  insulated  eonilucting 
wire,  continuous,  but  disposed  in  sections.  The  light 
apparatus  is  ]ilaced  within  a  lantern  .5  feet  high,  4 
feet  wide,  and  having  a  semicircular  glass  front,  and 
the  light  nuiy  be  directed  in  a  horizontal  are  of  ISO". 
Two  lamps  are  used  alternately,  the  carbon-points 
lasting  four  hours.      Kx]icnse,  twenty  cents  per  hour. 

E-lec'tric  Log.  An  electric  eirc-uit  thioiigh  the 
log-line  to  the  detent  of  an  escapement  in  the  regis- 
ter-log, so  that  by  touching  a  key  on  deck  a  circuit 
may  be  completed,  an  armature  attracted,  and  thus 
the  starting  and  sto]  ping  of  the  mechanical  register 
in  the  log  be  exactly  tiuicd.      See  Log. 

E-lec'tric  Loom.  In  1S.V2  an  electric  loom  was 
exhibited  by  lionelli  at  Turin.  The  invention  was 
at  that  tinu'  in  a  crude  state,  but  has  since  been 
much  iuijiroved.  The  object  is  to  dispen.'c  with  the 
peilbrateil  cards  rcfjuired  in  the  Jac()uard  apparatus. 
For  tliis  purpose,  an  endless  band  of  jiaper  covered 
with  tin-foil  is  used,  on  which  the  recpiired  pattern 
is  traced  with  a  varnish,  rendering  the  parts  thus 
covered  nonconducting. 

This  band  is  caused  to  pass  under  a  series  of  thin 
metallic  teeth,  each  connected  with  a  small  electro- 
magnet, which  operate  a  series  of  pistiuis  that  ojien 
or  close  the  holes  in  a  perforated  metallic  ]ilate  (an- 
swering to  the  Jac<juard  card),  through  which  jiass 
the  needles  governing  the  hooks  by  which  the  warp- 
threads  are  lifted  or  let  fall,  accoidingas  the  electro- 
magnets are  in  action  by  contact  of  the  teeth  with 
the  metallic  surfaie  of  the  band,  or  inoperative  by 
contact  with  the  varnish. 

E-lec'tric  Me'ter.     Sec  Elixtromkteh  ;  Elec- 

TKOSCOPi:. 

E-lec'tric  Pen'du-luni.  The  ordinary  element 
of  an  ehctric  clock.  .\  point  below  the  bob  of  the 
pendulum  jiasses  thiougli  a  globule  of  mercury,  the 
time  of  contact  being  inilicated  on  a  traveling  lillet 
of  jiaper.  In  aimther  form  the  bob  comes  in  contact, 
at  tlie  limit  of  each  stroke,  with  a  delicate  spring, 
which  makes  the  electric  connection. 

Besides  its  use  as  a  chronograjih  for  recording  at- 
mospheric, astronomical,  and  other  observations,  it 
is  also  emiiloyed  to  secure  isochronous  beats  of  dis- 
tant pendulums.  A  mode  of  kee]iing  distant  chro- 
nometers in  exact  simultaneous  pulsation  by  wdnch 
longitude  may  be  exactly  determiue<l  ;  the  invention 
of  Dr.  .John  Locke  of  Cincinnati. 

E-lec'tric  Pi-a'no.  One  provided  with  a  series 
of  elcctro-maguets,  each  corresponding  to  a  key  of 


ELECTRIC  RAILWAY-SIGXAL. 


783 


ELECTRIC  TELEGRAPH. 


the  instrument,  the  armatures  of  which  are  caused 
to  strike  the  keys  when  the  circuit  is  closed.  This 
may  be  ett'ected  by  means  of  perforateil  cards  through 
which  [lius  are  caused  to  pass  and  again  retracted  in 
any  reniiired  sequence,  after  the  manner  of  the  ,Iac- 
q\iard  apparatus.  The  device  may  be  connected  with 
a  numlier  of  instruments  at  great  distances  apart,  so 
that  they  may  be  caused  to  play  the  same  tune  si- 
multaneously. 

In  1S6S,  a  contrivance  on  this  principle  for  play- 
ing the  organ  was  exhibited  in  London.  It  was  op- 
erated by  means  of  a  keyboard,  ami  by  enabling  the 
performer  to  be  placed  at  some  distance  from  the  in- 
strument it  was  claimed  that  he  was  better  able  to 
judge  of  its  tones,  so  as  to  play  witli  more  efl'ect. 

E-lec'tric  Rail'^way  - sig'nal.  A  device  for 
communicating  messages  or  warnings  as  to  the  place 
or  condition  of  a  train  on  the  track,  in  regard  to 
stations  left  or  a)iproacIied,  or  to  other  trains  on  the 
same  line. 

1.  An  automatic  signal  operated  by  the  wheel  on 
the  track  to  indi<:ate  the  passage  of  a  given  point  by 
a  train,  to  signal  the  api>roach  to  a  crossing  in  ad- 
vance ;  or  to  the  rear,  to  show  the  distance  of  a  pre- 
ceding train  ;  or  to  signal  to  a  station  the  position 
of  trains  on  a  track. 

2.  To  enalile  an  operator  on  a  ear  to  communicate 
with  a  station  at  a  distance,  or  with  an  observer  or 
operator  on  another  train  on  the  same  line. 

3.  To  comnnniicate  between  parts  of  the  same 
train,  as  l)etween  the  conductor  and  engineer,  etc. 

E-lec'tric  Reg'u-lator.  A  device  by  which 
an  electro-magnetic  circuit  is  made  the  means  of 
reaching  a  machine  to  stop  it  or  start  it.  The  appli- 
cations are  numerous  and  various. 

In  gas-ligliting  by  electricity,  tlu>  gas-cock  at  a 
distance  is  turned  by  a  succession  of  impulses  derived 
fi-om  a  battery,  communicated  through  a  wire  cir- 
cuit, and  imparted  to  an  armature  connected  with 
the  plug  or  valve. 

As  a  nn-ans  of  controlling  machinery  at  a  distance, 
tllE  electric  circuit,  by  its  magnetic  power,  alibids 
means  for  putting  a  detent  into  action  or  removing  it. 
Stop  motions  in  macliiuery  are  also  nmde  elVective 
hy  electric  connection,  as,  for  instance,  in  spinning 
and  knitting  machines,  when  the  breaking  of  a 
-j  thread  allows  a  metallic 

-In  ri:r  1S47.  arm    to    drop,    and    this 

comes  in  contact  with  a 
tongue,  and  makes  a  con- 
nection which  turns  a 
band  on  to  a  loose  pul- 
ley or  otlicrwise. 

E-lec'tric  Sig'nal. 
One  in  h  hich  visual,  ]ial- 
pable,  or  audible  signals, 
by  simple  or  repetitive 
sounds  or  by  code,  are 
conveyed  by  electric  in- 
fluence. The  motion  of 
bell-hannners,  of  ilags, 
index-lingers,  or  sema- 
phoric  arms  may  be  held 
as  included  in  this  defini- 
tion, which  thus  covers 
telegraiiliing  and  signal- 
ing by  electric  circuit. 

By  a  not  distant  con- 
nection, storm  -  signals 
and  time-balls  of  observ- 
atoiies  may  be  held  as 
included. 

E-lec'tric    Steam- 

,<:<n-Gagr.         gage.      A    Steam-boiler 


attachment,  in  which  the  rise  of  the  mercury  under 
pressure  of  steam  is  indicated  by  means  of  electric 
connection  to  the  dial.  In  the  examjile,  the  gal- 
vanic battery  and  index  are  connected  with  the  mer- 
cury column  by  means  of  insulated  points  on  the 
tube,  so  that  the  inilex  will  signal  each  .successive 
[lound  of  pressure  upon  the  dial,  which  has  corre- 
sponding points.  The  completion  of  the  circuit  also 
sounds  an  alarm  by  attracting  the  armature  on  the 
hammer-shaft. 

E-lec'tric  STwitch.  A  device  for  interrupting 
or  dividing  one  circuit  and  transferring  the  current 
or  a  part  of  it  to  another  circuit.  Sec  Switch.  A 
commutator.  See  Cnlley's  "Handbook  of  Teleg- 
raphy," London,  1S7",  pp.    199-203. 

E-lec'tric  Tele-graph.  That  Ibrm  of  electric 
signaling  apjiaratus  in  which  an  insulated  wire  ex- 
cited by  fiictional  electricity  is  —  or  rather  was  — 
used  to  convey  messages  by  sparks  or  shocks.  For 
notices  of  early  observations,  see  Electiucal  Appa- 
ratus. 

■  Gray,  in  1729,  experimented  with  conductors  ; 
Nollet  soon  afterwards  sent  a  shock  along  a  line  of 
men  and  wires  900  toises  in  length  ;  A\'atson,  the 
learned  Bishop  of  Llandafl',  in  1745,  sent  a  shock 
through  12,000  feet  of  wire,  and  proved  that  it  was 
practically  instantaneous  throughout  its  length.  He 
signaled  an  observer  hy  this  means. 

A  writer  in  the  "Scots'  Magazine,"  in  1753,  pro- 
posed a  series  of  wires  fioni  the  ends  of  which  were 
to  be  suspended  light  balls  marked  witli  the  letters 
of  the  alphabet,  or  bells  which  were  to  be  moved  hy 
an  electric  curi'ent  directed  to  the  ajiju'opriate  wire. 

Le-sage,  at  Geneva,  in  1774,  actually  constructed 
a  telegraph  arranged  in  this  manner,  the  end  of  each 
wire  having  a  pith-ball  electroscope  attached. 

Lamond,  in  1787,  employed  a  single  wire,  em- 
ploying an  electrical  machiiu?  and  electroscope  in 
each  oftwo  rooms,  and  thus  talking  with  JIadame 
Lamond  by  the  peculiar  movements  of  the  pith-balls 
according  to  an  agi-eed  code  ;  and  Rcusser,  in  1794, 
proposed  the  employment  of  letters  formed  by  spaces 
cut  out  of  parallel  strips  of  tin-foil  jiasted  on  sheets 
of  glass,  which  would  appear  luminous  on  the  pas- 
sage of  the  electric  s])ark. 

In  1795,  Cavallo  proposed  to  transmit  letters  and 
numbo's  by  a  combination  of  sparks  and  pauses. 

Don  Silva,  in  Spain,  appears  to  liave  ]ireviously 
suggested  a  similar  process.     See  Elf,cti:ic.\i,  Ap- 

PAP.ATf.S. 

In  1816,  Mr.  Ronalds  experimented  with  a  fric- 
tional  elertiicity  telegrajih  at  Hammersmith.  The 
current  had  to  pa-ss  through  eight  miles  of  wire,  and 
the  signals  were  made  by  means  of  light  pith-balls. 
The  reading  was  effected  by  dials  at  each  station 
having  a  synchronous  movement  derived  from  clock- 
work. U]ion  theii'  circumferences  the  letters  of  the 
alphabet  were  engraved,  and  a  screen  with  a  hole 
cut  through  it  was  arranged  at  each  end  of  the  line, 
so  that  only  one  letter  should  be  visible  at  a  time. 
The  operator  at  the  transmitting  station  waited  until 
the  letter  he  wanteil  came  opposite  the  hole  in  the 
screen  and  then  made  the  signal,  causing  the  diver- 
gence of  the  pith-halls  at  the  instant  that  the  same 
letter  became  visible  to  the  observer  at  the  other 
station  thiougli  the  apertine  in  his  screen. 

Betancourti  in  179t),  constrncted  a  single-line  tele- 
graph between  JIadriil  and  Aranjuez,  a  distance  of 
twenty-seven  miles,  in  wdiich  the  electricity  was 
furnished  by  a  battery  of  Leyden  jars,  and  the  read- 
ing effected  hy  the  divergence  of  pith-balls. 

It  was  not,  however,  until  tlie  discoveries  of 
Volta,  Galvani,  Oersted,  Ampere,  Faraday,  and 
Henry  elucidated  the  properties  of  electricity  de- 


ELECTRIC  TIME-BALL. 


784        ELECTRO-CHEMICAL  TELEGRAPH. 


veloped  l)y  the  voltaic  battery,  that  a  practical,  con- 
tinuoiisly  working  instrument  wa.s  feasible.  Follow- 
ing tiiL'se  discoveries  came  the  practical  instrunu'nt.s 
and  codes  of  tlie  no  less  illustrious  Morse,  Wheat- 
stone,  and  others.  See  VuLi'.vic  PiLK  ;  Galvanic 
K.VTrKiiv  ;  ICLKcrud-MAONr.i'ic  Teleghaph. 

E-lec'tric  Time-ball.  A  balloon  of  canvas 
susp'udi'd  on  a  mast,  and  di'opped  at  an  exact  time 
every  day  by  nn'ans  of  an  electric  circuit  operated 
by  an  observer  whose  eye  is  upon  thii  astronomical 
clo /k,  and  hand  upon  the  teh^graph-key. 

E-lec'tric  Torch.  A  gas-lighter  operating  by 
elertric  ai'tinn.      An  clcdrnplMrus. 

E-lec'tric  Wand.  An  electrophorus  in  the  shape 
of  a  baton.      8i-e  Im.Ki  TlMIMIoiius. 

E-lec'tric  Watch-clock.  A  watchman's  time- 
detector,  in  whicU  a  patrol  touches  a  stud  at  such 
times  during  tin;  night  as  may  indicate  his  presence 
at  that  spot  at  the  appointed  Iiour.  Touching  the 
stud  completes  an  electric  connection  and  makes  a 
mark  upon  a  travcding  time-paper. 

E-lec'tric  Weigh'ing-ap'pa-ra'tus.  An  at- 
taclnnent  to  a  scale  whit.di  comes  in  as  an  auxiliary 
to  the  eye  in  detecting  the  turn  of  tile  .scale.  The 
poise  is  shifted  out  on  the  beam,  and  as  soon  as  it 
feels  the  teudiMicy  to  rise  the  circuit  is  completed, 
and  the  point  at  which  the  poise  stopped  is  indicated. 

E-lec'tric  Whal'iiig-appa-ra'tus.  A  means 
whereby  a  bursting-charge  in  a  harfioou  may  be  ex- 
ploded.     See  Electuic  HAurooN. 

E-lec'tro-bal-lis'tic  Ap'pa-ra'tus.  An  in- 
strument for  determining  liy  electricity  the  velocity 
of  a  projei'tile  at  any  part  of  its  Hight. 

The  iiroJecMle  passes  through  a  wire  screen,  thus 
breaking  a  current  of  electricity,  and  setting  in  mo- 
tion a  pendulum,  which  is  arrested  on  the  passage 
of  the  projectile  through  a  second  screen.  The  dis- 
tance lietween  the  screens  being  known,  the  ai'C 
through  which  the  pendulum  vibrates  measures  the 
time  due  to  the  projectile's  Might  between  the  screens. 
See  t'niniNiKJKAi'ii  ;   llAij.isrir  Peniiulum. 

E-leo'tro-bal-lis'tic  Pen'du-lum.  Fig.  1848 
1   is   an   elevation   and    2   a   section  of  tlie   appa- 

Fig.  1848. 


Electro-Ballistic  Pendulum, 


ratus  used  in  the  United  States  Ordnance  Depart- 
ment. The  pendulums  a  b  are  susjiended  from  the 
same  axis,  and  are  so  adjusted  that  when  each  is 
brought  to  a  horizontal  positicm  at  the  90^  mark  on 
each  side  of  zero  at  the  middle  of  the  arc  c  and  let 
fall,  they  will  meet  precisely  at  the  center.  The  I10I1 
of  the  inner  pendulum  b  is  providcil  with  a  marking 
point,  the  outer  end  of  which  is  struck  by  a  blunt 
projection  on  the  outer  penduhim  a,  when  the  two 
jiass  each  other,  impressing  a  mark  on  a  sh(>et  of  pa- 
per clamped  to  the  arc.      See  C'HltoxoGli.VPII. 

E-lec'tro-blast'ing.  Blasting  by  means  of  an 
electric  or  electro-magnetic  battery,  communicating 
through  connecting  wires  with  the  charges  of  pow- 
der. 

It  was  first  tried  in  blowing  up  the  sunken  hull 
of  tlie  "Royal  Gcoi'ge,"  in  1839,  by  Colonel  Pasley. 


In  1840  the  plan  was  used  in  Boston  Harbor  by 
Captain  Paris. 

in  1843,  liy  C'ubitt,  for  overthrowing  a  large  sec- 
tion of  Round-down  Cliil',  Kent,  England,  in  mak- 
ing a  portion  of  the  Southeastern  Railway.  The 
mass  dislodged  weighed  400,00(1  tons.  See  Blast- 
ing. 

E-lec'tro-chem'i-cal  Tel'e-graph.  A  tele- 
gra)ih  whicb  rn-uids  .signals  \ipon  pa|)cr  inibueil  with 
a  chemical  solution,  which  is  discharged  or  caused 
to  change  color  by  electric  action. 

Nicholson  and  Carlisle  discovered,  in  1800,  that 
water  was  decomposed  by  the  voltaic  pile,  hydrogen 
being  evolved  at  the  negative  and  oxygen  at  the  ]iosi- 
tiveendof  the  wire.  Davy,  afterwards  Sir  Huni|>liry 
Davy,  by  the  aid  of  the  apparatus  of  the  Koyal  In- 
stitution at  London,  the  most  jiowcrfnl  then  in  c.'iist- 
ence,  proved  by  a  series  of  experiments,  connncn- 
cing  in  1801,  that  many  substances  hitherto  con.sid- 
ered  as  elementary  bodies  could  be  decompo.sed  by 
voltaic  action,  ami  succeeded  in  1807  in  resolving 
the  lixed  alkalies  soda  and  ]iota.sh.  Faraday,  1833, 
besides  his  extensive  additions  to  the  science  of 
electro-magnetism,  established  the  fact  that  the 
chemical  power  of  a  current  of  electricity  is  in  direct 
pi'o])ortion  to  the  absolute!  (juantity  of  electricity 
which  passes  ;  and  farther  piiivcd  that  the  ijuanti- 
ties  recpiired  ibr  de(Ximposing  comijoinid  bodies  were 
proijortional  to  the  atomic  weights  of  Dalton, 

Bain's  telegraph  (1845)  was  the  lirst  in  which 
these  scientihc  facts  were  so  applied  as  to  lead  to 
any  practical  result. 

In  this,  a  solution  of  ferro-cyanide  of  potassium  in 
water,  to  which  are  ailded  two  paits  of  nitric  acid  and 
two  of  water,  is  employed.  A\'ith  this  long  stiips  of 
paper  are  saturated,  which  being  drawn  between  a 
metallic  I'oller  and  stylus  operated  by  means  usual 
in  electro-telegraphy,  —  dispensing,  however,  with  re- 
lay-magnets, —  dots  and  dashes  are  produced,  as  in  the 
Morse  system.  These  appear  of  a  blue  color,  in  con- 
setineuceof  the  ferro-cyanide  of  potassium  being  con- 
verted into  cyanide  of  iron  by  electric  action  and 
contact  of  the  iron  stylus  with  the  paper. 

Bakewell  subse(piently  improved  the  construction 
of  this  in.strument,  and  added  an  electro-magnetic 
governor,  to  obtain  synchronism  in  the  movements 
of  the  apparatus  at  the  two  ends  of  the  line. 

Gintl,  a  Gennan,  in  his  method,  also  dispen.ses 
with  the  relay,  and  records  messages  by  the  liiui-cur- 
rent  direct.  He  i)repares  his  paper  with  a  solution 
of  one  part  iodide  potassium  and  twenty  starch-paste 
in  forty  parts  of  water.  The  iodine  being  set  free 
colors  the  starch  blue. 

Honelli's  telegraph  (1860)  records  a  fae-siniile  of  the 
transmitted  message  on  mechanically  prcjiared  jiaper. 
The  message  is  set  up  in  type,  which  are  arranged  in 
a  bo.'c  at  oni^  side  of  a  carriage  that  traversi  s  from  end 
to  end  of  a  table,  and  passes  back  and  forth  under  a 
bridge  placed  transversely  thereto.  The  type  occupy 
the  lower  left-hand  side  of  the  carriage,  and  at  the 
u]iper  right-hand  side  is  placed  a  strip  of  the  paper. 
Immediately  over  the  type  are  Hve  movable  teeth, 
insulated  from  each  other  and  connected  by  live 
wires  with  a  similar  number  of  styles  at  the  receiv- 
ing apparatus.  As  the  carriage  with  the  ty]ies  face 
njiwards  comes  under  the  biidge,  the  teeth  come 
lightly  in  contact  with  their  raiseil  portions,  closing 
the  circuit  so  long  as  the  metallic  contact  lasts. 
Thus  letter  after  letter  is  transmitted.  On  the  right 
side  of  the  bridge  is  a  writing-comb  comjioscd  of  live 
teeth  made  of  ]ilatinum-iridiuin  alloy,  which  is  lujt 
subject  to  corrosion,  insulated  from  each  other  and 
pressing  lightly  on  the  paper  strip  beneath.  This 
would  produce,  if  each  tooth  were  simultaneously 


ELECTRO-CHRONOGRAPH. 


785 


ELECTRO-MAGNETIC  CLOCK. 


traversed  by  the  electric  current,  five  parallel  lines 
on  the  paper  ;  but  as  the  current  only  passes  to  each 
during  the  time  when  some  portion  of  a  type  is  be- 
neath the  corresponding  tooth  of  the  type-comb  at 
the  sending  starion,  they  only  produce  lines  at  such 
intervals  and  of  such  length  as  are  determined  by 
the  form  of  the  type  ;  caHties  in  the  letters  and 
spaces  between  letters  and  words  being  represented 
by  the  discontinuation  of  one  or  more  of  the  lines. 

The  wagon  Is  moved  by  a  cord  and  weight,  and  is 
secured  at  one  end  of  the  carriage  by  a  hook,  which 
is  released  by  an  electro-magnet  when  a  current  is 
sent  over  the  wires. 

Those  at  each  end  of  the  line  are  adjusted  to  trav- 
erse their  respective  carriages  in  equal  or  nearly 
equal  times. 

The  paper  intended  for  receiving  permanent  print- 
ing is  prepared  by  being  saturated  in  a  solurion  of 
nitrate  of  manganese,  which,  under  the  action  of  the 
current,  leaves  a  light  brown  mark.  Fugitive  print- 
ing, as  for  the  pres.s,  is  done  on  paper  prepared  with 
iodide  of  potassium,  which  atfords  at  first  an  iodine 
color,  but  is  liable  to  fade. 

It  is  said  that  a  speed  of  300  in  permanent,  and 
of  1200  words  in  fugitive,  printing  per  minute  is 
attainable  by  this  apparatus.  See  Electbo-mag- 
netr:  Telf.or.\ph  :  Avtogkaphic  Telegp..\ph. 

B-lec'tro-chron'o-graph.  .\n  instrument  used 
for  recording  time  and  occurrences  in  the  instant 
and  order  of  their  time,  as  in  noting  transits  in  ob- 
servatories. A  paper  marked  for  seconds  is  placed 
on  the  surface  of  a  revolving  drum,  over  which  is  a 
stylus  operated  by  electro-magnetic  action  when 
the  circuit  is  closetl  by  the  telegraph  key  in  the  hand 
of  the  operator,  who  is  also  the  observer  at  the 
transit  instrument.  \  mark  is  thus  made  on  the 
time-paper  at  the  instant  of  the  occurrence  of  the 
transit. 

E-lec'trode.  Either  of  the  poles  of  the  voltaic 
cirele.  The  positive,  -F, electrode  is  the  aHO<fe;  the 
negative,  — ,  the  cath'>'1'^:    The  terms  are  Faraday's. 

E-lec'tro-dy-nam'ie  En'giae.  An  engine  in 
which  a  dynamic  effect  is  produced  by  the  evolution 
of  an  electric  current,  by  voltaic  battery  or  otherwise. 
See  Ei.ECTRO-MAGNF.TIO  JIachixe. 

E-lec'tro-en-grav'ing.  Engraring  executed 
by  m-:ins  of  electri'-ity.     X  form  of  etching. 

E-lec'tro-etch'ing.  X  process  for  biting-in  an 
eagriving  by  attaching  it  to  the  copper  of  the  bat- 
tery in  an  electro-bath.  The  plate  is  covered  with 
a  ground  and  etched  in  the  usual  manner  ;  being 
imm?rsed  for  a  while  in  the  bath,  it  is  withdrawn 
and  the  fine  lines  stoppcd-oul ;  a  second  immersion 
deepens  the  lines  and  makes  the  next  tint,  and  so  on. 

E-lec'tro-gild'ing.  A  thin  deposition  of  gold 
by  voltaic  action  on  an  object  placed  in  a  bath  of  a 
salt  of  the  metal.     See  Electro-plating. 

B-leo'tro-lyte.  The  compound  in  the  electro- 
pla  ing  bath  wliich  is  decomposed  by  the  electric 
action. 

E-lec'tro— mag'net.  A  bar  of  soft  iron  rendered 
tempoiarily  migiietic  l)y  the  passage  of  a  current  of 
electricity  through  a  coil  of  wire  by  which  the  bar 
is  surrounded. 

The  electro-magnet  of  the  Stevens  Institute  of 
Technology  weighs  in  all  about  1,600  pounds  ;  eight 
brass  spools,  each  of  which  is  wound  with  272  coils 
of  copper  wire  insulated  with  k(riU.  The  hollow 
spools  contain  cores  of  Norway  iron,  four  to  each 
core.  The  lifting-force  of  the  magnet  is  from  thirty 
to  fifty  tons. 

E-lec'tro-mag-net'lc  A-larm'.  One  which  is 
brought  into  action  by  the  closing  an  electro-mag- 
netic circuit.  This  mav  be  a  burglar-alarm  in  which 
50 


the  opening  of  a  door  or  window  is  made  to  close  a 
circuit  mechanically  ;  or  it  may  be  a  fire-alarm  in 
which  the  lengthening  of  a  rod  or  a  change  in  its 
shape  is  made  to  close  a  circuit.  In  some  cases,  a 
column  of  mercury  is  expanded  by  the  heat  and  thus 
completes  the  circuit,  the  eoU  b  attracting  the  arma- 
ture and  releasing  the  detent  of  the  wheel  k,  which 
Is  then  revolved  by  the  weight  i  and  cord  h,  aad 


vibrates  the  hammer-shaft,  delivering  a  blow  upon 
the  bell.  By  this  means  the  hammer  may  be  made 
to  give  a  repetitire  alarm,  like  that  of  a  clock,  as  a 
warning,  or  the  instmment  may  be  used  as  a  signal, 
each  closing  of  the  circiiit  by  mea 
a  single  blow.     .See  Fihe-.\laf.m. 

E-Iec'tro-mag-net'ic  Clock.  These  clocks  are 
of  two  kinds  :  — 

Those  in  which  the  motive-power  is  derived  from 
electric  acrion.     Invented  by  Wheatstone. 

Those  which  are  operated  by  the  usual  means, 
but  are  made  the  medium  by  mechanical  devices  of 
driving  or  regulating  other  clocks  to  which  they 
are  connected  by  an  electric  circuit. 

1.  In  Bain's  clock  the  pendulum,  at  each  vibra- 
tion, moves  a  light  slide  by  which  the  electric  cir- 
cuit is  alternately  completed  and  broken,  and  by 
which  magnetism  is  alternately  conferred  upon  and 
abstracted  from  a  coil  inclosed  in  a  heavy  hollow 
brass  ease  which  constitutes  the  bob  of  the  pendu- 
lum. On  either  side  of  the  pendulum  are  the  poles 
of  two  permanent  magnet's,  which  alternately  attract 
and  repel  the  coil  of  the  bob,  according  to  its  mag- 
netized or  demagnetized  condirion. 

A  clock  of  this  kind  has  been  kept  in  motion  by 
electric  cuiTents  derived  from  a  zinc  plate  buried  in 
damp  earth. 

Shepherd's  electro-magneric  clock  was  shown  at 
the  London  Exposition,  1S51.  In  this  clock  electro- 
magnetism  is  the  sole  motor  in  moving  the  pendu- 
lum, driving  the  train,  and  ninning  the  striking- 
works,  no  weights  or  auxiliarj'  springs  being  era- 
ployed. 

The  pendulum  in  its  oscillations  makes  and  breaks 
an  electric  circuit,  which  alternately  magnetizes  and 
demagnetizes  a  horseshoe-magnet,  which  in  its  active 
condirion  attracts  an  armature  and  raises  a  lever 
which  is  caught  by  a  detent-latch.     On  the  break- 


ELECTRO-MAGNETIC  ENGINE. 


786 


ELECTRO-MAGNETIC  ENGINE. 


ing  of  the  circuit,  the  armature  is  released,  tlie  latch 
lifted,  and  the  weighted  lever  .strikes  the  jjendulum 
to  give  au  aderiuate  iiiipul.se  to  maintain  its  motion. 
This  is  repeated  at  each  oscillation. 

Besides  the  circuit  just  described,  which  maintains 
its  own  action,  the  iienduluni  makes  and  unmakes 
another  circuit  whichactuatesaratchet-wheel,  propel- 
ling it  at  the  rate  of  a  tooth  to  each  second,  the  a.xis 
of  tliis  ratchet-wheel  operating  the  remainder  of  the 
train. 

The  circuit  of  the  striking  part  is  only  conjpleted 
once  in  an  hour,  anl  operates  an  armature  to  pull 
tlie  ratcliet-wheel  attached  to  the  notclie<l  strikiyg- 
wlieid  one  tooth  forward  every  two  seconds,  and 
ea,'!i  tootli  is  accompanied  by  a  l.ilow  on  an  electro- 
nrignetic  bell.  The  number  of  blows  depends  upon 
the  notched  wheel,  the  s(>aces  in  the  circumference 
of  which  are  adapted  to  the  number  to  be  struck  ; 
and  when  this  is  complete,  a  lever  falls  into  the 
notch,  and  in  so  doing  cuts  off  the  electric  circuit 
till  tlie  recurrent  period  again  stirs  the  striking-parts 
into  activity. 

2.  The  other  form  of  electro-magnetic  clock  is  de- 
signed to  obtain  isnclironous  action  among  a  number 
of  clocks  in  dilferent  portions  of  a  buihling  or  a 
town. 

Fi.\ed  upon  the  arbor  or  axis  of  the  second-wheel 
of  a  clock  is  a  wheel  of  metal,  the  circumference  of 
which  is  divided  into  si.xty  alternating  divisions  of 
metal  and  of  ivory,  the  former  being  a  conductor 
and  the  latter  a  nonconductor  of  electricity.  A 
small  platinum  peg  is  kept  in  contact  with  this 
divided  edge,  so  as,  by  the  revolution  of  tlie  wheel, 
to  be  alternately  in  contact  with  the  conducting  and 
nonconducting  surfaces,  and  so  connected  with  a 
voltaic  series  as  to  alternately  admit  ami  resist  the 
passagj  of  an  electric  current. 

The  electric  circuit  thus  becoming  pulsative  is 
caused  by  local  magnets  and  armatures  to  actuate 
an  apparatus  stationed  at  any  point  to  which  the 
wires  may  be  carried,  giving  motion  to  a  wheel  and 
a.xle,  and  causing  it  to  revolve  so  as  to  indicate 
seconds,  and  Ih'?  other  motion-work  of  a  clock. 

By  this  means  isochronous  pulsations  of  seconds 
are  maintained  at  all  the  points  connected  with  the 
regulator,  and  thus  perfect  uniformity  is  established 
at  all  the  clocks  of  a  city,  capitol,  or  private  estab- 
lishment. 

Dr.  Locke  of  Cincinnati,  about  184S,  invented 
the  method  of  obtaining  isochronous  vibration  of 
pendulums  by  electric  connection.  Congress  awarded 
liiui  a  premium  of  S  10,000  for  the  invention,  de- 
signing to  use  it  in  astronomical  researches  and  de- 
ten  i  lining  longitudes. 

E-lec'tro-mag-net'ic  En'gine.  The  action  of 
a  current  of  electricity  converts  a  piece  of  soft  bar- 
iron  into  a  magnet,  and  the  breaking  of  the  circuit 
restores  the  iron  to  an  inert  condition.  This  transi- 
tion—  alternate  excitement  and  prostration  —  has 
been  frenuently  utilized  to  confer  a  pulsative  move- 
ment upon  an  armature,  whose  motion  in  one  direc- 
tion is  obtained  by  the  attraction  of  the  magnet  and 
the  retle.x  action  by  a  spring  or  weight  in  the  inter- 
vals of  electric  excitement  of  the  iron. 

So  far  the  chronicler  has  little  to  record  of  valua- 
ble etfect  derived  from  this  engine,  though  its  power 
is  demonstrable.  At  present  the  authorities  declare 
it  is  resolved  into  a  question  of  the  relative  costs  of 
zinc  and  coal.  The  case  is  thus  stated  in  the 
"American  Artisan  "  :  — 

"The  chemical  action  in  the  galvanic  battery  is 
the  source  of  power  in  electro-magnetic  engines,  just 
as  the  rapid  chemii^al  action  called  combustion  in 
the  furnace  of  a  steam-engine  is  the  source  of  jjower 


there.  Chemical  affinity,  or  the  tendency  of  two 
bodies  to  combine  chemically,  is  a  sort  of  potential 
energy  which,  when  the  substances  actually  ilo  com- 
bine, is  replaced  by  actual  energy  in  the  form  of 
heat  or  of  current  electricity,  or  of  both  combined  ; 
and  this  may  be  converted  into  mechanical  energy. 
In  a  Daniells  battery,  the  liquid  in  the  cells  being 
a  .solution  of  a  sulphate  of  cop[ier  in  water,  the  total 
heat  produced  by  the  solution  of  one  pound  of  zinc 
is  3, 0116  thermal  units  ;  2,342  being  produced  by  the 
oxidation  of  the  zinc,  and  664  behig  produced  by  the 
combination  of  the  o.xide  of  zinc  with  suliiliuric  acid. 
The  total  heat  consumed  is  1,419  thermal  units  ;  527 
being  consumed  in  decomposing  sulphate  of  oxide  of 
copper,  and  1,060  being  consumed  in  deconijiosing 
the  oxide  of  copper.  The  total  quantity  of  heat  de- 
veloped is,  therelore,  3,006  less  1,5S7,  equal  to  1,419 
thermal  units  ;  and  this  quantity  multiplied  by  772 
foot-pounds,  the  mechanical  equivalent  of  heat,  gives 
1,095,468  foot-pounds  for  the  amount  of  energy  de- 
veloped by  the  solution  of  one  pound  of  zinc  in  a 
Daniells  battery.  This  is  less  than  the  total  energy 
developed  by  the  combustion  of  one  ]iound  of  car- 
bon. In  a  Smee's  battery,  the  li(iuid  in  the  cells 
being  dilute  sulphuric  acid,  the  heat  luoduced  by 
the  combination  of  one  pound  of  zinc  with  oxygen 
and  sulphuric  acid  is,  as  before,  3,006  thermal  units, 
and  the  total  heat  con.sumed  is  2,106  thermal  units  ; 
about  200  being  consumed  in  separating  water  from 
sulphuric  acid,  and  1,906  being  consumed  in  decom- 
posing water.  The  total  amount  of  heat  develij]ied, 
therefore,  is  3,206  less  2,106,  equal  to  900  theinial 
units,  which  are  equivalent  to  694,800  foot-pounds 
of  mechanical  energy  derived  from  the  solution  of 
one  pound  of  zinc  in  a  Smee's  battery.  This  is  about 
one  sLxteenth  jiart  of  the  energy  developed  by  Ijurn- 
ing  one  pound  of  carbon.  It  is  certain  that  the 
efficiency  can  be  made  to  approximate  much  more 
nearly  to  u)ii/Ji,  the  limit  of  perfection,  in  electro- 
magnetic engines  than  in  steam-engines.  At  jires- 
ent,  however,  the  ratio  of  their  efficiencies  can  only 
be  roughly  estimated  ;  and  it  may  be  considered  as 
a  favorable  view  toward  electro-magnetic  engines  to 
estimate  their  greatest  possible  efficiency  as  four  times 
that  of  the  best  steam-engines.  Taking  this  into 
account  along  with  the  previous  calculations,  and 
it  appears  that  the  work  ]ieiformed  yur  iiouiid  of 
zinc  may  be  estimated  at  four  tenths  of  the  work  jier 
pound  of  carbon  in  steam-engines  when  the  solntinu 
used  in  the  cells  of  the  battery  is  snl]ihate  of  copiier  ; 
ami  at  four  sixteenths,  or  one  fourth,  of  the  work 
per  pound  of  carbon  in  steam-engines  when  dilute 
suliihuric  acid  is  used  in  the  cells  of  the  battery. 

"  Before,  therefore,  electro-magnetic  engines  can 
become  equally  economical  with  heat  engines  as  to 
cost  of  working,  their  working  expense  per  pound  of 
zinc  consumed  must  fall  until  it  is  from  four  tenths 
to  one  quarter  of  the  working  expense  of  one  of  the 
most  economical  steam-engines  per  pound  of  carbon 
or  of  coal  equivalent  to  carbon.  The  ]u-i(e  of  zinc, 
however,  being  so  much  greater  than  that  of  coal,  it 
is  evident  from  these  facts  and  calculations  that  elec- 
tro-magnetic engines  never  can  come  into  general 
use  except  in  cases  where  the  power  required  is  so 
small  that  the  cost  of  material  consumed  is  of  no 
practical  inqiortance,  and  the  situation  of  the  ma- 
chinery is  such  as  to  make  it  very  desirable  to  have 
a  prime  mover  without  a  furnace." 

According  to  Mr.  Joule,  the  consumption  of  a 
grain  of  zinc,  though  forty  times  moi'e  costly  than 
a  grain  of  coal,  produces  only  about  one  eighth  of 
the  same  mechanical  effect. 

Cazal's  electro-magnetic  machine  resembles  a  fly- 
wheel, being  a  thick  disk  of  soft  iron  cut  into  the 


ELECTRO-MAGNETIC  ENGINE.  787        ELECTRO-MAGNETIC  TELEGRAPH. 


shape  of  a  gear-wheel  and  having  a  circumferential 
groove  wound  with  insulated  wire,  whose  ends  are 
soldered  to  insulated  thimbles,  which,  by  means 
of  tangent  springs,  introduce  the  battery  current. 
Surrounding  this  magnetic  wheel  is  a  fixed,  heavj' 
iron  ring  insulated  on  its  interior  surface  in  a  man- 
ner to  present  elevations  corresponding  to  the  teeth 
of  the  wheel.  When  the  teeth  of  the  wheel  pass 
before  the  prominences  of  the  ring,  there  is  a  near 
approach  to  contact,  and  the  attraction  is  strong. 
The  attractions  are  balanced  when  the  teeth  are 
midway.  At  the  moment  of  nearest  approach  the 
current  is  arrested  i  it  is  renewed  when  the  teeth 
are  midway  ;  the  momentum  of  the  wheel  carries  it 
over  the  point  of  equal  attractions. 

The  Birmingham  Company's  (English)  electro- 
motor has  four  sets  of  fixed  electro-magnets  of  the 
horseshoe  form,  two  sets  at  each  enil  of  an  oscillat- 
ing beam  by  which  the  power  is  to  be  utilized.  The 
magnets  of  each  set  are  arranged  in  two  tiers,  one 
above  the  other.  The  armatures  of  these  several 
magnets  are  carried  by  rods  depending  from  the 
ends  of  the  beam  ;  but  the  rods  pass  freely  tlirough 
these  armatures  without  being  fastened  to  them. 
When,  therefore,  an  armature,  in  tlie  descent  of  the 
rod,  comes  into  contact  with  the  magnet  to  which  it 
belongs,  the  rod  continues  its  motion  and  leaves  the 
armature  resting  there.  In  the  return  motion  the 
rod  lifts  the  armature  again,  by  means  of  a  collar  or 
enlargement  which  has  been  given  to  it  at  the  place 
intended. 

I  n  the  action  of  the  machine,  the  battery  current 
actuates  the  magnets  on  the  side  of  the  descent, 
wliile  on  the  other  side^tlie  current  is  cut  off.  The 
macliine  acts,  therefore,  only  by  attraction.  As  the 
armatures  approach  their  magnets  successively,  it 
haiijieus  that  whenever  one  becomes  inefficient,  by 
coming  into  contact  with  its  magnet,  the  next  will 
be  in  position  to  exert  a  very  high  attractive  force, 
and  this  force  increases  until  this  next  makes  con- 
tact with  its  magnet  in  like  manner. 

Kravogl's  electro-magnetic  engine  is  a  heavy 
wroight-iron  wheel  rotated  by  the  creeping  up  in- 
side it  of  a  peiTuanent  magnet,  which  displaces  the 
center  of  gravity,  an<l  by  the  preponderance  of  the 
side  rotiites  the  wheel. 

Another  form  of  the  engine  ha.s  two  powerful 
helixes  of  insulated  copper  wire,  within  which  are 
two  heavy  cylindi^rs  of  soft  iron  counterbalanced  on 
the  ends  of  a  bi-am,  like  tlie  working  beam  of  a 
steam-engine.  By  tlie  working  of  an  eccentric  on 
the  main  or  Hy-whcel  shaft  these  insulated  helixes 
are  alternately  connected  and  disconnected  with  the 
opposite  sides  of  a  galvanic  battery  so  as  to  mag- 
netize and  demagnetize  alternately  the  two  helixes, 
and  so  drawing  fii-st  one  and  then  the  other  of  the 
soft  bar-iron  cylinders  into  them  with  a  force  of 
many  hundred  pounds.  In  some  machines  of  this 
description  10-horse  power  has  been  obtained. 

Page's  reciprocating  engine  (Kig.  1850)  consisted 
of  two  electro-magnet.s,  the  armatures  of  which  are 
connected  b_v  a  bar  moving  upon  centers,  the  bar  is 
connected  with  the  l^eam,  which,  by  means  of  a 
crank,  moves  the  Hy-wheel ;  by  means  of  a  break- 
piece  upon  the  axle  of  the  fly-wheel,  the  current  is 
alternately  passed  through  the  two  magnets. 

A  double-beam  engine  of  similar  constniction, 
operated  by  two  pairs  of  electro-magnets,  has  also 
been  made. 

About  1849,  Professor  Page  propelled  a  car  on  the 
track  of  the  Baltimore  and  Washington  Railroad 
from  Washington  to  Bladensliurg,  a  distance  of  six 
miles,  and  back,  by  means  of  an  engine  of  his  in- 
vention, attaining  a  speed  of  nineteen  miles  an  hour. 


A'^arious  forms  of  electro-magnetic  engines  have 
also  lieen  invented  by  Wheatstone,  Talbot,  Hearder, 
Hjorth,  and  otliers.  Professor  Jacobi  of  St.  Peters- 
burg, inlS3S-39,  succeeded  in  propelling  a  boat 
upon  the  Neva  at  the  rate  of  four  miles  an  hour,  by 
means  of  a  machine  on  this  principle.  The  boat 
was  28  feet  long,  about  7  feet  wide,  drew  about  3 
feet  water.  The  battery  used  consisted  of  sixty-four 
pairs  of  plates,  and  projielled  the  boat  by  paddle- 
wheels.  He  also  applied  liis  engine  to  working 
machinery',  but  without  decided  success. 

In  1842,  Davidson  constructed  an  electro-magnetic 
locomotive-engine  which  attained  a  speed  of  about 

Fig.  1850. 


Pace's  Electro-Magnetic  Engine. 

four  miles  an  hour  on  the  Edinburgh  and  Glasgow 
Railway. 
E-lec'tro-mag-net'ic  Ma-chiue'.    See  Elec- 

TRO-M.\GNF.TIC  ENGINE. 

E-leo'tro-mag-net'ic  Reg'u-la-tor.     \  device 

for  maintaining  an  even  heat  in  an  apartment,  a 
bath,  or  a  tnriiace.     .'^ee  Tiiki;mii>tat. 

E-lec'tro-mag-net'ic  Tel'e-graph.  A  signal- 
ing, writing,  printing,  or  recording  apparatus  in 
which  the  impulses  jjroceed  from  a  magnetic  force 
developed  by  voltaic  electricity.  A  mass  of  soft  iron 
is  rendered  temporarily  magnetic  by  the  passage  of 
a  current  of  electricity  through  a  surinnnding  coil 
of  wire.  It  differs  from  the  electric  ieleciropli  prop- 
erly considered,  and  also,  sjecifically,  from  tlie 
Magneto-electkic  Telegraph  (which  see).  See 
also  list  under  Telegi!aph. 

Thi'ee  discoveries  necessarily  preceded  the  inven- 
tion of  the  electro-magnetic  telegi-aph  :  the  prop-rties 
of  the  magnet,  the  modes  of  developing  frictional 
electricity,  and  voltaic  electricity.  The  earlier  elec- 
tric telegraphs  were  all  what  their  name  implies,  and 
not  clcctro-magnctic.     See  ELECTiar  Telegraph. 

To  save  repetition,  reference  is  here  made  to  JIag- 

NET,  ElECTKICITT,   ELECTRIC  TELEGRAPH,  A'OLTAIC 

Pile,  Galvanic  Battery,  for  the  precedent  dis- 
coveries and  inventions  wliich  are  the  foundation  of 
the  electro-magnetic  telegi'apli. 

In  180S,  Sbmmering  described  a  system  invented 
by  him,  based  upon  the  decomposition  of  water  by 
the  voltaic  pile,  embracing  a  number  of  wires  equal 
to  that  of  the  alphabet  and  the  numerals,  and  lead- 
ing into  glass  tubes  containing  water,  tlie  bubbles  of 
gas  from  which,  when  the  electric  fluid  was  con- 
ducted into  them,  served  as  signals. 

Professor  Coxe,  of  Pennsylvania,  about  the  same 
time  suggested  telegraphing  by  means  of  the  decom- 
position of  metallic  salts. 

Oersted,  in  1820,  after  many  years'  research  into 
the  action  of  the  voltaic  cun'ent  on  magnets,  an- 
I  nounced  the  fact  that  the  magnetic  needle  was  de- 
flected by  such  current,  exliibiting  a  tendency  to 
place  itself  at  right  angles  to  the  wire  through 
whicli  the  current  passes  ;  and  Faraday  discovered 
in  1S21  that  the  magnet  would  revolve  about  the 
\  conducting  wire,  or  the  latter  about  the  liiagnet. 


ELECTRO-MAGNETIC  TELEGRAPH. 


788 


ELECTRO-MAGXETIC  TELEGRAPH. 


The  experiments  of  Oereted,  t'arther  e.xtenJed  by 
Ani])ere,  and  the  discovery  by  Faraday  that  mag- 
netism was  induced  in  a  bar  of  soft  iron  under  the 
inHuenceof  a  voltaic  circuit,  led  the  way  to  the  in- 
vention of  the  first  really  convenient  and  practical 
system  of  electro-telegraphy. 

In  1825,  Mr.  Sturgeon,  of  London,  discovered 
that  a  soft  iron  bar,  surrounded  by  a  helix  of  wire, 
through  which  a  voltaic  current  is  passed,  becomes 
maguetizeil,  and  continues  so  as  long  as  the  current 
is  passing  through  the  wire. 

In  1832,  Baron  Sidiilling  constructed  a  model  of 
a  telegraph  wliich  was  to  give  signals  by  the  deliec- 
tion  of  a  needle  to  the  right  or  left. 

One  great  practical  ditticulty  was  still  to  be  over- 
come, the  resistance  ol'  the  transmitting  wire  to  the 
coni|)aratively  feeble  current  engendered  by  the  vol- 
taic battery. 

This  was  conquered  by  Professor  Joseph  Henry, 
now  secretary  of  the  Smithsonian  In.-ititution  at 
Washington,  who,  in  1831,  invented  the  form  of 
magnet  nowgenei'.ally  used  for  telegrai)hio  purposes, 
and  discovered  the  principle  of  ^^ coiiibituUioti  of 
circuits,  con.stituting  the  important  invention  of 
receiving-magnet;  and  the  relay  or  local  hatterg,  as 
they  are  familiarly  known  in  connection  with  Moree's 
telegraph.  The  effect  of  a  combination  of  circuits 
is  to  enable  a  weak  or  exhausted  current  to  bring 
into  action  and  substitute  for  itself  a  fresh  ami 
powerful  one.  This  is  an  essential  condition  to  ob- 
taining useful  mechanical  results  from  electricity 
itself,  where  a  long  circuit  of  conductors  is  used." 
—  PiiESCOTT,  Hislorg  of  t/ie  Electric  Telegraph. 

In  1832,  Professor  Morse  began  to  devote  his  at- 
tention to  the  subject  of  telegraphy  ;  and  in  that 
year,  while  on  his  pa.ssage  home  from  Europe,  in- 
vented the  form  of  telegraph  since  so  well  known 
as  "  Jlorse's." 

A  short  line  worked  -on  his  plan  wa-s  set  up  in 
18  5.5,  though  it  was  not  until  June  20,  1840,  that 
he  olitained  his  first  patent,  and  nearly  four  years 
elapsed  before  means  could  be  procured,  which  were 
finally  granted  by  the  government  of  the  United 
■Stat"S,  to  test  its  practical  working  over  a  line  of  any 
Icnijth  ;  though  he  had  as  early  as  1837  endeavored 
to  induce  Congress  to  appropriate  a  sum  of  money 
surticient  to  construct  a  line  between  Washington 
and  B.iltimorp. 

Professor  Morse  deserves  high  honor  for  the  ingen- 
ious manner  in  which  he  availed  himself  of  scientific 
discoveries  previously  made  by  others,  for  many  im- 
])ortant  discoveries  of  his  own,  and  for  the  courage 
and  perseverance  which  he  manifested,  in  endeavor- 
iiig  to  render  his  system  of  practical  utility  to  man- 
kind by  bringing  it  prominently  to  the  notice  of  the 
public  ;  and  he  lived  to  see  it  adojited  in  its  essential 
features  throughout  the  civilized  world. 

In  the  mean  while  Gauss  and  Weber,  and  after 
them  .Stcinheil,  in  Germany,  were  at  work,  and  con- 
structed a  short  line  between  the  Koyal  Academy  at 
Munich  and  the  ob.servatory  ;  this,  by  means  of 
right  and  left  hand  deflection-needles,  was  caused  to 
jii'int  dots  on  a  continuous  slip  of  paper,  moved  by 
clock-work. 

While  making  e.xpenments  in  connection  with 
this  work,  .Steinlieil  made  the  important  discovery 
that  the  earth  might  be  used  as  a  part  of  the  circuit, 
thus  enabling  him  to  dispense  with  one  half  the 
length  of  wire  which  was  thought  requisite. 

The  attention  of  Wlieatstone,  in  England,  appears 
to  have  been  drawn  to  the  subject  of  telegraphy  in 
18.34. 

Morse's  first  idea  was  to  employ  chemical  agencies 
for  recording  the  signals,  but  lie  subsequently  aban- 


doned this  for  an  ap]iaratus  which  simply  marked 
on  strips  of  paper  the  dots  and  dashes  coni|io.sing  his 
alphabet.  The  ])aper  itself  is  now  generally  dis- 
pensed with,  at  least  in  tliis  country,  and  the  .signals 
read  by  sound,  —  a  practice  which  conduces  to  accu- 
racy in  transmission,  as  the  eai'  is  found  less  liable  to 
mistake  the  duration  and  succession  of  sounds  than 
the  eye  to  read  a  sei'ies  of  marks  on  paper. 

Bain,  in  lS4ti,  patented  the  electro-chemical  tele- 
graph whiith  dispensed  with  the  relay -magnet  at 
intermediate  stations  ;  and  subsequently  Gintl,  in 
Austria,  and  Bonelli,  constructed  telegraphs  of  this 
class,  varying  in  details  from  that  of  Bain.  See 
Electuo-chf.mical  TeLEGUAI'II. 

Wheatstone's  first  telegiaph  comprised  five  point- 
ing needles  and  as  many  line  wires,  requiring  the 
deflection  of  two  of  the  needles  to  indicate  each  letter. 

His  first  dial  instrument  was  patented  in  1840  ; 
modifications  were,  however,  subsequently  made  in 
it.  The  transmission  of  messages  was  effected  by  a 
wheel  having  fifteen  teeth  and  as  many  inter-spaecs, 
each  representing  a  letter  of  the  al]ihabet  or  a 
numeral,  and  thiity  spokes  coiTcspomliiig  to  the.se, 
and  forming  a  part  of  the  line.  The  circuit  was 
closed  by  two  diametrically  ojiposite  springs,  so 
aiTanged  that  when  one  was  in  contact  with  a  tooth 
the  other  was  ojqiosite  a  .space,  when  the  tranf-mitter 
was  turned  until  opposite  a  jiarticular  letter,  and 
held  there,  a  continuous  current  being  produced, 
causing  an  inilex  on  the  indicating  dial  at  the  other 
end  of  the  line,  which  hiid  thirty  divisions,  corre- 
sponding to  those  of  the  transmitter,  to  turn  until 
it  arrived  opposite  the  letter  to  be  indicated.  The 
revolution  of  the  index  was  eH'ected  by  clock-work, 
the  escapement  of  which  wa.s' actuated  by  an  electro- 
magnet at  either  end  of  a  pivoted  beam,  the  ends  of 
which  carried  two  soft-iion  armatures.  One  of  the 
line  wires,  as  well  as  one  of  the  contact  sjnings  of 
the  transmitter,  and  one  of  the  electi'o-magnets  of 
the  indicator,  was  afterwards  dispensed  with. 

A  magneto-electric  apparatus  was  subsequently 
substituted  for  the  voltaic  battery. 

The  single-needle  telegrajih  of  Cook  and  Wheat- 
stone  is  caused  to  indicate  the  letters  and  figures  by 
means  of  the  deflections  to  the  right  oi'  left  of  a  vei- 
tical  pointer  ;  for  instance,  the  letter  A  is  indicated 
bj'  two  deflections  to  the  left,  N  liy  two  deflections  to 
the  right,  I  liy  three  consecutive  deflections  to  the 
right,  and  then  one  to  the  left,  and  so  on.  This  is 
extensively  employed  in  Great  Britain  and  in  India. 

The  same  inventors  have  also  contrived  a  double 
needle-telegraph  on  the  same  plan  ;  but  this,  as  it 
requires  two  lines  of  wire,  each  needle  1  eing  inde- 
pendent of  the  other,  though  gicatly  increasing  the 
speed  with  which  messages  may  be  transmitted,  has 
not  come  into  general  use. 

Dr.  Siemens,  of  Berlin,  invented  an  apparatus  by 
which  the  armatures  of  the  electro-magnets  at  each 
end  of  the  line  were  caused  to  vibrate  synchronously, 
maintaining  the  motion  of  sca|ie-v heels  carrying 
(lointers  traversing  a  lettered  dial,  .sotlial,  the  vibra- 
tions of  either  armature  being  checked,  the  point- 
ers at  either  end  of  the  line  wo\ild  simultaneously 
15oint  to  the  same  letter. 

House,  aliont  1845,  invented  a  telegraph  which 
printed  the  letters  of  the  Roman  alphabet  on  a  strip 
of  paper,  and  was  at  one  time  extensively  used  in 
the  United  States.  It  comprised  a  lettered  disk,  op- 
erated in  much  the  same  way  as  that  of  AVheatstone, 
from  keys  arranged  like  those  of  a  piano,  and  a  re- 
ceiving-apparatus, which  in(duded  a  scape-wheel,  an 
anchor  escapement,  controlled  by  the  movements  of 
the  lettered  disk,  and  actuating  a  slide-valve  which 
operated  the  piston  of  a  compressed-air  cylinder  by 


ELECTRO-MAGNETIC  WATCH-CLOCK.      789 


ELECTROPHORUS. 


which  a  wheel  carrying  type  on  its  periphery  was 
turned  so  as  to  present  the  appropriate  letter  indi- 
cated at  the  transmitting  station  to  the  paper  slip 
which  was  by  suitable  mecliaiiism  drawn  to  the 
type-wheel  to  receive  an  impression. 

Professor  Hughes  has  also  invented  a  very  ingen- 
ious printing-telegrapli,  depending  upon  tlie  syn- 
chronous revolutions  of  two  or  more  type-wheels  at 
ditferent  statious.     See  Puintixg-telf.gkai'H. 

Various  forms  of  dials  or  pointer  telegraphs  have 
been  devised  by  Breguet  in  France,  Siemens  and 
Halske  and  Kramer  in  Germany,  and  various  im- 
provements in  the  details  of  construction  l>y  numer- 
ous otliers  which  the  limits  of  this  article  will  not 
permit  us  even  to  refer  to.  See  specific  inde.K  under 
Telegu.vi'h. 

E-lec'tro-mag-net'ic  Watch-clock.  An  ap- 
paratus cuusi^titig  of  a  magnet,  witiia  rocoi\ling-dial, 
clock-works,  and  a  signal- bell ;  from  this  ruu  wires, 
one  to  each  of  the  banks  or  other  otfices  under  guard 
where  watchmen  are  employed,  whose  duty  it  is  to 
visit  each  bank  at  stated  times  during  tlie  night  and 
give  signals,  wliich  are  recorded  ou  the  dial  of  the 
clock  in  the  fire-alarm  office,  showing  the  time  that 
the  signal  was  given  from  any  particular  bank  or 
office. 

If  the  signal  is  not  given  within  five  minutes  after 
the  appointed  time,  the  man  on  duty  at  the  fire- 
alann  office  comnuinicates  with  tlie  office  of  the  su- 
p,-rintendcnt  of  police,  and  an  officer  is  immediately 
desjiatched  to  the  jioint  from  whence  no  signal  has 
be.'n  sent. 

E-lec'tro-med'i-cal  Ap'pa-ra'tus.  An  instru- 
ment for  the  treatment  of  diseases  by  electro-mag- 
netism. 

Great  success  in  this  line  was  announced  by  .To- 
hannes  Francisco  Pavate,  at  Venice,  in  1747.  The 
details  of  the  apparatus  employed  by  him  are  not 
known. 

From  that  time  to  the  present  the  treatment  of 
diseiises  by  electrical  appliances  has  undergone  its 

Fig.  185t. 


Electro-Medical  Apparatus, 

vicissitudes  in  public  favor,  becoming  notably  promi- 
nent after  the  discovery  of  voltaic  electricity  and  of 
the  properties  of  electro-magnetism.  The  latter  is 
now  genei-ally  adopted. 

Fig.  1851  shows  a  machine  designed  for  medical 
purposes.  It  is  operated  by  a  single-cell  Daniells 
battery,  the  current  from  which,  after  [lassing  through 
a  helix,  is  conducted  by  wires  provided  with  insu- 
lating handles  to  any  ]iart  of  the  person  to  whicli  it 
is  desired  to  apply  the  treatment. 

In  the  instrument  shown  in  Fig.  1852  two  small 
coils,  connected  with  each  other  and  furnished  with 
a  vibrating  contact-breaker,  are  traversed  by  the 
currents  from  a  small  battery.  The  coils  are  sur- 
roundetl  by  hollow  cylinders  of  coj^per  or  brass  in 
which  induced  currents  are  generated.     These  may 


^ 


be  slipped  on  or  off  the  coils, 
to  intensify  or  moderate  the 
strength  of  the  current, 
which  is  directed  by  appro- 
priate wires  to  the  parts  un- 
der treatment. 

E-lec-trom'e-ter.  An 
instrument  to  measure  the 
amount  of  an  electrical  force. 

In  Coulomb's  torsion  elec- 
trometer^K)  iheforce  opposed 
to  that  of  electricity  is  the 
resistance  to  twisting  offered 
by  an  elastic  thread. 

In  Henly's  quadrant  elec- 
trometer (6)  the  electric  force 
is  measured  by  the  amount 
of  repulsion  which  it  pio- 
duces  upon  a  ]iith-ball  at- 
tached to  a  silk  fiber  sus- 
pended from  tlie  center  of  a  graduated  arc. 

c  is  the  gold-leaf  electroscope.  See  Elkctro- 
scuPE.  Sir  William  Thomson's  and  Valley's  elec- 
trometers are  the  most  delicate  of  all,  and  are  used 
in  reading  the  insulating  power  of  telegraph-cables. 
See  Galvanometer. 

The  strength  of  the  electric  force  excited  by  the 
rubbing  of  glass,  sulphur,  amber,  wax,  resin,  etc., 
was  measured  by  Gilbert  by  means  of  an  iron  needle 
(not  very  small)  moving  freely  on  a  point,  versoriwni 
elcclricum ;  very  similar  to  the  apparatus  employed 


EUctro-Mectical  Machine.. 


Electrometers. 

by  Haiiy  and  Brewster,  in  trying  the  electricity  ex- 
cited in  different  minerals  by  warmth  and  friction. 

E-lectro-mo'tor.     An  exciter  of  electric  action. 

An  apparatus  actuated  by  electricity  and  im))art- 
ing  motion  to  a  machine.  See  Electiio-jiag.vetic 
Macfiixe. 

E-lec'tro-neg'a-tive.  Having  the  property  of 
being  attracted  by  an  electro-positive  body,  or  a  ten- 
dency to  pass  tn  the  positive  pole  in  electrolysis. 

E-lec'tro-uome.  A  measurer  of  electricity. 
See  ELECTKdMiyrER. 

E-lec-troph'o-ms.  An  instrument  invented  by 
Volta,  for  generating  electricity  by  induction,  about 
1776. 

Volta's  electrophorus  (A,  Fig.  1854)  consisted  of 
a  thick  disk  of  resin  12  or  15  inches  in  diameter, 
called  the  jyhttc,  resting  on  a  tin  foil  called  the  sole. 
The  plate  has  a  metallic  cover,  insulated  by  a  glass 
handle. 

The  resinous  plate  being  excited  by  rubbing  it 
with  a  warm  and  dry  flannel,  the  metallic  cover  is 
placed  upon  it,  and  a  spark  of  —  electricity  may  be 
drawn  from  it  ;  if  it  then  be  raised,  it  affords  a  spark 
of  -t- electricity.     On  replacing  the  cover  and  a,:;ain 


ELECTRO  P  H  OTOM ICOGRAPH  Y. 


790 


ELECTRO-PLATING. 


toucliiii};  it,  it  affords  auother  spark  of  -  electricity, 
ami  so  on. 

It  forms  a  portalile  electrifying-macliine,  and  is 
used  as  a  gas-ligliter  by  developing  a  spark  over  the 
Ijuriiei',  iiillamiiig  the  issuing  gas. 

The  eU'ctroplioriis  i?  lias  a  metallic  bell  lined  with 
lur  or  wool,  and  a  hard-rubber  handle.  It  has  also 
an  interior  bell  of  hard  rubber  with  a  metallic 
jiedestal  and  foot.  The  act  of  raising  the  metallic 
liell  generates  frictional  electricity,  and  the  bell 
being  brought  into  contact  with  an  insulated  chain 
attaidied  to  a  burner  develops  a  spark  over  the  lat- 
ter, thus  lighting  the  gas. 

In  the  electric  waud  t',  the  electricity  is  generated 
by  a  metallic  tube  sliding  in  a  fur-lined  reservoir 
of  hard  rubber,  and  is  applied,  as  the  bell  just  de- 
Fig.  1864. 


Etectrophortu. 

scribed,  by  establishing  a  circuit  except  at  a  short 
break  o\er  which  the  spark  jum]is. 

Another  wand  carries  a  Leyden  jar. 

E-lec'tro-pho-to-mi-cog'ra-phy.  The  art  of 
photographing  ubji-cts  as  magnified  by  the  micro- 
scoiie  by  the  help  of  the  electric  light. 

E-lec'tro-plat'ing.  A  means  of  covering  a  met- 
al or  a  nii-tallic  surface  by  e.xposure  in  a  bath  of  a 
solution  of  a  metallic  salt,  which  is  decomposed  by 
electrolytic  action. 

Early  in  the  jiresent  century,  Volta  demonstrated 
that  a  .solution  of  a  metallic  salt,  under  the  inHuence 
of  the  voltaic  pile,  became  immediately  reduced  to 
its  elements,  in  such  a  way  that  the  metal  was  de- 
positeil  at  the  negative  pole.  This  was  regaided  as 
an  interesting  fact,  of  some  moment  to  electricians, 
but  not  of  special  interest  in  the  arts. 

"  Some  curious  experiments  have  lately  been 
made  by  Jlr.  Cruickshank  of  Woolwic-h.  On  passing 
the  galvanic  influence  by  means  of  two  silver  wires 
througli  a  solution  of  nitrat  of  silver,  the  upper  wire 
became  oxidated  and  gradually  corroded,  while  at 
the  same  time  a  beautiful  arborescent  precipitation 
of  metallic  silver  took  place  on  the  lower  wire. 
Acetite  of  lead  and  sul])liat  of  copper  were  similarly 
decomposed  and  precipitated  on  the  lower  wire." — 
Mnnlhh/  Maqazine,  August,  1800. 

In  1801,  ■\Vallaston  demonstrated  that  a  piece  of 
silver  in  connection  with  a  more  positive  metal 
p'accd  in  a  bath  of  sulphate  of  co]iper  became  cov- 
ered with  co])per  and  would  stand  burnishing. 

It  was  not  until  1S3S  that  Mr.  Spencer  gave  it  a 
practical  bearing  by  making  casts  of  coin  and  casts 
in  intaglio  from  the  matrices  thus  ibrnied. 

Professor  Jacobi  of  Dorpat,  in  Russia,  had  been 
an   independent   inventor,   and   iu   the   same   year 


brought  forward  specimens  which  were  nmch  admired 
and  caused  him  to  be  put  in  charge  of  gilding  the 
iron  dome  of  the  Cathedral  of  St.  Isaac  at  iSt.  I'eters- 
burg.  This  dome  weighs  about  448,000  pounds,  and 
was  electro-gilded  with  274  )iOundb  of  ducat  gold. 
The  pi'ocess,  briefly  describcil,  is  as  Ibllows  :  — 
The  voltaic  current  employed  is  supplied  by  a  con- 
stant battery,  such  as  Dauiells's  or  |-iunsen's.  In 
the  simple  form,  the  galvanic  cuiTcnt  is  produced  in 
the  same  ves.sel  iu  which  tlie  metallic  dejiosil  is  ef- 
fected. The  outer  vessel  K  of  glass,  stone-ware,  or 
wood,  contains  a  solution  of  the  metallic  salt,  — say 
sulphate  of  copper.  A  smaller  vessel  /',  of  unglnzed 
porcelain,  contains  diluted  sulphuric  acid.  A  plate 
of  zinc  Z,  forming  the  positive  pole,  is  susjiended 
iu  the  acid  solution  and  connected  with  the  copper 
medals  m  m  by  means  of  a  copjier  « ire.  Electroly- 
sis ensues,  the  copper  in  the  solution  is  deposited 
on  the  medal  which  forms  the  negative  pole,  and  the 
strength  of  the  solution  is  maintained  by  susjiend- 
ing  a  bag  of  crystals  of  sulphate  of  copper  iu  the 
bath. 

In  the  compound  form  the  galvanic  current  is  pro- 
duced outside  the  bath  containing  the  solution  to  be 

Fig.  1865. 


Electro-Plating  Apparatus. 

decomposed.  In  this  arrangement  a  current  of  any 
degree  of  strength  may  be  employed,  according  to 
the  size  and  lunnber  of  cells  forming  the  battery. 
A  is  the  battery,  S  the  vessel  into  which  the  solu- 
tion of  the  metal  to  be  deposited  is  placed  ;  the 
molds  are  suspended  from  a  metallic  rod  a  b,  opposite 
to  which  the  jilate/rf  is  hung  ;  copper,  if  the  solu- 
tion is  a  salt  of  that  metal,  will  serve  as  a  soluble 
electrode,  and  will  be  dissolved  in  the  same  ratio 
as  the  metal  is  deposited  upon  the  mold.  The 
battery  being  charged,  fd  is  put  into  communication 
with  the  copper  pole  C  by  a  copper  wire,  and  a  b  is 
put  in  communication  with  the  zinc  pole  Z. 

The  voltaic  current  being  passed  through  the  solu- 
tion of  a  metal,  decomposition  takes  ]ilace,  the  metal 
being  electro-jiositive  attaches  itself  in  a  metallic  state 
to  the  negative  ])ole  or  to  the  object  attached  there- 
to, —  the  medal,  for  instance,  —  while  the  oxygen  or 
other  electro-negative  element  seeks  the  positive  pole. 

The  anock  is  the  electrode  placed  at  the  positive 
pole  of  the  battery,  which  in  the  electro-cliemical 
dccoTuposition  can  be  dissolved,  or  which,  if  it  be 


ELECTRO-PLATING. 


791 


ELECTROTi'PE. 


insoluble,  attracts  oxj-gcn  and  acids.  The  cathode 
is  the  electrcxle  which,  jilacpd  at  the  positive  pole, 
receives  the  metallic  deposit,  or  attracts  hydrogen 
and  alkalies. 

If  tlie  article  to  be  coated  be  a  medal  or  other  ob- 
ject which  is  a  conductor  of  electricity,  the  deposit 
»-ill  tie  made  directly  upon  it  ;  but  if  it  be  an  en- 
grav  d  wooden  block,  a  wax  seal,  or  a  plaster-cast, 
it  is  necessary  to  ffive  it  a  conducting  surface,  which 
is  done  by  brushing  it  over  with  black  lead  or  bronze 
pjwder. 

In  obtaining  the  counterpart  of  a  medal  or  en- 
graved plate,  the  latter  must  necessarily  be  coated 
with  some  substance  to  prevent  adhesion  of  the  ma- 
trix. In  the  United  States  Coast  Survey  a  solution 
of  iodine  is  employed  in  the  duplication  of  its  cop- 
per-plates. 

In  Shatfner's  process,  wood,  fabric,  or  fiber  is  pre- 
pared to  receive  a  metallic  coating  by  immersion  in 
a  bath  containing  plumbago  in  suspension. 

Fibroas  substances  may  also  be  prepared  by  dip- 
ping in  a  solution  of  nitrate  of  silver  and  ammonia, 
anil  exp'jsure  to  hydrogen  gas. 

The  process  of  electro-plating  has  been  applied  to 
many  substances,  as  terra-cotta,  wood,  cloth,  lace  ; 
and  to  the  ornamentation  of  book-covers  and  similar 
objects  ;  and  also  for  soldering,  by  uniting  the  ad- 
jacent edges  of  two  piec  ?s  of  metal  by  forming  a  solid 
mass  between  them.  Tiie  works  of  a  chronometer 
watch  have  been  electro-plate  1  while  going. 

When  applied  to  depositing  a  coat  of  silver  or  gold 
upon  an  article,  it  is  placed  in  a  solution  of  the  re- 
quired metal,  the  acid  set  free  in  the  reaction  being 
such  as  will  act  upon  the  piece  of  metal  whose  func- 
tion it  is  to  keep  the  metallic  solution  to  its  normal 
strength.  Copper  and  its  alloys  and  German  silver 
are  the  metals  upon  which  gold  or  silver  are  most 
readily  deposited. 

Electro-plating  with  iron  has  been  done  in  Kns.sia 
by  a  process  invented  by  Jacobi  and  Klein  ;  it  is  much 
mare  durable  than  copper,  and  is  .said  to  afford  good 
I'esalts,  having  been  used  by  the  Russian  government 
for  printing  bank-notes.  A  United  States  patent 
was  granted  for  this  process  in  1868.  See  also  Gar- 
nier's process,  "  Photographic  Journal,"  Vol.  VI.,  p. 
^Xetscq. 

An  important  improvement  in  electro-plating  is 
that  of  M.  Oadry  of  Auteuil,  near  Paris,  for  coating 
large  objects  made  of  iron  with  a  thick  layer  of  cop- 
per. In  the  old  process  it  was  customary  to  clean 
the  pieces  to  be  plated,  and  after  subjecring  them 
to  a  weak  preliminary  bath,  in  order  to  form  a  thin 
film  on  the  surface,  to  transfer  them  to  a  stronger 
bath,  where  they  were  subjected  to  voltaic  action  for 
several  days.  In  this  part  of  the  process  it  was 
found  that,  owing  to  the  strength  of  the  acid  bath, 
and  the  im|ierfection  of  the  preliminary  coating,  the 
iron  was  corroded,  instead  of  becoming  coated  with 
copper. 

The  details  of  M.  Oudry's  process  have  not  been 
made  public,  but  as  a  preliminary  to  the  plating  the 
articles  are  covered  with  three  coats  of  benzine  and 
afterward  rubbed  with  pulverized  charcoal,  when 
they  are  ready  for  the  bath,  which  is  composed  of  a 
saturated  solurion  of  sulphate  of  copper. 

The  battery  used  is  Daniell's. 

The  operation  requires  from  three  to  four  days, 
by  which  time  a  deposit  about  one  twenty-fifth  ol 
an  inch  in  thickness  is  formed.  The  objects,  when 
removed  from  the  bath,  are  washed  in  slightly  acid- 
ulated water,  bru.shed  with  a  wire  brush,  and  rubbed 
with  paper  to  brighten  them,  after  which  they  are 
brushed  with  amraoniacal  acetate  of  copper,  and 
finally  polished  with  a  hard  brush  well  waxed. 


By  this  process  many  of  the  cast-iron  monuments 
in  the  city  of  Paris  have  been  copper-plated,  and 
also  the  street  lamp-posts.  Cast-iron  lamp-posts 
weighing  4i  cwt.  plated  in  this  way  cost  about  §40, 
while  those  of  bronze  of  similar  pattern,  though 
weighing  but  2f  cwt.,  cost  $150. 

Herr  AV.  Licke,  of  Hanover,  deprecates  the  u."*  of 
the  acid  bath,  and  advocates  the  use  of  a  tartrate 
with  either  a  .soda  or  a  pota.sh  salt,  especially  for 
coppering  iron  by  means  of  galvanism.  The  best 
results  were  obtained  with  a  solution  of  20  parts  of 
crystallized  sulphate  of  copper  in  160  ]iarts  (rf  water, 
which  solution  is  mixed  with  50  parts  of  neutral 
tartrate  of  potash  dissolved  in  650  parts  of  caustic 
soda  solution  of  1.12  specific  gravity. 

E-lectro-po'i-on-bat'ter-y.  (E!ektron-poieo, 
Gr.,  electricity -making. )  A  name  ajiplied  specially 
to  Bunsen"s  carbon  batter}-,  though  applicable  to 
other  forms. 

E-lec'tro-pos'i-tive.  Having  a  tendency  to  the 
negative  pole  of  a  niiignet  or  battery. 

E-lec'tro-pimct'uT-ing.  Treatment  by  the  in- 
sertion of  needles  in  the  liody,  and  passing  a  voltaic 
current  between  the  points. 

E-lec'tro-scope.  An  instrument  for  detecting 
electrical  excitation.  It  is  shown  at  c.  Fig.  1853, 
and  consists  of  a  glass  jar  with  a  womlen  bottom,  a 
brass  wire  passing  through  the  cork  and  surmounted 
by  a  ball  of  the  same  metal  ;  to  the  lower  end  of  the 
wire  are  gummed  two  de]  ending  strips  of  gold-leaf. 
The  test  of  the  electric  condition  of  a  l>ody  is  to 
biing  a  small  liall  suspended  from  a  filament  of  .silk 
against  the  body,  and  then  ap]ily  the  same  ball  to 
the  knob  of  the  electroscope.  The  presence  of  elec- 
tricity will  be  shown  by  the  diveigence  of  the  leaves, 
which,  being  similarly  electrified,  will  repulse  each 
other.  A  rod  of  glass  or  of  sealing-wax  rubbed  and 
applied  to  the  knob  will  detemiine  whether  the  pre- 
vious excitation  was  josirive  or  negative. 

The  dry-pile  electroscope  consisted  of  a  gold-leaf 
suspended  between  two  balls,  and  Grove  improved 
on  this  by  insulating  the  gold-leaf  between  two  sur- . 
faces  and  charging  it  at  the  same  time  by  an  electri- 
fied rod.     See  Ei.ecthometee. 

E-lec'tro-tiiit.  A  moile  of  engra\-ing  in  which 
the  design  is  drawn  on  a  copyier  plate  with  an  acid- 
resisting  varnish.  By  the  electro-liath  a  reverse  is 
obtained,  and  from  this  copies  are  ]irinted.  The 
process  may  lie  adapted  to  relief  or  to  plate  i>rinting. 

E-lec'tro-type.  A  copy,  usually  in  copper,  of 
a  foini  of  ty]>e.  An  electrotype  is  superior  to  a 
stereotype,  as  copper  is  harder  and  more  durable 
than  type-metal,  and  the  plates  take  less  room  in 
storage. 

A  page  of  the  type  is  covered  with  wax,  which  is 
driven  into  the  interstices  by  powerful  pressure. 
The  face  of  the  wax-mold  is  covered  with  plumbago 
to  give  it  a  metallic  surface  to  which  the  metal  will 
adhere.  The  posirive  pole  of  a  battery  is  attached 
to  the  mold,  and  the  negative  to  a  copper  plate,  and 
both  are  plunged  in  a  bath  of  sulphate  of  copper  in 
solurion.  The  copper  is  deposited  on  the  face  of  the 
mold  in  a  thin  film,  which  increases  in  thickness  as 
the  process  continues.  The  shell  having  attained 
the  thickness  of  a  stout  sheet  of  paper,  the  mold  is 
removed  from  the  bath,  the  shell  detached,  and 
strengthened  by  a  backing  of  tj-pe-metal. 

This  process  is  called  hacJnng-vp.  As  type-metal 
will  not  readily  adhere  to  copper,  the  back  of  the 
shell  is  coat  d  with  rin,  and  the  shell  is  then  placed 
face  downward  on  a  plate,  by  which  it  is  suspended 
over  a  bath  of  molten  type-metal.  'When  it  has  at- 
tained the  requisite  heat,  a  quanrity  of  the  metal  is 
dipped  up  and  floated  over  the  back  of  the  shell. 


ELECTRO-TYPOGRAPHIC  MACHINE.       792 


ELEVATED  RAILWAY. 


When  cold,  the  plate  is  reduced  to  an  even  thick- 
ness by  a  planing-machine.  For  printing,  it  is 
mounteil  on  a  wooilen  backing. 

Another  mode  of  obtaining  electrotype  plates  from 
a  letter-press  form  is  by  a  mold  of  gutta-percha, 
brushed  with  graphite  and  immersed  in  the  electro- 
[ilating  bath. 

(iutta-percha  is  also  used  for  obtaining  intaglio 
molds  and  then  cameo  impressions  from  woodcuts, 
for  printing.      See  Ki.EPTKd-l'I.ATiNf:. 

E-lec'tro-tjrpo-graph'ic  Ma-chine'.  An  ap- 
jiaiatus  invented  liy  Fontaine,  a  French  barrister,  for 
printing  short  legal  documents,  etc. 

The  letters  of  the  alphabet  —  caps,  lower-case,  fig- 
ures, etc.  — are  arranged  around  two  horizontal  disks, 
one  above  the  other,  and  surmounted  by  a  third  disk 
which  has  notches  corresponding  to  the  types  below. 
A  bar  in  the  center  is  caused  to  press  upon  the  notch 
representing  any  particular  letter,  which  is,  by  elec- 
tro-maguetii;  action,  caused  to  drop  and  leave  its  im- 
pression on  a  sheet  of  paper  wound  upon  a  roller 
beneath,  and  then  return  to  its  place. 

When  the  whole  has  been  printed,  letter  by  letter, 
in  this  way,  an  impression  is  transferred  to  a  litho- 
graphic stone,  from  which  any  number  of  copies  may 
be  printed. 

E-lec'trum.  1.  Argentiferous  gold  :  an  alloy  of 
gobl  anil  silver. 

A  vase  and  eight  drinking-cups  of  this  material 
were  found  in  an  ancient  Scythian  tomli  at  Kertch. 

2.  An  alloy  of  copper,  zinc,  and  nickel  :  German- 
silver.     See  Alloy. 

El'e-phant.  A  size  of  drawing-paper  measuring 
28  X  2S  inches,  and  weighing  72  pounds  to  the  ream. 

A  Hat  writing-paper  of  about  the  same  dimen.sions. 

El'e-vat'ed  Bat'ter-y.  One  which  has  its  whole 
parapet  elevated  above  the  natural  surface  of  the 
ground  ;  to  jirocun^  the  mass  of  earth  required,  a 
(litcli  is  usually  dug  directly  in  front  of  the  parapet. 

El'e-vat'ed  Ov'en.  One  whose  bakiug-chamber 
is  situated  above  that  plate  of  the  stove  in  which  are 
the  holes  for  the  pots  and  kettles. 

El'e-vat'ed  Rail'^way.  A  railway  with  an  ele- 
vated track. 

Any  railroad  supported  on  a  continuous  viaduct 
may  bj  said  to  be  an  elevated  railway,  but  the  term 
has  lately  received  a  rather  more  limited  application. 
It  is  now  particularly  applied  to  city  railroads  whose 
track  is  so  elevated  as  not  to  materially  infringe 
upon  the  street  area,  already  too  limited  for  the  con- 
venience of  the  citizens  and  the  traffic. 

The  necessities  for  more  convenient  transportation 
of  passengcu's  in  New  York  City,  especially  on 
Hi'oadway,  have  perhaps  given  the  greatest  stimtilus 
to  invention  in  this  line,  and  the  fpiestion  of 
elevated  railway  tvrsus  subterranean  railway  has 
been  very  thoroughly  debated. 

The  capitals  and  other  large  cities  of  the  world 
were  not  originally  laid  out  for  the  modern  means  of 
locomotion.  We  see  in  the  cities  of  A.sia  the  con- 
dition which  foi'merly  existerl  in  European  towns, 
—  narrow  streets  without  siilewalks,  adajited  for 
pedestrians,  equestrians,  pack-animals,  and  sedan- 
chairs.  Jeildo,  Macao,  and  other  Asiatic  cities 
where  the  natives  are  yet  dominant,  have  in  general 
no  provision  for  wheeled  vehicles,  and  London  before 
the  great  tire  of  1666  was  in  much  the  same  condi- 
tion. The  foot-traveler  was  jostled  by  the  horse- 
man, and  stood  on  one  side  to  let  the  train  of  pack- 
animals  go  by,  just  as  the  modern  traveler  resigns 
the  road  in  favor  of  the  loaded  camel  or  the  ambling 
donkey  in  the  streets  of  Alexandria.  The  sedan- 
chair  of  England  and  thepalan<]uin  of  Constantinople 
were  carried   by  shambling   porters,   who  were  at- 


tended after  nightfall  by  torch-bearers  and  guards, 
who  illuminated  the  way  and  kept  off  the  prowling 
robber.  Asia,  having  stood  still,  preserves  the  in- 
stitutions to  which  we  have  alluded  ;  Western 
Europe  and  the  West  have  outgrown  them  some 
time  since. 

The  topography  of  old  Boston  and  Dutch  New 
York  show  that  no  ideas  of  these  modern  stirring 
times  troubled  the  engineers  and  architects  of  those 
days,  and  it  has  become  a  problem  with  their  suc- 

FiR.  1866. 


Elevated  Railways. 

cessors  how  best  to  adapt  the  thing  as  they  find  it 
to  modern  needs. 

London  has  solved  the  problem  by  brick  viaducts 
and  subterranean  railways,  which  arc  successful  and 
safe  ;  of  the  latter  it  may  be  added,  profitable. 

New  York,  of  all  our  American  cities,  is  most  in- 
terested in  obtaining  the  best  solution  of  the  prob- 
lem. 

The  viaduct  of  the  I.ondon  and  Greenwich  Kail- 
way  is  3  miles  ami  60  chains  in  length  ;  being  com- 
posed of  over  1,000  yellow  brick  arches,  18  feet 
sjian,  22  feet  high,  2.')  feet  wide.  It  cost  over 
.$1,300,000  ]ier  mile,  and  has  not  proved  a  paying 
in\'estment  to  the  shareholders. 

The  Loudon  and  Blackwall  Railway  is  upon  a 


ELEVATED  RAILWAY. 


793 


ELEVATING-BLOCK. 


continuous  viaduct  of  brick  arches,  and  is  3  miles 
38  cliains  in  length.  It  cost  £1,083,951.  The 
public  are  benefited  more  than  those  who  built  it. 

These  are  two  examples  of  elevated  railways  of  a 
certain  kind.  The  Greenwich  Railway  was  always 
worked  by  locomotives.  The  Blackwall  Railway 
\v;is  for  many  years  worked  by  stationary  engines 
and  wire  ropes. 

In  1821,  Palmer,  en«;ineer  to  the  London  Dock 
Company,  patented  a  railway  whose  single  track  was 
elevated  upon  pillars,  which  weie  of  such  lengths  as 
to  bi'ing  the  track  to  a  level  or  moderate  inclination, 
notwithstanding  the  inenualities  in  the  suiface  of 
the  ground.  This  is  shown  in  the  up[ier  illustrations 
of  Fig.  1856.  The  boxes  H  are  in  pairs,  suspended 
on  each  side  of  tlie  carriage,  which  travels  upon  a 
pair  of  grooved  wheels  D.  The  tnick  K  is  supported 
on  the  pillars.  The  wheels  are  placed  one  before 
the  other,  and  the  axles  are  extended  laterally  so  as 
to  support  the  boxes  by  the  suspension-rods  /.    The 

Fig.  1857. 


lower  side  of  the  box  having  a  continuous  longitudi" 
nal  slit,  allowing  the  passage  of  the  suspension-bar. 

The  mode  of  propulsion  is  probably  by  a  wire  or 
rope. 

Dick's  elevated  railway  (English  patent,  1825) 
had  a  double  track  supported  on  vertical  pillars  m  m 
of  varying  hight  when  crossing  irregular  surfaces,  so 
as  to  preserve  a  level,  or  nearly  so. 

Tile  track  has  two  rails,  upon  which  the  wheels  n 
of  the  carriage  traverse  ;  and  beneath  the  rails  are 
safety-wheels  on  the  sides  of  the  carriage,  which  keep 
the  upper  wheels  from  leaving,  should  the  carriage 
sway  and  jump  with  high  speeds. 

The  mode  of  propulsion  was  to  be  by  drag-ropes 
from  stationary  engines.  The  lower  wheels  journaled 
between  the  sections  of  the  supporting  frame  are  for 
the  ropes  to  run  in. 

Warren  and  Hlume's  elevated  railway  M  is  on  the 
principle  of  the  Fisher  (English)  patent  of  1825. 

Tile  rails  are  supported  upon  in  ward  projections 
at  the  spring  of  an  arch  s,  w'hich  is  attached  by  one 
end  to  a  single  post  t.     A  truck  runs  on  this  track, 


Fig.  1858. 


Bamum's  E'evated  Railway 

center  of  gravity  of  the  loaded  boxes  is  below  the 
level  of  the  rail. 

The  carnages  are  hooked  together,  and  are  drawn 
by  horses  and  a  towing-rope. 

A  railway  on  this  principle  was  constructed  in 
1825  at  Cheshunf,  in  England,  and  used  for  convey- 
ing bricks  across  the  marshes  to  the  river  Lea,  where 
they  were  shipjied. 

Fisher's  English  patent,  1825,  in  the  same  figure, 
shows  a  suspended  carriage  between  two  lines  of 
rail. 

In  the  figure,  the  bar  a  with  rail-flanges  h  b  is 
shown  suspended  by  rods  from  a  catenary  chain, 
which  is  supposed  to  be  spanning  a  river  or  deep 
guUey. 

The  carriage /has  two  pairs  of  wheels  which  trav- 
erse upon  the  flanges  b  b,  and  support  the  bar  h  from 
which  is  suspended  tlie  freight. 

One  of  the  views  shows  a  modification,  in  which 
the  rails  are  flanges  of  a  hollow  box  or  tiunk  c,  the 


and  the  car  is  suspended  from  the  truck,  and  is 
drawn  by  horses.  The  tmck  wheels  have  brakes 
which  are  operated  from  the  car. 

Fig.  1857  shows  another  form  which  is  supported 
on  columns  and  reached  from  the  second  floors  of 
houses.  It  is  driven  by  dummy-engine,  compressed 
air,  or  by  rope. 

Another  form  is  proposed  to  span  the  street  and 
form  an  arcade.     (Fig.  1858.) 

Cheseborougli's  elevated  railway  consists  of  a 
series  of  inclined  planes  down  which  a  car  nins  by 
its  own  gravity,  elevating  platforms  being  intei-posed 
to  raise  the  car  from  the  foot  of  one  incline  to  the 
head  of  the  next.  The  platforms  are  elevated  by 
a  pei|iendicular  lift  operated  by  comjiressed  air. 

In  India,  Australia,  and  some  other  |ihices,  it  has 
not  been  unusual  to  cross  gullies  and  rivers  by  means 
of  a  bucket  or  basket  sus]jended  from  a  cord.  The 
patents  of  Palmer,  Fisher,  and  Dick,  already  cited, 
are  an  aniplitication  of  this  idea,  a  carriage  being  ar- 
ranged to  travel  on  a  rail. 

The  idea  has  recently  been  reduced  to  practice  in 
a  com|iact  and  useful  form.     See  Wire-way. 

El'e-vat'ing-block.  A  tackle-block  used  in  ele- 
vating liay  or  bales,  where,  after  the  object  has  been 
raised  to  a  given  hight,  the  block  is  required  to  travel 
along  to  a  position  above  where  the  load  is  to  be  de- 
posited. 

The  track-rope  passes  through  the  case  under  the 


KLEVATING-CLUTCH. 


794 


ELEVATOR. 


Fig.  1859. 


locomotive  pul- 
leys. The  di-aft- 
ropeleadingfiom 
tlie  lieiy-foi-k  to 
the  team  passes 
between  tlie  low- 
er puUey  and  the 
stop.  Tlie  cord 
running  over  the 

pulley  in  the  rear 

^  <'-<  r^  opeiates  the  stop 
that  rigiilly  co>i- 
neeting  the  draft 
to  the  track-rope 
above  arrests  its 
progress  in  ei- 
therdirection.  It 
is  managed  by  a 
dependingcheek- 

rope,  which  is  grasped  by  a  man  on  the  barn  or 

warehouse  Hoor 


Elevating-Btock. 


El'e-vat'ing  -  clutch. 


18G0 


£lt;  vating-  Clutch. 


Designed  to  attach  a 
clutch  to  an  elevated 
beam  in  a  barn,  as  a 
means  of  suspension 
of  the  tackle  of  a 
horse  hay-fork,  and 
to  detach  the  clutch 
therefrom  when  re- 
quired. It  has  two 
,  arms  attached  to  a 
handle  of  any  suita- 
ble length,  and  ar- 
ranged to  engage  the 
jaws  of  the  clutch  to 
holil  them  open  un- 
til the  beam  is  grasped 
or  to  unclose  them 
when  renuired. 

El'e-vat'ing- 
screw.  One  beneath 
the  breech  of  a  iiieee 
of  ordnance,  to  give 
the  elevation  or  ver- 
tical direction  to  the 
piece.  In  fielil- 
pieces  it  is  bedded  in 
the  stock  immedi- 
ately under  the  base- 
vingof  the  gun,  which 
The  latter  is  turned 


Fig  1861. 


rests  on  the  top  of  the  screw, 
by  four  handles. 

In  theodolites  and  other  geodetical  and  astronom- 
ical instruments  a  similar  contrivance  is  used  for 
leveling  the  instrument.  See  also  J.\cIv-sckew,  etc. 
.See  list  under  Hoisting. 

El'e-va'tion.  1.  (Astronomical  Instruments.) 
The  arc  of  a  vertical  circle  intercepted  between  an 
object  and  the  horizon. 

2.  [Dulling.)  The  angle  of  the  gnomon  with  its 
base. 

3.  (Gunnery.)  The  angle  of  the  line  of  fire  with 
the  plane  of  the  horizon. 

4.  (Drawing.)  A  side  or  end  view  of  an  object  or 
representation  on  a  perpendicular  plane. 

An  end  or  side  view  of  a  building  or  machine 
drawn  according  to  the  actual  width  and  higlit  of 
its  parts  without  reference  to  perspective. 

Projections  or  dejiressions  from  the  plane  of  the 
general  surface  are  indicated  by  shadows  equal  in 
width  to  the  depth  of  the  elevation  or  depression, 
the  light  being  supposed  to  fall  at  an  angle  of  45" 
both  to  the  vertical  and  horizontal  lines  of  the  draw- 
ing, and  usually  from  the  upper  and  left-hand  side. 


Elevation: — Forehand  Veranda  (Rural  Gothic). 

El'e-va'tor.  1.  A  machine  for  transferring  grain 
by  raising  it  from  the  car,  a  bin,  or  the  hold  of  a 
ship,  to  an  elevated  hopper,  whence  it  is  ilischarged 
by  any  one  of  a  series  of  spouts  directed  to  a  bin  for 
storage  or  to  the  hold  of  a  boat,  a  car,  or  to  a  run 
of  stones. 

Elevators  are  n.sed  in  flour-mills  to  carry  the 
wheat  to  the  upper  story,  where  it  is  cleaned  in  the 
smnt-niill  ;  also  to  raise  wheat,  so  cleaned,  to  a  bin 
whence  it  proceeds  to  the  stones  ;  also  to  raise  the 
meal  to  the  bolt,  the  olfal  to  the  bran-duster,  etc., 
as  the  case  may  be. 

Elevators  are  also  used  in  many  other  machines 
for  raising  small  objects  or  materials,  such  as  the 
tailings  in  a  thrasliing-marhine  or  clover-huUer. 
These  may  be  consulted  where  they  occui-  nnder 
these  heads.    They  are  also  used  in  elevating  bricks, 

Fig.  1862. 


Grain-Elevator 
tnortar,  etc.,  in  building.    See  list  under  HoiSTiNfi- 

MACHINES. 

2.  A  platform  or  cage  in  a  warehouse,  hotel,  mine, 


ELEVATOR. 


T9c 


ELLIPTICAL-TrilEEL. 


or  elsewhere,  for  raisins;  or  lowering  persons,  goods, 
or  material  to  or  from  ditferent  Hooi's  or  levels.  See 
Hoist  ;  ilAN-EXGiXE  ;  Cage.  Also  the  list  above 
cited. 

3.  A  building  specially  constructed  for  elevating, 
.storing,  and  loading  grain  into  eai^s  or  vessels. 
These  structures  are  very  capacious  both  as  to  the 
capacity  for  handling  and  storing,  but  the  consti"uc- 
tion  is  very  simple.  An  clcrator-leg. 
Fig.  1S63.  so  called,  seen  in  Fig.  1S63  and  also 
in  Fig.  1S6-2,  reaches  into  the  bin  or 
cellar  into  which  the  contents  of 
the  wagons  or  cars  are  discharged. 
A  strong  belt,  carrying  a  series  of 
buckets,  travels  over  a  drum  at  the 
lower  end  and  also  over  one  at 
the  upper  end,  where  the  buckets 
tip  over  and  discharge  into  the  up- 
per bin.  This,  as  seen  in  Fig. 
1862,  has  valved  .spouts  F  which 
direct  the  contents  into  either  one 
of  the  deep  bins  J.  The  tioors  of 
these  bins  are  over  the  tracks,  and 
valves  in  the  floor  allow  the  contents 
of  the  bins  to  be  discharged  into  cai-s 
or  canal-boats,  which  are  brought 
beneath. 

In  unloading  from  ships,  the  leg 
is  a  jiivoted,  adjustable  piece,  which 
is  fii-st  raised  to  obtain  the  necessary 
hight,  brought  over  the  hatchway, 
and  lowered  thereinto. 

In  practice,  tlie  grain  is  discharged 
into  the  hopper  of  a  weighing-ma- 
chine gaged  exactly  for  one  hundred 
bushels  ;  by  pulling  on  a  valve  the 
contents  are  sent  by  a  spout  to  the 
bin,  the  valve  closed,  the  elevating 
resumeil,  and  so  on.  Seven  thousand 
bushels  an  hour  are  thus  weighed. 
An  elevator  at  Milwaukee  is  2S6  feet 
long  and  SO  feet  wide.  The  total 
length  of  thegreatdriving-belt,  urged 
"by  a  200-hoi"se-power  engine,  is  2S0  feet,  that  is,  the 
half  extending  from  cellar  to  comb  is  140  feet,  and 
the  down  half  is  of  course  equal  to  it.  This  belt  is 
36  inches  wide  and  j  of  an  inch  thick,  and  is  made 
of  six-ply  or  thicknesses  of  canvas,  with  sheets  of 
india-rubber  pa.ssed  between  and  into  them.  It  drives 
nine  receiving  elevators  or  belts  set  with  buckets, 
each  of  which  lifts  the  grain  140  feet.  The  buckets 
are  made  of  thick  tin,  bound  with  hoop-iron,  and  are 
well  riveted  to  the  belt  at  intervals  of  fourteen  inch- 
es ;  six  inches  across  the  mouth  and  eighteen  iifches 
long.  When  full,  one  contains  a  peck.  They  do  not 
iisually  go  up  quite  full,  but,  allowing  for  thi.s,  there 
are  100  pecks  =  25  bushels,  loaded  on  one  side  of  one 
of  these  belts  whenever  it  is  at  work.  If  all  nine 
are  running  at  once,  as  is  often  the  case,  the  ijuantity 
of  wheat  lifted  on  these  swift-running  belts  is  225 
bushels.  The  established  weight  of  a  bushel  of 
No.  2  Milwaukee  Spring  is  55  jiounds.  This  would 
make  the  total  lift  of  the  receiving  elevators  during 
the  time  they  are  at  work  over  12,000  ])0unds. 

The  bins  in  which  this  wheat  is  poured  are  of 
great  size,  being  60  feet  deep,  20  wide,  and  1 0  across, 
containing  12,000  cubic  feet.  The  total  receiving 
and  storing  capacitv  of  this  building  is  1,500,000 
bushels.  Of  the  crop  of  1869  it  received  7,000,000 
bushels.  About  10,000  bushels  are  taken  into  a 
train  of  the  average  length  ;  so  2,100  trains  were 
that  year  rolled  into  this  elevator  and  discharged. 

In  discharging  on  to  the  Lake  grain-vessels,  as 
Boon  as  a  ship  is  anchored  beside  an  elevator  the 


EUvalor-Leg. 


hatches  are  removed  and  great  spouts  extend  over 
tliem  from  the  bottom  of  one  of  the  bins  described. 

j  The  gate  is  raised,  and  a  ton-ent  of  wheat  pours 
down.     The  loading  power  of  these  spouts  is  12,000 

j  bushels  an  hour.  A  vessel  with  a  capacity  for  IS, COO 
bushels  may  be  loaded  in  an  hour  and  a  half.  The 
Oswego  and  Ogdensburg  schooners  and  vessels  des- 

'  lined  for  the  Welland  Canal  usuallv  take  on  fror.i 

i  12,000  to  20,000  bushels.  The  Buffalo  ves-sels  aie 
larger,  often  receiving  30,000,   and  iu  a  few  cases 

'  45,000  bushels. 

4.  (Surgical. )  An  instrument  employed  in  rais- 
ing portions  of  bone  which  have  been  depressed,  or 
for  raising  and  detaching  the  portion  of  bone  sep- 
arated by  the  crown  of  the  trepan.  The  common 
elevator  is  a  mere  lever,  the  end  of  which  is  some- 
what bent  and  rough,  in  order  that  it  may  less 
rea/lily  slip  away  from  the  portion  of  bone  to  be 
raised.  The  elevator  of  Louis  has  a  screw  peg 
united  to  the  bridge  by  a  kind  of  pivot.  Pettit's 
elevator  is  a  stniight  lever,  except  at  the  verj-  point, 
where  it  is  slightly  curved.  The  trijiloid  elevator 
consists  of  three  branches  united  iu  one  common 
trunk. 

The  elevator  is  one  of  the  instruments  of  the 
trephine  case.  A  curved  instrument  for  operating 
upon  depressed  portions  of  the  .skull  was  disinterred 
at  Pompeii,  1819,  by  Dr.  Cavenke  of  St.  Peters- 
burg. 

El'e-va'tor-buck'et.  One  of  the  grain-cups  on 
the  traveling  belt  of  the  elevator. 

El'io-type.  {Plio/oijropkij.)  A  mode  of  multi- 
plying photogiaphic  copies  of  artists'  work,  patented 
liy  Eliot,  England.  The  painting  is  made  upon 
glass  in  a  body-color  more  or  less  dense,  and  con- 
sequentl)'  more  or  less  effective  as  a  negative,  and 
from  it  positives  are  printed. 

Eli-qua'tioii.  The  process  of  separating  metals 
by  ex-posure  in  a  furnace  or  on  a  hearth  to  a  heat 
which  melts  one  and  does  not  melt  the  other.  See 
LiQr.\Tiox-Fri;xACE. 

El-lip'so-giapU.     An  instrument  for  describing 


Fig.  1864. 


Fig.  1865. 


Elitpso^aph. 

ellipses.  Thepinsofthebeam 
traverse  in  the  slots  of  the 
trammel,  each  occupying  its 
own  slot,  and  the  pencil  at 
the  end,  as  the 
beam  revolves, 
is  guided  in  an 
elliptical  path. 
SeeTiiAMMEL. 

There  are 
many  varieties 
of  compa.ss  for 
this  purpfise. 

El-lip'ti- 

cal-axch.  {Architecture.)  An  arch  having  two 
foci  an<l  an  elliptical  contour.  The  arches  of  Lon- 
don Bridge  are  the  finest  elliptical  arches  in  the 
world  :  the  middle  one  has  152  feet  span. 

El-llp'ti-cal-gearing.  See  Elltptical-wheel. 

El-Up'ti-cal-wlieel.     One  used  where  a  rotaiy 


Elliptical  WhciU. 


ELLIPTIC-CHUCK. 


796 


EMBALMING. 


piotion  of  varying  speed  is  required,  and  the  varia- 
tion of  speed  i.s  determined  by  tile  relation  between 
tlie  lengths  of  tlie  major  and  minor  axes  of  the 
ellipses. 

In  tlie  upper  figure,  variable  rotary  motion  is  jiro- 
duced  liy  niiiforin  rotary  motion.  The  small  spur 
pinion  works  in  a  slot  eut  in  the  bar,  which  turns 
lo.jsely  upon  the  .^liaft  of  the  elliptical  gear.  The 
pillion  is  kept  to  its  engagement  by  a  sjiriiig  on  tlie 
shaft.  The  slot  in  the  bar  allows  for  tlie  variation 
of  length  of  radius  of  the  elliptical  gear. 

El-lip'tic-chuck.  A  chuck  invented  by  Abra- 
ham Shai|i,  for  oval  or  ellijitic  turning.     See  Chuck. 

El-lip'tic-spring.  (Veliiclcs.)  One  formed  of  a 
number  of  Kent  plates  in  two  sets,  curved  apart 
ill  the  middle  and  united  at  the  ends.  The  pressure 
is  brought  upon  the  middle  and  tends  to  collapse 
them. 

Fig.  isoe. 


EUiptic  Carriage-Spring. 

In  the  illustrations,  the  spring  is  of  one  or  two 
pieces,  united  liv  blocks  or  bolts. 

E-Iu'tri-a'tion.  I'uiitication  by  washing,  when 
the  water  carrie-  off  a  lighter  or  more  soluble  mate- 
rial from  the  heavier  portion,  which  is  designed  to 
be  saved.  It  tliffers  (rom  Uxiviation  in  the  latter 
respect. 

To  recover  saccharine  matter  from  animal  charcoal, 
the   latter    may    he    li.ririatci/,   water    being   pa>sed  t 
through  the  mass  to  carry  otf'  the  sugar. 

To  remove  saccharine  and  coloring  matters  fi'om 
starch  in  the  process  of  manufacture,  the  material 
is  cl,itti-iat''d,  and  the  granules  of  starch  M'tile  in  the 
bottom  of  the  vat;  the  substances  remaiuiug  in  solu- 
t'ion  are  removed  by  decaiitation. 

El-y-dor'ic  Paint'iug.  A  mode  of  painting  in- 
vented by  Vincent,  ot"  Mout|ielier,  intended  to  com- 
bine the  fresh  appearance  of  water-colors  and  the 
mellowness  of  oil-painiiug.  The  vehicle  for  the  |iig- 
mciits  is  an  emulsii^ii  of  oil  and  water  with  the  intei'- 
veution  of  a  gum  or  mucilage. 

Em.  (I'rintinti.)  The  si|uare  of  the  liody  of  a 
type.  As  the  '"m"  in  early  fonts  had  a  .-quare 
body,  it  became  a  unit  of  lueasuie  for  compo.>-itoi's' 
work. 

E-mail'-om'brant.  A  process  which  consi.sts  in 
floodinir  colored  but  transparent  g'assesover  designs 
stamped  in  the  body  of  earthenware  or  jiorcelaiii.  A 
plane  surface  is  thus  produced,  in  which  the  cavities 
of  the  stampe<l  desi;;n  appear  as  shadows  of  various 
depths,  the  parts  in  highest  relief  coming  nearest  to 
the  surface  of  the  glass,  and  thus  having  the  effect 
of  the  lights  of  the  picture.  Introduced  by  the 
Baron  A.  de  Tremlilny,  of  Melun. 

Em-balm'ing.  The  art  of  preserving  the  dead 
bodies  of  men  or  animals.    The  earliest  examples  are 


found  in  Egypt,  where  it  was  practiced  over  3000 
years  ago.  There  the  custom  was  universal  and 
intimately  connected  with  their  religion,  as  they  be- 
lieved in  the  Resurrection  of  the  body,  and  imagined 
that  after  the  Lapse  of  3000  years  the  siiirit  would 
again  inhabit  its  original  tenement  if  the  latter  was 
.still  in  existence.  The  invention  was  ascribed  by 
them  to  Anubis  the  son  of  Osiris,  who  was  said  to 
lia\e  performed  the  office  for  bis  father. 

It  has  been  estimated  that  more  than  420,000,000 
mummies  were  embalmed  between  his  time  and  the 
year  700  A.  I>.,  when  the  jnactice  fell  into  disu.M', 
besides  an  innumerable  multitude  of  sacred  animals, 
as  dogs,  cats,  apes,  ibises,  bulls,  rams,  foxes,  croco- 
diles, ser]ieiits,  etc.,  which  are  found  along  with 
human  mummies  in  the  tombs. 

The  Egyptians,  hf.wever,  were  not  the  only  people 
who  embalmed  their  dead.  The  practice  prevailed, 
ihongh  not  so  extensively,  among  the  nations  of  Asia, 
and  was,  at  a  somewhat  later  period,  in  nse  to  some 
extent  among  the  Greeks  and  Romans. 

Herodotus  gives  a  long  description  of  the  different 
methods  em]doyed  by  the  ancient  Egyptians.  These 
varied  according  to  the  rank  or  wealth  of  the  sub- 
ject. 

Drying  the  bodies  in  sand  was  a  method  chiefly 
practiced  among  the  poorer  classes  ;  and  it  may  be 
remarked  that,  in  a  waiiu  dry  climate  like  that  of 
Egypt,  decomposition  does  not  take  place  so  read- 
ily or  speedily  as  in  those  which  ai'e  favored  with 
more  moisture. 

Einbahuing  was  also  performed  by  salting  in  na- 
tron and  then  drying  ;  boiling  in  resins  and  bitumen ; 
and  by  removing  the  brain  and  viscera,  washing 
with  iialni  wine,  and  then  applying  fine  resins, 
myrrh,  cassia,  and  other  aromatic  substances. 

In  some  cases  oil  of  cedar  was  injected  into  the 
cavity  of  the  body,  whnh  was  then  sf i e]ied  in  a  so- 
lution of  nation  lor  70  days,  whin  the  viscera  came 
away,  leaving  little  but  skin  and  bone  remaining. 

Among  the  u]iper  classes,  the  bodies,  after  being 
j'repared,  were  swathed  in  linen  bandages  saturated 
with  gum,  the  total  length  of  which  amounted  in 
some  in.stances  to  more  than  1,000  yards. 

The  jihysicians  embalmed  Lsrael  (Gen.  I.  2)  B.  c. 
!1<;S9,  and  the  bodies  of  the  Hebrew  kings  were 
embalmed  with  spices. 

Within  and  about  the  bodies  of  different  mummies 
];ave  been  found  sulphate  of  soda,  saltpeter,  com- 
mon salt,  soda,  oil  of  cedar,  turpentine,  asphalt, 
myvrh,  cinnamon,  and  other  suKstances. 

The  ojinion  has  been  advanced  that  an  essential 
part  of  the  process  was  the  a]iplication  of  heat  to  the 
tiodies,  which  were  filled  with  some  bituminous  sub- 
stance, by  which  means  creosote  was  generated.  As 
all  mummy  bandages  were  smeared  with  gnni,  and 
bear  the  apyiearance  of  having  been  heated,  being 
often  reduced  to  tinder,  the  ]uoduction  of  creosote 
may  have  been  the  object  for  which  they  were 
gummed  and  partially  calcined. 

The  cost  of  the  most  expensive  method  of  embalm- 
ingwas  a  talent  of  silver,  more  than  $1,100  ;  accord- 
ing to  Calinet,  the  prices  ranged  from  the  neighbor- 
hood of  $300  to  $1,500. 

The  princifial  materials  used  by  the  ancients  (the 
Egyptians  excepted)  in  embalming  were  honey, 
brine,  wax,  and  vinegar. 

Pharnaces  put  the  body  of  his  father,  Mithridates, 
in  brine,  in  order  to  preserve  it  during  its  transpor- 
tation to  Pompey.  Several  curious  monsters  and 
an  ape  were  pickled  and  sent  to  Rome  ;  Pliny  and 
St.  iTorome  mention  them.  The  body  of  St.  Giri- 
bert  was  pickled  to  make  it  keep  during  a  long  jour- 
ney in  summer,  A.  D.  1113. 


EMBALMING. 


797 


EMBOSSED  PRINTING. 


The  bodies  of  several  Grecian  kings  were  preserved 
in  lioney.  Agesipolis,  who  died  in  Macedonia,  was 
thus  sent  home  to  Sparta.  Alexander  is  said  to 
have  been  sent  to  Egypt  in  honey  ;  by  others,  to 
have  been  embalmed  in  Egyptian  style.  Perhaps 
he  went  to  Alexandria  in  honey,  and  was  then  em- 
balmed in  regnlar  order.  The  Emperor  Julian  II. 
was  placed  in  honey  mi.xed  with  spices. 

Wax  and  waxen  cerecloth  were  used  for  centuries 
in  England.  The  body  of  one  of  the  Edwards,  in- 
teri-ed  1307  and  exhumed  1774,  Wiis  preserved  in 
natural  shape,  but  fragile. 

The  Ijndy  of  Lord  Nelson  was  sent  to  England  in 
a  puncheon  of  rum.  The  sailors  ran  foul  of  the  cask, 
and,  getting  ilrunk,  playfully  called  it  "tapping  the 
admiral."  Tlie  ])oor  man  was  nearly  dry  by  the  time 
he  reached  home. 

The  Scytliians,  Assyrians,  and  Persian."!  used  wax. 
The  body  of  Agesilaus  was  covered  with  wax,  but 
the  pr.ictice  .soon  became  general  of  wrapping  in 
waxed  cloths.  We  read  of  these  cerements  in  the 
preparation  for  burial  of  Philip  of  Burgundy,  1404  ; 
Edward  I.  of  England,  1-307  ;  and  George  II.  The 
cerecloth  and  aromatics  for  the  latter  cost  £  152. 

John  Hunter  (died  1793*  embalmed  .several  bodies 
by  injection  into  the  arteries  and  veins.  The 
boilies  are  preserved  in  the  Museum  of  the  College 
of  Surgeons,  London. 

The  Khasias,  a  peojjle  of  the  Himalayas,  preserve 
the  hodii^s  of  their  dead  in  honey  till  the  cessation 
of  the  periodical  rains  permits  their  being  burned. 
The  ipiantity  of  i-ain  whieli  falls  in  that  region  is 
remarkable.     See  Rain'-g.^ge. 

Embalming  was  pra;ticed  by  the  Guanches,  or 
aboriginal  inhabitants  of  the  Canary  Islands,  and  by 
the  ancient  Peruvians.  Mummies  from  the  latter 
source  are  now  to  be  .seen  in  the  museum  of  the 
Smithsonian  Institution.  Some  bodies  have  been 
preserved  for  ages  by  burial  in  caverns,  the  earthen 
floors  of  which  contained  a  notable  quantity  of  salt- 
peter. The  steepes  of  Tartary,  some  of  the  uplands 
of  Montana  and  Colorado,  and  the  dry  uplands  of 
the  Andes,  are  nitrous.  Many  caves  are  so  also,  the 
Mammoth  Cave  of  Kentucky,  for  instance. 

In  very  recent  times,  with  the  increase  of  chemi- 
cal knowledge,  considerable  attention  has  been  de- 
voted to  the  subject,  and  various  processes  and  com- 
pounds have  been  devised. 

Dr.  Chansier  employed  a  solution  of  corrosive  sub- 
limate, with  which  the  corpse,  previously  disem- 
bowelled and  cleansed,  is  satur.ated  ;  this  imparts 
firmness  to  the  flesh  and  renders  it  im]iutr.pscent. 

Gaural  practiced  injecting  the  veins  with  sulphate 
of  alumina. 

Dr.  Ure  propcses  chloride  of  mercury  and  wood 
vinegar  to  be  used  in  a  similar  way.  M.  Falconi 
found  tliat  sulphate  of  zinc,  injected  into  a  body, 
would  preserve  it  in  a  flexible  condition  for  some  six 
weeks,  after  which  it  began  to  d)'y  up,  though  still 
preserving  its  natural  color.  Chloride  of  zinc  and 
sulphate  of  soda  are  also  sometimes  used. 

A  more  simple  form  of  preparation  for  injection, 
well  suited  for  anatomical  purposes,  consists  of  glyc- 
erine, 14  [larts  ;  soft  sugar,  2  parts  ;  nitrate  of  pot- 
ash, 1  (lart.  It  is  found  that,  after  saturation  for 
some  days  in  this  solution,  the  parts  become  com- 
paratively indestructible,  and  change  neither  in  size 
nor  figure. 

Dr.  Hutton's  (1863)  composition  is  4  poundsof 
zinc  dissolved  in  6  pounds  muriatic  acid,  to  which 
are  added  1  gallon  alcohol,  2  drams  arsenic,  and  1 
dram  corrosive  sublimate  ;  the  fluid  is  injected  iuto 
the  arteries  in  a  heated  state. 

Dr.  Morgan's  (English,  1864)  is  6  pounds  common 


salt,  lA  pounds  nitrate  potash,  H  pounds  powdered 
alum,  and  2  drams  to  1  ounce  arseniate  of  potash. 
This,  in  the  form  of  a  solution,  is  injected  into  the 
heart.  This  process  embraces  some  peculiarities  in 
the  mode  of  treatment  of  the  subject  and  manner  of 
injecting  the  fluid. 

Coti'mau's  (1867).  Distilled  water,  1  gallon  ;  car- 
bolic acid,  4  ounces  ;  nitrate  of  potash,  4  ounces  ; 
alcohol,  4  ounces. 

Brunetti,  of  Italy  (1867),  expels  the  blood  from  the 
tissues  by  injections  of  jmve  water  and  of  alcohol, 
and  fatty  matters  by  injections  of  suljihuric  ether, 
and  afterwards  injects  a  solution  of  tannin  into  the 
arteries,  veins,  or  excretory  canals,  after  which  the 
body  is  dried  in  a  case  heated  by  steam  to  a  tempera- 
ture of  90°  centigiade. 

E  de  la  Granja  (1867)  emjiloys  a  solution  of  sul- 
phurous acid  and  the  sulphides  of  soda,  potash,  or 
lime,  in  water  or  alcohol,  injected  into  the  aorta. 
The  cavities  of  the  body,  head,  thorax,  and  abdo- 
men are  filled  with  tannin,  gun-cotton,  camphor, 
and  resin  dissolved  in  absolute  alcohol  or  ether,  and 
stiffened  with  cotton  and  wax. 

Em-bank'ment.  A  structure  raised  to  prevent 
W'ater  from  overflowing  a  level  tract  of  country,  or  to 
support  a  roadway.  Technically,  in  civil  engineer- 
ing, the  earth  removed  to  jiroduce  a  level  is  excava- 
tion, and  that  which  requires  to  be  heaped  up  for 
the  same  pui^pose  is  embankment. 

A  raised  mound  or  bank  of  I'arth  to  form  a  barrier 
against  the  encroachments  of  the  sea.     See  Dike. 

Or  against  the  overflow  of  a  river.     See  Lkvee. 

Or  to  carry  a  railroad,  canal,  or  road  across  a  tract 
oflow  ground  oracross  a  ravine  or  gully.    See  Filling. 

The  oldest  embankment  in  England  is  Roman, 
that  of  Romney  Marsh.  In  the  time  of  Cromwell, 
425,000  acres  of  fen  and  morasses  were  recovered, 
1649-51. 

The  embankment  by  which  the  Nile  was  turned 
from  its  course  before  the  time  of  Abraham  is  men- 
tioned under  Dike  (which  see).  Reference  is  also 
there  made  to  some  of  the  works  of  Holland. 

The  bottom  part  of  the  embankment  of  the 
Amsterdam  and  Haarlem  Railways  through  the  low 
country  consists  of  treble  ranges  of  fascines,  tied 
down  by  longitudinal  poles  30  inches  a|iart  from 
center  to  center  and  10  inches  tliaineter,  two  double 
stakes  at  each  end  of  the  ]ioles,  and  two  ties  in  the 
intermediate  distances.  The  interstices  of  the 
fascines  and  the  space  between  the  rows  aie  filled  in 
with  sand.  The  upper  part,  forming  the  encasement 
for  the  ballast,  is  made  of  three  rows  of  treble 
fascines,  well  staked,  and  wattled  together. 

A  core  of  sand  or  clay,  faced  with  step  fascines,  is 
made  u])  to  low-water  mark.  Upon  this  a  beil  of 
rushes,  fastened  down  by  stakes  and  wattles,  is  laid  ; 
and  the  upper  portion  of  the  bank  is  faced  with 
fascines  of  a  regular  slope  of  1  to  }.  See  also  Wig- 
gin.s's  "Embankments  of  Lands  from  the  Sea" 
(Wi^ale's  series). 

Em-bat'tled.  {Forlificatimi.)  Having  a  parapet 
with  emlirasures. 

Em-bo'lus.  Something  inserted  in  another  and 
moving  therein,  as  a  wedge,  a  piston  of  a  steam- 
cylinder,  the  bucket  or  iilunger  of  a  pump. 

Em-bossed'  Pa'per.  Pajier  having  an  orna- 
mented surface  of  raised  work  ;  done  by  stamping 
or  rolling. 

Embossed  paper  or  cards  may  be  copied  in  metal 
by  taking  a  mold  in  wax,  treating  the  .surface  with 
grafihite,  and  subjecting  it  to  electro-deposition  in  a 
batli  of  solution  of  sulphate  of  copper. 

Em-bossed'  Print'ing.  Printing  in  which  the 
paper  is  forced  into  dies,  into  which  the  letters  have 


EMBOSSING. 


798 


EMBRASURE. 


been  cut  or  punched.  The  result  is  raised  letters, 
used  for  printing  for  the  blind,  and  various  kinds  of 
ornuniental  work. 

Euihossed  typography  is  also  effected  by  pressing 


Fig.  1867. 


Embossing-  Type 


the  type  into  the  paper,  raising  the  letters  or  charac- 
ter>.on  the  otlu-rside.    See  PuiNTI.NG  Fou  THi;  BLIND. 

Em-boss'ing.  Ornamenting  by  raised  work  or 
figures  in  relief. 

It  is  applied  to  many  objects. 

Stamps  or  initials  are  embossed  on  envelopes, 
paper,  cards,  etc. 

Oi'nanients  are  embossed  on  book-covere,  especially 
on  those  of  cloth. 

Leather  is  embossed  for  binding  and  many  orna- 
mental uses,  saddles,  porte-monnaies,  pocket-books, 
satcliels,  etc. 

Textile  fabrics  are  embossed  for  various  purposes. 

Glass  is  endjossed  —  so  called  —  liy  molding  with 
raised  tii^ires. 

Em-bo3s'ing-i'ron.  (Scidpl.urc.)  A  tool  for 
giving'  a  prculiar  i;rained  or  caruncular  appearance 
to  a  nmrlile  surfacf. 

Em-bos3'ing-ma-chine'.  A  machine  in  which 
a  conijircssible  material  is  placed  betwei'U  a  rolling 
or  recii>rocating  surface  and  a  bed,  the  moving  por- 
tion having  a  design  in  intaglio,  which  confers  a 
cameo  ornamentation  upon  the  object.  In  Fig.  1868 
the  roller  has  a  roughened  surface  and  is  rotated  by 
a  hand-crank.  Above  the  roller  is  a  h(dlow  press- 
block  having  a  removable  conve.\-faced  plate,  with 
ridges  for  embossing  any  substance  passed  between 
it  and  the  roller.  The  block  iS  dejtressed  by  a  piv- 
oted lever  having  an  elastic  press-band  over  the  end. 

Fig.  1868. 


The  hollow  within  the  block  serves  to  introduce  some 
substance  to  heat  the  embossing- plate. 

The  embossing-machine  for  giving  an  indented 
ornamentation  to  velvet  and  other  goods  (Fig.  1SG9) 
has  engraved  copper  rollers,  which  are  heated  by  in- 
closed red-hot  irons  when  operating  on  dampened 
goods,  as  in  giving  a  *' watered  "  surface. 

Eiu-boss'ing-press.  A  hand-stamp  or  machine 
for  giving  a  raised  surface  to  an  object  placed  be- 
tween the  descending  die  and  the  bed.  In  the  ex- 
ample, the  lever  is  raised  by  a  spring,  and  is  drivi'n 
down  by  a  blow  of  the  hand,  impressing  the  pajier 


Fig.  1869. 


Embossing-Machine. 

placed  between  the  intaglio  upper  die  and  the  cameo 
counter  die. 

Embossing-presses  of  bookbinders  are  screw,  tog- 
gle, or  lever  presses,  according  to  the  area  of  sur- 

Fig.  1870. 


Einbossin  g-  Prrss. 

face  and  character  of  material  under  treatment,  and 

other  considerations. 
Em-boss'ing  Wood.    A  piocess  of  indenting 

designs  in  wood  by  heat  and  pressure. 

The  wood  is  saturated  with  water,  and  the  cast- 
iron  mold  heated  to  redness  and  pressed  forcibly 
upon  the  wood.  The  water  preserves  the  wood  from 
ignition,  though  the  surface  is  slightly  charred.  The 
iron  is  reheated,  the  wood  re-wetted,  and  the  lu'and- 
ing-iron  again  applied.  This  is  rej)eated  until  tlie 
wood  tills  the  mold.  The  surface  is  cleansed  between 
each  operation,  and  finally  with  a  scratch-brusli,  and 
any  desired  color  may  be  retained  or  obtained  by  the 
extent  to  which  the  charcoal  and  discolored  surface 
are  removed. 

Perforated  designs  are  obtained  by  pressure  upon 
jiortions  of  the  sui'face  and  the  removal  of  a  scale 
of  mnfeiial  by  a  saw.     See  Carving. 

Em-bra'siire.  1.  {FurtificcUion.)  A  crenelle 
opening  cut  through  a  parapet  or  wall  to  fire  guns 
throngb. 

The  checks  are  the  sides. 

The  mouth  is  the  widest  or  outer  part. 

The  nech  is  the  narrow  part. 

The  sole  is  the  bottom  part. 

The  sill  is  the  front  of  the  sole. 

The  merlon  is  the  part  of  the  parapet  between  two 
cmhrnsnrcs. 

Embrasures  are  usually  perpendicular  to  the  par- 


EMBROIDERING-MACHINE. 


799 


EMERY-WHEEL. 


apet,  but  are  sometimes  inclined  thereto  so  as  to 
obtain  a  line  of  lire  in  a  particular  direction. 

2.  Tile  inward  enlargement  of  the  cheeks  or  jambs 
of  a  window  or  door. 

Em-broid'er-ing-ma-chine'.  A  form  of  sew- 
ing-machine in  which  the  cloth  is  moved  beneath 
the  reciproi-'ating  needle-bar  according  to  the  re- 
quirements of  the  tracing,  while  the  needles  and 
hooks  retain  their  respective  relative  positions  above 
and  below  the  fabric. 

Heilniann's  embroidery-machine  (MUlhausen)  has 
an  arrangement  by  which  the  needles  — 100,  more  or 
h'ss  —  are  attached  to  a  carriage  which  travels  to  and 
fro  in  front  of  a  vertical  web.  The  needles  have  an 
eye  in  the  middle  and  a  point  at  each  end.  They 
are  grasped  I)V  pincers  and  pnlled  through. 

Em-broid'er-y.  Ornamentation  by  raised  fig- 
ures of  needle-work. 

Tills  is  a  very  ancient  art. 

The  Ejyptians,  Babylonians,  Medes,  and  Persians 
all  excelled  in  it. 

The  adornments  of  the  tabernacle  in  the  wilder- 
ness were  of  ta[)estry  worked  in  blue,  scarlet,  and 
gold.  The  garment  of  Sisera,  as  referred  to  by  Debo- 
rah, was  embroidery,  "  needle-work  on  both  sides." 
See  U-VM-isK. 

Homer  refers  to  embroidery  as  the  occupation  of 
Helen  and  Andromache. 

The  tents  of  wealthy  Arabs  have  an  inner  cover- 
ing  of  white  embroidered  stuff  beneath 
the  dark,   outer,   water-proof  covering  of 
goat's-hair. 

"  The  Tartar  women  excel  in  embroid- 
ery, and  exhibit  in  this  a  skill,  taste,  and 
variety  that  is  really  admirable.  It  is 
very  doubtful  whether  it  would  be  possi- 
ble to  find,  even  in  France,  embroideries 
as  beautiful  and  perfect  as  those  some- 
times executed  by  Tartar  women."  — AbbS 
Hf(^'s  TriiccU  in  Titrlarij. 

The  tent  of  a  late  Persian  shah  was 
a  load  for  forty  camels,  and  cost  .$10,000,- 
000.  It  was  embroidered  with  gold,  stud- 
ded with  precious  stones  and  pearls  ;  the 
figures  representing  animals,  vegetables, 
and  the  works  of  men. 

The  Chinese,  at  the  present  day,  are 
skillful  and  patient  workers  at  this  aii;, 
ami  excel  in  the  disposition  of  colors. 

The  North  American  Indians  have  a 
certain  rich  and  barbaric  taste  in  the  dis- 
position of  colors  (preferably  scarlet) ;  with 
the  adilition  of  beads,  porcupine  (juills 
stained,  and  other  mere  bizarre  ornaments, 
such  as  skins,  claws,  and  feathers  of  birds, 
claws  of  bears,  ears  of  the  lynx  and  fo.x, 
tails  of  MiistelicUc,  shells,  etc. 

Embroidery  is  generally  done  in  frames, 
the  wov..'n  fabric  being  stretched  flat  and  the  needle 
passed  through  and  through. 

Em'e-Tald.  A  type,  used  in  England,  between 
nonpareil  and  minion. 

Nonpareil. 
Emerald. 
Minion. 

Em'e-riL  A  glazier's  diamond.  A  quarrel,  or 
q'l.'irri/. 

Em'e-ry.  An  amorphous,  compact,  opaque  vari- 
ety of  corundum,  consisting  chlefiy  of  indurated  alu- 
mina. It  is  extremely  hard  and  cuts  almost  all 
minerals,  and  is  extensively  used  in  cutting  and 
polishing  glass  and  other  hard  substances. 

The  emery  is  stamped  to  powder  and  sorted  into 


finenesses  by  bolting  tlirough  sieves  of  difterent  de- 
grees of  fineness.  For  delicate  purposes,  it  is  sorted 
by  elutriatiou.  It  is  made  up  into  various  forms 
with  gums,  resin,  glue,  clay,  etc.,  according  to  pur- 
pose. 

Emcry-cakcs  are  used  to  dress  the  edges  of  buffs 
and  glaze-wlieels.  They  are  formed  of  emery  melted 
with  bees-wax  and  made  into  cakes. 

Einerij-doth  is  prepared  by  brushing  the  surface 
of  thin  cotton  cloth  with  licjuid  glue,  and  sifting 
the  emery-powder  over  the  surface  wliile  still  warm. 

Eincrij-papcr  is  made  in  the  same  way  as  emery- 
cloth. 

Emery-sticks  and  rifles  are  pieces  of  wood  pre- 
pared in  the  same  manner. 

Emery-stones  are  made  or  formed  of  emery  of  the 
requisite  coarseness,  mixed  with  aliout  half  its 
weight  of  clay  and  water,  to  make  a  stifl'  paste, 
which  is  forced  into  a  metallic  mold  by  powerful 
pressure.  They  are  then  dried  in  a  mutHe.  Disks, 
laps,  and  wheels  are  thus  made. 

Other  cementing  materials  are  frequently  used  in- 
stead of  loam.  See  Gkindino  Materials;  also 
list  under  (Jkinding  and  Pulishing. 

Em'e-ry-grind'er.  An  emery-wheel  mounted  in 
a  stand,  to  be  used  as  a  grindstone.  It  may  be 
considered  as  such,  indeed,  the  mineral  corundum 
with  a  matrix  of  gum,  resin,  glue,  vulcanite,  etc. 

The  example  is  a  double  machine  having  two 

Fis  1871. 


Emery-  Grinder. 

grinding-wheels  and  rests  ;  one  wheel  being  at  one 
enil  Olid  one  at  the  other  end  of  the  mandrel,  and 
both  outside  of  the  supporting  frame.  The  faces  or 
edges  of  the  wheels  may  be  used. 

Em'e-ry-pa'per.  Paper  brushed  with  liquid 
glue  and  dusted  with  emery  of  the  required  grade 
of  fineness. 

Em'e-ry  Vul'can-lte-virheel.  A  compound  of 
emery  and  caoutiliouc,  molded  into  the  shape  of  a 
griinist  me  or  lap,  and  vulcanized. 

Em'e-ry-'wheel.  Tliis  is  a  leaden  wheel  in  which 
emery  is  imlicdded  by  jiressnre,  or  more  commonly 
a  wooden  wheel  covered  with  leather  and  with  a 
surface  of  emery.  The  wdieel  is  fastened  to  a  man- 
drel and  rotated  by  a  wheel  and  band  ;  its  principal 
use  is  in  grinding  and  polishing  metallic  articles, 


EMETIC-CUP. 


800 


ENAMELED  LEATHER. 


espeiually  cutlery.  Those  wheels  in  which  the  edges 
are  usej  are  grinders,  butt'-wheels,  cloth-wheels, 
glazers,  etc.  When  the  flat  siirl'ace  of  the  disk  is 
used,  they  nn:  known  as  laps.  The  wheels  may  have 
coarse  or  line  cutting  surfaces  for  different  descrip- 
tions of  work.  Kor  imlisliing,  flour  of  emery,  crocus, 
or  rouge  maybe  substituted.  In  nuvehine-shojis  the 
emuy-wheel  is  known  as  a  buff-wheel ;  among  cut- 
lers it  i-i  a  fiiizei: 

Sometimes  called  a  "  corundum"  wheel,  from  the 
speciHc  name  of  the  crystalline  alumina  used  thereon. 
Tne  hardest  known  substance  ne.vt  to  the  diamond. 
Em  Ty  is  a  dark,  granular  variety  ;  the  sapphire 
and  ruby  are  peculiarly  colored  varieties. 

E-met'ic-cup.  A  cup  of  metallic  antimony  in 
whicli  wine  is  left  for  ten  or  twelve  hours  to  be- 
co:u;'  emetit'. 

Em-is-sa'ri-um.     A  sluice  or  flood-gate. 

E-mol'li-o-typs.  (Pho!ojraph)j.)  A  collodio- 
chloiile  pi 'rare  ou  opal  glass. 

Em-piec'tum.  \  kind  of  masonry  having  a 
squared  ston;  f ic  ;  in  the  (Ireek  it  is  represented 
as  solid  throucjhout,  and  in  the  Koman  having  a 
filling  of  rubble. 

One  form  of  Roman  emplf.clam  has  courses  of  tiles 
at  intervals.     .See  RlAsoNitv. 

Em^press-oloti.  (Fabrie.)  A  lady's  dress-goods, 
all  wool  and  njt  twilled.  It  may  be  considered  as 
an  ei^uivalent  to  the  merino,  e.vcjpting  the  twill  of 
the  latter. 

Eu-am'el.  A  vitreois,  opaque,  colored  material, 
tract.ible  in  the  lire,  and  used  in  ornamenting  met- 
als ;    in  p  tinting  on  metals,  to  be  subsequently  fired. 

Enamehnl  bricks  of  various  colors,  blue,  red,  yel- 
low, white,  and  black,  are  abundant  in  some  of  the 
mounds  of  Bibylon  and  other  cities  in  Mesopotamia. 
—  L.VY.\:i). 

Enameled  pottery  has  also  been  recovered  at 
Thebes.  Vestiges  of  the  Roman  ocicupation  of  Brit- 
ain are  occasionally  disinterred  in  various  parts  of 
the  cojntry. 

Tlij  art  of  paiTiting  in  enamel  or  with  metalline 
colors,  and  fixing  th.nn  by  tire,  was  ]»racticed  by  the 
Egyptians  ami  Etruscans  on  pottery,  and  passed 
from  them  to  the  Gre-ks  ami  Romans.  Enaineling 
was  also  practiijed  among  the  Chinese.  Specimens 
of  enameled  work  are  yet  extant  of  early  British, 
Saxon,  and  Norman  manufacture.  An  enameled 
jewel,  made  by  order  of  Alfred  the  Gi'eat,  A.  D.  887, 
was  discovered  in  Somersetshii'e,  Kngland,  and  is 
preserved  at  Oxford.  An  enameled  gold  cup  was 
presented  by  King  .lohn  to  the  corporation  of  Lynn, 
Norfolk,  and  is  yet  preserved. 

Luca  della  Robbia,  born  about  1410,  applied  tin 
enamel  to  pottery,  and  excelleil  in  the  art. 

Bernard  Palissy,  the  Huguenot  |)otter,  bom  about 
1500,  devoted  many  years  to  the  discovery  and  aji- 
plication  of  enamels  of  various  colors  to  pottery.  He 
was  remarkably  successful  in  ti'ue  copies  of  natural 
objects.  His  method  died  with  him.  He  died  in 
1589,  in  prison,  for  conscience'  sake. 

John  Petitot,  of  Geneva  (1607  -  91 ),  is  regarded  as 
one  of  the  first  to  excel  in  portraits.  He  worked 
for  Charles  I.  of  England,  and  subse(|uently  for 
Louis  XIV.  of  France.  The  revocation  of  the  Edict 
of  Nantes  drove  him  from  France  to  the  city  of  his 
birth,  Geneva. 

Ill  1632,  Jean  Tontin,  of  Chateauduii,  introduced 
the  practice  of  grinding  the  colors  in  oil  of  spike, 
instead  of  water. 

Faience  and  nwjoliea  may  be  considered  forms  of 
the  art. 

The  enameled  portrait  of  herself,  presented  by 
Queen  Victoria  to  Mr.  Peabody,  is  fresh  in  the  rec- 


ollection of  those  who  speak  the  language  common 
to  the  donor  and  )U'esentee. 

Enamel  is  applied  to  various  kinds  of  ]iots  and 
pans  for  stewing  anil  preserving  fruits  whose  flavor 
would  be  injured  by  contact  with  iron,  and  whole- 
someness  by  being  cooked  in  l)rass  or  cojqier. 

The  ordinary  enamel  for  the  pur]iose  is  common 
glass  fused  with  oxide  of  lead.  This  will  not  lesist 
vinegar  and  some  other  acids,  and  a  dangerous 
poison  may  be  present  unsuspected  in  the  mess. 

Articles  exposed  to  the  weather  are  sometimes 
enameled  to  jireserve  them  from  rusting.  This  has 
been  done  with  plowshares,  mold-boards,  water- 
wheels. 

The  asjihaltum  varnish  which  is  burned  on  to 
some  articles  of  hardware  and  household  furnishing 
is  not  an  enamel,  but  a  bituminous  varnish.  The 
term  enamel,  as  applied  to  these,  is  therefore  a  mis- 
nomer. 

One  of  the  most  familiar  examples  of  enameling  is 
a  watch-face.  The  white  ground  of  these  is  first 
fired,  the  figures  being  added  afterwards. 

The  backs  of  gold  watches  and  numerous  aiticles 
of  jewelry  are  enameled  by  first  engraving  them  so 
as  to  make  depressions  to  hold  the  pulverized 
enamel,  which  is  burned  in,  and  the  whole  polished 
down  to  a  uniform  surface. 

Enameled  work  may  be  ground  by  the  horizontal 
la])idary  mill  or  lead-wheel,  with  emery  ;  second, 
the  same  with  rottenstone  and  water  ;  third,  pol- 
ished by  the  leather  lap  or  buff- \\  heel  with  putty 
powder. 

Or  the  process  may  be  completed  in  a  lathe,  using 
the  same  materials,  and  either  chucking  the  object 
to  be  ground  and  jiolished,  or  placing  it  on  a  man- 
drel. 

In  hand  poli.'ihing,  the  work  is  roughed  down 
with  slips  of  water-of-Ayr  stone  and  water,  followed 
by  slips  of  wood  dipped  in  powder  of  pumice-stone 
and  crocus  successively. 

En-am^eled  Board.  Card-board  treated  with  a 
surface  of  white  lead  and  size  laid  on  by  a  large,  flat 
brush  and  smoothed  by  a  round  b.ndger's-hair  lirush. 
.V  powder  of  talc  (silicate  of  magnesia)  is  rubbed 
upon  the  dried  surface  of  lead,  and  the  face  is  then 
polished  by  the  brush. 

En-am'eled  Leath'er.  A  glazed  leather  for 
lioots,  shoes,  carriage  upholstery,  and  other  pur- 
poses. 

It  is  ]ire]iared  from  hides,  which  are  split  to  the 
required  thickness,  well  tanned,  curried,  and  passed 
through  two  operations ;  the  first  to  render  the 
leather  impermeable  to  the  varnisli^  and  the  latter 
to  lay  on  the  varni.sh. 

The  hides  used  are  those  of  kip,  calf,  ox,  or  horse. 
They  are  rubbed  on  the  grain  or  flesh  side  with 
three  coatings  of  boiled  linseed  oil  mixed  with  ochre 
or  ground  chalk,  and  dried  after  each  coating.  The 
surface  is  then  jmmiccd,  treated  with  the  ,«ame 
material  of  a  thinner  quality  in  several  applica- 
tions. 

Over  the  surface  thus  prejiared  are  laid  successive 
layers  of  boiled  linseed  oil  and  of  the  oil  mixed  with 
lamp-black  and  turpentine  s]u-ead  on  with  a  brush. 
The  surface,  which  has  become  black  and  shining, 
is  then  varnished  with  copal  and  linseed  oil  with 
coloring  matters.     The  following  is  recommended. 


Boiled  linseed  oil  . 
Turpentine 
Thick  co)ial  varnish 
Asphaltnm,  or  . 
Prussian  blue,  or  . 
Ivory  black 


20  pounds, 
20       " 
10       " 

1  pound. 


ENAMELED  PHOTOGRAPH. 


801 


ENDLESS-CHAIN  PROPELLER. 


Five  coats  of  varnish  are  successively  applied,  and 
the  colors  are  varied  at  will. 

En-am'eled  Pho'to-graph.  {PhoU)grapliy.) 
Jletal  or  pottery  is  used  for  the  ground  ;  the  image 
is  deveIo])ed  by  nitrate  of  .silver  until  the  half-tints 
are  overdone  or  obscured,  and  the  deep  shades  are 
covered  with  a  tliick  deposit.  The  heat  of  the  muf- 
fle drives  off  the  organic  matters  which  formed  but 
vehicles,  and  the  fire  cleans  the  image  and  restores 
the  brilliancy  and  delicacy.  A  thin  layer  of  liux 
fi.\es  the  image.  See  Comptes  Kendus,  June  11, 
185o.      "  rhotogra)>hic  News,"  Vol.  XIV.  p.  86. 

En-ajn'eled  Ware.  The  enameling  of  hollow- 
ware  is  by  a  niLxture  of  powdered  glass,  borax,  and 
carbonate  of  soda,  mixed,  fused,  cooled,  and  ground. 
The  ware  is  cleansed  with  acid,  wetted  with  gum- 
water,  the  powder  dusted  on,  and  then  fused  by  heat 
carefully  applied. 

En-am'el-ing.  The  art  of  appl}'ing  vitrifiable 
colors  to  metal,  pottery,  or  glass. 

The  colors  are  prepared  from  the  oxides  of  dif- 
ferent metals,  melted  with  a  vitreous  Hux  and  laid 
on  with  a  fine  brush  ;  the  medium  being  oil  of  spike 
or  some  other  essential  oil.  The  work  is  heated  in 
a  muffle,  which  fuses  the  colors  so  that  they  adhere 
to  the  metal  or  other  object. 

The  princijial  colors  are  oxides  of  lead,  platinum, 
chronium,  uranium.  Oxides  of  tin  and  antimony 
give  opacity. 

The  enameller  works,  not  with  actual  colors,  but 
with  materials  which  will  assume  certain  colors 
undi-r  the  action  of  fire.     See  Enwmel. 

En-am'el-ing-fur'nace.  For  vitrifying  the 
enaui.4  coating  ou  a  plate,  glass,  or  biscuit. 

The  work  is  placed  in  a  iiiufftt\  which  consists  of 
an  aridieil  cliamb-r  in  the  midst  of  a  small  furnace, 
and  surrounded  by  fuel,  which  keeps  it  at  a  led 
heat,  although  the  fuel  cannot  touch  the  work. 

The  furnace  and  muffle  are  .sometimes  made  of 
sheet-iron  mounted  on  legs  so  as  to  bring  the  work 
to  the  level  of  the  artist's  eye. 

Ea-am'el-ing-lamp.  {Glass.)  A  glass-blower's 
lamp  witli  blow-pipe  for  performing  some  of  the 
more  deliiate  surface  ornamentation  of  glass. 

En-am'el-kiln.  (Porce'ain.)  The  enamel-kiln 
for  tiring  porcelain  which  has  been  bat-priiited,  that 
is,  priiikd  on  the  cilaz(,  is  made  of  fired-clay  slabs, 
and  is  6.J  by  SJ  feet,  and  7i  feet  high,  with  Hues 
bene.vth  and  around.  The  fireplaces  are  at  the 
sides,  and  smoke  and  flame  are  excluded  from  the 
int  'rior. 

En-am'el-paint'ing.  Vitrifiable  colors  are  laiil 
on  menl  and  tuse.l  to  it.     See  En.^.mf.l. 

En-am'el-pa'per.  Paper  with  a  glazed  metallic 
coitiu'.;. 

V'arious  metallic  pigments  are  employed,  such  as 
will  spread  smoothly  and  take  a  polish.  The  pig- 
ments are  white  lead,  oxide  of  zinc,  sulphate  of 
barytes,  china,  clay,  whiting,  chalk,  in  a  men- 
struum or  upon  a  previous  coating  of  glycerine, 
size,  collodion,  water,  varnish,  etc.  ;  afterwards 
polished  by  an  agate  or  between  calendering  or 
burnishing  cylinders. 

En-caus'tic.  A.  mode  of  painting  in  which 
the  colors  are  laid  on  or  fixed  by  heat. 

The  ancient  Greek  encaustics  were  executed 
in  wax-colors,  which  were  burned  in  by  a  hot 
iron,  and  covered  with  a  wax  or  encaustic  var- 
nish. Pictures  in  this  style  were  common  in 
Greece  and  Rome.  (See  Smith's  "Dictionary 
of  Greek  and  Roman  Antiquities.")  The  credit 
to  Gausia.s,  of  Sieyon,  3-3  B.  c,  as  the  inventor, 
is  rather  to  be  taken  as  an  indication  that  he 
was  an  improver. 

51 


Sir  Joshua  Reynolds,  in  his  attempts  to  fix  his 
colors  durably,  mixed  wax  with  them  as  a  vehicle. 
On  one  occasion  he  placed  his  painting  before  a  fire 
to  mellow  the  tints  by  warming  the  wax.  On  re- 
turning, he  fouud  the  lady's  face  had  slipped  down 
over  her  Iwsom. 

The  term  "encaustic  "  at  the  present  day  is  mostly 
confined  to  colors  burnt  in  on  vitreousorceramicware. 

By  the  ancient  method,  according  to  Pliny,  the 
colors  were  made  up  into  crayons  with  wax,  and, 
the  subject  being  traced  on  the  ground  with  a  me- 
tallic point,  the  colors  were  melted  on  the  picture  as 
they  were  used.  A  coating  of  melted  wax  was  then 
evenly  spread  over  all,  and,  when  it  was  ipiite  cold, 
was  polished. 

The  art  was  revived  by  Count  Caylus  in  1753. 
The  wood  or  canvas  is  coated  with  wax,  which  is 
warmed  at  the  fire.  The  colors  are  mixed  with  white 
wax  and  powdered  mastic,  which  are  rubbed  smooth 
with  gum-water  and  apjilied  with  a  brash.  Ihe  sur- 
face is  coated  with  w  hite  wax  and  \  olished. 

En-caus'tic-brick.  Diodoras  Siculus  relates 
that  the  bricks  of  the  walls  of  Babj'Ion,  erected 
under  the  orders  of  Semiranjis,  "liad  all  sorts  of 
living  creatures  portrayed  in  various  colois  ujou 
the  bricks  before  they  were  burnt." 

En-caus'tic-tile.  An  ornamental  tile  having 
several  colors.  A  mold  is  prepared  ■which  has  a 
raised  device  on  its  face  so  as  to  leave  an  impiession 
in  the  face  of  the  tile  cast  therein.  This  intaglio 
recess  is  then  filled  by  a  trowel  with  clay  com- 
pounds, in  the  liquid  or  slip  state,  and  which  retain 
or  acquire  the  required  colors  in  baking.  The  tile 
is  then  scraped,  smoothed,  baked,  and  glazed.  This 
tile  is  conmion  in  ancient  and  modern  .structures. 
The  glazing  came  from  the  Aiabs,  who  derived  it 
from  India,  and  primarily  from  China. 

En-ceinte'.  (Fortijicaliun.)  The  line  of  circum- 
vallation  ;  the  sjiace  inclosed  within  the  ramparts 
of  a  fortification. 

En-chased'-'work.  Chased  work  in  silver  and 
goM  .-.mitbing.      See  Chasing. 

Eu-chas'ing.  A  form  of  engraving  which  results 
in  an  oinamcntal  embossing.  It  is  partly  executed 
1  y  punching  on  the  back  and  jiartly  by  the  graver. 

Another  mode  is  by  filling  the  object  with  pitch 
or  lead,  and  then  indenting  liom  the  outside. 

The  modes  are  variously  ccmbined,  according  to 
the  object,  the  style,  and  the  material.    See  Chasikg. 

End.     1.   A  sliver  or  carding. 

2.  (JFcavhtg.)  One  of  the  woi.sted  yams  in  a 
loom  for  weaving  Brussels  carpet.  It  proceeds  from 
a  bobbin  on  the  frame  and  through  a  snjall  brass  eye 
called  a  mail,  by  which  it  is  lilted  when  its  tuni 
comes  to  be  raised  to  fomi  a  loop  in  the  pattern. 
See  Br.fssF.Ls  CAt:ri:T. 

End'less-chain  Pro-pel'ler.  One  in  which 
the  paildles  are  attached  to  a  traversing  belt  or  sets 
of  chains,  which  rolls  over  two  paiallel  wlieels. 

Fig  lf!72. 


EndUss-Chain  Propeller. 


ENDLESS-SAW. 


802 


ENGINE-LATHE. 


End'less-sa'w.  A  band-saw,  consi.sting  of  a 
stei'l  ril)liu]i  SLMiated  on  one  edge  and  passing  con- 
tinuously over  wlieels  above  and  below  the  work- 
table.  Used  for  scroll-sawing,  etc.  See  Band- 
saw. 

End'less-scre'^.  A  screw  whose  action  is  con- 
tiiuiuus,  engaging  the  teeth  of  a  wheel  which  is  re- 
volved thereby.  It  is  used  in  graduating-niachines, 
registers,  odometers,  and  in  many  other  places  whei-e 
a  means  of  slow  and  positive  rotation  to  a  wheel  is 
reipured.     A  xoorm-uilud. 

Tiiere  is  a  necessary  relation  between  the  pitch  of 
the  worms  on  the  shaft  and  of  the  teeth  on  the 
wheel,  and  a  revolution  of  the  .shaft  moves  the  wheel 
a  distance  of  one  tooth.  Hy  an  imlex  arrangement 
on  the  sh.ift  to  enalile  it  to  be  turned  a  certain  portion 
of  a  revolution,  say  through  6°,  and  having,  say, 
sixty  teeth  in  the  wheel,  the  latter  may  be  turned 
^n^  of  a  revolution  at  a  time,  a  distance  inappreci- 
able to  the  eye.     This  is  the  microineter-screto.     See 

MlCKOMKTER. 


Fig.  lS7a 


t.nilhss- Screw. 

En-dos-mom'e- 
ter.  .\n  instrument 
invented  by  M.  Du- 
troohet  to  measure 
the  rapidity  of  endos- 
motic  action  ;  that  is, 
the  passage  of  a  less 
dense  Huid  through  a 
membrane  which  separates  it  from  a  denser  fluid. 
The  cxosmose,  or  passage  of  the  denser  fluid  in  the 
opposite  direction,  is  slower. 

A  simple  form  of  the  instrument  is  a  tnimpet- 
shaped  tube  with  a  membrane  covering  its  bell 
mouth.  The  tube  is  tilled  with  a  solution  of  a  given 
density  and  plunged  in  a  solution  of  lesser  or  greater 
density  to  ascertain  by  successive  trials  the  relative 


Endosmometer. 


rapidity  of  the  endosmotic  or  e-KOsmotic  actions,  or 
the  action  of  different  liuids. 

End-shake.  A  certain  freedom  of  endwise  mo- 
tion of  a  s[tiiidle  or  arbor,  which  has  bearings  at  each 
end,  so  that  the  shoulders  of  the  gudgeons  or  pivots 
(as  in  a  watch)  shall  not  bear  against  the  journal- 
boxes  or  (dates. 

End-stone.  One  of  the  plates  of  a  watch-jewel 
against  wliirli  the  pivot  abuts.     See  Jewel. 

En'e-tna-chair.  One  specially  constructed  for 
the  adiiiinistration  of  clysters  to  the  helpless  and 
intirm. 

En'e-ma-syr'inge.  A  syringe  for  injection  per 
am.     See  1n-je(tiun-.syringe. 

En-er'gi-o-type.  (Pholvrjraphtj.)  Mr.  Hunt's 
process,  called  so  liy  him  from  a  supposed  influence 
which  he  called  energia,  as  distinct  from  light  (visi- 
ble). 

En'field  Ri'fle.  The  British  infantry  service- 
arm  prior  to  the  introduction  of  the  breech-loading 
system.  It  was  first  extensively  introduced  in  1S53, 
just  prior  to  the  Crimean  War.  It  has  three  shallow 
grooves,  which  make  one  turn  in  6  feet  6  inches,  the 
length  of  the  barrel  being  3  feet  3  inches,  and  the 
diameter  of  the  bore  .577  of  an  inch.  In  construc- 
tion and  general  appearance  it  very  closely  resembles 
the  Springfield  rifle  musket  (caliber  .58  of  an  inch) 
of  the  United  States  service,  with  the  exception 
that  in  the  Enfield  the  barrel  and  other  visilile  me- 
tallic parts  are  blued,  while  in  the  latter  they  are 
left  bright.  Large  numbers  of  these  rifles  have  of 
late  years  been  converted  into  breech-loaders  on  the 
Snider  principle.  To  these  the  term  "  Snider  En- 
fielil  "  is  applied.     See  Fiue-arm. 

En'fil-ade.  (Fortification.)  The  act  of  obtain- 
ing a  tire  on  a  work  in  the  direction  of  one  of  its 
faces. 

En'gine.  A  machine  which  acts  automatically, 
both  as  to  power  and  operation. 

Distinct  from  a  machine  in  its  ordinary  accepta- 
tion, whose  motor  is  distinct  from  the  operator,  and 
a  tool,  which  is  propelled  and  operated  by  one 
person. 

En'gine-fvir'nace.  A  furnace  appertaining  to  a 
steam -eULdne  boiler. 

En'gine-latlie.  A  lathe  of  the  larger  kind,  hav- 
ing a  capacity  for  all  the  principal  turning  work  of 
a  machine-shop.  That  shown  in  Fig.  1875  has  screw 
gearing,  center  and  follow  rests,  and  face-plates.  On 
the  floor  are  shown  the  overhead  counter-shaft  and 
cone-jjulley,  a  pile  of  change-wheels,  and  a  face-plate. 


Fig.  1875. 


Engine-  Lathe. 


ENGINE-SIZED. 


803 


ENGRAVING. 


En'gine-sized.  Paper  sized  by  a  machine,  and 
not  wliile  in  tlie  jnilp,  in  a  tub. 

En'gine-turn'mg.  A  system  of  ornamented  turn- 
in"  done  in  a  rose-engine  lathe,  and  commonly  seen 
on  the  outside  of  watch-eases. 

En'gi-scope.  A  reflecting  microscope,  invented 
by  .\mici,  in  which  the  image  is  viewed  at  a  side 
aperture  in  the  tube,  in  a  manner  similar  to  the 
Newtonian  telescope. 

Bng'Ush.  (Printing.)  A  size  of  type  between 
Great  Friiner  and  Fica. 

Great  Primer,   51    ems 

to  a  foot. 

English,  64  ems  to  a  foot. 
Pica,  71  ems  to  a  foot. 

En-grav'ing.  Engraving  is  very  ancient.  The 
oldest  records  are  cut  in  stone,  some  in  relief,  some 
in  intaglio.  The  hieroglyphics  of  Egypt  are  cut  in 
the  granite  monoliths,  and  on  the  walls  of  the  tombs 
and  chambers. 

1  n  E.xodus  xxviii.  we  read  that  two  onyx  stones 
were  to  be  engraved  like  a  signet  with  the  names  of 
the  tribes,  1491  E.  c.  The  two  kinds  of  stones  of 
the  high-priest's  breastplate  were  engraved  with  the 
names  of  the  tribes  of  Israel.  Seals  and  signet-rings 
with  the  cartouches  of  the  Pharaohs  are  in  many 
museums  ;  those  of  London,  Berlin,  Paris,  and  the 
New  York  Historical  Society,  for  instance. 

The  '*  graWng  \vith  an  iron  pen  and  lead,"  referred 
to  by  Job  (chap.  xix. ),  consisted  probably  of  an  etch- 
ing or  scratching  process,  that  of  a  sharp  stylus  upon 
a  piece  of  sheet -lead  ;  Hesiod's  poems  were  thus  pre- 
served. The  date  is  not  quite  determined  at  which 
this  jiatriarch  of  T^z  lived  ;  but  assuming  him  to  be 
coeval  with  Moses,  we  Hnd  quite  an  advanced  state 
of  tile  art  in  the  time  and  country  of  the  latter. 
Jloses  was  learned  in  all  the  wisdom  of  the  Egyptians, 
and  when  the  Israelites  went  out  of  Egypt  there 
were  a  immVier  of  skillful  workmen  able  and  willing 
to  eiignive  on  precious  stones  and  on  metals. 

The  tools,  weapons,  and  ornaments  of  the  ancient 
Egyptians  are  in  some  cases  elaborately  engraved. 
Chasing  and  carving,  which  are  kindred  arts,  flour- 
ished in  the  kingdom  watered  by  the  Nile. 

Layard  and  his  friends  disinterred  from  the  mounds 
of  Nimroud,  and  at  other  places,  many  specimens  of 
the  graver's  art ;  copper  vessels,  beautifully  engraved, 
were  among  the  number. 

Carving  in  stone  is  closely  allied  to  the  above,  and 
may  be  lie  termed  engraving  in  stone.  Egypt  is  one 
triumiihant  vindication  of  the  skill  and  industry  of 
that  nation  in  this  particular.  The  warlike  Osy- 
mandyas,  nearly  200  years  before  .\braham,  perpetu- 
ated upon  granite  the  memory  of  his  exploits,  which 
reached  as  far  as  and  included  Bactria. 

The  temples,  tombs,  and  obelisks  of  Eg)-pt,  the 
sculptured  palaces  of  Nineveh,  and  the  gorgeous 
rilievos  of  Persepolis,  attest  the  .skill  and  fancy  of 
the  artists  of  the  times 

"  Ere  Romulus  and  Remus." 

From  Egypt  or  Phcenicia  the  Greeks  received  the 
art  of  engraving,  where  it  had  considerably  advanced 
in  the  time  of  Homer.  Among  other  uses  which  are 
allied  to  chasing  and  inlaying,  it  was  employed  in 
delineating  maps  on  metallic  plates.  Specimens  of 
Etrurian  art  are  also  of  great  antiquity.and  we  pru- 
dently do  not  enter  the  arena  to  settle  the  questions 


of  precedence  so  lately  revived  by  the  wonderful  dis- 
coveries of  General  Di  Cesnola,  in  Cyprus. 

In  the  temple  of  Jupiter  Capitolinus  were  stored 
3,000  brass  plates  on  which  the  laws  of  Rome  were 
engraved.  The  ancient  engi'aving  was  much  of  it 
complete  enough  for  printing,  but  was  generally  in- 
tended for  impressions  in  plastic  material,  clay,  wax, 
and  what  not.  (See  Sk.^l.  )  It  is,  however,  believed 
that  parchment,  Unen,  silk,  and  papynis  were  some- 
times impressed  by  the  surface  of  the  seal,  previously 
blackened  by  ink  or  pigment. 

Other  than  this,  the  hrst  we  know  of  engraving  as 
a  means  of  delivering  an  impression  in  ink  or  color 
was  among  the  Chinese.     See  Puinting. 

The  art  of  engraving  is  fairly  referable  to  three 
divisions  :  cluilcographij,  or  plate-engiaving  ;  xylog- 
rapky,  or  wood-engiaving  ;  lilhotjrnphj/,  or  stone-en- 
graving :  the  name.-,  being  derived  from  the  Greek 
words  chalcos,  xylon,  li/lws,  respectively,  and  the  ter- 
minal grnpliein,  I  write. 

Engraving  on  riicltd  originated  with  chasers  and 
inlayers.  This  art  is  very  ancient,  but  does  not 
seem  to  have  suggested  the  sister  ait  of  printing 
from  the  plates  thus  engraved.  It  appears  singular 
that  it  did  not,  for  a  common  mode  of  examining 
a  piece  of  engi'aved  work  is  to  fill  the  engraved  lines 
with  a  dark  hquid,  —  the  dirty  oil.  for  iu.stance,  of  the 
polishing  rag,  —  so  as  to  make  visible  tlie  lines  and 
tlie  effect  produced.  A  jiiece  of  soft  pa]'er  laid  on 
this  would  obtain  an  impression,  impeifect,  it  is  true, 
but  apparently  sufficient  to  have  suggested  the  art 
of  copperplate  printing.  In  taking  a  cast  in  sulphur 
of  .some  engraved  church  ornaments,  it  is  stated  that 
a  Florentine  arlist  named  Finiguerra,  about  1440,  was 
led  at  length  to  the  discovery  of  the  value  of  plate-en- 
graving as  a  means  of  printing.  Some  dust  and  char- 
coalwhichhadgatheredinthelines  came  out  ujion  the 
sulphur  and  gave  an  unexpected  and  suggestive  effect. 

Vasari  records  a  similar  mode  of  taking  impres.-ions 
in  work,  and  states  that  "from  these  engravings 
the  artists  were  in  the  habit  of  taking  impressions 
by  smoking  them,  and  then,  after  cleaning  the  sur- 
face with  oil,  impressing  upon  the  work  a  damp 
paper."  The  collections  of  irajuvs.sions  of  these  plates 
in  the  Florentine  and  oilier  museums  show  that, 
previous  to  the  time  of  Finiguerra,  they  are  but 
proofs  of  inlayer's  work,  and  that  they  were  not 
made  with  a  view  to  furnishing  juints  ;  the  figures 
have  their  swords,  pens,  etc.,  in  tlieir  left  hands  in 
the  impressions,  instead  of  the  right. 

Had  they  been  engraved  for  the  purpose  of  print- 
ing, the  figures  would  have  been  reversed  on  the 
plate,  so  as  to  print  right. 

Euclid  was  printed  with  diagrams  on  copper  in 
14S2.  The  coppei-plate  roller-press  was  invented 
in  154.5.  Etching  on  copper  by  means  of  aqua-fortis 
invented  by  F.  Jlazzuoli  or  Pamiegiano,  A.  D.  1532. 
ilezzotinto  engraving  invented  by  De  Siegen,  1643  ; 
improved  by  Prince  Rupert,  1648  ;  and  by  Sir  Chris- 
topher Wren,  1662. 

"Mr.  Evelyn  .showed  me  most  excellent  painting 
in  little  [miniature]  ;  in  distemper,  in  Indian  incke, 
water-colours  :  graveing  ;  and,  above  all,  the  whole 
secret  of  mezzo-tinto,  and  the  manner  of  it,  which  is 
very  pretty,and  good  things  donewith  it." —  Pepys's 
Diary,  Nov.  1,  1665. 

At  Gresham  College,  the  Royal  Society  meeting, 
Mr.  Hooke  explained  to  Mr.  Pe]iys  "the  art  of  draw- 
ing pictures  by  Prince  Rnjiert's  rule  and  machine 
and  another  of  Dr.  Wren's  [Sir  Christopher]  :  but  he 
[Dr.  Hooke]  says  nothing  do  like  squares,  or,  which 
is  best  in  the  world,  like  a  dark  room." —  Pepys, 
Feb.  21,  1666. 

These   devices  are  apparently  for  copying ;   the 


ENGRAVING. 


804 


ENGRAVING-MACHINE. 


former  is  probahly  on  the  i)rinciple  of  the  pantograph  ; 
the  sijuares  is  a  familiar  mode  of  reducing  or  enlarg- 
ing by  ruling  off  into  ecjual  inimbers  of  squares  the 
original  and  the  paper  on  which  it  is  copied.  The 
d'lrk  room  is  probably  the  oimcra-obscura,  in  the 
simple  form  of  a  hole  in  a  shutter  of  a  darkened 
apartment. 

"  '.'oL-ker  [the  fmious  arithmetician] .says,  that  the 
best  light  for  his  life  to  see  a  very  small  thing  by, 
contrary  to  Chaucer's  words  to  the  .Sun,  that  he 
*  ShouU  lend  his  light  to  them  that  small  fteals  grave,' 

it  should  be  by  an  artificial  light  of  a  candle,  .set  to 
advantage  as  he  could  do  it." — Pepys's  Diary, 
Aug.  8,  1664. 

"Come  Mr.  Cocker,  and  brought  me  a  globe  of 
glas.se,  and  a  frame  of  oyled  paper,  as  I  desired,  to 
show  me  the  manner  of  his  gaining  light  to  grave 
by,  and  to  lessen  the  glaringness  of  it  at  pleasure, 
by  nn  oyled  paper.  This  I  bouglit  of  him,  giveing 
him  a  crowne  for  it  ;  and  so,  well  satistied,  he  went 
away."  —  Ibid.,  Oct.  5,  1664. 

A(piatint  engraving  invented  by  St.  Non  of 
France,  1662.  Engraving  in  steel  introduced  into 
England  by  Perkins  of  Philadelphia,  1819. 

The  earliest  application  of  the  wood-engraver's 
art  in  Europe  was  in  cutting  blocks  tor  playing- 
cards.  The  French  writers  ascribe  it  to  the  time  of 
Charle.s  V.,  but  the  Germans  show  cards  of  the  date 
1300.  The  Italians  again  claim  that  it  originated 
in  R.ivenna,  about  1285.  An  Italian  pamphlet  of  the 
year  1299  speaks  of  cards  as  a  gambling  game,  but 
tliese  may  have  been  drawn  by  the  pen  and  colored 
by  hand.  In  the  year  1441  the  Venetian  government 
forbade  the  importation  of  stamped  playing-cards  as 
being  injurious  to  their  handicraft  manufacture, 
Ugo  di  Carpi  introduced  the  method  of  piinting  in 
coloi's  or  tints  by  separate  successive  blocks.  En- 
graving on  wood  assumed  the  character  of  an  art 
about  1440  ;  the  first  impression,  1423.  Improved 
by  Durer,  1471  -1528  ;  by  Bewick,  1789. 

Enqravinj  on  done.  Work  done  upon  a  litho- 
graphic stone  by  etching-point,  diamond,  or  ruling- 
micluiie:  the  .stylus  of  the  latter  is  a  diamond. 

There  are  two  modes,  the  first  of  which  is  the  more 
usual  :  1.  The  stone  is  covered  with  a  gum  and 
acid  ink-resisting  compound,  dried,  and  the  design 
scratched  through  this  ground  to  such  a  depth  merely 
as  to  expo.se  the  clean  stone.  The  stone  is  then  oiled, 
the  engraved  portions  alone  absorbing  the  oil  :  it  is 
afterwards  washed,  rolled  up,  and  printed.  Printing 
is,  however,  usually  done  from  transfers  from  the 
engraved  stones. 

2.  The  stone  is  etched  through  a  ground  of  as- 
phiUum;  arid  is  applied  to  deepen  the  lines.  These 
are  inked  ;  the  face  cleaned  off,  gummed,  and  etched, 
the  stone  rolled  up  and  printed. 

Engraving  is  in  many  styles,  and  these  are  briefly 
considered  under  their  respective  heads,  as  fol- 
lows :  — 


Anaglyph  togra])h. 

Anastatic  engraving. . 

Aquatint. 

Autopyrograph. 

Banking. 

Hite-in. 

Bridge. 

Burin. 

Burnisher. 

Cameo. 

Celature. 

Chalcography. 

Chalk-engraving. 

Chasing. 


Chemitype. 

Clamniing-machine. 

Copperplate  engraving. 

Counter-proof. 

Cradle. 

Cycloidal-engine. 

Dabber. 

Daguen'eotype  etching. 

Diamond-point. 

Die. 

Dotting. 

Draw-point. 

Drive. 

Dry-point. 


Eccentric-engine. 
Ectypography. 
Electro-engraving. 
Electro-etching. 
Electro-tint. 
Engi'aving. 
Engraving-machine. 
Engraving.     Photo- 
Etching. 
Etching-ground. 
Etching  on  glass. 
Etching-point. 
Finishing. 
Galvanograph. 
Gem-eng7aving. 
Glass-engraving. 
Graver. 
Ground. 
Grounding-tool. 
Intaglio. 
Line-engraving. 
Lithography. 
Lithotint. 
Lozenge-graver. 
Medallic-engraving. 
Mezzotint-engravincf. 
Niello. 


Pu-sse-paitout. 
Photogra]ihic-engraving. 
Photograph-plate  engrav- 
ing. 
Proof. 
Rebiting. 
Re-entering. 
Relief-line  engraving. 
Reversing. 
Rocker. 
Rocking. 
Roulette. 
Round-point. 
Rubber. 

Ruling-machine. 
Scraper. 
Seal-engraving. 
Small  chisel. 
Steel-plate  engraving. 
Stipple. 
St0]iping. 
Tint-tool. 
Transferring. 
Transferring-machine. 
Wood-engraving. 
Xylography. 
Zincography. 


En-grav'ing-ma-chine'.  1 .  A  machine  in  which 
an  intaglio  impression  is  delivered  upon  a  plate  or 
cylinder  for  bank-note  printing,  or  calico-printing, 
by  the  rotation  nnder  contact  with  the  said  object 
of  a  hardened  steel  roller  (mill)  bearing  the  design 
in  cameo. 

This  system  was  invented  by  Jacob  Perkins,  and 
was  first  adopted  in  bank-note  engraving.  (See 
Tkansfeurixg-machine.)  The  process  for  obtain- 
ing in  the  design  in  cameo  on  the  mill,  by  rotation  in 
contact  with  an  intaglio  die,  is  efiected  in  a  transfer 
press.     See  also  Ci.amming-machine. 

A  pantograph  is  used  in  etching  a  reduced  copy  of 
a  pattern  on  to  the  copper  cylinder  for  calico-printing. 
Eccenlric-engraviiig,  for  a  certain  cla.ss  of  patterns 
in  calico-printing,  is  performed  by  a  diamond  etch- 
ing-point on  the  varnished  roller.  The  poinfs  are 
moved  by  elaborate  machinery,  and  the  efieet  is 
analogous  to  that  of  the  eccentric  and  rose-emjine 
lathes. 

2.  An  apparatus  on  the  principle  of  the  panto- 
graph, but  provided  with  a  cutting  device  and  ma- 
chinery for  causing  pressure  upon  the  surface  to  be 
engi'aved,  so  as  to  pioduce  lines  similar  to  tliose 
made  by  hand  with  the  giaver. 

(.'ollas  (English  patent)  engraving-machine,  18.30. 
Electro-magnetic  engiaving-machine  used  in  Ger- 
many, 1854  ;  in  America,  1858. 

Guerrant  and  Field's  engraving-machine  was  pat- 
ented in  1867,  and  was  in  operation  in  New  York 
City  during  the  year  1868.  To  engrave  by  means 
of  this  machine  the  operator  sits  with  a  cojiy  of  the 
drawing,  photogi'a])h,  or  whatever  design  is  to  be 
engj'aved,  directly  in  front  of  hiin.  A  small  pointer 
rests  upon  the  drawing,  and  the  whole  o]ieration 
consists  in  moving  the  [>ointer  over  the  several  lines 
of  the  copy.  The  pointer  is  operated  by  two  small 
cranks,  one  of  which  produces  a  vei'tical  and  the 
other  a  lateral  movement  ;  the  .simultaneous  opeia- 
tion  of  both  cranks  producing  a  circular,  inclined, 
or  any  desireil  irregular  motion  of  the  pointer, 
which  is  thus  made  to  "follow  copy."  All  the 
movements  of  the  pointer  are  imparted,  by  means  of 
a  simple  arrangement  of  levers,  to  a  graver,  which 
cuts  or  engraves  the  design  upon  the  surface  of  a 
copper  plate  or  block. 


ENLARGING-HAMMER. 


805 


ENVELOPE-MACHINE. 


At  the  Paris  Exiwsition  of  186S,  an  apparatus 
was  exliibited  by  M.  Gaitfe,  of  Paris,  for  engraving 
by  electro-magnetism.  It  consists  of  two  or  more 
disks  having  tiieir  faces  in  tlie  same  vertical  and 
their  axes  in  the  same  liorizont;il  plane.  Thi;  graving 
tools  are  provided  with  diamond  points,  and  are 
connected  with  the  armature  of  an  electro-magnet, 
and  with  a  tracing-point  in  contact  with  the  pattern- 
plate.  The  tra(;ing-point  and  graver  are  caused  to 
approach  the  centers  of  their  resjiective  plates 
by  a  gradual  and  uniform  motion,  forming  a  spiral 
of  extremely  close  involutions.  A  design  is  drawn 
on  the  pattern-plate  in  a  non-conducting  ink,  and  as 
the  plates  revolve  together  whenever  the  tracer 
crosses  one  of  the  lines  of  the  pattern  the  circuit  is 
broken,  and  tlie  graver  takes  the  metal  of  the  plate 
to  be  engraved  :  when  the  tracer,  on  the  contrary, 
is  in  immediate  contact  with  the  metal  of  the  pat- 
tern, the  graver  is  withdrawn  from  the  plat«  to  be 
engraved. 

When  the  tracer  has  thus  passed  over  all  parts  of 
the  pattern-plate  from  the  circumference  to  the 
center,  a  fae-siniile  of  the  pattern  will  have  been 
engraved,  in  which,  however,  all  the  lines  of  the 
original  will  be  represented  by  a  s  -ries  of  dots.  The 
pattern  ra  ly  be  reduced  or  enlarged  by  the  applica- 
tion of  the  pautograpliic  principle;  and  by  the  use 
of  a  series  of  gravers  arranged  on  a  pivoted  bar  at 
various  distances  from  its  center  of  motion,  several 
copies  may  be  made  at  the  same  time  on  scales  pro- 
jiortioned  to  the  distance  of  the  gravers  from  this 
cenier. 

Ea-larg'ing-ham'mer.  The  gold-beater's  ham- 
mer, liy  which  he  reiluces  the  package  of  qimrticrs 
or  goki-plate.  Fifty-six  of  the  qiiarlicrs  form  a 
package  {canchcr),  and  are  interleaved  with  vellum. 
The  hammer  weighs  fourteen  or  tifteen  pounds,  and 
is  shaped  like  a  truncated  hexagonal  pyramid,  6 
inches  high.  Its  face  is  very  slightly  convex,  and 
5  in  dies  diameter. 

En-le-vage'-style.  A  mode  of  C.4.lico-printin& 
(which  sec). 

B-uor'tho-trope.  A  toy  on  the  principle  of  the 
tJariiin  dr<ip\^  the  di'obo^cope,  and  pIioiccK'istascope, 
which  depend  for  th'ir  action  upon  the  persistence, 
of  visual  impre-isions.  Upon  dilfercmt  parts  of  a 
card  are  detaidled  parts  of  a  given  figure,  and  when 
the  card  is  rotated  these  become  assembled  and  give 
a  cotnbincd  impression  to  the  eye. 

Su-rock'ment.  Stone  pitched  on  to  the  sea- 
face  nf  a  breakwater  or  dike,  or  a  shore  subject  to 
encrniichm'nt  liy  the  waves  or  stream. 

En-tab'la-ture.  1.  {Arr.Mtecture.)  That  por- 
tion of  a  classical  structure  which  rests  on  the  col- 
umns ;  it  consists  of  an  architrave,  frieze,  and  cor- 
nice. 

An  attic  or  blocking-course  is  sometimes  added. 

Those  members  of  a  portico  which  were  construct- 
ed upon  the  columns,  consisted  of  tlie  epistylium, 
zophorus,  and  corona. 

2.  (Machinerfi.)  k  strong  iron  frame  supporting 
the  paddle-shaft.  It  nsnally  receives  additional 
stiffness  from  being  confined  between  two  beams  of 
ti.nlier,  called  the  enhfbfatarc  or  enijine-bcanifi. 

Ea'ta-sis.  The  swell  of  the  shaft  or  columns  of 
either  of  the  orders  of  architecture. 

Eu'ter-ing-chis'el.  A  spoon-chisel  ;  used  by 
sc  ilptors. 

En'ter-ing-file.  A  narrow,  flat  file,  with  con- 
si  lerable  taper,  to  enable  it  to  enter  and  open  a 
groove,  which  may  be  finished  by  a  coUcr-fAe,  for 
instance. 

En'ter-ing-port.  {Shiphdldinri.)  A  port  cut 
in  the  side  of  a  vessel  to  serve  as  a  door  of  entrance. 


En-ter'o-tome.  An  instrument  for  opening  the 
intestinal  canal  through  its  whole  extent.  It  con- 
sists of  a  pair  of  scissoi's,  one  blade  of  which  is  made 
longer  than  the  other,  and  rounded  at  its  extremity. 
This  is  pissed  into  the  intestine. 

En-to-mom'e-ter.  An  instrument  for  measur- 
ing the  parts  ot  insects. 

En'trail-clean'ing  Ma-chine'.  A  machine  for 
cleaning   guts 

for    sausage  Fig.  1876. 

holders         or 
strings. 

Two  rollers, 
revolving  in 
opposite  direc- 
tions and 
armed  with 
scj'apingedges, 
are  snrmonnt- 
ed  by  elastic 
feed  rollers, 
and  provided 
each  with  an 
a  dj  u  s  ta  ble 
curved  surface 
for  pressing 
tlie  entrails 
against  the 
scrapingedges. 

En'tre-soL 
(Archiieciare.) 
A  low  story  or 
jiart  of  a  story 
in  a  building, 
between  two 
li  igher  ones. 
Iiilcrsol. 

En-tro'pi-um  For'ceps.  Forceps  for  grasping 
and  returning  to  the  natural  position  the  eyelid,  in 

Fig  187". 


Ijij^^^a^' 


I  f 


Entrail-CUaner. 


Dr.  ProuCs  Entropiujn  Forceps. 

which,  by  inversion,  the  eyelashes  have  become 
turned  inwardly. 

Eu've-lope.  1.  A  paper  case  to  contain  a  folded 
letter. 

2.  (Fortificnlion.)  The  exterior  line  of  works  sur- 
rounding a  fort  or  fortified  position. 

The  besiegeil  are  said  to  Ije  enveloped  when  com- 
pletely surrounded  by  the  works  of  the  besiegei's. 

En've-lope-ma-chine'.  The  manufactuie  of 
envelopes  is  said  to  have  been  introduced  by  an  Eng- 
lish stationer  named  Brewer,  some  fifty  years  ago. 
He  cut  them  from  the  sheet  with  the  aid  of  metallic 
formere,  and  folded  and  gmnnied  them  by  hand 
with  the  brush,  in  the  manner  generally  practiced 
until  a  comparatively  recent  period. 

.\n  envelo]ie-machine  was  invented  as  far  back  as 
1840,  but  De  la  Rue's,  184.'),  appears  to  have  been 
the  first  which  achieved  any  notoriety. 

Envelope-machines,  so  called,  generally  comprise 
only  provisions  for  folding  and  gumming  the  enve- 
lo]ie  after  it  has  been  cut  to  the  proper  form. 

The  English  envelope-machine,  invented  by  Hill 
and  De  la  Rue,  operates  ujion  diamond-shaped  pieces 
of  paper,  which  are  successively  placed  on  the  plat- 
form.     A  plunger  descends  and  forces  the  central 


EOLIAK. 


806 


EPICYCLOIDAL  WHEEL. 


part  of  the  paper  into  an  oblong  fiuadrangular  cavity  ; 
till!  lour  corners  stand  erect  and  are  successively 
Hatteiied  by  lour  lingers.  When  the  folding  is  coni- 
ji'.eted,  two  india-rubber  fingers  lightly  touch  the 
envelope  and  draw  it  aside  to  make  room  for  another. 
T liese  lingers  are  small  metallic  cylinders  with  tips 
of  iudia-rubber,  which  adhere  sufficiently  to  the 
pap(>r  to  i-etract  it  from  its  place  in  the  machine 
and  make  room  for  another.  The  gum  is  spread  over 
an  luidless  apron  or  blanket,  and  an  artificial  arm 
takes  a  sujiply  and  applies  it  to  the  envelope  in  its 
projier  ])lace,  just  before  the  Hap  is  folded  down. 
As  fa  4  as  the  envelopes  are  nride  they  are  automati- 
cally ranged  on  an  inclined  plane  and  slide  into  a 
box.     The  machine  (1853)  made  si.xty  a  ndnute. 

M.  Remond's  envelope-machine  feeils  the  blanks 
by  means  of  a  pneumatic  apparatus  known  as  an 
as])irator,  consisting  of  a  hollow  tube  which  is  thrust 
forward  and  n'Sts  on  the  upper  blank  ;  the  air  is 
exh  lusted  from  the  tube  by  an  air-pump,  and  the 
blank  becomes  attached  thereto  by  atmosphi'ric 
pressure.  The  tube  is  then  withdrawn,  removing 
the  blank,  which  is  dropped  at  the  reipiired  place, 
by  the  relaxation  of  the  atmospheric  tension. 

The  machiue  of  llobineau  and  Roumestant,  exhib- 
ited at  the  Paris  Exposi- 


Fig.  1873. 


Keatin^'S  Envelope-Machine, 


tion  of  1867,  also  lifts 
the  blanks  singly  by  at- 
mosphei'ic  pressure,  and 
folds  them  and  gums 
them  by  a  series  of  op- 
erations similar  to  those 
of  Remond's  machine. 

In  another  machine, 
the  paper  is  fed  in  a  con- 
tinuous strip  of  a  given 
width  foracertain  size  en- 
velope First  are  made 
transveree  incisions, 
which  answer  for  a  por- 
tion of  the  division  be- 
tween the  adjacent  en- 
velopes ;  the  rectangular 
crease  is  made  determin- 
ing the  size  of  the  enve- 
lope, slits  made  from  the 
corners  of  the  latter  to 
the  edges  of  the  paper  ; 
the  included  Haps  are 
folded  over  and  paste 
U  applied  ;  the  superfluous 
edge  strip  is  cut  off,  and 
the  angular  division  is 
made  between  the  adja- 
cent envelopes  ;  the  en- 
velope is  bent  on  the 
folding-line  and  passed 
between  rollers,  to  bo 
afterwards     di'ied      and 


have  its  flap  gummed. 

In  Keating's  machine,  the  paper  blanks  are  placed 
on  a  reciprocating  feeder-plate  0  and  carried  forward 
under  the  pttlnger  S  by  small  hooks  or  projections. 
The  plunger  descends,  doubles  the  blanks  by  their 
contact  with  the  creasing-roUers,  and  leaves  the 
blank  on  a  Hat  hinged  bed,  where  the  flap-folders 
are  actuated  to  fold  consecutively.  The  auxiliary 
presser  s'  operates  upon  the  gunmied  portion,  start- 
ing directly  after  the  gum-flap  folder,  which  is  cut 
away  to  allow  its  passage,  and  rises  a  little  in  advance 
of  it.  The  counting  apparatus  is  a  ratchet  and  pawl 
amugeuient. 

E-o'li-an.  1 .  A  fi'ame  with  catgut  strings  which 
are  vibrated  by  the  wind.     See  jEoLlAN. 


2.  An  colian-aUachmcnl  to  a  piano-forte  is  a  sup- 
Jjlementary  arrangement  of  a  bellows  and  set  of  reeds 
which  ar.-  called  into  action  at  the  discretion  of  the 
performer. 

E-o'li-pile.  The  rotary  steam-engine  of  Hero. 
See  .EoLii'ii.E. 

E-paule'.  (Fortification.)  The  shoulder  of  a 
bastion  ;  tlii'  salient  angle  formed  by  the  faceand  Hank. 

E-paiile'meut.  (Furlifiatlion.)  A  species  of 
breastwork  formed  to  defend  the  flank  of  a  post  or 
any  other  place. 

A  work  thrown  up  to  defend  troops  from  an  attack- 
ing force  ;  usually  shoulder-high,  hence  the  name 
epaulement. 

E-pergne'.  An  ornamental  stand  for  a  huge 
dish  un  a  talilc. 

.  Ep'i-cy'clic  Train.  (Gearing.)  An  eiiicyidic 
train  is  one  in  which  the  axes  of  the  whee's  revolve 
around  a  common  center.  They  are  used  for  various 
jiurposes.    Several  are  shown  under  the  heads  Eyr.\- 

TION.VL  Box  ;  SVX  AND  I'L.iNET  MuTloX  ;  PaUALLKL 

MoTioM  ;  Eprycloidal  Wheel,  etc. 

Their  forms  are  numerous,  curious,  and  ingenious. 
(Seepage  I'ifl,  Brown's  "Five  Hundred  and  Seven 
Jlechanical  Movements.")  Quite  a  number  of  ai>pli- 
cations  of  the  device  have  been  made  to  harvesting- 
machines,  in  transmitting  the  motion  of  the  driving- 
wheel  axle  to  the  cutter-bar. 

a  b  c  d  are  forms  of  epicyclic  gearing. 

The  epicyclic  train  b  has  some  features  in  common 
with  Houldsworth's  cquational-box  for  legulating 
the  relative  speeds  of  the  spindle  with  its  flyer,  and 
the  bobbin,  in  the  roving- frame. 

If  motion  be  imjiarted  at  the  same  speed  and  in 
the  same  direction  to  the  loose -wheels  D  C,  the  ef- 
I'cctistoi'cvolve 

£    around    the  , Fig- 1879. 

shaft  .-i  without 
rotating   £   on 
its  axis   F  G  ; 
they   all    move 
together    as    if 
pinned   fast  in 
a  cluster. 
,    If  motion  be 
imparted  to  the 
loose  wheels  D 
C  at  the  same/ 
speed  in  oppo- 
site  directions,  \^ 
the  effect  is  to  % 
rotate  the  wheel 
B  on   its   axis 
without  revolv- 
ing it  on  the  common  axis  J. 

Uneiiual  rates  of  motion  of  the  wheels  D  C,  either 
in  the  same  or  o|iposite  directions,  will  cause  the 
wheel  Z?  to  rotate  on  its  axis,  and  with  its  axisi^  0 
to  revolve  around  the  common  center  J. 

In  Entwistlc's  patent  gear,  three  bevel  geai-s  of 
even  size  ai'e  thus  associated,  and  the  device  is  used 
fen-  steering-apparatus,  multiplying  speed  for  screw- 
propellers,  etc. 

Driving  from  the  other  end  of  the  train  gives 
power  with  decrease  of  speed . 

Many  ingenious  applications  of  the  device  might 
be  cited  and  shown  wouhl  space  permit. 

Ep'i-cy-cloid'al  'Wheel.  An  epicycloid  is  a 
curve  generated  by  a  point  in  the  circumference  of 
a  movable  circle,  which  rolls  on  the  inside  or  outside 
of  the  circumference  of  a  fixed  circle.  See  Sun  and 
Planet  Motihn,  the  invention  of  Watt. 

An  epicycloidal  wheel  is  a  contrivance  for  secur- 
ing parallel  motion,  in  converting  reciprocating  rao- 


Epicyclic  Trains. 


EPROUVETTE. 


807 


EQUATIOXAL  BOX. 


tion  into  circular,  depending  on  the  principle  that 
an  inner  epieycloidal  curve  becomes  a  straight  line 
when  the  diameter  of  the  fixed  circle  is  just  double 
„    jggQ  that  of  the  rolling  one. 

It  consists  of  a  fixed 
ring,  with  teeth  on 
the  inside,  into  which 
is  geared  a  wheel  of 
half  its  diameter  ;  to 
a  pin  on  the  circumfer- 
ence of  the  smaller 
wheel  the  recii)rocat- 
ing  motion  is  commu- 
nicated, while  the  cen- 
ter of  the  wheel  de- 
scribes a  circle  and 
may  receive  the  pin 
of  a  crank  whose  shaft 
is  concentric  with  the 
„  .        .    ,  ,„    ,  ring.  —  Wf.bsteu. 

Ep,c!,clo,dal  Whed.  Ep'in-glette'.    An 

iron  needle  for  piercing  a  cannon-caitridge   before 
priming. 

E  prou-vette'.  1.  An  apparatus  for  proving 
the  strength  of  gunpowder. 

One  siunile  mode  is  to  fire  weighed  charges  and 
ascertain  the  raugn  of  the  balls.  A  small  quantity 
of  powder,  a  lieavy  ball,  and  a  short  mortar  reduce 
the  range  within  convenient  lindts. 

Another  is  to  fire  a  small  ijuantity  beneath  a  shot 
attached  at  the  foot  of  a  vertical  rod.  The  latter 
ascends,  and,  on  reaching  its  greatest  elevation,  is 
prevented  from  descending  by  a  pawl  which  engages 
a  rack  on  the  rod.  The  hight  to  which  the  shot 
ascends  determines  the  strength  of  the  powder. 

Tlie  eprouvette  of  Regnier  is  an  adaptation  of  the 
Sector  dynamometer.  A  small  brass  cannon  is  at- 
tached to  one  arc  and  charged  with  a  given  quantity 
of  powder.  A  projection  from  the  other  arc  comes 
in  front  of  the  muzzle,  and  the  parts  are  separated 
when  the  explosion  takes  place. 

A  cui-sor  over  the  graduations  indicates  the  point 
reached  by  the  force  of  the  e.vplosion.     See  Ballis- 
tic Pexduluji. 
A  convenient  and  portable  eprouvette  is  an  in- 

strument 
Fig.  1S51.  ^  shaped    like   a 

V  ~  ^  small  pistol 
without  a  bar- 
rel, and  having 
the  forward  end 
of  its  charge- 
chamber  closed 
by  a  flat  plate 
connected  with 
a  spi'ing.  On 
the  e.xplosion 
of  the  powder 
Eprouvette.  against    the 

plate,  the  latter 
is  driven  forward  to  a  distance  proportioned  to  the 
strength  of  the  powder,  and  is  retained  at  its  ex- 
treme range  of  propulsion  by  a  ratchet-wheel  and 
spring-click. 

Pouillet's  chronoscope  and  Xavez's  electro-ballis- 
tic appan^tus,  by  measuring  the  velocity  attained  by 
balls  with  charges  of  certain  powders,  fonn  good 
iprourclUs.  See  Chroxoscope  ;  Electro-e.\llista. 
2.  (iletdUurgij.)  A  flux  spoon.  A  spoon  for 
sampling  an  asway. 

E  prou-vette'-gun.  The  gun-eprouvette  deter- 
mines the  strength  of  the  powder  by  the  amount  of 
recoil  produced.  -\  small  piece  of  ordnance  is  fas- 
tened to  a  frame  which  is  suspended  as  a  pendulum 


so  as  to  vibrate  in  an  arc  when  the  piece  is  fired.  A 
pointed  iron  rod  projects  downward  from  the  gun, 
and  travels  in  a  groove  of  soft  wa.x  as  the  gun  re- 
coils, thus  making  a  mark  which  is  measured  to 
detenuine  the  length  of  the  arc.  A  graduated  arc 
with  an  index-finger  is  used  in  the  British  sei-vice. 
The  gun  is  of  brass,  IJ  inch  bore,  27.6  inches  long, 
weighs  t>6^  pounds  ;  suspended  from  a  frame  and 
charged  with  two  ounces  of  powder  without  shot  or 
wadding. 

The  eprouvette-mortar  of  the  British  service  is  8 
inches  in  diameter,  and  is  charged  with  2  ounces  of 
the  powder,  and  an  iron  ball  of  63A  pounds  weight ; 
average  range  of  265  feet.  The  government  powder, 
somewhat  deteriorated  and  reserved  for  blasting, 
gives  a  range  of  240  feet. 

The  French  eprouvette-mortar  has  a  caliber  of  7 
inches  ;  charge,  3  ounces  ;  projectile,  a  copper  globe 
of  60  pounds  ;  required  range,  300  yards. 

The  eprouvette-mortar  of  the  United  States  sei-- 
vice  is  a  24-pounder,  having  a  chamber  to  contain 
one  ounce  of  powiler,  and  no  windage  to  the  ball. 
The  required  range  for  new  powder,  250  feet. 

E'qual-ing-fiJe.  A  Hat  file  which  has  a  constant 
thickness,  but  may  taper  a  little  as  to  width. 

E'qual-iz-er.  An  crcncr  or  whiffletiee  to  whose 
ends  the  swingle-trees  or  sinyh.-trces  of  the  indiridual 
horses  are  attached.  A  three-horse  equalizer  divides 
the  load  to  three  draft-animals.      See  Tl;EBLE-TKEK. 

E'qual-iz-ing-saw.   \  pair  of  saws  on  a  mandrel 

Fig.  1882. 


Equalizing- Saw. 

at  a  gaged  distance  apart,  and  used  for  squaring  off' 
the  ends  of  boards  and  bringing  them  to  dimensions. 

E-qua'tion-al  Box.  Invented  by  Houldswortli. 
A  ditterential  gearing  used  in  the  bobbin  and  fly 
machine  for  the  adjustment  of  dirt'erent  degrees  of 
twist,  for  difl'erent  yarns.  The  bobbin  and  flyer  are 
driven  indejiendently,  and  the  arrangement  affords 
a  means  of  changing  the  relative  speeds. 

Two  short  cylinders  b  p  inclose  bevel  wheels  29 
31 .  Between  the  edges  of  these  boxes  is  a  spur- 
wheel  28,   driving   a 


third  bevel-wheel  30, 
mounted  on  an  axis 
forming  the  radius  of 
the  spur-wheel,  and 
occupying  a  slot  in 
the  web  of  the  wheel. 
The  wheel  30  has 
the  same  diameter 
and  number  of  teeth 
as  the  wheels  29  31, 
with  which  it  en- 
gages. The  wheel  29 
is  keyed  to  its  shaft  ; 
but  wheels  2S  31  run 
loosely  on  the  shaft 
and      independently 


Kg.  1883. 


Equational  Box. 


EQUATION-WATCH. 


808 


ESCAPEMENT. 


of  it.  Now,  if  wheel  28  be  held  still  and  wheel  29 
be  turned,  the  middle  wheel  30  will  act  merely  as 
a  carrier  between  29  and  31,  which  will  turn  with 
the  same  speed,  but  in  opposite  directions.  If  28  be 
turned  at  the  same  speed  as  29  and  in  the  same  di- 
rection, the  middle  wheel  30  will  not  revolve  on  its 
axis,  but  acts  as  a  pin  between  29  and  31,  causing 
tliem  to  turn  with  the  same  speed  and  in  the  same 
direction.  These  are  the  extreme  enses.  The  mid- 
dle ease  is  when  28  turns  with  half  the  speed  of  29, 
in  which  case  31  does  not  revolve  at  all.  All  possi- 
ble variations  between  the  relative  speeds  of  29  and 
31  can  therefore  be  attained  by  changes  of  velocity 
in  28.  This  is  accomplished  by  putting  a  larger  or 
smaller  pinion  on  shaft  K,  which  has  a  regular  rate 
of  m  >tion  relatively  to  shaft  B. 

VVIieel  32  is  joined  to  31,  and  drives  the  bobbins, 
whose  sjiecd  is  adjusted  in  any  required  ratio  to  that 
of  the  spindles  and  flyers,  whatever  may  be  the 
sjiecil  of  the  latter.     See  BoBUiN-AND-FLY  FllA.ME. 

E-qua'tion-'watch.  A  watch  made  to  e.xhibit 
the  dilf'rences  between  mi^an  solar  and  apparent 
solar  ti-ne.  Originally  made  in  England,  but  im- 
})roved  in  Kraneci. 

E'qua-to'ri-al.  A  telescope  mounted  to  follow 
the  apfiarent  motion  of  the  heavenly  bodies  as  they 
move  in  the  sky.  It  revolves  about  an  axis  so  in- 
clin -d  that  its  motion  around  it  may  be  parallel  to 
the  e(|uator.      Hence  the  name.     See  Telescope. 

E'qua-to'ri-al  Sec'tor.  An  instrument  of 
large  radius  for  finding  the  ditference  in  the  right 
ascension  and  declination  of  two  heavenly  bodies. 

E'qua-to'ri-al  Tel'e-scope.  The  e(iuatorial  tel- 
esco[ie  is  so  mounted  as  to  have  a  motion  in  two 
plaues  at  right  angles  to  each  other  ;  one  parallel  to 
the  axis  of  the  earth,  and  the  other  to  the  equator. 
Each  axis  has  a  graduated  circle,  one  for  measuring 
declination  and  the  other  right  ascension.  The 
right  ascension  and  deidination  of  an  .astronomical 
object  being  known,  the  telescope  may  be  pointed 
to  the  spot.  Clock-work  is  sometimes  attached  to 
the  instrunn'ut  to  give  the  niDtion  in  right  ascension, 
and  thereby  keep  the  object  constantly  in  the  field 
of  tlu'  instrument. 

The  large  telescopes  of  the  principal  observatories 

are  mounted    equatorially.     See    Telescope.     See 

also  Fig.  401,  p.  17.1. 

E'qui-lib'ri-um-valve.     (Steam-engine.)     a.  A 

valve  having  a  pressure  nearly 

equal   on    both    sides,   so   as  to 

make  it  more  easily  worked  by 

nearly  neutralizing  its  pressure 

on  the  seat. 

The  valve  D  hag  packing  on 
the  back  opposite  to  the  two 
ports,  so  as  to  exclude  the  steam 
iVom  behinil  it,  and  thus  remove 
the  pressure  thereof. 

A,  cylinder  ports. 

B,  central  port  leading  to  con- 
denser. 

C,  parts  of  the  valve-casing 
filled  with  steam. 

D,  equilibrium-valve. 

E,  packing  ring  on  the  back 
of  the  valve. 

6.  The  valve  in  the  steam- 
passage  of  a  Cornish  engine  for 
opening  the  communication  be- 
tween the  top  and  bottom  of  the 
cylinder,  to  render  the  pressure 
eq'ial  on  both  sides  of  the  piston. 

E-raa'ing-kaife.     .\  knife  with  a  cordate  blade, 
sharpened   on   each  edge,  and  adapted   for  erasing 


Equilibrium  -  Valve, 


marks  from  i)aper  by  an  abrading  or  cutting  action, 
according  to  the  angle  at  which  it  is  held.  The 
ends  are  provided  with  burnishers,  rubbers,  pencil- 
sharpeners,  or  other  appendages  useful  about  the 
desk.      An  eniser. 

E-rect'iiig  Eye-piece.  (Optics.)  A  combina- 
tion ol  four  lenses  used  i'or  terresti"ial  telescopes, 
and  so  arranged  as  to  exhibit  the  objects  viewed 
in  an  erect  position.  This  is  not  deemed  necessary 
in  astrononncal  telescopes,  as  the  additional  lens 
required  causes  the  refiection  and  absori)tion  of  a 
certain  portion  of  light. 

E-rect'ing-glass.  A  tube  with  two  lenses, 
slipped  into  the  inner  end  of  the  draw-tube  of  a 
microscope,  and  serving  to  erect  the  inverted  image. 
See  ELECTOR. 

E-rect'ing-prism.  A  contrivance  of  Naehet's 
for  erecting  the  inverted  innige  produced  by  a  com- 
pound miciosco]ie,  by  means  of  a  single  rectangular 
piism  jilaced  over  tlie  eye-piece. 

E-rect'or.  An  arrangement  to  antagonize  the 
inversion  of  the  image  formed  by  the  object-glass, 
by  again  inverting  the  image  to  make  it  correspond 
in  position  with  the  object. 

First  apjdied  to  compound  microscopes  by  Lister. 
It  is  a  tube  about  three  inches  long,  having  a 
meniscus  at  one  end  and  a  plano-convex  lens  at  the 
other,  —  the  convex  .sides  njiward  in  eacli  case,  — 
and  a  diajihragm  about  half-way  between  them. 
The  erector  is  screwed  into  the  lower  end  of  the 
draw-tnbe. 

E'ri-om'e-ter.  An  instrument  for  measuring  the 
diameter  of  small  fibers,  such  as  wool,  cotton,  or 
flax,  by  ascertaining  the  diameter  of  any  one  of  the 
colored  rings  which  they  produce. 

"The  criomctcr  is  formed  of  a  piece  of  card  or 
plate  of  brass,  having  an  aperture  of  about  one  fifti- 
eth of  an  inch  in  diameter  in  the  center  of  a  circle 
of  one  half  inch  in  diameter,  ami  perforated  with 
small  holes.  The  filler  or  particle  to  be  measured  is 
fixed  in  a  slider,  and  the  eriometer  being  jilaced  be- 
fore a  strong  light,  and  the  eye  assisted  by  a  lens 
ap]ilied  behind  the  small  hole,  the  rings  ot'  colors 
will  be  seen.  The  slider  must  then  be  drawn  out 
or  pushed  in  till  the  limit  of  the  first  red  and  green 
ring  (the  one  selected  by  Dr.  Young)  coincides  with 
the  circle  of  perforations,  and  the  index  will  then 
show  on  the  scale  the  size  of  the  particle  or  fiber." 
—  Buew.ster's  Optics. 

Es-cape'.  (Tchgraphy.)  Leakage  of  current 
from  the  line-wire  to  ground,  cau.sed  usually  by 
defective  insulation  and  contact  with  partial  con- 
ductors. 

Es-cape 'ment  A  device  intervening  between 
the  paircr  and  the  timc-mcasurcr  in  a  clock  or  watch, 
to  convert  a  continuous  rotaiy  into  an  oscillating 
isochronous  movement-  It  is  acted  on  by  each.  The 
power  imparts  through  the  escapement  an  impulse 
to  the  pendulum  or  bakmcc-wheel  sufficient  to  over- 
come the  friction  of  the  latter  and  the  resistance  of 
the  atmosphere,  and  thus  keeps  up  the  vibrations. 
The  time-measurer  {pendulum  or  baUmce-wheet)  acts 
through  the  escapement  to  cause  the  motion  of  the 
train  to  be  intermittent. 

While  there  is  some  variation  in  the  trains  of 
clocks  and  watches,  and  in  other  I'articniars,  they  ai-a 
generally  named  according  to  the  form  of  their 
escayiement  ;  as,  — 

Anehor-e.scapcment.  Detached  escapement. 

Chronometer-escapement.  Duple.x-escapement. 
Crown-wheel  escapement.  Electric-clock  escapement. 
Cylinder-esca|ie!nent.  Horizontal  escjipement. 

Dead-beat  escapement.       Lever-escapement. 


ESCAPE-VALVE. 


809 


ETCHING. 


Recoil-e.scapement. 

Remontoire-escaperaent. 

Verge-escapement. 


Vertical  escapement. 
(Which  see.) 


Goodrich,  in  1 799,  substituted  a  crank  for  an  es- 
capement in  clocks,  and  received  a  bounty  of  £  6a 
from  the  London  Society  of  Arts.  Its  advantage 
was  silence. 

A  number  of  curious  and  ingenious  escapements 
may  be  found  in  works  on  hoiology,  in  Denison's 
volume  in  Weale's  series  ;  Brown's  "  Five  Hundred 
and  Seven  Mechanical  Movements";  and  Piaget's 
"The  Watch;  its  History  and  Manufacture." 

Es-cape'-Vedve.  {Sti:am-cii<ii)ic.)  a.  A  loaded 
valve  fitted  to  tlie  end  of  the  cylinder  for  the  escape 
of  the  condensed  steam,  or  of  water  carried  mechan- 
ically from  the  boilers  with  the  steam.  A  jiriminy 
valve. 

b.  Escape-valves  are  also  fitted  to  the  feed-pipes 
as  a  means  of  e.xit  for  the  surplus  water  not  used  by 
the  boilers. 

c.  A  valve  which  affords  escape  to  steam  in  a 
given  contingency  ;  upon  excessive  pressure  by  a 
safety-valve  ;  to  announce  low-water,  etc. 

Es-cape '-■wheel.    These  are  various  in  form  ; 
the  wheel  is  acted   upon  by 
Fig.  1885.  the  spring  or  weight  of  the 

clock     or     watcli,     and     is 
allowed  an   intermittent  ro- 
tation, one  tooth  at  a  time, 
and  the  pendulum  or  balance- 
wheel  wliicli    tluis  regulates 
the  movement  becomes   the 
time-measurer.      Tile    jiallets 
on  the  oscillating  ]iendulum 
arbor    allow    the     teeth    to 
Virge-Escapement.        escape,   one  at  a  time.      See 
Escapement. 
Es-carp'.     (Fortijkalivn.)     A  wall  on  the  inside 
of  the  ditch  at  the  foot  of  the  rampart.     On  the 
other  siile  of  the  ditch  is  the  counterscarp. 

Es'cri-toire'.  A  writing-desk  ;  generally  fixed, 
and  luiving  a  falling  leaf. 

Es-cutch'eon ;  Scutch'eon.  An  ornamental 
plate  for  a  name,  as  in  a  coJfia-plaU,  the  name-plate 
on  the  side  of  a  pocket-knife,  etc.  ;  or  a  perforated 
plate  to  finish  an  opening,  as  the  key-hAc  plate  of  a 
door,  drawer,  or  desk. 

E-soph'a-gus-for'ceps.  One  for  removing  for- 
eign matters  Irom  the  gullet. 

An  esopliagus-forceps,  with  bent  shank,  was  found 
in  1819,  in  a  house  in  Pompeii,  by  Dr.  Savenko,  of 
St.  Petersburg.  It  is  pictured  in  Smith's  "  Dic- 
tionary of  Anti((uities,"  p.  274. 

Es-pal'ier.  (Atjriculturc.)  A  trellis  for  train- 
ing vines  or  other  plants. 

Espla-nade'.  (Fortification.)  An  extended 
glacis.  Tile  sloping  of  tlie  parapet  of  the  covered 
way  toward  the  open  country. 

A  clear  space  between  the  citadel  and  the  adjacent 
houses  of  a  fortified  town. 

Es'ta-cade'.  {Fortifimtion.)  A  line  of  pile 
stakes  in  water  or  swampy  ground  to  check  the 
ay>]iroaeh  of  an  enemy. 

Es-the si-om'e-ter.  {Surgical.)  An  instru- 
ment to  ascertain  the  tactile  sensibility  of  the  hu- 
man liody.  It  has  two  points,  adjustable  as  to 
distance,  and  the  object  is  to  ascertain  the  nearest 
proximity  at  which  the  points  give  distinct  sensa- 
tions. The  result  is  indicative  of  a  normal  or  ab- 
normal condition  of  the  surface.  In  front  of  the 
ear  the  points  may  be  three  quarters  of  an  inch 
apart,  am^give  but  a  single  sensation  ;  but  if  you 
draw  them  lightly  across  the  face  to  the  other  ear, 


at  a  certain  point  the  single  sensation  will  change 
into  a  double  sensation  ;  as  tliey  apjiroach  the 
mouth,  they  will  seem  to  separate  more  widely,  and 
on  the  other  side  of  the  face  they  will  seem  to  draw 
together  again,  until  the  double  impression  is  lost  in 
a  single  one.  (See  Nerve-needle.)  An  anatomist 
(Rufus,  of  Ephesus)  dis.sected  apes  and  distinguished 
between  nerves  of  sensation  and  of  motion. 

Es-trade'.  A  sligliily  raised  platform,  occupy- 
ing a  [lart  of  a  room.     It  may  foim  a  dais. 

Et'a-gere'.  A  set  of  shelves  in  the  form  of  an 
ornamental  standing-piece  of  furniture.  Used  for 
the  ilisjilay  of  articles  of  bijouterie  and  vertu. 

Etch'ing.  1.  {Oil  metal.)  Engraving  executed 
by  a  pointed  tool  and  acid  upon  a  metallic  or  glass 
surface  previously  covered  with  varnish. 

The  ordinary  procedure  is  as  follows  :  Cover  a 
polislied  metallic  plate  with  a  compo.sition  techni- 
cally called  ground,  and  consisting  of  asjihaltum,  4 
parts;  Burgundy  pitch,  2  parts;  white  wax,  1  part. 
For  use,  this  is  melted  and  compounded,  and  tied  up 
in  a  silk  rag.  The  plate  is  heated,  rubbed  with  the 
ground,  which  is  then  spread  evenly,  smoked,  and 
allowed  to  cool. 

The  design  is  traced  by  a  pointed  tool,  called  an 
etching-point,  which  lays  bare  the  metal  wherever 
it  goes.  Tliis  finished,  a  w.all  of  wax  is  raised 
around  the  design  to  hold  the  dilute  acid  which  is 
poured  on.  For  a  copper-]ilate,  this  consists  of  ni- 
trous acid,  1  part ;  watei',  5  parts.  For  steel,  pyro- 
ligneous  acid,  1  part  ;  nitric  acid,  1  part ;  water,  6 
parts.  This  is  jioured  on  the  plate,  which  it  cor- 
rodes on  the  lines  made  through  the  "ground." 
This  is  called  "biting-in."  The  etching  is  swept 
with  a  feather  to  remove  the  bubbles  from  the  sur- 
face, or,  in  case  of  a  steel-plate,  agitation  may  an- 
swer the  purpose.  When  a  sufficient  depth  is  at- 
tained for  the  lighter  tints  of  the  etcliing,  the  acid 
is  removed,  the  surface  washed  and  allowed  to  drain 
dry.  The  parts  having  sufficient  depth  are  now 
"  stojiped  out "  by  a  varnish  of  Brunswick-blaek 
laid  on  with  a  camel's-hair  brush.  AVhen  the  var- 
nish is  dry,  another  "  biting-in  "  will  deepen  the 
lines  of  the  jiarts  not  "stopped  out,"  and  when 
these  ])arts  are  deep  enough  for  the  second  tint,  the 
varnish  is  removed,  the  plate  dried,  etc.  This  is 
rejieated  as  many  times  as  may  be  necessary. 

The  wall  of  wax  is  then  removed,  the  surface  of 
the  plate  cleaned  with  turpentine,  and  the  plate  is 
sent  to  the  printer  for  a  proof  of  the  etching,  which 
is  complete.  It  may  be  finished  by  a  graver  to  give 
it  more  effectiveness,  but  it  then  partakes  of  the 
character  of  a  line  engraving. 

Etching  is  all  accomplislied  by  the  point  and  acid. 

The  art  is  believed  to  have  originated  in  Germany, 
judging  by  its  name  ctzcn  ;  but  the  earliest  known 
practitioners  were  Albert  Diirer,  a  German,  and 
Agostino  Veneziano  and  Parmegiano,  Italians.  These 
were  contemporaries. 

Etcliinci  on  soft  (/rotind  is  in  imitation  of  chalk  or 
pencil  drawing,  but  has  been  abandoned  since 
lithography  has  attained  excellence.  The  soft 
ground  is  made  by  adding  one  part  of  hog's  lard  to  ^ 
three  parts  etching  yround  (see  Ground),  which 
is  laid  on  the  plate  with  the  dabber  in  the  usual 
way.  A  piece  of  smooth  writing-paper,  having  the 
design  in  outline,  is  dam]ied  and  .'■tretehed  over  the 
plate.  A  pencil  is  then  used  to  follow  the  lines  of 
the  design,  observing  that  the  softer  the  ground  the 
softer  the  pencil  should  be.  The  temperature  of 
the  season  or  the  room  will  affect  the  character  of 
the  ground.  When  the  paper  is  removed,  it  with- 
draws the  adhering  lines  of  ground,  and  the  plata 
is  Ktlcn-in  in  the  usual  way. 


ETCHING-NEEDLE. 


810 


EUDIOMETER. 


Several  peculiar  processes  have  been  introduced  in 
etching,  but  are  rather  curious  than  useful. 

aicclro-etchiiifj,  so  called,  is  a  process  ol'  bifing-iii, 
rather  than  clcliiiirj,  and  consists  in  exposiiif^  the 
etched  plate  in  the  electro-bath,  as  the  copper  ol' 
the  battery,  so  as  to  be  corroded  by  the  voltaic 
action.      See  ELECTltO-ETCHlNG. 

Dririiurreolijpc-ctchiiig  is  a  process  wherein  the 
dark  lines  of  the  image  in  the  camera  are  made  to 
e.Kpose  the  plate  to  the  action  of  aeid. 

One  mode  of  etching,  the  reverse  of  the  usual 
plan,  is  to  remove  with  point  and  scraper  the  lights, 
and  then  bite-in  so  as  to  e.vpose  the  design  in  relief. 

2.  {G'ass.)  Fluoric  acid  was  discovered  by  Sclieele 
in  1771.  One  huudred  years  previous  to  this, 
Schwanhard  had  a  secret  process  for  etching  glass, 
but  his  .secret  died  with  him.  See  Etching  on 
Glass. 

3.  (Lithographing.)  a.  The  preparation  of  a  litho- 
graphic stone  with  a  weak  mineral  acid  after  the 
drawing  or  transfer  has  been  put  upon  its  surface  ; 
the  object  being  to  ti.t  and  render  such  drawing  ca- 
pable of  receiving  the  ink  used  in  printing.  The 
crayon  or  ink  of  the  artist  is  essentially  based  upon 
an  alkaline  soap  combined  with  wax,  resins,  and  pig- 
ment, the  latter  being  added  merely  for  the  purpose 
of  enabling  the  artist  to  see  the  progress  of  the 
work  ;  drawings  made  with  crayons  and  tlie  ink 
used  in  pen-work  are  soluble,  and  hence  not  fit  to 
resist  the  damping  process  on  the  stone;  nor  is  the 
stone  under  them  lit  to  receive  the  printing-ink. 
The  action  of  a  very  weak  acid  ap|)lied  to  the  stone 
by  a  large  soft  brush,  a  sponge,  or  by  flooding  it, 
is  to  decomptue  the  alkaline  soaps,  farming  nitrates 
or  chloiides  of  the  alkaline  metals,  according  to  the 
acid  used,  and  setting  free  the  stearic  and  oleic 
acids  simultaneously.  These  fatty  aciils  isolated  in 
intimate  contact  with  the  carbonate  of  lime,  of  which 
tlie  stone  is  mainly  composed,  appear  to  enter  into 
chemical  comljination  with  the  same,  driving  out 
the  carbonic  acid.  The  insoluble  lime-soap  thus 
formed  has  an  exceedingly  strong  affinity  for  greasy 
matters  of  all  kinds,  and  readily  aeeumulates  upon 
its  surface  the  "varnish"  (burned  linseed-oil)  con- 
stituting the  vehicle  carrying  the  carbonaceous 
matter  which  gives  the  printing-ink  its  color. 

Another  function  of  the  weak  acid  is  performed 
upon  the  clean  part  of  tlie  stone,  whereby  it  renders 
the  particles  of  calcareous  matter  peculiarly  sus- 
ceptible to  receiving  and  holding,  despite  the  long- 
continued  diraping  operations  upon  the  stone,  the 
covering  of  gum-arabic  furnished  by  the  operation 
of  Gu.MMtNO  (which  see).  The  gum  is  often  applied 
with  the  acidulous  solution.  Sulphuric  acid  cannot 
be  used  in  etcliiug,  in  consequence  of  the  production 
of  insoluble  sulphate  of  lime. 

b.  Etcliiusj  by  a  needle  or  diamond  on  stone  is 
done  in  two  ways  :  — 

1.  The  surface  of  the  stone  is  treated  with  gum 
and  acid  (an  ink-resisting  compound),  and  dried  ; 
the  work  is  then  scratched  in  by  the  etching-point. 
Oil  is  rubbed  over  the  surface,  which  is  resisted  by 
the  gum,  but  penetrates  where  the  stone  has  been 
laid  bare  by  the  needle.  The  stone  is  tlien  washed 
off,  rolled  up  and  printed.  This  is  usually  called 
engraving. 

2.  The  surface  of  the  atone  is  covered  with  an 
asphaltum  ground  ;  the  work  is  etched  in,  cutting 
away  so  much  of  the  ground  and  exposing  the  stone. 
Acid  is  then  applied,  which  eats  away  the  stone, 
making  a  depression  ;  this  is  inked,  the  asplialtuni 
cleaned  off,  the  clear  spaces  etched,  and  gummed  as 
us\al  in  the  lithographic  process. 

Btch'iag-nee'dle.    A  sharp-pointed  instrument 


for  scratching  away  the  ground  on  a  prepared  plate, 
preparatory  to  the  biling-in. 

Etoh'ing  on  Glass.  This  art  was  invented  by 
Schwanluuil  of  Xurembcrg,  1U7(I,  and  originated  in 
an  accident  to  his  spectacles,  which  became  corroded 
by  some  dro])s  of  acid.  Fluorii;  acid,  discovered  by 
Scheele,  1771,  is  now  employed  for  corroding,  or, 
as  it  is  technically  called,  "biting-in"  the  etching. 
The  glass  is  covered  with  a  resinous  gi'onnd,  and  the 
design  marked  by  an  etching-  point,  exi]o.sing  theglass. 
The  latter  isthensubjectedtoanacid,  whichacts  upon 
the  silieati^  and  eats  away  the  glass  at  tlicse  points, 
making  (icprcshions  which  constitute  tlie  etching, 

Etch'ing-point.  The  steel  or  diamond  point  of 
the  etcher. 

Etch'ing-var'nish.  A  compound  of  wax,  as- 
phaltum, pitch,  etc.,  for  spreading  on  plates  which 
are  to  be  etclied.     See  Ground. 

E'ther-en'gine.  See  Bisfi.piiiDE  of  Cai!bon 
Enoini;  ;  Aiii-ENciXK  ;  Ga.s-knoink, 

E-tui'.  A  case  for  holding  small  articles,  as  a 
lady's  work-box  and  case  for  articles  of  graceful  nee- 
dle-woik. 

Eu'di-om'e-ter.  Dr.  Priestley,  the  discoverer 
of  oxygen  gas,  ilevised  the  first  eiicliomelcr,  for  as- 
certaining the  quantity  of  o.xygen  contained  in  a 
givi.m  bulk  of  aeriform  fluid. 

His  device  was  founded  upon  the  idea  of  subject- 
ing a  measured  volume  of  air  to  a  substance  which 
would  absorb  the  oxygen  of  the  air.  For  this  pur- 
jiose  he  used  deutoxide  of  nitrogen,  which  has  an 
energetic  tendency  to  regain  the  oxygen  of  which  it 
has  Ijeen  deprived,  and  resume  its  condition  as  nitric 
acid. 

Scheele's  eudiometerwas  a  tube  of  known  capacity, 
in  which  a  body  of  air  was  ex]iosed  to  a  niixtUTe  of 
sulphur  and  iron  filings  made  into  a  jjaste  with 
water.  This  abstracted  the  oxygen  of  the  air,  but 
an  evolution  of  hydrogen  somewhat  marred  the 
accuracy  of  the  result. 

De  Marte  used  as  an  oxygen  absorbent  a  solution 
of  sulphuret  of  potassium. 

Guyton  used  the  same  matei-ial,  and  added  heat 
to  expedite  the  result.  See  "  Nicholson's  Journal," 
4to,  Vol.  I. 

Seguin  used  a  glass  tube  filled  with  and  inverted 
in  mercury.  A  piece  of  phosjdiorus,  being  intro- 
duced, lloated  to  the  top  of  the  mercury,  and  was 
melted  by  the  approach  of  a  hot  iron.  Air  is  then 
introduced  in  instalments,  and,  igniting  the  phos- 
phorus, parts  with  its  oxygen  thereto.  A  nu*asured 
quantity  having  been  thus  introduced,  the  re- 
mainder in  the  tube  is  transferred  to  a  grailuated 
tube,  and  the  loss  of  bulk  by  oxidation  is  de- 
termined. 

Berthollet  used  the  slow  combust  ion  of  phosphorus, 
dispensing  with  the  ajiplication  of  artificial  heat. 

Hope  contrived  a  eudiometer  in  which  a  gradu- 
ated tube  containing  a  cubic  inch  of  air  was  inverted 
into  a  ]ihial  containing  the  o.xygen -absorbing  solu- 
tion. "The  apparatus,  being  tight,  iiermitted  the 
contents  to  be  agitated.  As  gas  was  absorbed,  water 
was  admitted  to  the  phial,  and  the  rise  of  the  liquid 
in  the  graduated  tube  indicated  the  amount  of  the 
gaseous  remainder. 

Henry  substituted  a  caoutchouc  ball  for  the  phial 
in  Hope's  instrument. 

Pepys  made  a  lunnber  of  technical  improvements, 
which  he  consiilered  insured  accuracy,  but  certainly 
complicated  the  apparatus. 

Volta  introduced  an  instrument  which  superseded 
the  preceding.  He  determine<l  the  composition  of 
the  air  by  combustion  with  a  known  quantity  of  hy- 
drogen gas. 


EUPHEOE. 


811 


EVAPORATOR. 


It  is  founJeil  on  tlie  piinciple  tliat  when  a  mix- 
ture of  oxygen  and  hydiogen  gases  is  tired,  one  lliird 
of  tlie  diminution  is  owing  to  the  condensation  of 
oxygen.  For  this  purjjose  he  used  a  graduated  tube 
and  tH'o  platiiuini  points,  between  which  an  electric 
spark  was  caused  to  pass. 

This  was  nioditied  in  construction  by  Mitscherlich 
and  others,  retaining  the  main  idea. 

Ure's  eudiometer  is  founded  on  tlie  Volta  princi- 
ple, but  is  much  simplified  in  point  of  nianipulatiun. 
It  consists  of  a  graduated  glass  siphon 
whose  open  e.xtreniity  is  slightly  Hariug. 
■  The  other  end  is  closed,  and  has  two 
platinum  wires.  Being  tilled  with  water  i 
or  mercury,  the  closed  leg  receives  a 
volume  of  gas  by  the  ordinary  means. 
A  couple  of  inches  of  water  being  dis- 
placed from  the  open  end  of  the  tube, 
the  mouth  is  closed  liy  the  thumb,  and 
the  instrument  approached  to  tin;  electric 
conductor,  a  spark  from  which,  leaping 
the  interval  between  the  end  wires, 
explodes  the  ga^es.  The  lise  of  the 
water  in  the  closed  end  indicates  the 
volume  removed,  and  the  result  is  ile- 
termined,  as  before  explained,  by  refeience  to  the 
graduated  tube.  If  merely  oxygen  and  hydiogen 
gases  have  been  introduced  in  their  proper  atomic 
proportions,  eight  of  the  former  and  one  of  the 
latter,  by  weiglit,  the  result  will  be  water  without 
gaseous  remainder. 

If  the  experiment  be  as  first  stated  :  A  given 
volume  of  hydrogen  introduced  in  comjiany  with  a 
body  of  atmospheric  air  to  be  tested  ;  one  third  the 
amount  of  condensation  may  be  ascribed  to  the  re- 
moval of  oxygen,  whose  proportions  for  combining 
with  hydrogen  to  form  water  are,  o.xygen  1,  hydro- 
gen 2,  by  bulk. 

The  space  between  the  thumb  and  the  surface  of 
the  water  in  the  open  leg  forms  an  air-cushion 
when  the  gases  explode. 

Dijbereiner's  is  founded  upon  the  power  of  spongy 
platinum  to  cause  the  combination  of  oxygen  and 
liydrogen  gas.  The  labors  of  Hiunsen,  Kegnault, 
and  Reiset,  Williamson  and  Ru.sscll,  Franklin  and 
Ward,  have  brought  the  instrument  to  the  present 
efficient  form. 

Eu'phroe.  A  long  slat  of  wood,  perforated  for 
the  passage  of  the  awning-cords  which  suspend  the 
ridge  of  an  awning.  The  cuphroe  (ox  uphroc)  and 
its  ]«'ndent  cords  form  a  crow-foot. 

Eu'style.  {An-hitcctare.)  That  style  of  inter- 
columniation  in  which  the  space  between  the  col- 
unnis  was  iS  times  their  diameter  ;  so  called  from 
being  considered  the  most  beautiful  style. 

E-vap'o-rat'ing-cone.  A  Belgian  evaporator, 
consisting  of  a  liullow  cone  with  double  walls,  be- 
tween wlucli  is  a  body  of  steam.  Over  the  inner 
and  outer  suiface  of  the  cone  a  saccharine  solution 
luns  in  a  thin  film,  and  is  thereby  heated.  It  is 
similar  in  principle  to  the  Dcgnuul  condenser.  See 
CoxnF.NsEK  ;  Ev.\ponATOu. 

It  is  the  same  in  its  principle  of  construction  as  cer- 
tain coolers,  in  wdiich  a  refrigerating  liijuid  tills  the 
jacket,  over  whose  walls  passes  the  liquid  to  be  cooled. 
E-vap'o-rafing-fur'nace.      The   furnace  of  a 
boiler  for  cane-juice,  sirup,  brine,  etc. 

E-vap  o-ra'tion  -  gage.  A  giaduated  glass 
measure,  with  wire-gauze  cover  to  prevent  access 
of  insects,  to  determine  the  ratio  of  evaporation  in 
a  given  exposure. 

E-vap'o-ra-tor.  An  apparatus  consisting  of  a 
furnace  aitU  pan,  in  which  vegetable  juices  are  con- 
densed.    The  varieties  are  numerous ;  intended  for 


the  sugar-house  of  the  plantation,  that  of  the  refinery ; 
for  maple-sugar  making  and  for  soighum  ;  for  mak- 
ing vegetable  extracts  for  medicines  and  other  pur- 
poses. Those  which  boil  in  (partial)  vuciio  are  known 
as  Vacuu.m-paxs  (which  see).  Some  drive  olf  a 
part  of  the  aqueous  fluid,  and  are  called  cont/cnscrs, 
such  as  the  Degrand.     See  Condenseu. 

A  "set  of  kettles  "  in  Louisiana  consists  of  five, 
placed  in  line,  and 

with  tlieir  tojis  on  rig- 1887. 

the  same  level. 
Underneath  i.s  a 
furnace,  the  mouth 
of  wdiicli  is  outside 
the  building.  The 
kettles  are  techni- 
cally known  as  the 
ijrande,  propre, 
flambeau,      strop. 


and    the     batterie. 
The  grande  receives 
the  cane-juice  from 
the  mill,  and  is  the 
farthest  removed  from  the 
mouth  of  the  furnace.    The 
scum,  as  it  rises,  is  swept 
towards  the  rear  from  ket- 
tle to  kettle,  and  the  juice, 
as   the   kettles   empty   by 
evaporation,  is  dipped  fi'om 
one  to  the  other  towards  the 
batterie.    From  the  latter  it 
is  dipped  into  a  box  whose 
conducting    troughs     lead 
it  to  the  coolers. 

Hoard's  pan,  patent  1838 
{A,  Fig.  1887),  has  a  trough 
around  to  collect  scum, 
and  tubular  Hues  passing 
through  the  boiler. 

The  steam-pan,  first  in- 
troduced  in    Louisiana  in 
1829,  had  a  serpentine  coil 
at  the  bottom  of 
a  circular  pan. 

Stillman'span 
(B),  1846,  had  a 
series  of  bends 
connecting  with 
a  tube  which  also 
formed  an  a.xis  for 
the  system  which 
could  thus  be 
erected  so  as  to 
expose  the  bot- 
tom of  the  pan. 

A  combination 
of  the  open  pan 
and  vacuum-pan 


^     Evaporators. 
has  been  adopted  to  some  extent  in  Louisiana,  and 


EVAPORATOR. 


812 


EVAPORATOR. 


jH'obably  elsewliere.  The  cane-juice  being  concen- 
tniteil  in  oijeii  kettles  to  about  :i6°  or  28°  Baume  and 
tlien  finished  ill  the  vacuum-pan.  It  requires  no 
speiial  notice. 

Tile  Dnjilessis  plan,  1846,  consists  in  heating 
the  juice  in  pans  with  double  bottoms,  forming 
steam-jackets,  and  then  finishing  it  in  kettles  let 
into  the  top  ol'  a  horizontal  cylindrical  boiler,  which 
is  pierced  wi:h  holes  for  that  purpose.  The  liaiiges 
of  the  kettles  are  bolted  steam-tight  to  the  top  plate 
of  the  steam-boiler,  which  has  an  inclination  from 
front  to  rear  to  facilitate  the  transfer  of  the  scum  to 
a  trough  at  the  lower  end. 

Graham's  apparatus,  1843,  has  a  series  ofkettlesin 
a  rising  order  towards  the  rear,  like  steps,  so  that  the 
(jrtiiidc  may  empty  into  the  flambeau,  that  into  the 
sirop,  and  the  latter  into  the  batUric,  without  dip- 
jiing.  They  are  of  progressivelj'  smaller  size  to  the 
lower  end  of  the  series,  and  are  heated  by  steam- 
jackets.  The  pans  are  connected  by  pipes  furnished 
with  stop-cocks. 

A  connected  history  of  the  process  of  manufactur- 
ing sugar  is  given  under  8uG.\i!-MAN'UFACTl'iii.\G, 
and  some  things  are  omitted  in  this  to  avoiil  dupli- 
cation. See  also  CoNnEXSEK,  DEGUAxn,  which 
acts  as  an  evaporator  of  the  sirup  poured  over  it, 
while  it  condenses  the  vapor  from  the  vacuum-pan 
witli  which  it  is  charged.     See  Vacul'M-pa.n'. 

Tlie  Wetzel  pan  is  heated  bj'  steam.  It  is  a  long 
tank  with  a  semi-cylindrical  lower  portion  in  which 
revolves  a  hollow  wheel  heated  by  a  constant  flow 
of  steam.  Drums  on  the  shaft  are  also  full  of 
steam,  and  are  connected  by  pipes,  steam-heated. 
Revolving  slowly,  it  exposes  a  considerable  surface 
to  and  agitates  the  sirup,  which  constantly  drips  off 
that  portion  e.\ posed  to  the  air. 

Tlie  Dour  pan  is  somewhat  similar,  but  the  re- 
volving, heating  surface  is  made  up  of  steam-heated 
drums  on  a  shaft,  revolving  in  a  pan  having  a  semi- 
cyliudrical  well. 

The  eva[ioratiiig  cone  C 'of  Lembeck,  near  Brus- 
sels, consists  of  a  double-walled  cone  c  c  about  16 
feet  high,  and  heated  by  steam  in  the  space  inter- 
vening between  the  walls.  Sirup  from  the  cistern 
s  tlosvs  by  the  faucet  c'  into  the  funnel  /",  and  thence 
is  ilistribated  by  openings  so  as  to  run  in  a  thin 
film  over  the  interior  surface  of  the  cone  c.  A  ball- 
cock  keeps  a  constant  level  in  the  cistern  p.  To 
prevent  the  Uc|uid  running  in  streams  down  the 
surface  of  the  cone,  it  is  again  and  again  arrested  by 
the  hollow  conical  frustums,  wdiich  divide  any 
trickling  streams  and  redistriliute  them  over  the 
heated  surface.  These  frustums  are  strung  upon  a 
stem  a  «,  so  as  to  be  removed  in  a  body  when  re- 
quired for  cleansing. 

The  exterior  surface  of  the  cone  receives  a  film  of 
the  sirup  from  the  same  cistern,  the  .spout  conduct- 
ing it  into  the  trough  r  from  whence  it  reaches  the 
surl'ace  of  the  cone.  It  is  again  and  again  arrested 
by  exterior  funnel-shaped  troughs  m  m,  and  allowed 
to  trickle  therefrom  at  openings  along  the  meeting 
edge  of  the  trough  with  the  cone.  This  breaks  up 
any  determination  to  run  in  streams,  and  keeps  the 
evaporating  surface  evenly  supplied. 

An  annular  reservoir  receives  the  condensed  liquid, 
whence  it  is  conducted  by  a  sjiout  <  to  a  cistern  w. 

The  apparatus  is  especially  designed  for  beet-root 
sugar-making. 

The  Degr.tnd  or  Derosne  condenser  is  an  evapo- 
rator used  in  the  cane-sugar  works,  and  consists 
of  a  column  of  horizontal,  steam-heated  pipes  over 
which  the  cane-juice  trickles,  and  eventually  passes 
in  a  condensed  condition  into  a  cistern  below.  See 
Condenser. 


A  class  of  inventions  known  as  coolers  agree  in 
many  jjoints  of  construction  with  these  surface  con- 
densers ;  the  main  difierence  being  in  the  fact  that 
in  one  case  the  hollow  trunk  is  filled  with  a  re- 
frigerating liquid  and  in  the  other  with  steam. 
Useful  hints  may  be  taken  from  Beer-cuolers  ; 
Liquid-coolers  (which  see). 

One  form  of  apparatus  consists  of  a  number  of 
hollow  disks  of  lenticular  figure,  arranged  ujion  a 
conimon  axis,  and  dipping  into  the  liquid  to  be 
evaporated.  These  disks,  or  lenses,  are  constructed 
of  thin  metal,  and  are  all  in  communication  with 
each  other  through  the  common  axis,  wliicli  is  like- 
wise hollow.  The  whole  system  is  kept  in  slow 
rotary  motion  by  some  convenient  moving  power, 
and  each  disk  carries  u]i  with  it,  adhering  to  its  sur- 
face, a  thin  film  of  the  li(juid  ;  as  evajmiation  when  it 
takes  place  without  ebullition  goes  on  with  a  rapidity 
proportional  to  the  surface  exposed. 

Of  this  class  is  Schroder's  evaporator  D,  used  in 
the  West  Indies,  for  evaporating  saccharine  juices 
at  a  temperature  not  exceeding  180°;  it  is  worked  Iiy 
hand  or  steam  power.  It  is  intended  specially  as  a 
substitute  for  the  tcuchc,  and  consists  of  a  semi-cylin- 
drical jian  h,  whose  contents  are  heated  by  a  steam 
coil  d  d,  connecting  by  pipe  <j  with  the  boiler. 

On  a  longitudinal  axle  resting  in  boxes  on  the 
ends  of  the  )>an  are  a  nnmher  of  disks  j,  which  are 
rotated  by  power  applied  to  the  crank.  As  these 
disks  are  alternately  exposeil  to  the  sirup  and  to  the 
air,  the  latter  has  free  access  to  the  moistened  sur- 
face, and  carries  off  the  aqueous  jiarticles  with  con- 
siderable rapidity,  n  is  the  discharge-pipe,  whi(-li. 
is  opened  by  a  faucet  in  the  usual  manner.  The 
machine  stands  isolated  on  the  Hoor  of  the  sugar- 
house,  and  is  supported  on  an  iron  stand. 

A  modification  of  this  plan  is  the  Cleland  evapo- 

Fig.  1888. 


SoTghum-'Evaporalors. 

rator  (English),  in  which  the  rotating  device  con- 
sists of  a  spiral  coil  of  steam-pipe  receiving  steam 
through  the  trunnions  and  immersed  during  a  por- 
tion of  its  revolution  in  the  sirup  of  the  pan.  It 
differs  from  the  Sclirodcr  pan  in  the  fact  that  the 
rotating  device  is  hollow  and  steam-heateil  so  as  to 
make  the  action  more  energetic,  the  film  of  sirup  on 
the  coil  being  exposed  to  the  heat  of  the  interior 
steam  and  to  the  evaporative  action  of  the  sur- 
rounding atmosphere. 


EVAPORATOR. 


813 


EVER-POINTED  PEXCIL. 


Fig.  18S8  shows  two  forms  of  sorghum-evapo- 
ratoi's,  iu  the  upper  one  of  wliich  are  reiiprocuting 
paddles  for  removing  seura  from  tlie  heated  juice 
and  sweeping  it  towards  the  cooler  overhanging 
shallower  parts  at  the  edges  of  the  pan.     The  lower 

Fig.  1889. 


Portable  Ecaporator. 

figure  shows  a  series  of  pans  with  connecting  aper- 
tures stopped  by  gates. 

Fig.  1SS9  shows  a  portable  evaporator  mounted 
on  a  wheelbarrow. 

Fig.  1890  shows  an  evaporator  in  which  a  con- 
tinuous stream  of  juice  is  allowed  to  flow  in  a 
sinuous  track  from  end  to  end  of  the  pan,  which  is 

Fig.  1890. 


Continuous-Stream  Evaporator. 

SO  mounted  as  to  be  inclined  in  any  required  degree, 
according  to  the  condition  of  the  fire  or  of  the  juice, 
so  that  it  may  reach  the  end  in  the  desired  con- 
dition of  condensation. 

A  pan  for  the  evaporation  of  water  from  brine  is 

an       oblong 
Fig.  1891.  sijuare,         and 

may  have  a 
depth  of  12  to 
16  inches,  and 
an  area  of 
20x40  feet. 
The  pan  is 
made  of  sheet- 
iron,  supported 
on  the  dinsion 
walls  between 
the  furnaces, 
■which  are  in 
number  pro- 
portioned to 
the  width  of 
the  pan.  The 
fire  from  the 
fumaoes  is  con- 
ducted to  heat- 
ovens  before 
being  discharged  into  the  chimney.  The  brine  is 
led  into  the  pan  by  pipes,  and  under  ordinary  cir- 


cumstances may  be  twice  changed  in  twenty-four 
hours.  As  soon  as  most  of  the  water  has"  been 
evaporated,  the  wet  salt  is  ladled  into  conical  baskets 
whi(^h  are  placed  against  the  bench  to  drain.  The 
salt  is  finally  dried  in  the  ovens  heated  by  the  fur- 
nace fires. 

The  cocoa-nut  palm  yields  a  juice  (siiri),  which  is 
evaporated  to  make  a  sugar  (jaghery),  one  gallon 
of  suri  yielding  a  pound  of  jagltery.  This  is  five 
times  the  quantity  to  the  gallon  that  is  yielded  by 
the  sugar-maple.  The  suri  is  obtained  by  cutting 
the  spadi.x  of  the  tree  and  collecting  the  juice  in  a 
crock  sus)>ended  from  the  spathe. 

E-vap'o-rom'e-ter.  An  atmometcr  or  Tiijgro- 
scope,  for  ascertaining  the  evaporation  of  liquids. 

The  e.xample  shows  a  self-recording  evaporometer 
or  tide-gage,  adapted  also  for  a  rain-gage  or  to  indi- 
cate the  rise  and  fall  of  any  body  of  water  in  a  river, 
canal,  or  lock,  showing  the  exact  time  at  which  any 
increase  or  reduction  of  level  may  have  occurred. 


Sall^Vttn. 


Evaporometer. 

(I  is  a  time-piece  driving  the  paper  cylinder  7  ;  i  is 
the  carriage  which  carries  the  tracing-pencil  that 
marks  the  paper  on  the  cylinder,  and  is  moved  by 
the  float  which  is  suspended  from  the  card  /  and 
rests  on  the  surface  of  the  water.  The  motion  of  the 
float  is  communicated  by  cord  /  over  small  wheel 
e,  float-wheel  d,  and  pulley  c. 

E'ven-er.  A  double  or  treble  tree,  to  "even" 
or  divide  the 

work  of  pull-  Fig.  1893. 

ing  upon  the 
respective 
horses.  It  is 
swiveledtothe 
pole,  usually 
by  a  bolt  or 
wagon  ham- 
mer, and  has 
clips  on  the 
ends  to  which 
the  middle 
clips  of  the 
single  trees  are 
attached. 

Ev'er-point'ed  Pen'cil.  A  pencil-case  having 
a  fine  cylinder  of  graphite,  which  is  brought  forward 
by  a  screw  as  fast  as  wear  renders  it  necessary. 

Patented  by  Hawkins  and  Jlordan,  England,  1823. 
The  pencil-case  has  a  slider  actuated  by  a  screw  to 
project  a  little  cylinder  of  black-lead  as  the  latter 
wears  away.  The  lead  is  so  small  in  diameter  that 
it  does  not  need  cutting  for  the  nrdinar)-  purposes 
of  a  pencil.  The  projection  of  the  lead  is  "performed 
by  holding  the  nozzle  in  one  hand  and  turning  round 
the  pencil-case  with  the  other. 

A  reservoir  at  the  end  of  the  holder  contains  a 
supply  of  spare  leads. 


Evener. 


EWER. 


814 


EXCAVATOR. 


Bw'er.     A  toilet-pitcher  witli  a  wide  spout. 

Ex'ca-vator.  1.  A  machine  for  digging  earth 
and  icnio\'iiig  it  I'runi  the  hole.  This  dctinition  does 
not  distinguish  the  excavator  from  the  dilchiiy-ma- 
cliine,   auyer,   dredije,   curlh-borei;  pont-lwle  diyi/cr, 


I  etc.     Custom,  however,  confines  the  term  excavator 
to  a  narrower  range. 

The  e.\cavator,  which  is  of  the  nature  of  a  plow, 
with  an  elevating  earth-belt,  is  shown  in  Fig.  18m. 
it  has  adjustment  lor  depth  of  cut,  aud  tlie  dirt  ex- 


Dilch-Excnvator, 


cavated  by  the  hollow  share  is  carried  upwardly  and 
bai'kwarilly  by  the  sliovel-belt  and  dropped  into  the 
cli'.itf,  which  discharges  it  at  the  side  of  the  trench. 
Willard's  exi-avator,  which  lias  been  so  widely  used 
in  making  railway  embankments  in  the  broad  West, 
is  shown  in  fig.  1895.  Its  principal  use  in  practice 
has  been  to  dig  soil  by  the  side  of  the  track  an<l  dump 
it  on  to  the  road,  to  form  a  bed  for  the  ballast  and 
sh'epers.  The  earth  is  scraped  up  by  the  shovel,  car- 
ried between  the  wheel  and  a  traveling  apron,  and 
dropped  into  a  hopper.     When  this  is  lull,  the  ma- 


Fig.  1893. 


WillartPs  Excavator. 

chine  is  drawn  on  to  the  site  of  the  road  and  the 
load  dumped. 

Tlie  excavator  (Fig.  1896)  is  mounted  on  a  carriage 
which  traverses  on  a  temporary  track.  At  one  end  of 
the  frame  is  a  crane,  which  has  a  circular  adjustment 
on  its  axial  post.  To  the  end  of  the  chain-tackle  is 
suspended  a  scoop  made  of  boiler-iron,  whose  lip  is  a 
steel  edge  with  fingers.  Direction  is  given  to  the 
scoop  by  means  of  a  beam  which  may  be  called  the 
scoop-handle,  and  when  the  scoop  has  been  thrust 
by  its  weight  into  the  earth,  the  beam  affords  a  ful- 


crum on  which  the  scoop  rotates  when  the  taclcle- 
chain  is  wound  up  on  the  drum  by  the  action  of  tlie 
steam-engine. 

The  excavated  earth  along  some  parts  of  the  line 
of  the  Suez  Canal  was  transported  by  means  of  a 
|iump.  By  the  aid  of  a  .stcam-punip  water  was 
mixed  with  the  earth  brought  up  by  the  dredge,  ai.d 

Fi«.  1896. 


Chapman's  Excavator. 

the  mud  so  formed  was  spouted  out  upon  both  banks 
of  the  canal  to  such  a  distance  and  in  such  quanti- 
ties as  to  form  high  compact  i-ampaits  against  the 
sand  showers  blowing  in  from  the  desert.  Ninety- 
six  million  cubic  yards  of  earth  have  ln'cn  taken  out ; 
and  there  is  left  to-day  a  canal  90  miles  long.  328 
feet  wide  at  the  surface,  and  74  feet  wide  at  the  bot- 
tom, and  26  feet  deep  throughout.     See  Dkeuging- 

I  MACHINE. 


EXCELSIOR. 


815 


EXHAUST  STEAM. 


The  iPi-actiee  adopted  in  the  United  States,  in 
France,  in  England,  and  Holland  is  to  nii.x  such 
earth  in  sUu  and  pump  it  up,  —  mud,  earth,  sand, 
and  all,  —  and  pour  it  into  lightei-s  or  directly  upon 
the  land  adjacent. 

The  hydraulic  mining  of  California  is  by  means 
of  powerful  jets  of  water  projected  against  the  banks 
of  drift,  the  (blbris  of  former  periods  of  glacial  and 
fluvial  action.  See  Augeu  ;  Ditching-.M-^cui-ne  ; 
Dredgin-g-m.\chike  ;  Sckaper  ;  Well-boui-sg. 

Number  of  Cubic  Feet  of  varioiis  Earths  in  a  Ton. 
Loose  earth     .         .         ■         ■         .24 
Coarse  sand  .         .         .         .         18.6 

Clay 18.6 

Earth  with  gravel  .  .  .  17.8 
Clay  with  gravel  .  .  .  .14.4 
Common  soil        ....         15.6 

2.  A  dentist's  instniraent  for  removing  the  carious 
portion  of  a  tooth.  They  are  of  various  forms  and 
sizes,  straight,  curved,  angular,  and  hooked  ;  and 
may  lie  ciimpared  to  chisels,  gouges,  scropers,  scrap- 
ers:  spear,  hne,  hatchet,  spade  or  spoon  shaped,  etc. 
Ex-cel'si-or.    A  trade  name  for  curled  shreds 

of  wood  used  as  a 
Fig.  1897.  substitute    for 

curled  hair  in 
stuffing  cushions, 
etc. 

It  is  made  in  a 
machine  in  which 
the  bolt  is  pressed 
downward  within 
its  fixed  case  by 
a  weighted  lever, 
and  subjected  to 
the  action  of  the 
scoring  and  plane 
cutters  at  the 
upper  surface  of 
the  horizontal 
rotating  wheel. 

Ex-change'- 
c  a  p .  A  fine 
quality  of  paper 
made  of  new 
stock;  thin, 
highly  calendered,  and  used  for  printing  bills  of 
exchange,  etc. 

Ex  cla-ma'tion.  Sote  of.  A  mark  ( !)  indicat- 
ing emotion  or  pointed  address  ;  as  — 

"Father  of  aU!" 

Ex-e'dra.  {Architecture.)  A  niche  projecting 
beyninl  the  general  plan  of  a  building. 

Ex'er-cis'ing-ap'pa-ra'tus.  An  apparatus  for 
the  use  of  gymnasts,  or  for  the  training  of  special 
muscles.  In  the  example,  the  hand-bar  is  supported 
on  an  adjustable  cord  passing  over  a  spring.  The 
frame  has  two  spring-boards  near  the  floor. 

In  other  instances  the  apparatus  is  intended  for 
the  use  of  those  unable  to  take  walking  exercise. 
The  bedridden  patient  uses  the  arms  to  flex  and 
e.xtend  the  legs  and  keep  the  body  in  motion,  the 
bedstead  rocking  on  its  centers. 

Lounde's  English  patent,  1796,  described  a  gijm- 
nasticon  with  treadles  for  the  feet  and  cranks  for 
the  arms.  It  is  adapted  to  exercise  a  limb  which 
may  have  no  voluntary  motion,  and  may  be  used  by 
a  patient  sitting,  standing,  or  lying. 

Ex-haust'er.  (Gas-mnlcing.)  An  apparatus  by 
which  reflex  pressure  of  ga.s  upon  the  retorts  is  pre- 
vented.    The  forms  arc  various  ;  one  consists  of  a 


Ercelsior-JMdchine. 


Fig.  1893. 


Gymnasts'  Machine., 

device  like  one  form  of  rotary  steam-engine,  which 
has  an  eccentric,  revolving  hub  and  sliding  piston 


Exxmsing-Apparatus. 

in  a  cylindrical  chamber.     It  is  of  the  nature  of  a 
rotary  pump. 

Ex-haust'-fan.  One  in  which  the  circulation 
is  obtained  liy  vncuum,  in  contradistinction  to  that 
which  acts  by  plenum,  forcing  a  body  of  air  into  and 
through  a  chamber  or  passage-way.     See  Blower  ; 

F.\N'. 

Ex-haust'ing-syr'inge.  A  syringe  with  its 
valves  .s^o  arranged  as  to  withdraw  the  air  from  the 
object  to  which  it  is  applied. 

Ex-haust'-port  (Steam-engine.)  Tlie  passage 
leading  from  the  cylinder  to  the  condenser  or  to  the 
open  air. 

Ex-haust'  -  pipe.  One  conducting  the  spent 
steam  from  the  cvliiidcr. 

Ex-haust'-reg'u-lat'or.  A  v.alve  adjusted  to 
the  pressure  of  the  steam  by  compressing  or  relax- 
ing the  spring  held  within  "the  tube,  by  means  of  a 
disk  secureil  to  the  end  of  the  spindle,  the  object 
being  to  utilize  the  exhaust  steam. 

Ex-hatist' Steam.  {.Steam-engine.)  Steam  which 
passes  out  of  the  cylinder  after  ha^•ing  performed 
its  function.  It  is  emitted  by  its  own  pressure  when 
the   exhaust-valve   is  opened,   and   its  ejection  is 


EXHAUST-VALVE. 


816 


EXPANSION-DRUM. 


Exhaitst-  Hf^iilator 


Fig.  1900.  assisted     by     the     advancing 

piston,  which  is  being  driven 
by  tile  live  sfcciiii  beliind  it. 

Ex-haust'-valve.  (Sleam- 
engine.)  The  valve  which 
governs  the  opening  by  which 
steam  is  allowed  to  escape. 
The  cduction-rahe. 

The  valve  in  the  eduction 
passage  of  the  steam  cylinder 
of  a  Cornish  engine,  placed 
between  the  cylinder  and  air- 
pump,  and  worked  by  the 
tappet  motion,  so  as  to  open 
shortly  after  the  eciuilibiinm- 
valve,  and  admit  the  steam  to 
the  condenser. 

Ex-pand'ing-al-loy'. 
Such  as  expands  in  cooling. 
They  always  contain  bismuth, 
and  usually  antimony.  Type- 
metal  is  a  familiar  instance. 
Ex-pand'iiig-ball.  One  having  a  hollow  conical 
base,  allonling  a  relatively  thin  body  of  metal,  which 
is  expanded  by  the  force  of  the  explosion,  driving  it 
closely  against  the  bore  of  the  gun  and  into  the 
riHing,  jireventing  windage. 

Ex-pand'ing-bit  A  boring-tool  whose  diame- 
ter is  adjustable.     See  Arr.Elt ;  Bit. 

Ex-pand'ing-drill.  One  having  a  pair  of  bits 
which  njay  be  diverged  at  a  given  depth  to  widen  a 
liole  at  a  certain  point  ;  used  in  drills  for  metal  and 
for  rock-boriug. 

Ex-pand'ing-man'drel.  One  having  fins  ex- 
pan.sible  in  radial  slots  to  bind  against  the  inside 
surfaces  of  rings,  sleeves,  or  circular  cutters  placed 
thereon. 

Ex-pand'ing-plow.  One  having  two  or  more 
shares,  which  may  he  set  more  or  less  distant,  ac- 
cording to  the  distances  between  the  rows  at  which 
ditl'erent  crops  are  planted. 

Ex-pand'ing-pul'ley.  One  whose  perimeter  is 
made  cxjiansible,  as  a  means  of  varying  the  speed 
of  the  belt  thereon.     See  ExP.\XSIuN-DRUM. 

Ex-pand'ing-ream'er.  One  which  has  a  bit  or 
bits  extensilili'  radially  attiT  entering  a  hole,  so  as 
to  enlarge  the  Iiole  below  the  surface. 

Ex-pan 'sion.  1.  The  expansion  and  contrac- 
tion of  long  beams  from  changes  in  temjierature  is 
shown  by  the  following  table,  which  exhibits  tlie 
extension  dilatation  in  passing  from  32°  to  212°  Fah. 
(0°  to  100°  centigrade). 

The  talde  exhibits  the  expansion  at  212°,  the 
length  of  the  bar  at  32°  =  1. 


Bismuth 

Brass  . 

Co|iper  . 

Bronze 

Gold      . 

Cast-iron    . 

Wrought-iron 

Steel 

Lead       . 

Platinum    . 

Silver     . 

Tin     . 

Zinc 

Brick,  common 

Brick,  fire 

Cement 

Glass  (average) 

Granite 

Marble  . 


1.00139 

1.00216 

1.00181 

1.00184 

1.0015 

1.00111 

1.00125 

1.0011 

1.0029 

1.0009 

1.002 

1.002 

1.00294 

1.00355 

1.0005 

1.00143 

1.0009 

1.0008 

1.0011 


Sandstone 1.0017 

Slate 1.00104 

Pine  (along  the  grain  ;  dry)         .         .  1.000428 
Honduras    Bay  wood  (along  the   grain  ; 

dry) 1.000461 

Water  at  40°  =  1 1.0401 

Air 1.376 

2.  (Shiiibuildivg.)  The  expan.sion  of  the  .skin  of 
a  ship,  or  rather  of  a  net-work  of  lines  on  that  sur- 
face, is  a  process  of  drafting  to  facilitate  the  laying- 
off  of  the  dimensions  and  positions  of  the  ]iieces 
of  which  that  skin  is  to  be  made,  whether  timber 
planks  or  iron  plates. 

It  consists  in  covering  the  surface  with  a  net- 
work of  two  sets  of  covers,  which  cross  each  other 
so  as  to  form  four-sided  meshes  ;  then  conceiving 
the  sides  of  those  meshes  to  be  inextensible  strings, 
and  drawing  the  net-work  as  it  would  appear  if 
spi-ead  flat  upon  a  plane.  By  this  operation,  the 
meshes  are  both  distorted  and  altered  in  area  ;  the 
curves  forming  the  net-work  preserve  their  true 
lengths,  but  not  their  trae  angles  of  intersection  ; 
and  all  other  lines  on  the  surface  are  altered  both  in 
length  and  in  relative  angidar  position. 

The  process  is  applied  to  surfaces  not  truly  de- 
velopable.    See  Development. 

3.  (.9/eajn.)  The  principle  of  working  steam  ex- 
pansively was  discovered  by  Watt,  and  was  the  sub- 
ject-matter of  his  patent  of  17S2.  By  it  the  supply 
of  steam  from  the  boiler  to  the  cylinder  is  cut  off 
when  the  latter  is  only  ]iartially  filled,  the  remainder 
of  the  stroke  of  the  piston  being  completed  by 
the  expiansion  of  the  steam  already  admitted. 

The  work  done  by  a  given  amount  of  steam  is 
greater  when  worked  expansively  than  when  worked 
at  full  pressure,  in  the  following  ratio  :  — 


Point  of 

Mean 

Gain  per 

Point  of 

Mean 

Gain  per 

cutting 

Pre.«8Ure 

Cent 

cutting 

Pressure 

Cent 

off. 

of  Steam. 

in  Power. 

off. 

of  Steam. 

in  Power. 

.1 

3.302 

230. 

.5 

1.693 

69.3 

.125 

3.079 

208. 

.6 

1.507 

50.7 

.166 

2.791 

179. 

.625 

1.47 

47. 

.2 

2.609 

161. 

.666 

1.405 

40.5 

.25 

2.386 

139. 

.7 

1.351 

35.1 

.3 

2.203 

120. 

.75 

1.285 

22.3 

.333 

2.099 

110. 

.8 

1.223 

20.5 

.375 

1.978 

97.8 

.875 

1.131 

13.1 

.4 

1.916 

91.6 

.9 

1.104 

10.4 

No  deductions  are  here  made  for  a  reduction  of 
the  temperature  of  the  steam  while  expanding  or  for 
loss  Ijy  back  pressure. 

Ex-pan'sion-coup'ling;.  The  coupling  repre- 
sented consists  of  an  expansion-drum  of  thin  copper 
X  between  the  extremities  of  two  pipes  a  i,  Fig.  1 901, 
which,  in  elongating,  press  the  sides  of  the  drum 
in,  and  draw  them  out  in  cooling. 

Ex-pan'sion-drum.  An  arrangement  by  which 
an  ciciasioiial  change  of  speed  may  be  effected.  The 
diameter  of  one  of  the  drums  is  ntade  variable,  and 
the  belt  is  kept  strained  by  means  of  the  weighted 
roller  n.     The  part  of  the  c.rpavsioii-driim  marked 

b,  consisting  of  a  boss  and  grooved  arms,  is  keyed 
fast  on  the  shaft ;  on  to  another  portion  of  the  arm 

c,  wdiich  slides  up  and  down,  in  the  groove  of  b,  is 
cast  a  portion  of  the  circumference  of  the  drum  ;  it 
has  also  a  stud  d,  fitting  into  the  curved  slot  of  the 
disk  e,  which  moves  loose  on  the  boss  b,  and  has 
teeth  on  its  circumference  into  which  works  a  pin- 
ion /,  with  ratchet  fixed  to  the  part  b,  and  turned 
with  a  handle.     As  the  disk  is  to  turned  the  right  or 


EXPANSION-GEAR. 


817 


EXPLOSIVES. 


Fig.  1901 


Expansion-Drum  and  Expansion-  Coupling. 

left,  the  studs  move  up  or  down  in  the  curved  slots, 
and  the  diameter  of  the  drum  is  increased  or  dimin- 
ished. 

Ex-pan'sion-gear.  {Steam-engine.)  Tlie  ap- 
paratus by  nliiL-h  acci-ss  of  steam  to  the  cylinder  is 
cut  off  at  a  given  part  of  the  stroke.     A  cut-off. 

A  variable  cut-otf  is  one  whieh  is  capable  of  being 
adjusted  while  tlie  enjjine  is  in  motion,  to  cut  off  at 
any  given  portion  of  the  stroke,  within  a  given 
range,  as  the  requirements  of  the  work  may  indicate. 

A  finxd  expansion  is  one  arranged  to  cut  off  at  a 
determinate  part  of  the  stroke. 

An  aulonialic  expansion  is  one  which  is  regulated 
by  the  governor,  and  varies  with  the  amount  of 
power  rei|uired. 

The  expansion  gear  of  marine  engines  generally 
consists  of  a  graduated  cam  on  the  paddle-shaft, 
against  which  a  roller  presses  and  communicates  the 
movement  peculiar  to  the  irregular  surface  of  the 
cam,  through  a  series  of  rods  and  levers,  to  the  ex- 
pansion-valve situated  between  the  throttle-valve 
ami  the  .slides.      See  KxP.\N"SION-VALVE. 

Ex-pan'sion- joiut.  1.  A  stutfing-hox  joint 
used  when  a  straight  metal  pipe,  wliieh  is  exposed 
to  considerable  variations  of  temperature,  has  no 
elbow  or  curve  in  its  length  to  enable  it  to  expand 
without  injury.  The  end  of  one  portion  slips  within 
the  other  telescopically.     Known  as  a/a»ci;<-joint. 

2.  An  elastic  copper  end  to  an  iron  pipe  to  allow 
it  to  expand  or  contract  without  injury. 

3.  An  attachment  of  a  boiler  in  its  framing  to  allow 
the  former  to  expand  without  afiecting  the  framing. 

Ex-pan'sion-valve.  A  valve  arranged  to  cut 
off  the  connection  between  the  boiler  and  cylinder 

Fig.  1902. 


Expansion  -  Valve  {side  viejc  and  front  I'lVie). 
at  a  certain  period   of  the   stroke  of  the   piston,  in 
order  that  the  steam   may  act  expansively  durino- 
the  remainder  of  the  stroke. 

One  form  of  this  apparatus,  for  marine  engines, 
derives  its  motion  from  the  crank-shaft  of  tlie  en- 
gine, the  valve-s]iinille  being  connected  by  a  series 
of  rods  and  levers  with  a  small  brass  pulley  which 
presses  against  the  periphery  of  a  gi-aduated  cam  on 
52 


the  crank-shaft,  by  which  means  the  steam  is  "cut 
off"  in  the  most  advantageous  manner  at  any  re- 
quired portion  of  the  stroke.     See  Cut-off. 

Ex'ple-tive-stone.  (Masonry.)  One  used  for 
filling  a  varuit)'. 

Ex-plor'er.  An  apparatus  by  which  the  bottom 
of  a  Ijudy  of  water  is  examined,  when  not  beyond 
a  certain  depth. 

In  one  form  it  is  called  a  submarine  telescope  ;  in 
other  forms  it  is  a  diving-bell,  submarine-boat,  etc. 
See   Akmoi:,   Submauine  ;   Diving-bell  ;  Subma- 

lUNE-BOAT  ;    SUBMAEIXE-TELESCOPE. 

Ex-plo'sive-ball.  One  having  a  bursting-charge 
which  is  ignited   on   concussion  or  by  time   fu.se. 

See  Shell. 

Ex-plo'sives.  Gunpowder  was  in  use  as  lar 
back  as  the  twelfth  century,  and  its  composition,  ,as 
shown  by  old  manuscripts,  did  not  dilfer  greatly 
from  the  most  approved  modern  manufacture.  See 
Gun  powder.     , 

BerthoUet  proposed  to  substitute  chlorate  of  pot- 
ash for  saltpeter  in  the  manufacture  of  gunpowder. 
The  explosive  force  was  in  this  way  doubled,  but  it 
was  found  to  explode  too  readily,  and,  at  a  trial  in 
loading  a  mortar,  at  Essonnes,  1788,  the  powder  ex- 
ploded when  struck  by  the  rammer,  blowing  mortar 
and  gunners  to  pieces. 

Fulminates  of  gold,  silver,  and  mercury  were  ex- 
perimented with  in  the  early  part  of  this  century, 
as  substitutes  for  gunpnwiler.  Fulminate  of  mer- 
cury is  obtained  by  dissolving  mercury  in  nitric  acid 
and  adding  a  certain  proportion  of  alcohol  and  salt- 
peter to  the  mixture.  It  is  used  extensively  in  the 
manufacture  of  percussion-caps  and  cartridges,  but 
none  of  the  fulminates  are  likely  to  be  used  in  large 
quantities,  as  being  too  expensive  and  dangeious. 
In  an  experiment  at  Paris,  a  gi-ain  of  fulminateof  gold 
was  placed  on  an  anvil  and  exploded  by  a  Ijlow  from 
a  .sledge,  making  a  dent  in  both  hammer  and  anvil. 

Pyroxyline,  or  gun-cotton,  was  discovered  by 
Schoenbein  in  1846.  It  is  prepared  by  itnniersinc 
cotton  in  a  mixture  of  nitric  and  sulphuric  acid  for 
a  few  minutes,  and  then  washing  and  drying  it.  It 
has  been  experimented  with  l>y  several  liuropean 
nations  in  connection  with  lire-arms,  but  was  found 
to  be  dangerous,  and  to  rapidly  destroy  the  arms  by 
its  excessive  energj-,  and  was  abandoned  by  all  but 
the  Austrians,  who  utilized  the  improvements  of 
Baron  Lenk  in  gun-cotton,  and  have  several  bat- 
teries of  artillery  adapted  to  use  the  improved  com- 
po.sition.  Abel's  English  gun-cotton  is  now  used 
for  petards  and  in  mining.  8evei-al  compounds 
based  on  gun-cotton  are  used  in  the  arts,  as  in 
collodion  for  photography,  surgery,  etc. 

Nitro-glycerine,  which  is  pure  glycerine  treated 
with  nitric  acid,  was  discovered  by  the  Italian 
chemist  Sobrero  in  1847,  but  was  very  little  used 
until  1863,  when  it  was  utilized  by  Nobel  for  blast- 
ing. The  explosive  energj'  of  this  compound  is 
given  as  from  four  to  thirteen  times  that  of  riHe 
powder.  By  an  explosion  of  a  few  cans  of  this 
material  on  the  wharf  at  Aspinwall  in  1866,  a 
considerable  portion  of  the  town  w'as  destroyed, 
shipping  at  some  distance  in  the  harbor  much 
damaged,  and  a  numlier  of  lives  were'  lost.  An 
explosion  of  a  storehouse  containing  some  hundreds 
of  pounds  of  nitro-glycerine  took  place  at  Fairport, 
Ohio,  in  1870,  accompanied  with  much  loss  of  life. 
The  shock  was  felt  at  Butl'alo,  160  miles  distant. 

Nobel,  in  1867,  invented  a  compound  called 
dynamite,  which  consists  of  three  parts  nitro- 
glycerine and  one  part  of  porous  earth.  Dynamite 
is  supposed  to  be  safe  against  explosion  from  con- 
cussion or  pressure.     See  Dynamite. 


EXSECTION-APPARATUS. 


818 


EXTENSION-LADDER. 


Dualine  ditlV-rs  from  dyuaniite  in  the  employment 
of  sawdust  witli  ziitro-glyceriue,  instead  of  earth  or 
silii'a.     See  Dualin. 

Piorate  of  potash  is  a  yellow  salt,  extremely  explo- 
sive, formed  from  potassium,  by  the  action  of  picric 
acid,  a  product  of  the  distillation  of  coal-tar.  It  was 
experimented  with  by  the  French  War  Departnu'nt  to 
some  extent,  and  was  demonstrated  to  lie  between 
gunpowder  ami  dynamite  in  its  explosive  force. 

M.  Berthelot  gives,  in  Aimalcs  de  Vhiniic  ct  dc 
PJujsiqaCj  a  table  sliowing  the  relative  force  of  ex- 
plosives. From  this  table  is  deduced  the  following, 
expressed  in  terms  of  our  own  standard  measure- 
ments :  — 


I  Imi  ting-powder 

Oiiniiou  powder 

Hiuiog-jjowder 

Mininfi-po'.vder  with  excess  of  uiter 

PowdiT  with  iiitnitf  of  soda  biu*e. 

Powder  with  iliinrate  of  potash  base 

Chloride  of  iiitrogeu 

Nitro-glyceriue 

(_fun-cotton 

Gun-cotton  mixed  with  nitrate. . . 

Gun-cotton  mixed  with  chlorate.. 

Picric  acid 

Picric  acid  mixed  with  nitrate 

Picric  acid  mixed  with  chlorate. . . 

Picric  acid  mixed  with  oxide  of  lead 

Picric  acid  mixed  with  oxi  Je  of  cop- 
per   

Picric  acid  mixed  with  oxide  of  sil- 
ver  

Picric  acid  mixed  with  oxide  of 
mercury 

Picrate  of  potaish 

Picrate  of  potash  mixed  with  ni- 
trate   

Picrate  of  potash  mixed  \vith  chlo- 
rate   


■hi 

i 

H 

a  fl 

1 

o 

l& 

a  to 

1 

Q'g 

$ 

IlCilt 

Cubic 

units 
147,871 

feet. 
0  216 

140,215 

0  22.5 

117,4li7 

0.173 

150,472 

U.IU 

176,432 

0.248 

224,889 

0.318 

72,784 

0.370 

306,:337 

0.710 

145,337 

0  801 

228,371 

0.484 

327,528 

0.4S4 

160,3119 

0780  1 

223,515 

0.408 

328,909 

0  408 

49,981 

0120 

94,204 

0.270 

60,576 

0.116 

43,762 

0  212 

135,663 

0  585 

197,161 

0.337 

328,449 

0.337 

•3   t^      ■ 
O   O   >^ 

a.  a  — 

•2  MS 
jJ.H  = 

a;  3  a 

S.Sg' 


1 

0.986 
0.633 
0.540 
1.3ii8 
2.225 
0  842 
6.797 
3.636 
3.456 
4..5y4 
3.910 
2  722 
4^198 
0.108 

0.785 

0.208 

0  288 
2.476 

2  059 

3.674 


Fig.  1903. 


Exsection-Apparat  us . 


See  — 
Blasting. 
Blasting-powder. 
Dynamite. 
Fulminate. 
Fuse. 

Gun-cotton. 
Gunpowder. 
Lithofracteur. 
Nitrine. 

JNitro-glycerine. 
Nitroleum. 
Percussion -powder. 

Ex-sec'tion  -  ap'pa- 
ra'tus.  iSiiiyim/.)  A 
splint  orsujiport  to  stifl'en 
and  aid  an  arm  f'lom 
which  a  section  of  bone 
has  been  removed.  In 
the  example,  it  has  a. scap- 
ula or  .sacldlc-pad  which 
forms  a  foundation  for 
the  other  parts,  and 
from  this  ]U'oceed  jointed 
rods  and  elastic  bands, 
which  furni  au.xiliary 
bones  and  muscles.    Thti 


humerus  and  the  forearm  have  rigid  cases  which 
afford  means  of  attacliment  for  the  prosthetic  pai'ts, 
and  the  cases  are  held  to  the  arm  by  Hexiblc  aponeu- 
rotic l)ands  /'  i. 

Ex-tend'ed-let'ter.  (Printbuj.)  One  having 
a  face  l)rnader  than  usual  with  a  letter  of  its  bight. 

Ex-ten'sion-appa-ra'tus.  {Surgical. )  An 
instrument  designed  to  counteract  the  natural  ten- 
dency of  the  muscles  to  shorten  when  a  limb  has 
been  fractured  or  dislocated.  Ordinarily  this  is  done 
by  means  of  a  weight  and  pulley  attached  to  an 
arrangement    surrounding    the    limb    immediately 

Fig.  1904. 


Extension-Apparatus. 

above  the  point  of  fracture  ;  but  in  the  apparatus 
shown  in  Fig.  1904  this  is  elfected  by  screw- 
threaded  rods,  the  lower  one  of  which  carries  a  plate 
applied  beneath  the  sole  of  the  foot  and  attached  by 
a  stiiTup  passing  over  the  instep.  It  is  obvious  that 
this  apparatus  maj-  be  also  ada])ted  to  dislocations 
or  fractures  of  the  humerus  or  forearm.      See   also 

CulTNTER-EXTENSlON. 

Fig.  1905.  Ex-ten'sion-lad'der.   A  ladder 

haviiig  a  niovalile  section,  wliicli  is 
projected  in  i)rolongation  of  the  main 

Fig.  1906. 


Extension- La'lilers 


EXTERIOR-SCREW. 


819 


EYE-INSTRUMENTS. 


section  when  occasion  requires.  A  common  form  is 
shown  in  Fig.  1905,  in  which  the  sections  of  the 
ladder  slide  upon  each  other,  and  the  upper  one  is 
e.xtended  by  chains  which  pass  around  rollers  and 
ai'e  wound  upon  a  windlass  journaled  to  the  lower 
section. 

Another  form  has  a  standing  base  part.  The 
ladder  is  formed  of  jointed  sections,  which  may  be 
folded  together  or  arranged  as  a  self-supporting  lad- 
der. Some  ladders  are  mounted  on  trucks  to  be  used 
iu  emergencies.     SeeFiKE-E.scAPE. 

Some  of  the  Roman  scaling-ladders  were  made  in 
sections  and  put  together  to  form  a  large  ladder. 
Others  of  their  ladders  might  be  elevated  with  a 
mau  on  thi'  top  for  reconnoitering. 

Ex-te'ri-or-screw.  Oue  cut  upon  the  outside 
of  a  stem  or  mandrel,  in  contradistinction  to  one 
wliiise  thread  is  rut  on  an  interior  or  hollow  surface. 

Ex-te'ri-or-slope.  {Fortification.)  The  slope 
of  a  parajict  towards  the  country.  It  is  at  the  foot 
of  the  superior  slope,  and  forms  the  lower  portion  of 
the  rampart  above  the  escarp,  or  the  bcrme,  if  there 
be  one.     .See  P.H'.apet. 

Ex-tin'guish-er.  A  little  cone  placed  on  top 
of  a  burning  caudU'  to  extinguish  the  light.  E.xtin- 
guishers  were  also  formerly  attai'hed  to  the  railings 
of  city  houses  to  enable  the  link-boj's  to  dout  their 
torches. 

Some  lamps  have  attachments  which  may  be  made 
to  clas])  tlu^  exposed  portion  of  the  wick  and  extin- 
guish tlie  liame. 

Ex-tract'or.  {Surgical.)  An  instrument  for 
removing  substances  from  the  body.  See  Bullet- 
forceps,  etc. 

Ex'tra-dos.  The  exterior  curve  of  an  arch, 
measured  on  the  top  of  the  vou.ssoirs  ;  as  opposed 
to  the  sojit  or  intrados. 

Eye.     An  opening  through  an  object ;  as,  — 

1.  {Nautical.)  a.  A  circular  loop  in  a  shroud  or 
rope.  A  worked  circle  or  grommet  in  a  hank,  rope, 
or  sail. 

b.  The  loop  of  a  block-strap. 

c.  The  hole  in  the  shank  of  an  anchor  to  receive 
the  ring. 

2.  {Milling. )  The  hole  in  a  runner  stone  through 
which  the  grain  ])asses  to  be  ground. 

3.  The  hole  throngli  the  center  of  a  wheel,  to  be 
occupierl  by  the  axle,  axis,  or  shaft. 

4.  The  eye  of  a  crank  ;  a  hole  bored  to  receive 
th,!  .shaft. 

5.  A  metallic  loop  on  the  end  of  a  trace,  to  go 
over  the  pin  or  hook  on  the  end  of  a  siugie-tree.  A 
cock-eye. 

6.  {Architecture.)  a.  The  circular  aperture  in  the 
top  of  a  dome  or  cupola. 

b.  The  circle  in  the  center  of  a  volute  scroll. 

c.  A  circular  or  oval  window. 

7.  Tlie  hole  in  the  head  of  an  eye-bolt. 

8.  The  center  of  a  target.     A  bull's-eye. 

9.  The  thread-hole  in  a  needle. 

10.  The  loop  in  which  the  hook  of  a  dress  catches. 
Eye,  Ar'ti-fi'cial.     1.  A  shell  or  segment  of  a 

hollow  sphere,  usually  made  of  enamel,  and  so  in- 
serted as  to  present  the  appearance  of  the  natural  eye. 
Artificial  eyes  made  of  glass  are  found  in  ancient 
Egyjit.      In  the  Abbott  Muse- 
Fig.  1907.  uni  of  Egyjitian  Antiquities, 
New  York,  are  several  wooden 
cats  with  glass  eyes.     One  of 
them  is  but  a  shell,  and  con- 
tains  the  mummy  of  a   eat. 
They  are  from  the  cat-tombs 
of  Sakkarah. 
Artificial  Eye.  In  the  example  (Fig.  1907), 


the  caruncular  portion  of  the  ocular  orbit  has 
nnguinal  depressions  on  each  side  of  the  nasal  ex- 
tremity, so  as  to  establish  harmony  between  the 
circumference  of  the  prosthetic  shell  and  the  organic 
sinuo.sities  when  used  on  either  side. 

2.  (Xautical.)  An  eye  worked  into  the  end  of 
rope,  as  a  substitute  for  a  spliced  eye. 

Eye-bolt.  A  bolt  having  an  eye  or  loop  at  one 
end  for  the  reception  of  a  ring,  hook,  or  rope,  as  may 
be  required.  The  insertion  of  a  closed  ring  into  the 
eye  converts  it  into  a  ring-bolt. 

Eye-cup.     A  cup  for  washing  the  eyeball.     Its 
lip  is  held  firmly  against 
the   open   lid,    and    the  fig.  1908. 

eye-wash  dashed  against 
the  ball,  or  forced  against 
it  by  compressing  the 
reservoir,  as  in  the  ex- 
ample. The  device 
shown  is  also  applicable 
to  the  eyeball  for  the 
purpose  of  preventing  I 
myopia  by  preserving 
the  convexity  of  the 
cornea ;  the  bag  c,  being 
partially  exhausted,  is 
allowed  to  expand  after 
the  eilges  of  tlie  ••ups  are  seated  upon  the  eye-balls. 

Eye-ex'tdr-pa'tor.  A  surgical  instrument  for 
removing  the  eye. 

Putting  out  the  eyes  has  long  been  a  common 
Oriental  punishment.  The  eyes  of  Zedekiah  were 
put  out  by  Nebuchadnezzar.  Xenophon  states  that 
in  the  time  of  the  younger  Cyrus  the  practice  was 
so  common  that  the  blinded  men  were  a  common 
s]iectacle  on  the  highways.  The  Kurds  and  Turke- 
stan hordes  yet  blind  their  aged  prisoners. 

Eye-glciss.  1.  {Ojitics.)  The  glass  nearest  to  the 
eye  of  those  fonning  the  combination  eye-piece  of  a 
telescope  or  microscope.  The  other  glass,  nearer  to 
the  object-glass,  is  called  tlie  Jicld-giass.  See  Nega- 
tive Eye-piece. 

2.  A  pair  of  glasses  to  aid  the  sight ;  usually  worn 
by  clasping  the  bridge  of  the  nose.  They  are  of 
various  shapes,  a  b  c  d.  The  watchmaker's  or  en- 
graver's eye-glass  c  has  a  horn  frame  and  a  single 

Fig.  1909. 


Eye -Cups. 


lens.  Its  flaring  edge  is  retained  within  the  ocular 
orbit  by  the  muscular  contraction  of  the  eyelids. 

Eye-head'ed  Bolt.  A  form  of  bolt  having  an 
eye  at  the  head  end.  It  is  intended  for  securing 
together  two  objects  at  right  angles,  — as  a  gland  to 
a  stuffing-box,  etc.     See  Bolt. 

Eye-in'stru-ments. 


Operative. 
Cataract-knife. 
Cataract-needle. 
Couching-instrument. 


Ectropium. 
Eiitro]iium. 
Entropium-forceps. 
Eye-cup. 


EYE-LENS. 


820 


EYE-SPLICE. 


Eye-extirpator. 

Eye-forceps. 

Eyelid-ililator. 

Eye-prott'ctor. 

Eye-spec  11  hull. 

Eye-syringe. 

Iriankistrium. 

I  ridectoiuy -instrument. 

Keratome. 

Lachrymal-duct  dilator. 

Pterygium. 

Strabismus-forceps. 

Strabismus-scissors. 

Examinative. 
Auto-opthalmoscope. 


Iridioscope. 

Opsionieter. 

Ophthalmometer. 

Ophthalmoscope. 

Ophthalmo.state. 

Prosthetic. 
Eye.     Artitieial 
Pupil.     Artificial 

Optical. 
Eye-glass. 
Goggles. 
Shades. 
Spectacles. 

See  Optical  Instru- 
ments. 


Fig.  1911. 


Eye-lens.  That  one  of  the  four  lenses  in  an 
eye-piiTc  which  is  nearest  to  the  eye.  Tlie  eye-piece. 
Eye'Iet.  A  short  metallic  tube  whose  ends  are 
flanged  over  against  the  surfaces  of  the  object  in 
which  the  said  tube  is  inserted.  It  is  used  as  a 
bushing  or  reinforce  for  holes  to  prevent  the  tearing 
of  the  perforated  edge  of  the  fobric  or  material  by 
the  lacing. 

Eyelets  are  made  from  .strips  of  metal  by  a  cutting 
and  punching  operation,  or  punching  and  shaping. 
In  the  example,  the  strip  of  eyelet  metal  is  for- 
warded by  the  grasjiing  jaws  of  a  reciprocating 
lever,  between  the  dies  which  form  frusto-conical 
recesses,  preliminary  to  annealing  and  punching. 

Eye'let-eer'.  A  stab- 
fig.  1910.  ^  hing  instrUTuent  of  the 
work-table,  to  pierce 
eyelet-holi.'s.  A  stilettn. 
Eye'let-ing-ma- 
chine'.  A  machine  for 
attaching  eyelets  to  gar- 
ments or  other  objects. 

The  guide-pin  within 
the  punch  takes  the  eye- 
lets from  the  mouth  of 
tlie  feeding-chute  B,  said 
pin  being  subjected  to  the 
action  of  a  spring  having 
a  tendency  to  force  it 
out  of  the  punch.  When 
pushed  in,  the  guide-pin 
is  retained  by  a  spring- 
catch  which  is  automat- 
ically released  as  often 
as  the  punch  reaches  its  highest  position.  The  fric- 
tion-spring retains  the  eyelets  on  the  guide-pin  till 
the  puncli  forces  them  otf.  The  anvil  /  has  a  pro- 
jecting point,  and  is  surrounded  by  an  elastic  tabu- 
lar bed,  so  that  the  material  to  be  eyeleted,  on  being 
forced  over  the  point,  is  pierced  and  then  sopporteil 
by  the  elastic  bed,  which  olTers  sufficient  resistance 
to  permit  the  eyelet  to  be  forced  through  the  hole. 


Etjflct-making  Machine. 


Etjeleting-Machine. 


Eye'let-punch.  A  device  used  at  the  desk  for 
attaching  jiapers  together  by  eyeleting.  It  has  usu- 
ally a  hollow  punch  for  making  a  hole,  and  a  die- 
punch  to  upset  the  llamie  of  the  eyelet. 

Eye'let-set'ting  Ma-chine'.  See  Eveleting- 
M.\cniNE. 

Eye-piece.  (Optics.)  An  cye-jriccc,  or  paicei;  as 
it  is  sometimes  called,  is  the  lens  or  combination  of 
lenses  used  in  microscopes  or  telescopes  to  examine 
the  aerial  image  formed  at  the  focus  of  the  object- 
glass.  —  BllANDE. 

Kye-pieces  may  be,  — 

1.  Positive  (Kamsdens). 

2.  Negative  (Huyghenian). 

3.  Diagonal. 

4.  Solar  (Dawes). 

.'i.    Terrestrial  or  ercctinq. 

Eye-piece  Mi-crom'e-ter.  A  graduated  slip 
of  gla.ss  introduced  through  slits  in  the  eye-piece 
tube,  so  as  to  occupy  the  center  of  the  field.  Adapt- 
cil  liv  Jackson. 

Eye-rim.  A  circular  single  eye-glass,  adapted 
to  lie  held  to  its  place  by  the  contraction  of  the  or- 
bilal  muscles. 

Eye-spec'u-lum.  (Surgical.)  An  instrument 
for  dilating  the  eyelids, 


to  expose  the  e.xterior 
|ioi-tions  of  the  eye  and 
its  adjuncts. 

Eye-splice.  (Nau- 
tical.\  A  splice  made 
by  turning  the  end  of 
a  rope  back  on  itself 
and  splicing  the  end  to 
the  standing  part,  leav- 
ing a  loop. 


Fig.  1912. 


Eye-Spttulum. 


FABRIC. 


821 


FABRIC. 


F. 


Pab'ric.  A  cloth  made  by  weaving  or  felting. 
Tlie  various  names  are  derived  from  material,  text- 
ure, fineness,  mode  of  weaving,  color,  mode  of  col- 
oring, surface-finisliing,  place  of  manufacture,  etc. 

''  Each  gloosy  cloth,  and  drape  of  niautle  warm. 
Receives  th'  impression  :  ev'ry  airy  woof, 
Cheyney,  and  baize,  and  serge,  and  alepine, 
Tammy,  and  crape,  and  the  long  countless  list 
Of  woolen  webs." 

DVEB,  The  Fleece,  1757. 

The  following  list  includes  the  names  of  the  prin- 
cipal varieties  of  fabrics,  except  those  of  merely  fan- 
ciful and  ephemeral  nature  :  — 


Abee. 
Aditis. 
Aerophane. 
Agabanee. 
Alpaca. 
Anabasses. 
Anacosta. 
Anagaripola. 
Angola. 
Arbaccio. 
Arlienanse. 
Armozine. 
Amiure. 
Atlas. 
Baetas. 
Baft. 
Baftas. 
B;igging. 
Baize. 
Balmoral . 
Baluster. 
Balzarine. 
Bandanna. 
Bandanuois. 
Bangra. 
Barege. 
Barmillians. 
Barracan. 
Barrage. 
Barras. 
Barretees. 
Batiste. 
Barutine. 
Bauge. 
Beaver. 
Beaverteen. 
♦Bengal. 
Bengal-stripes. 
Bergamot. 
Bezan. 

Binding-cloth. 
Birrus. 
Blaucard. 
Blanket. 
Blunk. 
Bobbinet. 
Bocasine. 
Booking. 
Bombazine. 
Bonten. 
Book-muslin. 
Bootee. 
Boquin. 
Boi-ders. 
Borel. 


Boshah. 

Braid. 

Breluche. 

Brilliant. 

Broadcloth. 

Brocade. 

Brocatelle. 

Buckram. 

Buke-muslin. 

Bunting. 

Burdett. 

Bui-lap. 

Cacharado. 

Cadence. 

Calfa. 

Calamanco. 

Calico. 

Cambayes. 

Cambria. 

Camlet. 

Camptulieon. 

Caniiequin. 

Cangan. 

Cantaloon. 

Canton  flannel. 

Cantoon. 

Canvas. 

Carpet. 

Cashmere. 

Cashmerette. 

Cassimere. 

Cassimerette. 

Castor. 

Cauthee. 

Chainwovk. 

Challis. 

Chambray. 

Charkana. 

Check. 

Check-mak. 

Chendle. 

China-giuss  cloth. 

Chinchdla. 

Chine. 

Chintz. 

Chitarah. 

Cloth. 

Coburg-cloth. 

Cog-ware. 

Collar-check. 

Coothay. 

Cordillas. 

Corduroy. 

Cossas. 

Cotillion. 


Cottonade. 

Crape. 

Ciape-morette. 

Crash. 

Crepon. 

Creijuillas. 

Crinoline. 

Cristale. 

Cut-velvet. 

Damask. 

Damask-satin. 

Damassin. 

De  bege. 

De  lauie. 

Demyostage. 

Denim. 

Diaper. 

Diaphane. 

Dimity. 

Doeskin. 

Doily. 

Domestic. 

Domett. 

Dooriahs. 

Dorsel. 

Dorsour. 

Dowlas. 

Drab. 

Drabbets. 

Drap  d'ete. 

Dreadnaught. 

Drill. 

Drugget. 

Ducape. 

Duck. 

Duffels. 

Duroy. 

Duttees. 

Elastic-goods. 

Empress-cloth. 

Farandams. 

Felted  cloth. 

Fearnaught. 

Fernandina. 

Fiiigroms. 

Flannel. 

Floor-cloth. 

Foulanl. 

Foundation-muslin. 

Frieze. 

Fustian. 

Gabarage. 

Gala. 

Galloon. 

Gambroon. 

Gauze. 

Gaze-a-blutoir. 

Gimp. 

Gingham. 

Gobelins. 

Golpathen. 

Gorgonelle. 

Gossamer. 

Grass-cloth. 

Grenadine. 

Giogiam. 

Gros. 

Gunny. 

Hair-cloth. 


Holland. 

Huckaback. 

Hum-hum. 

India-rubber  cloth. 

Ingrain. 

Jaconet. 

Jamdari. 

Janus-cloth. 

Japanese  silk. 

Jean. 

Jemmy. 

Kalmuck. 

Kennets. 

Keper. 

Kersey. 

Kei'sej-msre. 

KomiKjw. 

Lace  (varieties,  see  Lace). 

Lapping. 

Lasting. 

Lawn. 

Leno. 

Levantine. 

Linen. 

Linsey. 

List. 

Lockram. 

Long-cloth. 

Loonghie. 

Lustring. 

Lutestring. 

Mail-net. 

Marabout. 

Marseilles. 

Marsella. 

Match-cloth. 

Matdng. 

Jledley-cloth. 

Melton. 

Merino. 

Milled  cloth. 

Millinet. 

Mixed  fabrics. 

Mohair. 

Moire. 

Moleskin. 

Moquette. 

Moreen. 

Mozambique. 

Mull-muslin. 

JIungo. 

Muslin. 

Muslin  de  laine. 

Muslinet. 

Nacarat. 

Kainsook. 

Nankeen. 

KaiTow-cloth. 

Neigelli-cloth. 

Net. 

Nettle-cloth. 

Oil-cloth. 

Oiled  silk. 

Oil-skin. 

Organdie. 

Organzine. 

Orleans-cloth. 

Osnaburg. 

Pack-cloth 


FACADE. 


822 


FACE-WHEEL. 


Padesoy. 
Paliimpoor. 
Panne. 

Paper-muslin. 
Paramatta-cloth. 
Pennistone. 
Percale. 
Petersham. 
Pile. 
Pillow. 
Pilot-cloth. 
Pique. 
'Piiniee. 
Plaiil. 
Plain-back. 
Platilla. 
Plonket. 
Plunieta. 
Plush. 
Poldway. 
Polemit. 
Polimita. 
Pongee. 
Poplin. 
Pou-Je-soy. 
Poulon. 
Poyal. 
Princettas. 
Print. 
Pruiiello. 
Pucklie. 
Punjnm. 
Purdah. 
Kattanas. 
Ratteen. 
Ravens-duck. 
Razago. 
Ribbon. 
Romal. 
Rubber. 
Rubber-cloth. 
Rug. 
Rugging. 
Ruinswizzle. 
Russia-duck. 
Sacking. 
Sagathy. 
Sail-cloth. 
Sarsnet. 
Satin. 
Satinet. 
Satin-jean. 
Say. 
Sayette. 
Seehand. 
Selvage. 
Sendal. 
Serge. 
Sergette. 


Shag. 

Shalli. 

Shalloon. 

Sheeting. 

Shirred  goods. 

Shirting. 

Shoddy. 

Shot-silk. 

Silesia. 

Silk. 

Silk-shag. 

Sof. 

Soocey. 

Spinel. 

Stripe. 

Stuff. 

Swansdown. 

Swiss-muslin. 

Tabaret. 

Tabby. 

Taffety. 

Tambour. 

Tammy. 

Tape. 

Tapestry. 

Tarletan . 

Tarpaulin. 

Tartan. 

Terry-labric. 

Tliibet-cloth. 

Thickset. 

Ti(^king. 

Tiekenbergh. 

Tiffany. 

Tinsel. 

Tissue. 

Tobine. 

Toilenet. 

Tournay. 

Toweling. 

Trellis. 

Tufted  fabric. 

Tulle. 

Tweed. 

Twill. 

Unions. 

Vadmel. 

Velours. 

Velvet. 

Velveteen. 

Verona-serge. 

Vessets. 

Vitry. 

Wadmal. 

Watered  goods. 

Wincy. 

Wire-gauze. 

Yasmas. 

Yergas. 


Fa-cade'.  (Archilcdure.)  The  front  or  face  view 
of  a  building. 

Face.  Tlie  front,  exposed,  principal,  dressed, 
or  effective  surface  of  an  object.  The  surface  from 
which  others  are  laid  oft'  or  tried,  and  by  which 
they  are  tested  as  to  angle  or  proportions. 

1.  (Horology.)  The  dial  of  watch,  clock,  com- 
pass-card, or  counting-register. 

2.  {Architecture. )  a.  The  front  or  broad  side  of 
a  building.     The  fcu;ade.     The  front  of  a  wall. 

b.  The  surface  of  a  stone  exposed  on  the  face  of  a 
wall.  The  .sides  are  flanks,  the  upper  and  lower 
surfaces  are  becls. 

c.  The  front  of  an  arch  showing  the  vertical  sur- 
faces of  the  outside  row  of  voussoirs. 


3.  (Fortification.)  One  of  the  parts  which  form  a 
salient  angle,  projecting  towards  the  country.  See 
Bastion. 

4.  (Carpentry.)  a.  The  front  of  a  jamb  presented 
towards  the  room. 

h.  The  sole  of  a  plane. 

5.  (Forging.)  a.  The  working  portion  of  a  ham- 
mer-head. 

b.  The  flat  jiart  of  an  anvil. 

6.  (Ordnance.)  The  surface  of  metal  at  the  muzzle 
of  a  gun. 

7.  (Steam-engineering.)  a.  The  flat  jiart  of  a 
slide-valve  on  which  it  moves. 

b.  The  flat  portion  on  a  cylinder  forming  a  seat  for 
a  valve. 

8.  (Gearing.)  That  part  of  the  acting  surface  of 
a  cog  which  projects  beyond  the  pitch  line.  The 
portion  within  that  limit  is  the  flank. 

9.  (Grinding.)  That  portion  of  a  lap  or  wheel 
which  is  employed  in  grinding,  be  it  the  edge  or  the 
disk. 

10.  (Printing.)  The  inked  .surface  of  a  type.  The 
character  of  the  face  for  size,  style,  and  jiroportious 
gives  the  name  to  the  type.  As  to  pro]jortions,  it 
may  be  standard,  extended,  compressed,  heavy, 
light,  etc. 

11.  The  edge  of  a  cutting  instrument. 
Face-ham'mer.    One  with  a  Hat   face,  as  dis- 
tinct from  one  having  pointed  or  edged  ^jCCTiS. 

Face-guard.  A  mask  with  windows  for  the 
eyes,  ada]}ted  to  the  use  of  persons  exposed  to  great 
heat,  as  in  glass-houses,  forging  heavy  works,  and 
in  the  various  metallurgic  farnace  operations. 

Also  for  workmen  exposed  to  flying  particles  of 
metal  or  stone. 

Colin,  an  oculist  of  Breslau,  made  an  estimate  of 
•the  number  of  workmen  in  metal  who  had  lieen 
injured  by  flying  pieces,  and  found  that  among 
1,283  workmen,  90  ]ier  cent  had  suffered  to  some 
extent ;  40  per  cent  had  been  under  medical  treat- 
ment ;  59  were  permanently  injured  ;  21  had  lost 
one  eye.     He  introduced  mica  spectacles. 

Face-joint.  That  joint  of  a  voussoir  which  ap- 
pears on  tlie  face  of  the  ai'ch. 

Face-piece.  (Sliipbnilding.)  A  piece  of  wood 
wrought  on  the  forepart  of  the  knee  of  tlie  head. 

Face-plan.  (.Irchilcctaral  draioing.)  The  prin- 
ci]ial  or  fiDut  elevation. 

Face-plate.  ( Turn  ivg. )  A  plate  screwed  on  to 
the  spindle  of  a  lathe,  and  affording  a  means  of  at- 
tacliing  the  work  to  be  turned  ;  or  a  pla('e  of  at- 
tachment for  a  pin  which  comes  against  tlie  dog  or 
driver  on  the  woi'k  and  iui]iarts  rotation  to  tlie  latter. 

A  true  jilane  for  testing  a  dressed  surface. 

Fac'et.  A  little  face.  One  of  the  small  planes 
which  form  the  sides  of  a  natural  crystal  ;  of  a  cut 
diamond  or  other  gem  ;  of  a  cut-glass  ornament  or 
vessel.  The  facets  of  diamonds  are  known  as  skew 
or  skill  facets  and  sirtr-facets.  Upper  skill-facets 
are  wrought  in  the  lower  part  of  the  bezel,  and  termi- 
nate in  the  girdle  ;  under  .skill-facets  are  wrought  on 
the  pavilions,  and  terminate  in  the  girdle.  Stai-- 
facets  are  wrought  on  the  bezels  and  terminate  in 
the  table.      See  HliILLIANT. 

Face-wall.     (Building.)     The  front  wall. 

Face-Twlieel.  This  is  another  name  for  a  crown 
or  coiitrate  wheel,  which  has  cogs  projecting  from 
the  periiihery  at  right  angles  to  the  plane  of  motion. 
Tlie  term  is  applicable  to  a  wheel  wliose  face  rather 
than  its  perimeter  is  made  eflective,  as  in  the  cog- 
wheels cited  and  in  the  annexed  illustration,  which  is 
the  ground -wheel  of  a  harvester.  The  term  is  al.so 
applied  to  a  wheel  whose  disk-face  is  adapted  for 
grinding  and  polishing.     A  lap. 


FACIA. 


823 


FAIENCE. 


Fig.  1913. 


a  b  c  d  are  fagots  for  beams. 

e  f  are  fagots  for  railway  rails  in  which  the  portions 
are  of  stee!,  which  becouies  the  tread,  as  in  ^.  e  is 
all  bar,  /  has  a  portion  of  old  rails,  cut  and  built 
into  the  fagot. 

h  i  are  also  fagots  for  beams  with  steel  faces, 
also  Beam. 

2.  A  buinlle  of  staves.     A  sJiool'. 

3.  A  bundle  of  brush-wood.   A  fascine. 
also  G.iEiux  ;  Dike  :  Filling. 


Fa'ci-a.  {ArchUcclure.)  k  flat  band  projecting 
slightly  from  the  general  surface. 

An  architrave  may  have  several  different  faces, 
termed  ficia.^. 

Pac'ing.     An  exterior  covering  or  sheathing. 

1.  {Ili/flraulic  Enijiiii'cring.)  a.  Protection  for  the 
ex]x)sed  faces  of  sea-walls  and  embankments. 
Several  different  kinds  are  used,  according  to  the 
facilities  aud  means. 

Earth-work.  Thatch-wood  work. 

Turfing  or  sodding.        WharHng. 
Pile  and  stone  work.      Stone-walls. 

b.  A  layer  of  soil  over  the  puddle,  upon  the  sloping 
sides  of  a  canal. 

2.  (Founding.)  Powder  applied  to  the  face  of  a 
mold  which  receives  the  metal. 

The  object  is  to  give  a  Hne  smooth  .surface  to  the 
casting. 

The  facing  consists  of  various  materials,  economy 
and  the  de.scription  of  casting  being  taken  into  con- 
siileration. 

Meal  dust  or  waste  flour. 

Powdered  chalk. 

Ashes  of  wood  or  tan. 

Charcoal  dust. 

Loam-stone  powder. 

Kottenstone  powder. 

An  ei^uivalent  eliect  is  produced  by  depositing  a 
layer  of  snot  upon  a  metallic  pattern  by  smoking  it 
in  a  fire  of  cork  shavings,  or  of  resin  burned  in  an 
iron  laiUe,  or  in  the  flame  of  a  link  or  a  lamp. 

3.  The  front  covering  of  a  bank  by  means  of  a  wall 
or  other  structure  to  enable  it  to  be  made  steeper 
than  the  natural  talus  of  the  material. 

4.  The  covering  of  brick  or  rough  stone-work 
with  fine  masonry,  such  as  sawed  freestone  or  mar- 
ble. 

Fac'ing-brick.  {Building.)  Front  or  pressed 
briek. 

Fag'ot.  1.  (Mctol.)  A  bundle  of  scrap  or 
wrouglit-iron  for  working  over. 

It  is  usually  a  bunch  or  pile  of  bars  wedged  to- 
gether in  a  hoop.  If  it  be  large,  a  round  bar  in  the 
center  is  surrounded  by  the  shorter  ones  and  fonns 
a  porter  by  which  the  fagot  is  guided  to  and  from 
the  furnace  ami  underneath  the  hammer. 

Scrap  is  aUo  fagoted  for  heating  in  the  reverberat- 
ing furnace,  for  tilting,  or  for  re-rolling. 

In  fagoting  iron  for  rolling  into  beams,  respect 
must  be  had  to  the  disposition  of  the  piece.s,  so  as 
to  bring  the  iron  of  the  tread,  soffit,  and  web  into 
the  most  judicious  arrangement  for  the  strain  it  will 
be  required  to  bear. 


Fig.  1915. 


Fagots. 

Fag'ot-ed  I'ron  Pur'nace.  (MdalJurgy.)  A 
form  of  furnace  adajited  for  .scra|i  and  bar  cut  up  and 
fagi'ted  tor  reheating  and  re-rolling. 

Fag-ot'to.    (Music.)    An  instrament  with  a  reed 
an<l       mouth-piece      like      the 
clarionet,    and    resembling    the 
liassoon. 

The  alto-fagotto  has  a  compass 
of  three  octaves,  commencing 
with  C  in  the  second  space,  base 
clef  ;  continuing  to  the  C  second 
ledger  line  above  the  treble 
staff  with  their  intermediate 
semitones.  It  has  seven  keys 
and  key-holes,  three  on  the  op- 
jiosite  side  to  that  represented. 

Fahr'en-heit.  The  kind  of 
therniometer  used  in  England 
and  the  Tnited  States,  and  named 
after  the  inventor.  It  diff'ers 
from  the  Celsius,  or  centigrade, 
and  the  Reaumer.  See  TnEnMn:«ETF.r,. 
Centijrmde, 


r^ 


Fah. 

Boiling  -water  .  212° 
Freezing  .  .  32 
Fai'ence.    {Potter;/.) 


or  Celsius.  Reaumer. 

]  fi(V  80° 

n  0 

A  fine  kind  of  pottery 
named  from  Faenza,  in  Romagna.  It  was  originally 
made  in  imitation  of  majolica,  and  aftei-wards 
acriuired  some  charactenstics.  Delft  afterwards  be- 
came celebrated  for  the  manufacture  of  faience. 
This  ware,  having  passeil  through  the  fire,  preserves 
a  certain  amount  of  porosity,  and  is  then  covered 
with  a  glaze. 

The  diflerent  kinds  of  faience  are  produced  by  the 
use  of  common  or  of  fire  clay ;  the  admixture  of 
sand  with  the  clay,  as  in  Persian  ware  ;  the  use  of  a 
transparent  or  of  a  colored  glaze  ;  of  an  opaque  or 


FAINTS. 


824 


FAN. 


translucent  enamel  ;  and  by  a  combination  of  these 
processes  on  the  same  piece. 

Faints.  (Di^til/ini/.)  The  later  results  of  dis- 
tillation of  (tvevA,  of  low  specific  gravity,  and  reserved 
for  reiUstiUatiun. 

Fair-lead'er.     A  guiile  for  a  rope.     It  may  be  a 
Fiir  1916  *''''"'''''■  cringle,  or  sheave. 
<^-^         A  ]>erforated   board,    tlirouf;li    whose   re- 
)  oj    spective  holes  tlie  various  nipcs  of  running- 
■^—^     riggini;  iuv  mve  to  kee|j  them  distinct. 

iPair-leath'er.     {Leather-manufacture. ) 
Leatlier  Hnisheil  in  the  natural  color  or  that 
imparted  by  the  tanning  process  ;  fi'ee  from 
any  s|ieeial  coloring,  —  black,  for  instance. 
Fake.     A  winding  or  coil  of  a  rope  or 
hawser.      In  the  coil  the  fakes  are  a  heli.x, 
and  a  range  or  layer  of  fakes  form.s  a  tier. 
WIk'U   the  rope   is  arranged   to  run    free 
when  let  go,  as  in   rocket-lines,   it  is  dis- 
posed in  (Kirallel  bends  of  one  fathom  each. 
Fal'chion.    (IVcapun.)    A  sword  in  use 
in  tin'  13tli  century,   with  a  broad   blade 
wi'lening  towards-  the  point,  the  edge  con- 
Fair-      Yyy^ 

Uader.  pal'con.  An  old-time  piece  of  ord- 
nance, about  7  feet  long,  having  a  bore  of  3  inclies, 
and  throwing  a  3-pound  ball. 

Fal'co-net.  An  old  jiiece  of  ordnance,  small- 
er than  a  falcon,  throwing  a  ball  of  IJ  pounds 
weight. 

Fald-stool.  A  folding  stool,  or  backless  seat. 
It  is  as  old  as  liameses,  ami  is  now  connuonly  calleil 
a  camp-stool.      Faldistorii. 

Fall.  1.  That  part  of  the  rope  in  hoisting-tackle 
to  which  power  is  applied.  One  end  of  the  rofie 
is  attached  to  a  poiut  of  support,  say  a  hook  or  an 
eye  below  the  upper  liloek  of  the  tackh',  and  is  then 
rove  through  tlie  blocks  ;  the  end  carried  to  the 
winch,  capstan,  crab,  or  other  hoisting-engine,  is 
the  fall . 

2.   The  amount  of  descent  in 


given  distance  ; 


as,  ■ 


Fig.  1917. 


a.  Tlie  vertical  [litch  of  water  at  a  mill. 
6.   The  inclination  of  a  water-course. 
Large  and  deep  rivers  run  swiftly  with  a  fall  of  1 
foot  per  mile,  or  1  in  ."),000. 

Smaller  rivers  and  branches  require  double  the 
fiiU,  or  2  feet  per  mile,  1  in  2,500. 

Small  brooks  liardly  keep  an  open  course  under 
4  feet  per  mile,  or  1  in  1,200. 

Ditches  and  cov- 
ered drains  require 
8  feet  per  mile,  or  1 
in  600. 

Furrows  of  ridges 
and  open  drains  re- 
quire a  still  greater 
fall. 

Fall  and  Tack'- 
le.  The  fall  is  the 
pulling  -  end  of  the 
rope  ;  the  tai'kle  is 
the  blocks  with  the 
rope  rove  through 
them.  See  Block  ; 
Tackle;    Pur- 

CH.VSF.. 

Fall-block 
Hook.  A  hook  D 
for  a  davit-fall  block 
A  B  released  by  the 
action  of  the  cord  1 
and  link  H,  when 
Dacii-Fali-Block  Hook.  the    boat    has    de- 


scended a  certain  distance,  the  end  of  the  rope  /  be- 
ing secured  on  deck.     There  are  other  forms.     See 

D.WIT. 

Pall'er.  1.  (CoUon-manvfaclure.)  The /aHcr  is 
an  arm  on  a  mulc-carriaije,  oi)ei'ating  the  fallc.r- 
iinre,  whose  duty  it  is  to  depress  the  yarns  when 
the  carriage  is  about  to  run  back,  in  order  that  the 
yarns  may  begin  to  wind  on  at  the  bottom  of  tlie 
eo/i  and  be  regularly  distributed  thereon  as  the 
faller-wire  is  raised.  See  MuLii.  The  counlerfallcr 
is  another  wir'c  beneath  the  yarns,  and  counter- 
weighted  to  keep  them  taut. 

2.  {Flax-manufacture.)  A  bar  in  the  flax-spread- 
ing machine,  having  attaidied  a  number  of  vertical 
needles,  forming  a  comb  or  (lilh.  A  qill-bar.  The 
office  of  the  cjills  is  to  simulate  the  action  of  the 
human  fingers  in  detaining  to  some  extent  the  line 
as  it  passes  to  the  drawing-roller.     See  Shre.\dek. 

The  term  fuller  is  derived  from  the  motion,  the 
ejill  being  raised  and  lowered  so  as  to  alternately 
detain  and  relea.se  the  line. 

Fall'er-wrire.  1.  A  horizontal  bar  by  which  the 
rovings,  slubbings,  or  yarn  are  depressed  below  the 
points  of  the  inclined  sjiindles  in  a  slubbiiig-machine 
or  vmle,  in  order  that  they  may  be  wound  into  cops 
upon  the  spindle  in  the  backward  motion  of  the 
bilb/,  or  7»«/c-carriage,  as  the  ease  may  be.  See 
Sluebing-machine  ;  Mule. 

2.  A  device  in  the  silk-doubling  machine  for 
stopping  the  motion  of  the  liobbin  if  the  thread 
break.  The  wire  is  hung  by  its  eyelet  end  to  the 
thread,  and  with  the  breakage  of  the  latter  falls 
upon  the  lighter  arms  of  a  balance-lever  and  ac- 
tuates a  detent. 

False.  A  term  nsed  as  to  constructions,  or  parts 
of  a  temporary  or  supplemental  character. 

False-core.  {Founcliiiff.)  A  part  of  a  pattern 
which  is  used  in  the  uiulcreut  part  of  a  mold,  and  is 
not  withdrawn  with  the  main  part  of  the  pattern, 
but  removed  by  a  lateral  draft  sul)sei[uently. 

False-keel.  (Shipbuildiny.)  Timbers  worked 
on  to  the  main  or  true  keel,  and  intemled,  — 

1.  To  prevent  leeway. 

2.  To  protect  the  main  keel  in  case  of  grounding. 
False-keel'son.      (Shipbuilding.)      One    lying 

longitudinally  above  the  real  one. 

False-key.  A  key  roughly  made  of  a  bent  slip 
adapted  to  avoid  the  wards  of  a  lock.     A  pick-lock. 

False-pile.  (Pile-driving.)  An  additional  length 
given  to  a  pile  after  driving.  A  temporary  pro- 
longation at  the  upper  end,  wlien  the  pile  has  passed 
beyond  tlie  immediate  reach  of  the  monkey,  is  called 
a  sett. 

False-rail.  1 .  ( Carpentry. )  A  thin  piece  of  tim- 
ber inside  of  a  curved  head-rail. 

2.  ( Shipbu  ildinii. )  A  facing  or  strengthening  rail 
fayed  to  a  main  rail. 

False-roof.  (Carpentry.)  The  part  between  the 
ceiling  of  the  upper  chambers  and  the  roof-covering. 

False-stem.  {Shipbuilding.)  One  fayed  to  the 
forward  part  of  the  stem. 

False-Stern.  {Shipbuilding.)  False  stern-post, 
etc.  Supplemental  structures  or  timbers  accessory 
to  the  main  ]iarts  or  pieces. 

False-works.  (Civil  Engineering.)  Construc- 
tion works  to  enable  the  erection  of  the  main  works. 
Aiiiong/afat'-'!"ori's  may  lie  cited  cofl'er-dams,  bridge- 
centering,  scaftblding,  etc. 

Fan.  1.  A  device  waved  or  rotated  to  cause  a 
circulation  of  air. 

The  chowrg,  or  fly-flapper  of  the  plains  of  India, 
is  made  of  the  bushy  tail  of  the  Thibetan  yak. 

Fans  made  of  ostrich  and  other  feathers  were  com- 
monly used  in  Egypt,  for  the  purpose  of  setting  the 


FAIT-BLOWEB. 


825 


FAHNING-MILL. 


air  in  motion,  and  also  for  brushing  away  flies.  The 
honor  of  attending  the  king  in  the  capacity  of  fan- 
bearer  was  conferred  upon  his  sons,  and  we  see  them 
in  many  Egyptian  paintings  and  sculptures,  with 
the  insignia  of  princes  and  carrj'ing  the  flabella,  a 
wing  or  bunch  of  feathers  on  the  end  of  a  long  han- 
dle. Among  other  paintings  may  be  specially  cited 
that  of  the  triumph  of  Rameses  III.,  the  great  Se- 
sostris  of  Herodotus,  about  13.5.5  B.  c.  The  tlabel- 
lum  is  shown  in  the  tombs  of  Beni-Hassan,  Thebes, 
and  Alabastron,  of  dates  from  1706  to  1355  B.  c. 
In  more  humble  life,  men  are  represented  keeping 
the  flies  away  from  the  drink  prepared  for  the  reap- 
ers in  the  field.  See  Bellows;  Blower;  Punkah ; 
Vextil.\tor  ;  and  list  under  A[P.-.iPl'LI.\NCE.s. 

"  Cape  hoc  flabsllum,  et  ventulum  huic  sic  facito," 
—  Take  this  fan,  and  give  her  thus  a  little  air. 

Fans  made  of  ostrich  and  other  feathers  main- 
tained their  hoM  upon  the  people,  and  were  common 
in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  being  ornamented  with 
gold  and  silver.  According  to  Evelyn,  our  modern 
paper  fans  were  introduced  by  the  Jesuits  from 
China. 

The  common  palm-leaf  fan  of  this  country  is  im- 
ported from  the  East  and  West  Indie.s,  and  is  made 
of  a  portion  of  the  leaf  and  stalk  ;  the  leaf  being 
bound  on  the  edges  with  strips  and  thread.  The 
Japanese  fan  is  made  of  bamboo  and  paper.  .\ 
stalk  of  bamboo  forms  the  handle,  is  split  into  a 
number  of  fibers  which  are  displayed  in  fan  sha|>e 
and  fa-stened  in  position  while  paper  is  a]iplied  on 
each  side.  Thej-  are  then  painted  and  inscribed 
with  scenes  rural  and  humorous,  and  have  mottoes 
which  do  not  convey  any  very  distinct  impression 
to  us  as  a  people. 

Mechanical  fans  for  household  uses  are  driven  by 
clock-work  or  weight,  are  rotary  or  oscillating. 
On  a  larger  scale,  they  are  used  for  urging  tires  and 

Fig.  1918. 


F^n-Soufers. 


for  ventilation 
(see  Blower), 
and  for  purposes 
of  cleaning 
grain.  SccFax- 
SIXG-MILL. 

2.  The  small 
vane  which 
turns  the  cap  of 
the  smock-mill 
on  its  axis,  to 
keep  the  .sails 
presented  to  the 
wind. 

Fan-blo'w'- 
er.  A  blower 
in  which  a  se- 
ries of  vanes 
fixed  on  a   ro- 


tating shaft  creates  a  blast  of  air  for  forge  purposes, 
or  a  current  for  draft  or  ventilation.  In  the  exam- 
ple {A,  Fig.  1918),  the  machine  is  applied  to  remov- 
ing shaWngs  from  the  cutters  of  planing-machines. 
The  rotation  of  the  fan,  by  belt  ami  pulley,  in  its 
bo.x  a,  causes  a  downward  draft  through  the  pipe  b, 
connected  with  which  are  the  horizontal  pipes// 
and  vertically  adjustable  pipes  c  e,  having  flaiing 
mouths  directly  over  the  cutters  rf  of  the  planers  ; 
the  shavings  are  drawn  upward  through  the  pipes  e, 
and  carried  through  /  b,  when,  passing  through  the 
blower,  they  are  driven  through  its  mouth  c  into  a 
chute  which  takes  them  to  an  apartment  whence 
they  may  be  removed  as  required  for  fuel. 

£  (Fig.  1918)  is  intended  for  intensifying  the  draft 
of  a  furnace  d  ;  the  products  of  combustion,  being 
caused  to  take  first  an  ascending  and  then  a  descend- 
ing course  through  the  curved  pipe  b,  are  expelled 
at  c.  Blowers  are  pletuim  (pressure),  or  vucuinn, 
which  is  equivalent  to  exhaust ;  either  foim  is  used 
for  the  various  purposes  of  ventilation,  air-draft  for 
furnaces,  etc.     See  also  Blower  ;  Faxxino-mill. 

Fan'cy-line.  {Xautical.)  A  down-haul  line 
pa.s.4ing  through  a  block  at  the  jaws  of  a  gaff. 

Fan'cy-roU'er.  {Cardiug-machint.)  One  placed 
inmiediately  in  advance  of  the  doffcr,  and  prorided 
usually  with  straight  wire  teeth,  its  function  being 
to  loosen  up  the  wool  on  the  main  cylinder  so  that 
it  may  be  taken  np  with  facility  by  the  doffer. 

Faii'don.  A  large  copper  vessel  in  which  the 
"  hot  process  "  of  amalgamation  is  conducted,  blocks 
of  copper  being  drawn  around  like  the  porphjTy 
blocks  in  an  arrastra. 

Fane.     A  weathercock.     A  xane. 

Fang.  1.  (Miiiivg.)  a.  A  niche  cut  in  the 
side  of  an  adit  or  shaft  to  serve  as  an  air-course. 

b.  An  air-pipe  of  wood  in  a  shaft.     An  air-main. 

2.  .\  ])rojecting  tooth  or  prong  in  a  lock,  bolt,  or 
tumbler. 

3.  (yatitical.)     n.  The  valve  of  a  pump-box. 
b.  The  bend  of  a  rope. 

4.  A  long  nail. 

5.  A  projecting  claw,  as  that  on  the  reverse  of  a 
belt  plate,  which  pas.ses  through  the  belt  and  is 
clenched  or  riveted  at  the  rear. 

ti.   The  tang  of  a  tool. 

Fan'ion.  (Ital.  ^oii/o/OTK,  a  standard.)  A  small 
flag  tiir  a  surveying-station. 

Fan-light.  (Architecture.)  A  semicircular  tran- 
som window. 

Fan'ner.  A  blower  or  ventilating-fan.  See 
Fanmnc.-mill  :  Blower. 

Fan'ning-mill.  A  machine  for  cleaning  chaff 
from  gi-ain  by  a  blast  of  air. 

Fig.  1919. 


Fanning-MiJL 


FANNING-OUT. 


826 


FASCIA. 


The  fans  mentioned  in  the  Bible  were  used  for 
winnowing  or  cleaning  grain.  A  rtoor  of  beaten 
earth  was  ])repared  in  a  situation  e.xposed  to  tlie 
wind,  and  the  grain  and  cliatf  were  thrown  up  by  a 
shovel.  The  fan  was  for  raising  an  artilii'ial  blast, 
and  was  evidently  a  hand  iniplernent.  "  His  fan  is 
in  his  hand"  (Matt.  iii.  12).  Winnowed  with  tlie 
shovel  and  the  fan  (Isaiah  x.xx.  24).  The  machine 
in  its  simplest  form  is  a  rotary  shaft  witli  Happing 
breadths  of  canvas  suspended  from  tlu^  arms. 

Fig.  1919  represents  the  ordinary  I'anning-raill, 
having  rotating  arms  with  vanes  to  produce  blast,  a 
hopper  for  the  grain,  and  a  series  of  sieves  of  vary- 
ing iinene.ss  for  sorting  tin;  grain  into  ([ualities  and 
keeping  it  longer  exposed  to  the  blast.  The  fanning- 
mill  forms  pari  of  tlie  Thihseieu  and  SEPAIiAruii 
(whicli  see)  and  of  the  clover-huUcr.  Sir  Walter 
Scott  relates,  in  one  of  his  novels,  that  the  religions 
feeling  of  some  of  his  countrymen  was  greatly 
shocked  at  an  invention  liy  which  artificial  whirl- 
winds were  |uoduced  in  calm  weather,  when  it  was 
the  will  of  God  for  thc^  air  to  remain  .still.  As  they 
considered  it  a  moral  duty  to  wait  ]iaticntly  for  a 
natural  wind  to  separate  tlie  chart'  from  their  wheat, 
they  looked  upon  the  use  of  the  machine  as  rebellion 
against  (!od. 

Fan'uiug-out.  Spi'eading  out  the  sheets  of  a 
pile  of  |j;ipcr  Ijy  grasping  a  corner  and  giving  a  dex- 
tenius  tuist.      It  is  to  facilitate  counting. 

Fan  Steam-en'giue.  The  action  of  this  steam 
is  the  inverse  of  tliat  of  the  fan.  The  outer  annular 
casing  receives  steam  from  the  boiler  and  discharges 
from  its  inner  surface  in  tangential  jc'ts  upon  the 
sooop-shaped  blades  which  are  attached  to  a  rotating 
shaft. 

It  is  one  form  of  the  rotary  steam-engine,  and 
may  be  compared  to  tlie  iuward-liow  turbine. 

The  outward-How  turbine  has  also  its  congener 
in  a  form  of  rotary  steam-engine,  in  wbiidi  the  steam 
pas.ses  tlirough  a  central  pipe  and  out  at  the  jieriph- 
ery,  impinging  by  direct  pressure  upon  the  curved 
buckets. 

Numerous  are  the  resemblances  between  tliis  tyjic 
of  rotary  steam-engines  and  the  reaction  water-wheels 
or  turbines.  The  constructive  features  of  the 
Jiolipile  of  Hero  and  the  Barker  water-wheel  are 
identical,  and  the  family  features  are  still  visible  in 
the  rotary  steam-engines,  rotary-pumps,  and  water- 
wheels.  Tliis  is  not  extraordinary,  wlien  it  is  con- 
sidereil  that  the  impact  or  direct  pressure  of  a  iluid 
is  in  each  case  exerted  upon  a  body  which,  by  its 
constraction  and  relation,  is  confined  to  move  in  a 
curved  path,  ounferring  a  rotary  motion  upon  the 
axle  to  which  it  is  attached. 

Fail-tail.  1.  A  form  of  gas-burner  in  which  the 
burning  jet  has  an  arched  form. 

2.  A  kind  of  joint. 

Fan-vault'ing.  (Archiiceiurc.)  A  form  of  arch- 
ing in  wliich  the  rilis  of  the  arch  diverge  from  the 
im)iost  like  the  sticks  of  a  fan. 

Fan-ven'ti-la'tor.  The  oldest  known  form  of 
this  device  is  tlie  lorps  of  worker  bees  arranged  on 
each  side  of  tlic  entrance  hole,  a  little  within  the 
hive,  engaged  in  incessantly  vibrating  their  wings 
so  as  to  cau.se  a  circulation  of  air  into,  through,  and 
out  of  the  hive.  An  ingoing  and  outgoing  current 
is  established  at  the  hole,  as  has  been  proved  by 
holding  filaments  of  cotton  at  the  aperture. 

The  fail  as  a  mechanical  ventilator  ajipears  to 
have  been  invented  by  Dr.  Desagiilier,  1734.  His 
fan  (A,  Fig.  1920)  was  a  wheel  7  feet  in  diameter, 
1  foot  wide,  and  had  12  vanes  which  approached 
within  12  inches  of  the  axis,  around  which  was  an 
opejiing  18  inches  in  diameter.     The  vanes  rotated 


Eccentric  Fan. 


as  near  as  pos-  Fig.  1920. 

sible  to  the 
case,  which 
was  lined  with 
lilanket  as  a 
packing.  The 
case  was  con- 
centric, and 
liad  an  educ- 
tion and  an 
eduction  pipe, 
the  one  axial, 
the  otlier  pe- 
rijiheral. 

Such  awheel 
wasusedabove 
the  ceiling  of 
the  British 
House  of  Com- 
mons  from 
1736  to  1817. 

Dr.      Desa- 
gulier's  fan  was  concentric  with  its  case,  but  an  im- 
provement was  to  make  it  eccenti'ic. 

Fairbairn  and  Lillie's  eccentric  fan  is  shown  at  B  ; 
8  is  the  .shaft,  b  the  case,  v  the  vanes,  c  the  eduction 
opening,  o  the  discharge.  The  jioint  x  is  a  shoulder 
which  acts  as  a  cut-off  in  connection  with  each  pass- 
ing vane,  and  confines  the  stream  of  condensed  air 
to  till'  cdui'tioii  passage.      See  also  Ventilatok. 

Fan-wheel.  This  usually  consists  of  an  armed 
shaft  with  wings  or  beaters,  and  revolves  in  a  case. 
It  is  useil  in  grain-cleaners,  winnowing-machines, 
blowers  for  furnaces,  etc.,  and  is  the  most  common 
device  for  obtaining  a  blast  of  air  for  any  purpose. 
The  air  is  drawn  in  at  the  central  o|iening  and  dis- 
charged at  the  tangential  chute.  Where  great  force 
is  reipiired  positive  devices  are  used,  partaking  of 
the  nature  of  |iuniiis.  The  volute-whi'el  is  also  used 
fora.siniilariiurpii.se.   See  Fannino-mill ;  Blower; 

ISl.uWING-Al'l'AKATl'S. 

Fan-'wiu'do'w.  (Archilcdare.)  A  semicircular 
window  witli  iiidial  sash. 

Far'au-danis.  (Fabric.)  A  mixed  fabric  of  silk 
and  woid. 

Far'cost.     .\  Scotch  trading-vessel. 

Fare-box.  A  place  of  deposit  for  fares  in  street- 
cars. It  has  a  receiving 
aperture,  windows  at  which 
the  money  or  ticket  may  be 
seen  by  the  passenger  inside 
and  the  driver  outside  the 
car  ;  a  series  of  slanting 
plates,  which  allow  the 
money  to  droji,  but  prevent 
its  abstraction  ;  a  jilatc  on 
which  the  fare  falls,  and 
which  is  tilted  to  dischaige  i 
it  into  a  locked  box  beneath. 

Fas^cet.  (Glass.)  An  ^ 
iron-wire  basket  on  the  er.d  i 
of  a  rod,  to  carry  the  bottle [ 
from  the  blowing-rod  or  the  , 
mold  to  the  leer, 

A  rod  inserted  into  the 
mouth  of  the  bottle  for  the 
same  purpose  is  also  called 
a  f'lscrf. 

Fas'ci-a.  A  flat  archi- 
tectural member  in  an  en- 
tablature.    A  broad  fillet. 

Tlie  architraves  of  some 
orders  are  divided  into 
fascias.  Slawson's  Fare-Box. 


FASCINE. 


827 


FEARNAUGHT. 


Fas-cine'.  A  cylindrical  bundle  or  fagot  of 
trush-wood  used  in  revetments  of  earthworks.  They 
vary  in  size,  siiy  from  6  to  18  feet  in  length,  6  to  9 
inches  in  diameter,  and  are  bound  with  withes 
every  18  inches.  When  the  limbs  are  stouter  and 
louf^er  than  usual,  it  is  called  a  .^aia'isse  or  sattci.sson. 

A  gabion  is  a  basket  for  earth  ;  not  a  bundle  of 
brush. 

In  civil  engineering,  fascines  and  gabions  are  used 
in  making  sea  and  river  walls  to  protect  shores  sub- 
ject to  washing  ;  or  to  collect  sand,  silt,  and  mud 
to  raise  the  bottom  and  gradually  form  an  island, 
either  as  a  breakwater  or  for  cultivation,  as  in 
Holland. 

Fash'ion-ing-  nee-dle.  ( Knitting  -machine.) 
One  of  tile  pins  oi'  fingers  employed  to  take  loops 
from  certain  of  the  bearded  needles  and  transfer 
them  to  others  for  widening  or  narrowing  the  work. 

Fash'ion-piece.  (Shipbuilding.)  One  of  the 
pair  of  cant  frames  which  form  the  exterior  angle 
of  the  stern-framing  ;  between  them  extends  the 
wing -transom,  which  is  the  base-piece  of  the  coun- 
ter-timbers. 

Fast.  (N'auticaZ. )  A  mooring  rope  or  hawser, 
.securing  a  vessel,  and  named  from  its  position  ;  as, 
licad,  bow,  breast,  quarter,  or  stern  fasts,  as  the  case 
mav  be. 

Fast-and-Ioose  Pulleys.  (.Vachi/teri/.)  A 
device  for  disengaging  and  re-engaging  machinery. 
One  pulley  is  fast  to  the  shaft,  the  other  runs  loosely 
thereupon.  The  band  is  turned  ou  to  either,  as  the 
work  reipiires. 

Fas-tig'i-um.     1.   The  pediment  of  a  portico. 

2.   The  conilj  or  ridge  of  a  roof. 

Fast-pul'ley.  (McKhineri/.)  One  keyed  to  the 
shaft  so  as  to  revolve  therewith.  In  contradistinc- 
tion to  the  loosc-pullcy,  which  is  loose  on  the  shaft, 
and  to  which  the  belt  is  transferred  when  the  rota- 
tion of  the  shaft  is  no  longer  desired. 

Fat.  (Printing.)  Copy  which  affords  light  work, 
as  Itlank  or  short  pages  or  lines,  leaded  matter,  rule- 
and-tignre  work,  poetiy,  and  such  like  matter  profit- 
able to  tlie  compositor. 

Pa-tigue'.  The  fracture  of  a  bar  owing  to  the 
repeated  application  and  removal  of  a  load  which  is 
considerably  below  the  breaking  weight  of  the  bar. 
To  fatigue  is  ascribed  the  breaking  of  car-axles  by 
the  constant  repetitive  blows  and  strains  incident  to 
their  duty. 

Fat-lute.  A  mixture  of  pipe-clay  and  linseed 
oil  for  tilling  joints. 

Fau'cet.  1.  A  form  of  valve  or  cock  in  which  a 
spigot  or  plug  is  made  to  open  or  close  an  aperture 
in  a  portion  which  forms  a  sjiout  or  pipe  for  the 

Fig.  1922. 


discharge  or  passage  Fig  1923. 

of  a  fluid.  The  or- 
dinary beer-cock  is 
well  known.  Fig. 
1922  shows  a  less 
u.sual  form,  in  which 
the  central  aperture 
is  closed  by  an  elastic 
packing  at  the  foot 
of  a  screw-plug,  and 
ojieued  by  the  rais- 
ing of  the  latter.  Fig.  1923 
having  some  similar  features. 

2.  The  enlarged  end  of  a  pipe  to  receive  the  spigot- 
end  of  the  next  section. 

See  under  the  following  heads  :  — 


Faucet. 


is  a  modified  form 


Auger-faucet. 

Ball-cock. 

Basin-faucet. 

Beer-faucet. 

Bib. 

Blow-off  cock. 

Boring-faucet. 

Bottle-faucet. 

Cork-faucet. 

Diaphragm-faucet. 

Filter-faucet. 

Foui-way  cock. 


Gage-faucet. 

Grease-faucet. 

Hot-watei-  faucet. 

Measuring-faucet, 

ilolasses-gate  faucet. 

Pet-cock. 

Pit-cock. 

Robinet. 

Kotai7  valve. 

Spring-faucet. 

Stop-cock. 

Three-way  cock. 


Fig.  1924. 


\S 


Screw-Flu^  Fauctt 


Fau'cet-bit.  A  cutting  lip  and  router  on  the 
end  of  a  faucet.  The  faucet  is  rotated  to  cut  the 
hole  in  the  head  of  the  cask,  and  then  the  barrel  of 
the  faucet  immediatelj'  occujiies  the  aperture  so 
made.     A  boriufifancet. 

Fau'cet-fil'ter.  One  having  a  chamber  for  fil- 
tering-materi.il. 

Fau'cet-joint.  1.  An  expansion-joint  for  unit- 
ing two  parts  of  a  straight  metallic  pipe,  which  is 
exposed  to  great  variations  of  temperature. 

2.  One  form  of  breech-loader  in  which  the  rear  of 
file  bore  is  exposed  by  the  turning  of  a  perforated 
jihig.     See  riP.E-.\r.>t  ;  Clri.ss  B,  Div.  5. 

Fau'cet-key.  One  fitting  upon  a  concealed 
si|Uiiri-  iirojeetion  on  the  plug  of  a  faucet. 

Fau'cet-valve.    One  in  which  the  puppet  or 
]ilug-valve    is    operated    by   a 
liiinilh'  of  the  faucet  order. 

Fauld.  The  iymp-tirch  or 
working  arch  of  a  furnace. 

Fault.  [Mining Engineering.) 
The  dislocation  of  a  stratum  or 
seam  by  which  the  continuity 
is  destroyed  and  one  portion 
becomes  relatively  lower  than 
the  other.  Known  also  as 
shift,  xliji. 

Fausse'braye.  (Forti^ca- 
tiim. )  Alow  rampartorcounter- 
guaid  to  protect  the  lower  part 
of  the  main  escarp. 

Fau-teuil'.  An  easy,  up- 
holstered arm-chair. 

Fay.  A  shipwright's  term 
for  fitting  one  piece  of  timber 
or  plank  to  another. 

Joinini;  two  jiieces  so  as  to  make  a  flush  surface. 

Fay'ing-sur'face.  That  surface  of  a  plate  or 
angle-iron  which  is  to  be  against  the  object  to  which 
it  is  to  be  riveted.  The  fai/i)ig-,<!iirfnec  of  the  side- 
arm  of  the  angle-iron  of  a  ship's  side,  and  the  inside 
or  fa i/iiiq-surfnce  of  the  plate,  are  in  contact. 

Fear'naught.  (Fabric.)  A  heavy,  shaggy ,  woolen 
fabric,  used  for  seamen's  coats,  for  lining  port-holes 
and  the  doors  of  powder-magazines.     Dreaditauyht. 


Faucet-  Valve. 


FEATHER. 


828 


FEED-BAG. 


Feath'er.  1.  A  slip  (b)  inserted  longitudinally 
into  a  slialt  or  arbor,  and  projecting  as  a  lin  tliere- 
froiu  so  as  to  lit  a  groove  in  the  eye  of  a  wheel 
whieli  may  have  a  longitudinal  motion  on  the  said 
shaft,  but  no  rotation.     A  sj)Uiie. 

2.  A  wedge-shaped  key  between  two  semi-cylin- 
drical plugs  (a)  placed  in  a  bored  hole  in  a  stone, 

and  driven  in  to 
Fig.  1925.  rend  the  stone. 

3.  A  tongue  on 
the  edge  of  a 
board. 


Feath'er-ing-pro-peVler.  An  invention  of 
Maudslay,  London,  in  which  the  vanes  of  the  pro- 
peller-screw are  adjustable,  .so  as  even  to  be  turned 
into  the  ]ilane  of  the  propeller-shaft  and  oH'cr  no  re- 
sistance when  the  vessel  is  under  sail  and  the  pro- 
peller not  used. 

Feath'er-ing-screw.     See   Feathering -iT.o- 

PEl.l.KU. 

Feath'er-joint.  A  mode  of  joining  the  edges  of 
boards  by  a  liu  or  feather  let  into  opposite  mortises 
on  the  edges  of  the  boards. 

Feath'er-ren'o-va'tor.     A   machine   in   which 


Fig.  1926, 


Feathers. 

4.  The  angular  adjustment  of  a  propeller  blade  or 
of  an  oar  in  rising  from  the  water. 

5.  A  narrow  strengthening  strip  on  a  structure. 
A  longitudinal  rib  on  a  shafting  to  resist  flexion  or 
fracture. 

6.  The  iiluniage  of  birds,  as  well  as  the  tail  and 
wing  feathers,  are  used  for  certain  purposes  after 
undergoing  cleansing  and  bleaching  processes. 

Ostrich  feathers  are  procured  from  Africa,  those 
plucked  from  live  or  recently  killed  birds  being  the 
best. 

The  feathers  are  tied  together  in  bundles  ;  rubbed 
in  tepid  water  and  soap  to  free  them  from  grease  ; 
washed  in  pure  hot  water ;  dipped  in  a  heated 
solution  of  Spanish  white  ;  washed ;  steeped  in 
water  tinted  with  indigo,  to  correct  the  yellow 
color  ;  sulphured  ;  dried. 

The  ribs  are  rubbed  to  render  them  pliant,  and 
the  vanes  curled  by  pressuie  with  a  blunt  knife. 

They  are  dyed  rose-color  by  saftlower  and  lemon- 
juice  ;  red  by  Brazil  wood  followed  by  cudbear ; 
blue  by  indigo  ;  yellow  by  turmeric  ;  alum  is  the 
usual  mordant. 

The  beautiful  aniline  colors  are  fast  superseding 
the  others  ffir  superior  work. 

Feath'er-edged.  Said  of  boards.  One  edge  is 
thinner  tlian  the  other.    Used  for  weather-boarding. 

Feath'er-edge  File.  A  file  with  an  acute  edge ; 
the  cross-section  of  the  file  being  an  isosceles  trian- 
gle with  a  short  base.      A  i'fti/c-file. 

Feath'er-ing-float.  The  paddle  or  float-board 
of  a  paildle-wheel,  so  arranged  as  to  turn  on  an  axis 
to  present  its  broad  side  to  the  water  at  its  lowest 
submergence,  but  to  turn  its  edge  to  the  water  in 
entering  and  emerging. 

Feath'er-ing  Pad'dle-wheel.  A  wheel  whose 
floats  have  a  motion  on  an  axis,  so  as  to  descend 
nearly  vertically  into  the  water  and  ascend  the  same 
way,  avoiding  beating  on  the  water  in  the  descent 
and  lifting  water  in  the  ascent.  The  loss  of  power 
from  these  causes  is  not  as  great  as  is  commoidy  sup- 
posed. Some  floats  are  made  to  feather  on  axes  paral- 
lel to  that  of  the  wheel,  others  on  axes  radial  thereto. 
There  are  numerous  plans. 


Feather-Renovator. 

old  feathers  may  be  scalded,  p\iiified,  and  dried,  so 
as  to  remove  cHete  matter  from  them.  One  exam- 
ple among  many  may  be  given.  Warm  or  cold  air 
is  forced  from  a  chimney  through  conducting  pas- 
sages in  such  connection  with  a  boiler  and  steam- 
pipes  that  the  air  may  be  moistened  more  or  less 
with  steam  as  required.  Hollow  bearings  for  the 
renovating  cylinder  serve  as  couplings  between  the 
central  i>ipe  and  the  draft  pipe. 

Feath'er-spring.  {Gun-making.)  The  sear- 
sprinij  of  a  gun-lock. 

Feed.  1 .  The  motion  or  action  which  carries 
stutt"  forw^ard  to  the  machine  ;  a.s,  — 

The  cloth  to  the  needle  in  a  sewing-machine. 

The  board  to  the  planer,  etc. 

2.  The  motion  of  a  tool  towards  its  work  ;  as,  — 
The  auger,  bit,  or  drill  into  the  object. 

The  cutter  on  the  slide-rest  of  a  lathe  to  or  paral- 
lel to  the  work  suspended  on  the  centers,  etc. 

3.  The  supply  of  material  to  a  machine  ;  as,  — 
The  water  to  a  steam-boiler. 

The  grain  to  a  run  of  stones. 
Blanks  to  a  coining-press,  or  punching-machine. 
Eyelets  or  planchets  to  the  a]ipropriate  machines. 
Wool  or  cotton  to  a  carding-machine,  etc. 
Feed-bag.     A  nose-bag  tor  a  horse  or  mule,  to 
contain  his  noon-dav  feed  or  luncheon. 


Fig.  1927. 


Feed-Bag. 


FEED-CLOTH. 


829 


FEED-HEATER. 


Feed-cloth.  (Fiber.)  The  apron  which  leads 
the  cotton,  wool,  or  other  tiber  into  the  cleaning, 
lapping,  carding,  .spinning,  or  other  machine. 

Feed-cut'ter.  A  machine  for  cutting  straw, 
hav,   or  cornstalks   into  short  feed  or  chaff.     See 

STKAW-CUTTElt. 

Feed'er.  Au  au.xiliary  or  a  supplying  part  of  a 
machine,  that  which  leads  along  the  stuff  being 
operated  upon. 

1.  (Hydmulic  Engineering.)  A  water-course, 
natural  or  artificial,  carrying  water  to  a  canal  or 
reservoir.  Obviously,  the  principal  feeder  is  at  the 
summit  level,  and  it  is  commonly  supplied  from  a 
reservoir. 

2.  (Mining.)  The  side  branch  of  a  vein  which 
passes  into  a  lode. 

3.  (Sewing-maehinc.)  That  part  (*,  Fig.  1928) 
which  carries  the  cloth  along  the  length  of  a  stitch 
between  each  penetration  of  the  needle.  See  Sewing- 
M.\cHiNE  Feed.  The  illustration  shows  the  Wilson 
four-motion  feed. 

4.  (Machinery.)  a.  A  toothed  or  binding  wheel 
which  carries  the  plank  into  the  planing-nip.chine 
(a,   Fig.   1928)  ;    or  a  feed  for   gate-saws   (c,    Fig. 

Fig.  1928. 


Fig.  1929, 


Fe^d-MolioTls. 

1928),  in  which  a  reciprocating  arm  is  provided 
with  a  dog  to  engage  the  rim  of  a  wliecl  on  the  axis 
of  the  roller  beneath  the  log-carriage,  and  so  ad- 
vance the  log  to  the  saw  a  graduated  amount  at  each 
rise  of  the  saw-gate.  An  apron  of  a  blowing, 
cotton-cleaning,  lapping,  or  carding-machine,  etc. 

b.  That  motion  or  combination  of  parts  which 
carries  and  directs  a  blank  or  rod  to  the  place 
where  it  is  operated  upon.  Such  are  the  feeders 
and  feed-motions  in  macliines  for  making  wood 
screws,  pins,  eyelets,  hooks  and  eyes,  etc.  Such 
also  are  the  motions  by  wliich  planchets  are  fed  to 
the  coining-press ;  eyelets  and  clasps  to  the  ma- 
chines for  attaching  them  to  garments ;  jiins, 
needles,  and  hooks  and  eyes  to  the  machines  which 
stick  and  paper  them. 

5.  The  nail-plate  feeder  has  an  intermittent  oscil- 
lating or  semi-rotary  and  forward  motion  to  jiresent 
the  plate  to  the  cutters  so  that  the  head  of  tile  nail 
may  be  taken  from  the  respective  edges  alternately. 

6.  The  grain-feeder  which  forwards  the  opened 
sheaves  into  the  throat  of  the  thrasher  ;  or  the  grain 
into  the  eye  of  the  millstone  ;    or  the  grain   and 


Stock-Feeder. 


Nail-Plate  Eteder. 

chaff  from  the  hopper  to  the\iddle  of  a  winnowing- 
machine  ;  or  the  gi-ain  from  tlie  bin  to  the  manger 
of  sheep  or  other  stock.     See  Fig.  1930. 

7.  (Printing,  ete.)  A  device  with  lingers  which 
take   the   top  sheet    from   a 

pile   and    lead    it    into    the  Fig.  1930. 

press  where  it  is  printed, 
folded,  or  what  not.  Also  a 
device  by  which  blanks  are 
taken  successively  from  a 
pile  and  carried  into  an  en- 
velope-machine, or  paper-bag 
or  box  machine,  as  the  case 
may  be. 

Some  printing-presses  and 
envelope-machines  have  an 
aspirator  or  pneumatic  con- 
trivance by  which  the  upper 
sheet  of  the  pile  is  picked  off 
and  led  into  the  machine. 
Conily's  patent,  1853.  See 
also  Envelope -M.\cHiNE. 
See  "  Ringwalt's  Dictionary 
of  Printing,"  Philadelphia, 
1871,  pp.  224,  225. 

The  usual  mode  of  feeding  blanks  for  envelopes 
from  the  pile  to  the  folders  is  by  a  plunger  with  a 
guunned  surface  ;  this  descends  upon  the  blank  and 
moves  away  to  the  folding-a]iparatus,  w  here  it  leaves 
the  blank  ready  gummed  on  the  end  and  bottom  flaps. 

8.  A  device  for  supjilying  steam-boilers  with 
water  in  graduated  quantities,  or  as  occasion  may 
require. 

Automatic  boiler-feeders  act  by  means  of  floats 
upon  the  surface  of  the  water  in  the  boilers. 

One  of  the  illu.strations  (rf.  Fig.  1928)  shows  a 
floating  ball  on  a  lever  to  whose  other  end  is  a  valve- 
rod  which  is  lifted  when  the  ball  descends  below  its 
normal  height  ;  floating  on  the  water  at  the  proper 
level. 

The  other  form  (e,  Fig.  1928)  is  only  intended 
for  supplying  water  from  cisterns  at  a  considerable 
elevation. 

Peed-hand.  (Gearing.)  A  rod  by  which  in- 
termittent rotation  is  imparted  to  a  ratchet-wheel. 

Feed-head.  1.  (Slcain.)  A  cistern  containing 
water  and  communicating  with  the  boiler  of  a  steam- 
engine  by  a  pipe,  to  supply  the  boiler  by  the  gravity 
of  the  water,  the  hight  being  made  sufficient  to 
overcome  the  pressure  within  the  boiler. 

2.  (Founding.)  Also  called  dead-head,  or  simply 
hi'ad.  The  metal  above  and  exterior  to  the  mold 
which  flows  into  the  latter  as  the  ca-sting  contracts, 
and  also  serves  to  render  the  casting  more  compact 
by  its  pressure.  Also  called  a  riser,  and  the  metal 
which  occupies  it  a  mllagc-piccc. 

Feed-heat'er.     1.  A  drum  or  chamber  in  which 


FEEDING-ENGINE. 


830 


FEED-WATER  APPARATUS. 


I'eed-water  for  tlie  boiler  is  heated  by  the  exhaust 
steam. 

2.  A  boiler  or  kettle  for  lieatiug  food  for  stock. 

Feed'ing-eu'gine.  {Steam.)  Asuiiplenieiitary 
eiigiiii-  fur /t'ti/Z/i;/  tlie  boiler,  when  the  main  engine 
is  stdppi'd.      A  iloclur. 

Feed'ing-head.     (Founding.)    An  opening  in  a 


Fig.  1931. 


Boiler-Feeder. 

mold  up  which  the  metal  rises,  and  wliich  supplies 
metal  OS  tlie  easting  contraets 

Feed-mo'tion.    That  contrivance  in  a  machine 
by  which  the  material  under  treatment  is  advanced. 

See  Feed. 


plug  A  with  cross  cells  a  a  is  constantly  reciprocated 
and  carries  water  from  B  at  each  passage,  when  the 
level  iu  the  boiler  falls  below  the  top  of  the  jplunger. 
The  fccd-pamp  of  a  marine  engine  has  a  jdunger 
a  attached  to  the  cross-head  b  of  the  au-puni]i,  and 
working  through  a  stutting-box  in  the  pump-barrel 
c.  d  is  the  valve-box  attached  to  the  side  of  the 
hot-well ;  e  is  the  suction-valve  through  wliich  the 
water  is  drawn  from  the  hot-well  into  the  jiump  by 
the  rise  of  the  plunger.  At  the  descent  of  the 
plunger  the  water  is  driven  out  at  the  valve/  along 
the  feed-pipe  g  to  the  boiler,  unless  the  regulating 
valves  or  cocks  to  the  boiler  should  be  quite  closed, 
when  it  raises  the  loaded  valve  h  and  returns  to  the 
_^^  hot-well  by  the  aperture /;.  The  load  per  square 
inch  on  the  valve  h  must  somewhat  exceed  the 
load  per  square  inch  of  the  steam  in  the  boiler. 

The  lower  portion  of  Fig.  1932  shows  the  feed- 
jiump  of  the  Cornish-engine,  which  has  also  a  safety- 
valvi',  so  that  no  injury  may  arise  by  shutting  off 
the  feed  when  the  pump  is  at  work. 

Feed-rack.  A  stock-feeding  device  with  grain- 
trough  and  haj'-rack  under  shelter,  which  sometimes 
is  extended  to  the  stock  also.  In  the  example,  the 
shee]i  are  intended  to  be  inside,  and  the  hay  intro- 
duced into  the  racks  from  the  outside.     The  shed  is 


Fig.  1932. 


Freft-  Pump  (if  Marine  Enq^nc. 


Feed-pipe. 

{St  ea  VI  ■  c n- 
gine.)  The 
pipe  carrying 
water  to  the 
boiler.  See 
Feed. 

F  e  e  d  - 
pump.  A 
force-pu  m  p 
driven  by 
hand,  by  doc- 
tor-engine, or 
by  the  engine 
itself,  for  sup- 
plying to  the 
boiler  a  ijuan- 
tity  of  water 
equal  to  that 
removed  in  the 
form  of  steam, 
by  the  brine- 
pump,  the 
blow-off  or 
mud  valve,  or 
other  sources 
of  outlet. 
In  high- 
Xj\  pressure  en- 
gines it  takes 
water  from  the 
heater;  in  con- 
densing en- 
gines from  the 
hot-well. 

In  locomo- 
tivesitusually 
takes  the  form 
of  the  Gitfard 
injector.  (See 
IxJECTiii:.)  In 
the  example 
(Fig.  1931)   a 


Fig.  1933. 


Sheep  Rack  and  Shelter. 

made  in  sections  to  admit  of  removal  on  a  wagon, 
and  is  placed  on  runners  for  movement  in  the  field. 
The  feed-troughs  are  opened  on  the  outside  for  the 
introduction  of  hay,  which  is  accessible  through 
racks  on  the  inside. 

Feed-screiw.  {Lathe.)  Along  screw  employed 
to  impart  a  regular  motion  to  a  tool-rw/  or  to  the 
work  ;  as  the  feed-screw  in  the  bed  of  a  lathe,  which 
n.oves  the  screw-cutting  tool. 

Feed-Twa'ter  Ap'pa-ra'tus.  An  automatic  de- 
vice for  supjilying  steam-boilers  with  feed -water.  Of 
the  very  large  number  of  devices  for  this  purpose, 
many  agree  in  one  particular.  A  vertical  jiipe  lead- 
ing from  a  reservoir  of  water  enters  the  top  of  the 
boiler,  and  its  lower  open  end  is  at  the  lowest  allow- 
able level.  In  its  normal  condition  the  ]ii)ie  is  full 
of  water,  but  wlien  the  level  of  the  water  falls  below 
the  level  of  the  open  foot  of  the  ]upe,  steam  enters 
the  latter  and  water  Hows  out  till  the  foot  of  the  pipe 
is  again  immersed.  In  some  cases  the  steam  is  made 
to  give  an  alarm  at  this  point  of  depression  of  the 
water-level.     See  Low-WATER  Alaum. 

Other  forms  of  apparatus  have  valves  operated  by 
Hoats.     See  BoiLEU-FEEDEn  ;  FEED-i'r.MP,  etc. 

A  form  of  feed-water  apparatus  by  whieli  water  is 
taken  on  board  the  tender  while  the  locomotive  and 
train  are  in  motion  is  adopted  on  some  railways  in 
the  United  States  and  in  England.  On  the  Hudson 
River  Railway,  for  instance,  at  Melrose,  is  placed  be- 
tween the  rails  of  the  track  a  trough  1,200  fi'ct  long, 
IS  inches  wide,  15  inches  deep,  and  holding  IK, 000 
gallons  of  water.  The  tender  has  a  pijie  with  a  noz- 
zle pointing  forward,  and  capable  of  being  raised  and 


FEED-WATER  HEATER. 


831 


FELLING-MACHINE. 


lowered.  The  train  running  at  full  speed,  the  noz- 
zle is  let  down  so  as  to  juiss  two  Lnuhcs  below  the 
snrface  of  water  in  the  trough,  and  tlie  water  is 
thereby  forced  through  the  nozzle  into  the  pipe  and 
thence  to  the  tender. 

The  plan  was  invented  and  patented  by  Angus 
McDonald  of  Virginia,  1854,  but  was  Krst  introduced 
in  En,i;land. 

Feed-Tva'ter  Heat'er.  A  device  for  heating 
the  feed-water  for  high-pressure  engines  by  passing 
it  through  a  chamber  traversed  by  a  coil  of  pipe 
eai'rying  the  exhaust  steam. 

Feed-wa'ter  Pump.    See  Feed-pump. 

Feed-wheel.  A  continuously  or  interuiittingly 
revolving  wheel  or  disk  which  carries  forwai'd  an 
object  or  material,  as  in  the  e.icamples,  where 

B  represents  the  feed-wheel  as  applied  to  a  lamp- 
wick. 

A,  a  binding  feed  by  a  slotted  pawl  on  a  Hange 
of  the  wheel  :  this  is  similar  to  the  cramp-feed, 
common  in  one  form  of  saw-miU. 

E  is  one  fonu  of  sewing-machine  feed.  The  lever 
being  reciprocated  at  one  movement,  it  clamps  the 

Fig.  19S4. 


tinij  ilowH  timber,  in  contradistinction  to  an  axe  for 

loijijing  off,  hattiiiij,  lopping,  hewing,  etc.      See  AXE. 

FeU'ing  -  ma-chine'.      One   for  cutting  down 

standing   timber.     In  the   c.xami)le,   the    vibrating 

Fig.  1935. 

2^ 


i:Aafe»- 


Fdliiig-Machine. 

head  has  chisel  and  spur  cutters,  wliieh  are  made  to 
out  into  the  tree  by  the  oscillation  of  the  lever  and 
the  feed-movement  of  the  caniage. 

Other  forms  of  machines  for  this  purpose  have 
gangs  of  augers,  saws  which  cut  kerfs  from  both  sides 
simultaneously,  and  so  on.  It  wouhl  appear  that 
the  </ontrivers  have  dro]iped  but  few  trees,  or  tliat 
they  have  profited  but  little  by  their  experience. 

Not  content  with  the  sequoia  trees  which  lay 
prostrate  in  the  Calaveras  grove,  California,  some 
enterjnising  vandals  determined  to  fell  one,  which 
they  did  by  using  pump-augers,  boring  all  around 


block  against  the  wheel  and  turns  it,  and  on  its 
return  motion  allows  the  block  to  slip  in  its  seat  in 
the  inner  periphery  of  the  wheel. 

O  is  a  feed-wheel  to  regulate  rate  of  passage  of 
the  seed  from  the  hopper  of  a  seeding-machine. 

Pell.  1.  {MetaUurgtj.)  The  finer  portions  of 
lead  ore  which  fall  through  the  meshes  of  the  sieve 
when  the  ore  is  sorted  by  sifting. 

2.  (Weoving.)  The  end  of  a  web,  formed  by  the 
last  thread  of  the  weft.  . 

3.  The  skin  of  a  beast  with  the  wool  or  hair  on. 

4.  (Sewing.)  A  form  of  hem  in  which  one  edge 
is  folded  over  the  othei'  and*  sewed  down  ;  or  in 
wnicli  one  edge  is  left  projecting  and  it  sewed  down 
ever  the  previous  seam. 

5.  To  cut  down  trees. 

Pell'er.  {Scicing-machiiie.)  An  attachment  for 
making  a  felled  seam,  i.  e.  one  in  which  two  edges 
being  run  together  are  foldeil  over  and  stitched. 

FeU'ing-axe.     One  specifically  adapted  for  cui- 


The  Ckdaveras  Ridwood  {Sequoia  GIganlea) 

towards  the  center.  The  tree  was  92  feet  in  circum- 
ference and  300  feet  in  hight.  It  stood  so  plumb 
that  when  it  was  cut  clear  by  the  augers  it  stood 
upright  and  had  to  be  upset  liy  wedges.  The  stump 
was  then  adzed  olf  for  a  dancing-floor. 

These  trees  are  situated  about  seventy-five  miles 


FELLING-SAW. 


832 


FELLY  SAWING-MAOHINE. 


east  of  Stockton,  at  an  elevation  of  4,700  feet  above 
the  level  of  the  sea.  The  grove  contains  92  trees, 
ten  of  whicli  are  30  feet  or  more  in  diameter,  82 
varying  in  diameter  from  15  to  30  feet.  In  liight 
tliey  range  from  150  to  327  feet,  the  tops  of  many 
of  the  larger  having  been  broken  otf  by  the  wind  or 
snow.  The  age  of  the  trees  is  supposed  to  vary  from 
1,000  to  3,500  years. 

Fell'ing-saw.  This  has  a  taper  blade  about  6i 
feet  long,  witli  gullet-teeth,  and  operated  like  the 
cross-cut  saw  by  a  man  or  men  at  each  end.     The 


Fig.  1937. 


holds   the   felly  are   two   guide-irons,  to  keep   the 
same  in  jic'^ition  when  dowel-holes  are  bored. 
Fel'ly-coup'ling.    A  bo.x  for  enelo.sing  the  ad- 


Fig.  1939. 


Fig.  1940. 


Felly-  Coupling. 


Felling-Saw. 

handle  at  the  wide  end  is  fixed  by  an  iron  bolt  and 
wedge.  The  handle  at  the  narrow  end  is  calculated 
for  two  men,  and  the  saw  is  held  in  this  handle  by 
a  wedge  which  is  driven  out  when  the  saw  is  to  be 
removed  from  the  kerf.  Wedges  are  driven  into  the 
kerf  to  prevent  the  blade  from  being  jammed,  and 
the  saw  is  witlidrawn  from  the  kerf  endways. 

Fel'loe.  The  rim  of  a  wheel  or  one  of  the  an- 
nular segments  thereof.     See  Felly. 

Fel'ly.  (Vehicles.)  A  segment  of  the  rim  of  a 
wooden  wheel.  When  the  perimeter  is  in  one  or 
two  portions  of  bent  stuff,  it  is  a  rim,,  or  made  of 
two  hnlf-riin.'i.      Felloe. 

Fel'ly-au'ger.  A  hollow  auger  for  fashioning 
the  round  tenon  on  the  end  of  a  spoke.  A  pod- 
auger  for  boring  the  hole  in  the  felly  to  receive  the 
spoke,  or  the  holes  in  the  ends  for  the  dowel-pins. 

Fel'ly-bend'ing  Ma-chine'.  A  machine  with 
a  segmental  or  circular  former  around  which  felly- 
stuff  is  tient  to  a  curved  shape  and  held  till  it  has 
cooled  and  dried  in  its  as.sumed  shape. 

Fel'ly-bor'ing  Ma-chine'.  One  having  a  ver- 
tically ailjustable  boring  apparatus  attached  to  an 
ordinary  trestle,  and  with  a  clamp  to  hold  the  felly 

Fig.  1938. 


'jacent  ends  of 
fellies  in  the 
rim  of  a  wheel. 
The  sectional 
block  is  ex- 
panded by  the 
taper  screw  to 
expand  the  fel- 
lies and  tighten 
the  tire. 

Fe  I'l  y- 
dress'er.  A 
machine        for 


Felly-Boring  Machine. 

in  position.  Stops  on  the  adjustable  rest  against 
which  the  bit-hoWer  brings  up  limit  the  depth 
of  the  holes.     At  the  front  of  the  vi.se-block  w'hiuh 


Felly- Dresser. 


dressing  the  edges  of  fellies,  the  wheel  being  chucked 
upon  a  spindle  /  above  so  as  to  bring  eacli  part  of 
tlie  rim  of  the  wheel  in  turn  to  the  revolving  cutter 
I).  To  dress  the  yieriphery  of  the  rim,  the  wheel  is 
chucked  on  the  spindle  E. 

Fel'ly  Sa-wr'ing-ma-chine'.  A  machine  for  saw- 
ing  stuff  into  fellies.  The  block  is  placed  on  a  seg- 
mental bed  which  oscillates  on  a  center  and  brings 
the  stuff  against  a  pair  of  gig-saws,  whicli  are 


Fig.  1941. 


Felly-Sawing  Machine. 

at  a  distance  apart  which  determines  t-he  side  width 
of  thespoke,  while  the  distance  they  work  from  tbe 


FELT. 


833 


FELT. 


center  of  oscillation  of  the  swinging  frame  deter- 
mines the  radius  of  the  circle  of  which  the  felly  is 
an  arc. 

Felt  1.  {Fabric.)  Fur  and  wool  fibers  have 
harbed  surfaces  inclined  from  the  root  towards  their 
tips.  Under  the  influence  of  friction  and  heat  these 
barbs  spread  out  from  the  main  fiber,  and,  like  the 
tendrils  of  a  plant,  catch  hold  of  other  fibers  and 
cling  to  them.  When  a  mass  of  such  fibers  are  dis- 
posed in  all  directions,  they  readily  interlock  and 
consolidate  into  a  compact  fabric.  As  these  b.arbs 
all  incline  in  one  direction,  the  fibers  can  readily 
work  into  a  mass  of  fibers,  partially  felted,  but- 
end  foremost.  This  is  called  siiing,  and  is  produced 
in  napping  hats. 

Felt  probably  preceded  woven  fabrics.  In  Central 
Asia,  the  home  of  the  argali,  from,  whence  the 
domestic  sheep  has  probably  sprung,  the  clothing 
and  tents  of  the  people  are  j'et,  and  have  been  since 
the  first  recorded  times,  felted  fabrics.  The  latticed 
huts  referred  to  by  Herodotus  and  ^Eschylns  are 
covered  with  felt,  of  which  also  the  flapping  screen 
which  answers  for  a  door  is  made.  See  W'acox. 
JIarco  Polo  (thirteenth  century)  describes  them 
fully.  Klaproth  descrilies  them  as  of  goat's  hair 
(see  H.\ircloth),  and  having  a  shaggy  villus  on 
the  outsi.le.  Tlie  Chinese  traveler,  Chi-fa-hian, 
who  visited  India  in  the  fourth  century,  describes 
the  people  of  Chen-chen,  who  lived  about  the  Lake 
of  Lob,  as  wearing  dresses  of  Chinese  cut,  but  made 
'  of  felt.    Felt  covered  the  funeral  pile  of  Heph;Estion, 

whose  obsequies  were  so  splendidly  celebrated  by 
Alexander  ;  Xenophon  says  that  felt  was  used  to 
cjver  chairs  and  couches  ;  the  Medes  also  used  felt 
for  sacks. 

The  word  felt  is  allied  to  the  Greek  pihs  and 
Latin  pi'iii,  from  a  root  word  whieh  means  to  com- 
prci.  The  Greek  word  pilotos  —  felted — comes 
straugely  near  the  English  pilut-c\oXh  in  name  and 
meaning,  not  but  that  the  latter  is  woven  before 
being  thickened  by  th,'  act  of  compression  (Latin, 
cog:>,  coactus,  whence  coaclilis). 


"  Laiue  et  per  se  coactae  vestem  ficiunt.' 


Ple?t. 


The  principal  use  of  felt  among  the  Greeks  and 
Romans  was  in  the  manufacture  of  caps  and  hats. 
(See  Hat.  )  The  art  of  felting  no  doubt  passed  from 
Central  Asia  into  Greece.  In  the  time  of  .\ristotle, 
besides  the  felt  hats  (pctasi),  the  helmets  were  lined 
with  felt  (pilos)  or  sponge. 

The  mantles  of  Circassia  and  Phrygia  to  this  day 
are  heavy,  stiff,  and  rain-proof.  Colonel  Leake  de- 
scribes a  postilion's  dress  in  Phrygia  as  a  cloak  of 
white  camel's  hiir  half  an  inch  thick  and  stiff  enough 
to  stand  alone  when  set  on  the  ground.  It  had  nei- 
ther sleeves  nor  hoo  1,  b>it  holes  for  the  hand  and 
projections  like  wings  on  the  shoulders  to  turn  o8 
the  rain. 

The  Armenians  of  Schamachi  lead  a  nomadic  life 
in  movable  huts  constructed  of  wicker-work  covered 
with  felt,  and  with  mits  made  of  reed -grass. 

The  \ogai  Tartars  of  the  Ca.spian  have  similar 
shelters. 

The  hatters  attribute  the  art  of  felting  to  Clement. 
The  hatters  are  a  very  modern  guild,  and  cannot 
antedate  their  order  beyond  the  year  1400. 

Dr.  Hooke  lectured  on  felt-making  before  the 
Royal  Society,  1666.  —  Pepys. 

The  mechanical  features  of  the  operation  of  felting 
are  derived  from  the  jagged  character  of  the  edges 
of  some  animal  fibei-s,  which  enables  them  to  pass 
in  one  direction,  that  is,  root  first,  but  opposes  their 
withdrawal.  The  most  familiar  illustration  of  this 
53 


feature  is  an  awn  of  barley,  a  beard  of  wheat,  or  a 
head  of  grass  of  some  kinds.  These,  as  we  all  know, 
when  introduced  but-fii-st  between  the  wrist  and 
the  sleeve,  will  crawl  up  the  arm  and  strongly  op- 
pose withdrawal.  The  teeth  are  presented  towards 
the  point,  and  resist  a  force  applied  from  that  direc- 
tion. 

If  we  take  a  human  hair,  hold  it  fast  by  the  ront- 
end,  and  draw  it  gently  between  the  finger  and 
thumb,  it  passes  smoothly  and  without  sensible  in- 
terruption ;  but  if  we  reverse  the  direction  of  mo- 
tion, a  sensible  crepitation  is  experienced.  If  we 
gently  press  a  hair  between  the  finger  and  thumb, 
and  give  it  a  rolling  motion,  it  will  advance  root 
first,  whatever  may  be  the  position  of  the  root  in 
respect  to  the  two  rubbing  surfaces.  A  fiber  of  wool 
operates  in  the  same  way,  mo\ing  root  first ;  so  do 
the  hairs  which  are  adapted  for  felting  when  simi- 
larly treated. 

The  jagged  structure  is  visible  in  the  beard  of 
wheat  and  barley,  and  the  microscope  reveals  it  in 
the  hair  and  wool  referred  to. 

It  would  be  interesting  to  introduce  various  other 
examples  of  hair 


and  wool,  as  seen 
under  the  micro- 
scope, but  our 
limits  forbid,  a, 
in  the  illustra- 
tion, shows  the 
appearance  under 
a  microscope  of  a 
fiber  of  Saxony 
lamb's  wool  some- 
what  less  than 
■jTiVo  of  an  inch  in 
diameter. 

/  .shows  the  ap- 
pearance of  rabbit- 
hair  under  the  mi- 
croscope, anil  b 
be  aver-down, 
which  has  a  di- 
ameter of  about 
i  i.'o  u  of  an  inch. 


Rg.  1942. 


FeUing-Fihers. 


c,  d,  e,  show  musquash,  nutria,  and  hare's  fur.  They 
all  show  the  jagged  edge  which  confers  upon  them 
the  characteristic  felting  quality. 

Wool  in  the  yolk,  with  the  natural  grease  (suivt) 
adhering  to  it,  will  not  felt,  because  in  this  state  the 
asperities  of  the  fiber  are  filled  and  smoothed  over, 
just  as  oil  destroys  the  action  of  very  fine  files. 
Fine  wool  that  has  been  scoured  has  strong  tendency 
to  mat  or  felt  together,  and  must  be  oiled  to  enable 
it  to  be  carded  and  spun  successfully. 

The  hair  of  rabbits,  hares,  and  some  other  animals, 
is  used  in  Russia  as  a  felt  foundation  for  bowls, 
dishes,  plates,  etc.  It  is  brought  to  shape  and  then 
varnished  ;  when  complete,  the  utensil  resembles 
papier-mache  or  varnished  leather,  aud  is  light 
and  durable. 

English  patent  1,403  of  1862  cites  the  n*  of  the 
silky  down  of  tijplui  or  bulrush.  The  down  is  sepa- 
rated from  the  seeds  by  a  willowing  process  and 
blown  over  into  a  chamber.  It  is  mixed  with  one 
third  or  half  the  quantity  of  rabbit's  hair,  and 
worked  by  the  usual  processes  into  hats,  caps,  and 
fabrics  ;  or  mixed  with  silk,  wool,  cotton,  or  Max 
to  form  a  fabric  for  shoe-soles,  paper,  etc.  ;  or  mixed 
with  caoutchouc  or  gutta-percha  for  bands,  belts, 
carriage-fitting,  accouterments,  pipes;  as  a  substitute 
for  cork,  book-covers,  etc. 

The  uses  of  felt  are  various  ;  among  them  nvi}"  be 
cited  the  following  :  — 


FELT-CARPET. 


834 


FELTING-MACHINE. 


Among  the  Asiatics :  cloth,  hats,  carpets,  teut- 
coverings,  socks. 

In  the  United  States  and  Enrope,  for  domestic  pur- 
poses :  clotli,  clotliing,  socks,  slippers,  boot  and 
shoe  soles  and  insoles,  hats,  caps,  gloves,  carpets, 
and  table-covers. 

Surgeons'  bandages  and  saddle-cloths. 

Meclianieal  :  clothing  for  steam-boilers  and  cyl- 
inders ;  deadening  for  walls  and  floors  ;  non-con- 
ductors for  kilns  and  refrigerators  ;  rooting  charged 
with  bitumen  or  other  water-repellant  ;  steam- 
jiacking  ;  lining  between  the  planking  and  copper- 
sheathing  of  ships  ;  polishing-wheels  ;  hammers  of 
jiianos  ;  elastic  blankets  for  printing-presses  ;  covers 
of  books. 

2.  The  felted  cloth  on  which  paper  is  couched  .and 
carried  in  the  pajier-niaking  machine.  The  cloth 
on  wliich  the  paper  is  couched  from  the  mahing 
cylinder  is  known  as  the  nmkiiui  felt.  Others  as 
carrijiiiq  felts,  first  felt,  second  felt,  etc.  Appur- 
tenance's of  the  fell  are  known  as  felt-washers,  felt- 
rollers,  etc. 

Felt-car'pet.  A  caqiet  whose  fibers  are  not  spun 
or  woven,  but  are  associated  by  the  felting  process. 

Felt'ed  Cloth.  {Fabric. )  Cloth  nuule  by  felt- 
ing, without  spinning  or  weaving,  was  patented  in 
England  by  Williams,  in  February,  1850. 

Felt-grain.  {1  Food-working.)  The  grain  of  wood 
whose  direction  is  from  the  pith  to  the  bark  ;  the 
direction  of  the  medullary  rays  in  oak  and  some 
other  timber. 

Felfing-ma-chine'.      Felting-machines  are  of 


Fig.  1913. 


Vibratory- Bed  Edur. 


Fig.  1945  shows  a  form  in  which  the  main  cylin- 
der, having  a  cork  surface,  acts  upon  yarn  or  cloth 
carried  between  it  and  the  fibrous  belts  which  jjass 


Fig.  1945. 


Revolving  Felting-Machine. 

around  steam-heated  cylinders,  and  motive  and  idler 
rollers.  Perforated  pipes  beneath  the  belts  throw 
hot  water  upon  them. 

Fig.  1946. 


Fulling-MiU. 

various  kinds.  1.  For  acting 
upon  the  material  in  mass,  as  in 
the  fulling-mill  (Fig.  1943), 
wliere  the  cloth  in  a  bath  of 
soaji-suds  is  pounded  by  the 
stock,  which  swings  like  a  pen- 
dulum on  its  bearings  above. 

2.  A  lower  reciprocating  bed 
mounted  on  grooved  rollers  run- 
ning on  tracks  secured  in  the 
vat  ;  the  other  bed  being  at- 
tached to  grooved  rollers  that 
run  between  a  double  track 
above.  The  beds  are  worked 
in  opposite  directions  by  a  dou- 
Ide-action  lever  connecting  therewith  ;  the  material 
)ilaced  between  the  beds  and  exposed  to  a  rubbing 
action  while  immersed  in  hot  water.     (Fig.  1944.) 


Felt-making  Machine. 


In  Fig.  1946  the  fiber  is  placed  on  a  feed-apron, 
passes  between  two  fluted  rollers  to  a  card-cylinder, 
and  is  then  taken  between  two  endless  aprons  over 


FELUCCA. 


835 


FENCE. 


Fig.  1947. 


the  series  of  tables,  and  beneath  the  longitudinally 

nnd  transversely  reciprocating  platens.     The  coni- 

liiiied  heat,    wet,    and  rubbing  action  consolidates 

the  bat  of  fiber  into  a  felted  web. 

Fe-luc'ca.     (  Vessel. )     A  small  vessel  propelled 

by  oars  and  lateen  sails  ;  used  in  the  Mediterranean 

and  adjacent  waters  for  coasting  voyages. 
Fem'er-ell.     {Carpentry.)     A  louvre  lantern  in 

a  roof  for  the  escape  of  steam   and  smoke,  or  for 

ventilation. 
Fence.  1.  A  structure  on  the  boundary  of  a 
lot,  field,  or  estate 
to  kee])  off  in- 
truders, or  act  as  a 
screen. 

Among  the 
varieties  of  fences 
are  tlie  waJI,  of 
brick  or  masonry  ; 
post-and-board;  pust- 
and-rail ;  rail  or 
worm  fence  ;  ^Msi- 
and-wire  ;  paling  ; 
iron ;  portable ;  sunk 
or  ha-lui;  hedge. 

When  .stronger 
than  most  of  tliese, 
the  fence  may  rise 
to  tlie  dignity  or 
a    scarp,     palisade, 

stockade,  parapet,  and  constitute  au  important  de- 

J'en.sive  Hue. 

The  Koman  fences  were  four  in  number  :  — 

1.  The    SepimcHtum  natiirale,  or  live    fence  of 
thorn. 

2.  The  S.  agreste,  or  wooden   paling  interlaced 

Fig.  1948. 


Anchored  Fence. 


board  fence  standing  in  line  ;  stay-rods  passing  over 
the  top  of  the  fence  and  being  anchored  below  tlie 
surface. 

Fig.  1948  shows  a  mode  of  hanging  fence-panels 
to  posts. 

f'ig.  1949  is  a  portable  fence  in  which  the  panels 
rest  between  posts  which  are  planted  in  sills  and 
stayed  by  inclined  bars  which  form  buttresses. 

Fig.  1950  is  a  more  pretentious  fence  of  iron 
posts  set  in  grouting  and  ornamental  panels. 


Fig.  1950 


Iron  Fence. 

Fig.  1951  is  a  post,  wire,  and  paling  fence. 

2.  (Wood-trm-kivg.)  An  adjustable  guard-plate 
or  edge  on  a  gage,  or  on  a  grooring,  banding,  phna, 
Jil!i.ster,  or  rrglct  plane,  by  which  the  distance  of  the 
groove  from  the  guide-edge  is  regulated. 

A  straight  edge  on  the  work-table  of  a  circular, 
band,  or  scroll  saw,  or  of  a  planing,   molding,  or 

Fig.  1951. 


n 

1      ^                                      o 

!>     1 

^1                !  1                '~r' 

!  .                 .'                 o'  r 

■II               1  1               1  r 

__ 

1                  1                1  1 

J 

M, ^ 

^ 

Movable- Panel  Fence. 


Wire  and  Pale  Fence. 


with  withes,  or  bored  and  strung  on  longitudinal 
rails. 

3.  The  S.  mililairc,  having  a  bank  (agger),  ditch 
(fossa),  and  vallum,  or  row  of  stakes  on  the  bank. 

4.  The  fi.  fabrile,  or  wall  of  stone,  brick,  adobes, 
or  mud. 

Room  here  can  be  afforded  for  but  a  bare  hint  of 
the  diverse  kinds. 

Fig.  1947  shows  a  mode  of  supporting  panels  of 


Fig.  1949. 


Pontile  Fence. 


mortising  machine.  It  acts  as  a  g<ige  and  guide, 
and  is  adjustable  to  any  required  distance  fioni  the 
tool. 

The  fence  may  be  smveled  so  as  to  have  a  capacity 
for  angular  presentation  of  the  work. 

3.  The  arm  of  the  hammer-spring  of  a  gun-lock. 

4.  (Loci's.)  An  arm  or  projection  which  enters 
the  gates  of  the  tumblers  when  they  are  adjusted  in 
proper  position  and  coincidence,  and  at  other  times 
]irevents  such  movement  of  the  dog,  stump,  or  other 
obstructing  member  as  would  permit  the  retraction 
of  the  bolt. 

In  common  tumbler  locks  the  fence  forms  the 
obstructing  medium  between  the  bolt  and  the  tum- 
blere,  to  prevent  the  retraction  of  the  former  when 
the  tumbler-gates  are  not  in  coincidence. 


Fig.  1952 


Ferice-Jack. 


FENCE-JACK. 


836 


FERMENTING-VAT. 


Fence-jack.  A  lever  jack  adapted  for  liltini; 
the  loriRM-  or  lock  of  a  worm-fence  in  order  to  lay  in 
a  new  bottom-rail,  a  I'ence-chunk,  or  a  stone. 

Fence-post.  A  piece  of  timber  or  a  structure 
of  other  material,  planted  vertically  in  the  ground, 


.1953. 


Fie.  1954. 


to  hold  panels  of  fence.  Ingenu- 
ity has  piincipally  been  exercised 
in  contriving  modes  of  saving  tira- 
Scrrw-Poat.  her  in  fences  for  prairie  countries, 
and  in  structures  as  substitutes 
for  the  usual  wooden  posts.  Two  suggestive  forms 
are  shown  in  Figs.  1953  and  1954.  One  is  an  iron 
post  with  a  si)iral  rib  which  answ-ers  as  a  screw  for 
inserting  it.  The  other  is  an  anchor- block,  to  which 
the  vertical  slat  of  a  fence  is  bolted. 

Fence-post  Driv'er.  A  device  like  a  triji- 
hamnier  or  jiile-driver,  mounted  upon  wheels,  and 
used  for  driving  fence-posts  which  have  been  previ- 

Fig.  1955. 


Fig 

1956. 

L 

e 
e 

^ 

contact  of  vessels,  drift,  or  floating  ice.     A  fcndcr- 
pile. 

2.  A  mass  of  old  rope  sttitfed  into  a  heavy,  open 
net  madi'  of  rope,  and  placed  lietween  the  sides  of  a 
vessel  and  the  i|uay  or  pier  with  which  it  is  about 
to  collide,  in  order  to  deaden  the  blow  and  prevent 
injury  to  either  of  the  contacting  objects. 

A  piece  of  oak  on  a  ve.ssel's  side  to  protect  it  from 
chafing  by  objects  which  are  being  hoisted  aboaid. 

On  the  liver  steamboats  of  the  West,  poles  hang 
overboard,  being  suspended  from  the  up])er  guards, 
and  answer  the  same  purpose.  Fancy  I'owing-boats, 
wherries,  and  man-of-war  boats  have  fenders  which 
hang  outside  the  gunwale. 

3.  A  structure  in  frout  of  a  fire  or  fireplace,  to 
keepchildren 


Fence-Post  Driver, 

ously   shaqiencd.      After   the   hammer   attains   its 
hight,  the  rope  is  cast  off  suddenly  and  the  ham- 
mer drops. 
Fenc'ing-gage.    An   implement  to   space  and 
hold   boards    against  a  post   while 
nailing    them.      The  upright  cleat 
A  is  temporarily  tacked  to  the  post, 
and    the  pegs   afford  rests  for   the 
lower  edges  of  the  boards. 

Fenc'ing-nail.  A  heavy  nail  of 
its  class,  adapted  for  fastening  on 
fencing-boards. 

6'',  T',  S',  9*,  and  10*  nails  are 
made  for  this  pur]iose  nearly  twice 
the  weight  of  the  common  nails  of 
these  numbers. 

Fend'er.  A  contrivance  to  fend 
off  an  object  so  as  to  prevent  the 
bruising  of  the  structure  so  pro- 
tected. 

Fencing  Gage.        1-   An     upright     timber     placed 
against  the  edge   of   a   pier,   dock- 
wall,  or  wharf,  to  prevent  injury  to  the  wall  by  the 


lunatics 
from  burning 
themselves. 
In  the  exam- 
ple shown, 
the  fender  is 
secured  by 
hooks  to  the 
grate-bars. 
In  lunatic  asy- 
lums the  fender 
is  a  large  cage. 

4.  An  attach- 
ment to  a  culti- 
vator -  plow  to 
keep  clods  from 
rolling  on  to  the 
young  corn. 

5.  A  rub-plate 
on  the  bed  of  a 
wagon  or  car- 
riage to  take  the 
rub  of  the  wheel 
when  the  vehicle 
is  turning  .short. 

Fend'er- 
beam.  1 .  The 
horizontal  beam 
into   which    the 


Fig.  1967. 


Fireplace  Fetuler. 


posts  of  a  saw-mill  gate  are  framed  at  top.  The 
fender-beam  in  Perley  and  Pattee's  saw-mill  at  the 
Chaiuliere  Falls,  Canada,  is  pine  stock,  84  feet  long 
and  squared  to  24  x  28  inches. 

2.  The  inclined  advance  piece  of  an  ice-breaker. 

3.  A  beam  suspended  over  a  vessel's  side  to  ward 
off  ice  and  preserve  the  planking  and  sheathing  of 
the  vessel. 

Fend'er-bolt.  (Shiphuilclinfj.)  Onehavingalai-ge 
head  which  projects  from  the  ])lankiiig  and  serves 
as  a  fender  to  save  the  planks  from  being  bruised. 

Fend'er-pile.  A  pile  fixed  in  front  of  a  pier, 
wharf,  or  river  wall,  to  ward  off  the  blows  of  lun- 
ning  ice,  drift,  vessels,  etc. 

Fend'er-post.  One  of  the  guiding  stanchions 
of  a  saw-gate. 

Fend'er-stop.  (Hailroad  Engineering.)  Astr\ic- 
ture  at  the  end  of  a  line  of  rails,  to  stop  the  carriages 
or  engine,  if  needful. 

Fe-nes'tra.  (Arehileclure.)  A  window  ;  an  en- 
trance. 

Fe-nes'trai.  Window-blinds  or  easements  closed 
with  ]iniier  or  cloth,  instead  of  glass. 

Fer-menfiiig-square.  (Brewing.)  An  oblong 
or  si|unre  shallow  vat  in  which  wort  is  fermented. 

Fer-ment'ing-vat.  A  tank  or  tun  in  which  wort 
is  placed  to  undergo  the  fermentation  resulting  fiom 
the  addition  of  the  yeast.  Certain  arrangements  for 
keeping  the  liquid  at  the  desired  temperature  in  the 


FEREANDINE. 


837 


FERTILIZER-MILL. 


heat  of  summer  or  cold  of  winter  are  added  in  some 
cases. 

rer-ran'dine.  A  mixed  stuff  of  silk  and  other 
materials,  formerly  worn.  It  is  referred  to  by  Pepys 
in  his  "  Diary,"  about  1667.  The  word  was  some- 
times written  firaudam  or  farendunc.  It  probably 
resembled  poplin. 

Per'ret.  1.  {Glass.)  An  iron  used  to  make  the 
rings  at  the  mouths  of  bottles,  or  to  try  the  melted 
mattei'. 

2.   F  orrt,  or  floss-silk. 

Fer-ret'to.  {Olass.)  A  preparation  of  copper 
employed  in  glass-coloring.  It  is  made  by  placing 
thin  sheets  of  copper  interstratilied  with  powdered 
brimstone  in  a  crucible  wliich  is  luted  tight  and 
exposed  to  the  heat  of  a  blast-furnace  for  about  two 
hours  ;  when  cool,  the  copper  is  found  to  be  calcined 
so  as  to  be  readily  crumbled  between  the  fingers  ;  it 
is  then  pulverized  and  sifted  for  use.  A  su|ierior 
article  to  the  foregoing  is  prepared  by  using  vitriol 
instead  of  brimstone,  and  exposing  tlie  crucible  to 
the  heat  of  the  glass-furnace  for  three  days.  The 
old  vitriol  is  then  replaced  by  fresh,  and  the  heating 
opei'ation  repeated  six  times. 

Per'ro-type.  (Pliolniirciphy.)  A  process,  so 
named  by  Hunt,  which  derives  its  name  from  the 
mateiial  of  the  plate  (iron)  on  wliich  it  is  taken. 
Plates  of  sheet-iron  are  covered  with  a  surface  of 
black  Japan  varnish.  This  is  immersed  in  collo- 
dion, and  after  a  time  in  the  silver  solution.  It  is 
then  placed  in  the  holder  and  exposed  in  the  cam- 
era. 

Fer'rule.  1.  A  short  tube  or  thimble  made 
sliglirly  conical,  and  used  to  fasten  the  tubes  in  the 
sheet-plates  of  steam-boilers.     Except  at  the  point, 


Fig.  1958. 


m,3i  r^rrin  n  g  q  g  no'ir^^ 


the  ferrule  is  a  little  larger  than  the  bore  of  the  tube, 
and  when  driven  in  it  compresses  the  tube  forcibly 
against  the  sides  of  the  hole  in  the  tube-sheet,  mak- 
ing a  steam-tight  joint. 

2.  A  metallic  ring  or  sleeve  on  the  handle  of  a 
tool  or  the  end  of  a  stick,  to  keep  the  wood  from 
splitting. 

Fer'ry-boat  {rcsscl.)  A  vessel  for  carrying 
passengers  and  freight  across  a  river  or  estuary. 

o,  an  elevation  of  the  steam  ferry-boat  for  ordinary 
travel  crossing  the  Missouri  River  at  Omalia. 

A  is  a  plan-view  of  tlie  same,  showing  tlie  single 
wheel  amidship,  the  engines  and  boilers. 

d  is  a  transverse  vertical  section  of  the  same, 
showing  the  cabins  over  the  guards. 

c  is  a  transverse  vertical  section  of  a  feiTy-boat  for 
railway-cars  at  La  Chine,  river  St.  Lawrence.  It  has 
side-wheels  and  a  track  amidship. 

c  is  a  plan-view  of  the  same. 

Fer'ry-bridge.  A  form  of  ferry-boat  in  which 
the  railway-train  moves  on  to  the  elevated  deck,  is 
transported  across  the  water,  and  then  lands  upon 
the  other  side.  Tramways  forming  inclined  ap- 
proaches are  adjustable  to  the  reipiiiements  of  uk- 
ferent  stages  of  water  in  the  river,  or  states  of  the 
tide  in  estuaries.  The  ferry-bridge  wliich  preceded 
the  present  bridge  over  the  .Susquehanna  at  Havre- 
de-Graee  is  a  notable  instance. 

Ferry-bridges  are  also  to  be  found  in  Europe, 
which  "cross  by  means  of  chains  laid  across  the  river, 
and  chain-wheels  on  board  rotated  by  an  engine. 

Fer'ry-rail'way.     One  whose  track  is  on  the 


Kg.  1959. 


|r-ml  J^O. 


Ferry-Railway 

bottom  of  the  water-course  and  whose  carriage  has 
an  elevated  deck  which  sujijiorts  the  train. 

Fer'ti-liz  er-mill.    One  in  which  the  materials 
are   ground    to   powder   so  as  to  be  sown   from   a 

Fig.  1960. 


Ferry-Boats. 


Fertilizer-Mill. 

machine.  The  illustration  show.s  a  Chilian  mill 
adayited  to  the  purpose.  Phosphatic  minerals, 
bones,  and  various  materials  are  thus  ground. 


FERTILIZER-SOWER. 


838 


FIELD-GLASS. 


Fer'ti-liz'er-so'w'er.  A  form  of  seeding-ma- 
cliine  ailapted  to  .sow  granulated  manures,  such  as 
dry  )ioudrette,  tlie  phosphates,  bone-dust,  lime, 
guano,  etc.  It  souieiiujes  I'onns  a  machine  by 
itself,  and  sometimes  is  an  attachment  to  a  wheat- 
diill  ;  in  England,  also  to  a  turnip-drill. 

Fes-toon'.  (.-tixhUccture.)  An  ornament  like 
a  garland.     Common  on  friezes. 

Fetlock-boot.  (Menage.)  A  protection  for  the 
fetlock  and  pastern  of  a  horse.     See  Inteufejung- 

ATT.\CI1MENTS  ;    LeG-GUAKD. 

Fet'ter.  A  chain  for  the  feet.  See  Hopple. 
Fet'tling.  1.  (MctaUuiyi/.)  The  material,  con- 
sisting of  ore,  cinder,  and  scrap-iron,  nii,\ed  in  vary- 
ing proportions,  and  used  in  preparing  the  hearth 
of  a  puddling-funiace  before  receiving  its  charge  of 
iron.  FM/c  is  an  old  English  word  signifying  to 
prepare,  and  corresponds  to  the  American  word  fix. 
Fixiuy  is  the  term  used  in  the  United  States  to 
signify  this  preparation  of  the  hearth. 

2.  (Potlenj.)  The  shaving  and  smoothing  of  green 
clay-ware  to  remove  the  appearance  of  seams  from 
articles  that  are  molded,  and  to  smooth  asperities. 

Feuil-lets'.  {Diamond-cutting.)  The  projecting 
points  of  the  triangular  facets  in  a  rosc-cul  diamond, 
whose  bases  join  those  of  the  triangles  of  the  central 
pyramiil. 

Fi-a'cre.  A  French  hackney-coach. 
Fi'ber-gun.  A  device  for  disintegrating  vegetable 
fiber.  Lyman's  patent,  No.  21,077,  of  1858.  Fla.x, 
hemp,  jute,  cane,  or  wood  are  placed  in  a  cylinder 
and  cliarged  with  hot  water,  steam,  gas,  or  air  under 
great  pressure  ;  the  cover  of  the  cylinder  being  sud- 
denly removed,  the  mass  is  projected  into  a  chamber 
where  the  sudden  expansion  of  the  Huid  under 
pressure  rupture.s  the  cells  and  tears  the  fibers 
apart. 

Attempts  have  been  made  with  more  or  less  suc- 
cess to  use  this  system  of  rapid  exclusion  of  the 
matter,  under  pressure  of  generated  carbonic  acid, 
resulting  from  the  treatment  of  the  nuiterial  first 
with  a  caustic  alkvli  and  then  with  acid.  See 
C'orToNiziM'.  Fii!:;i;. 

Fi'ber,  Treat'ment  and  Man'u-fac'ture  of. 
See  list  under  Corro.s,  Flax,  Wool,  He.mp,  etc.. 
Appliances. 

Fib'u-la.  (Surgical.)  A  needle  for  sewing  up 
wounds. 

(,1/u.soiin/. )  An  iron  crank  by  which  stones  are 
fastened  together. 

Fid.  1.  {Xautical.)  a.  A  bar  of  wool  or  iron 
to  sniniort  a  mast  upon  the  one  beneath.  It  passes 
throngli  a  mortise  in  the  upper  mast,  and  rests  on 
the  trestle-trees  of  the  heail  of  the  mast  below. 

A.  A  wooden,  jiointed  pin  used  to  open  tlie  strands 
of  a  rope  in  splicing.  A  similar  iron  instrument  is 
a  marlinspike,  or,  as  used  by  sail-makers,  a  slab- 
ber. 

2.  A  ping  of  oakum  for  the  vent  of  a  cannon. 
Fid'dle.  1.  (.Music.)  Anih.strument  played  with 
a  bow,  and  having  four  strings,  stivtched  over  a 
sounding-board  to  give  resonance,  and  along  a  neck 
(without  frets)  upon  which  the  strings  are  pressed 
hy  the  fingers  to  vary  the  tone.     See  Violix. 

Locusts  are  fiddlers.  Their  hind  legs  are  the 
bows,  ami  the  projecting  veins  of  their  wing-covers 
the  strings.  On  each  side  of  the  body  in  the  first 
segment  of  the  abdomen,  just  above  and  a  little  be- 
hind the  thighs,  is  a  deep  cavity  closed  by  a  thin 
piece  of  skin  stretched  tightly  across  it,  like  a  banjo- 
cover.  When  a  locust  begins  to  play,  he  bends  the 
shank  of  one  hind  leg  beneath  the  thigh,  where  it  is 
lodged  in  a  furrow  designed  to  receive  it,  and  then 
draws  the  leg  briskly  up  and  down  several  times 


against  the  projecting  lateral  edge  and  veins  of  the 
wing-cover. 

From  a  ballad  of  the  fourteenth  century,  or  there- 
abouts, cited  in  Watson's  "  History  of  English  Po- 
ems," occurs,  — 

"  Syre  TAdore  latte  made  a  feste 
That  wa-s  fair  and  honeste. 
With  his  lord  the  kynge  ; 
Ther  was  much  miiistralse, 
Tronipus.  tabors,  and  santre. 
Both  harp  and  fydyllynge." 

A  monumental  brass  of  the  same  period  in  St. 
Margaret's  Church,  King's  Lynn,  Norfolk,  England, 
slmws  the  musicians  at  a  peacock  feast ;  one  has  a 
four-stringed  fiddle,  another  a  six-stringed  cithern. 

2.  (Husbandry.)  A  wooden  bar  about  11  feet 
long,  attached  by  ropes  at  its  ends  to  the  traces  of 
a  horse,  and  used  to  drag  loose  straw  or  hay  on  the 
ground,  or  hay-cocks  to  the  place  of  stacking.  A 
rope  or  grape-vine  answers  very  well  for  the  latter 
purpose. 

3.  (A'autiea!.)  A  frame  of  bars  and  stiings,  to 
keep  things  from  rolling  off  the  cabin  table  in  bad 
weather. 

Fid'dle-block.    A    long    block,    having    two 
sheaves  of   dilferent   diameters 
in  the  same  plane  ;  not  as  in  a 
doublc-bhick,  where  they  are  in 
parallel  ]ilanes.      A  i'l'oZ-block. 

Fid-ham'mer.  (Nautical.) 
A  hammer  with  a  face  for 
striking  and  a  pointed  j^cca  to 
act  as  a  fid. 

Field.  The  space  visible  In 
an  ojitical  instrument  at  one 
view.  Hy  .shitting  the  telescope, 
the  field  is  changed  ;  by  shift- 
ing the  slip  or  object  relatively 
to  the  object-ghiss  of  a  micro- 
scope, successive  parts  of  the  object  are  brought 
within  the/f/rf. 

Field-bed.    A  folding-bed  for  camp  use. 

Field-book.  The  book  in  which  the  memoranda 
of  surveys  are  made. 

Field-der'rick.  One  used  for  stacking  hay  in 
the  field.  It  is  njounted  on  a  sled  or  on  a  sil)-|iii  ce 
which  is  anchored  temporarily  by  stakes  ;  othiuwi.se 
it  is  stayed  by  guys. 

Field-glass.  1.  a.  A  binocular  telescope  in  com- 
pact lurm,  and  having  six  achromatic  lenses.  It 
has  a  metallic  body  covered  with  morocco,  and  a 

Fig.  1962. 


FiiMle-Elork. 


Field-  Glass. 

sun-shade  to  extend  over  the  object-glasses.  It  is 
carried  in  a  leather  case  with  a  strap,  and  lias  a  body 
3J  to  6J  inches  long,  the  object-glasses  being  from 
15  to  26  Iin(!S  in  diameter.  A  lorgnette.  An  opera- 
glass,     A  race-glass. 


FIELD-GUN. 


839 


FILE. 


b.  A  small  achromatic  telescope,  usually  from  20 
to  2i  inches  long,  and  having  3  to  6  draws. 

2.  That  one  of  tlie  two  lenses  forming  the  eye- 
piece of  an  astronomical  telescope  or  compound 
microscope,  which  is  nearest  to  the  object-glass ;  the 
glais  nearest  to  the  eye  is  the  cyc-glass. 

Field-gun.  A  light  cannon  designed  to  accom- 
pany troops  in  their  maneuvers  on  the  field  of 
battle.  At  the  commencement  of  the  late  civil  war 
in  tliis  country,  those  thus  denominated  were  the 
6-pounder,  weighing  885  pounds  ;  the  12-pounder, 
of  1,770  pounds;  a  light  r2-pounder  of  1,220 
pounds  ;  and  the  12,  24,  and  32-pounder  howitzers, 
weighing  respectively  7S0,  1,320,  and  1,820  pounds. 
These  were  all  made  of  bronze.  During  the  war 
several  kinds  of  riHed  tield-guns  were  introduced, 
but  only  two  maintained  their  place  in  the  military 
service ;  the  3-incli  wrought-iron  ritle  and  the 
Parrott  10-pounder  of  2.9-inch  caliber,  each  nearly 
the  weight  of  the  bronze  6-pounder,  and  carrying  an 
elongated  projectile  of  ten  pounds  weight.  The 
smooth-bores  generally  were  withdrawn  from  the  field 
during  the  war,  with  the  exception  of  the  light  12- 
pounder,  or  "Napoleon"  guu. 

Four  smooth-bore  guns  and  two  howitzers,  or 
.six  rilled  or  six  12-pounder  guns  with  their  car- 
riages, caissons,  forge,  and  battery- wagon,  constitute  a 
battery.  No  particular  kind  of  breech-loading  gun 
has  been  adopted  in  tlie  United  States  Service,  un- 
less the  Gatling  machine-gun  may  be  so  classetl. 
See  Battery-gux.  Most,  if  not  all,  European  gov- 
ernments have  adopted  breech-loaders  of  various 
kinds  for  field  service. 

Tlie  English  use  the  breech-loading  Armstrong 
gun  (see  Armsthong-gux)  for  field,  fortification, 
and  naval  service. 

The  Prussian  army  uses  two  calibers  of  field-guns, 
4  and  6  pounders,  both  rifled  steel  breecli-loaders. 
The  bore  of  the  barrel  extends  entirely  through. 
The  breech  of  the  4-pounder  is  closed  by  a  double 
wedge  sliding  in  a  horizontal  slot  through  the 
barrel.  The  6-pouuder  is  closed  by  a  plug  held  in 
place  by  a  large  steel  pin.  The  escape  of  gas  is 
prevented  by  a  gas  ring  on  the  Broadwell  plan, 
similar  to  that  in  a  Sharp's  riHe.     See  G.\s-rinu. 

Field'ing.  Exposure  to  the  open  air  and  sun  of 
malt- wash,  or  gijle  in  casks,  in  order  to  promote  its 
acc^tifi  cation. 

Exposure  to  artificial  heat  is  tenu'd  staving. 

Field-lens.    See  Field-gl.ass,  2. 

Field-roll'er.     {Husbandry.)    A  wooden  or  iron 

Hg.  1963. 


Field-KoUer. 

cylinder,  drawn  over  a  plowed  field  to  mash  the 
clods  and  level  the  ground. 

Field-Staff.  A  gunner's  staff  for  carrying  a 
lighted  match. 

Pield-tel'e-graph.  One  adapted  for  use  in  the 
field  in  military  operations. 

The  field-telegraph  of  the  German  army  consi.sts 
of  140  men,  10  wagons,  and  40  miles  of  wire  for 


each  army  corps  in  the  field.  The  wire  is  reeled  out 
of  the  wagons  and  mounted  on  light  poles  about  ten 
feet  high,  every  third  one  being  put  in  the  giound. 
One  eighth  of  the  whole  length  of  wire  is  insulated, 
and  may  be  run  along  the  ground. 

Field-'works.  (Fortification.)  These  are  of  three 
kinds  :  — 

1.  Works  open  at  the  gorge  :  — 

a.  Redans,  single  and  double. 

b.  Lunettes. 

2.  Works  closed  all  round  :  — 

a.  Hcdoiibts. 

b.  Star  forts. 

c.  Bastio7ied  forts. 

3.  Lines,  continued  or  broken.     See  Line. 
Fife.     (Music.)     A  small  pipe  used  as  a  musical 

instrument ;  the  usual  accompaniment  of  the 
drum. 

Fife-rail.  (Nautical. )  A  banister  on  the  break 
of  a  poop  or  around  the  mast  of  a  vessel. 

Fii-teenth'.  (Music. )  A  stop  of  an  organ  tuned 
an  octave  above  2>rincipal ;  two  octaves  above  open 
diapason.     See  Stop. 

Fifth-chain.  The  chain  by  which  the  single 
lead  horse  in  a  team  of  five  is  hitched  to  the  end  of 
the  tongue.  It  is  supported  by  chains  from  the  har- 
ness of  the  leading  pair. 

Fifth-wheel.  A  wheel  or  segment  above  the  fore- 
axle  of  a  carriage  and  beneath  the  bed.  The  king- 
bolt is  the  center  of  oscillation,  and  the  fijth-u-licd 
forms  an  extended  support  to  prevent  the  careening 
of  the  carriage-bed. 

In  the  example,  one  part  is  shown  in  section  to 

Fig.  1964. 


Fifth-Wheel. 

exhibit  the  anti-friction  rollers  which  travei-se  on 
that  portion  of  the  segment  attached  to  the  axle. 

Fig'vned-fab'ric  Loom.  In  figure-ircaring,  the 
cloth  is  ornamented  with  Howers  and  other  devices. 
The  warp  is  divided  among  a  number  of  heddles 
which  are  operated  by  separate  treadles,  liy  which 
difl'erent  colors  may  be  concealed  or  brought  to  the 
surface,  or  made  to  change  places"  according  to  a 
presented  pattern.  The  Jacciuard  is  the  jirincipal 
loom  used  in  weaving  figured  fabrics.  See  D.\M- 
ASK  ;  Jacquakd. 

Hohlfield,  of  Hennerndorf,  in  Saxony,  1711-71, 
invented  a  loom  for  weaving  figured  fabrics,  the 
model  of  which  is  preserved  in  the  collection  of  the 
Berlin  Academy. 

Fig'ure-head.  (Xantical.)  The  ornament  on 
the  head  or  prow  of  a  ship. 

Fi'lar-mi-crom'e-ter.  A  micrometer  having 
threads  or  wires  across  its  field  of  view.  It  was  in- 
vented by  Jlalva.sia  about  1660,  who  apidied  a  net- 
work of  fine  silver  wires  crossing  each  other  at  right 
angles,  and  dividing  the  field  of  the  telescope  into 
squares.     See  Wike-mici!0.mf.tkr. 

File.  A  steel  instrument  for  abrading  or  smooth- 
ing surfaces,  and  having  raised  cutting  edges  (teeth) 
made  by  the  indentations  of  a  chisel. 

Files  are  mentioned  in  1  S.amuel  xiii.  21,  1093 
B.  c.  "They  had  a  file  for  the  mattocks  and  for 
the  colters,  and  for  the  forks  and  for  the  axes,  and 
to  sharpen  the  goads." 


FILE. 


840 


FILE. 


Files  are  graded  by  shape,  size,  and  fineness  of 
cut ;  and  also  known  by  their  ;iH)7Jose. 

As  to  sluipe,  the  diagram  (B"ig.  1965)  giving  a 
series  of  sections  will  be  readily  understood. 

a,  b,  c,  d,  e,f,  cj,  h,  are  sections  derived  from  the 
square. 

i,  k,  I,  m,  n,  o,  p,  q,  are  sections  derived  from  the 
circle. 

/•,  s,  t,  V,  w,  X,  y,  z,  are  sections  derived  from  the 
triangle. 

a,  aqiiare  file,  parallel  or  taper,  sometimes  with  a 
safe  side. 

b,  when  large,  a  cotter  file  ;  small,  verge  or  pivot 
file. 

c,  flat  file :  when  small,  pollance  file ;  when 
narrow,  pillar  file. 

d,  when  parallel :  equaling,  clock-pinion,  or  cnd- 


Fig.  1965. 


Fila. 


Icss-sercw  file.  When  tajxr :  slitting,  entering, 
warding,  or  barrel-hole  file. 

c,  f,  French-pivot  or  shouldering  file  :  parallel  V- 
file. 

g,  nail  file,  for  the  finger-nails. 

h,  pointinij  milK-saw  file,  round-edije  file. 

i,  round,  gallcting,  rat-tail  file. 

k,  frame-sav!  file. 

I,  hnlf-round  file  ;  nieking,  piercing,  or  round-off 
file. 

in,  cross  file  ;  do-ublc-half-round  file. 

»s,  ODo./  file. 

0,  balance-wheel  or  swing-wheel  file,  the  convex 
side  only  cut. 

p,  swaged  file,  for  finishing  bniss-moldings. 

q,  curvilinear  file. 

r,  triangular,  three-square,  or  «««'  file. 

s,  (■«»<  file,  for  filing  inside  angles  of  120°. 

t,  when  parallel,  banking  or  watdt-pinion  file ; 
when  taper,  knife-edge  file. 

«,  screw-head,  feather-edge,  slitting  file. 

«;,  fa/ue  file. 

X,  triantjulnr-and-hnlf-round  file. 

!/,  double  or  checkering  file,  for  gunsmiths. 

J,  double,  or  pencil-sharpening  file. 

Other  grades  of  files  are  known  by  peculiarities  of 
form  not  shown  by  ."section  ;  such  as  ;  — 

Taper  ;  thinner  towards  the  point. 

Parallel ;  the  same  dimensions  throughout  the 
length. 


Blunt ;  a  grade  between  taper  and  jiarallel. 

As  to  character  of  teeth,  the  classes  are  :  — 

Double-cut ;  having  two  sets  of  teeth  crossing  ob- 
lirj  uely. 

Sinijle-cut  or  float ;  having  but  one  row  of  teeth. 

Hasp ;  having  detached  teeth  made  by  a  punch, 
instead  uf  a  chisel. 

A  (Fig.  19t)5)  shows  the  position  and  action  of 
the  file-chisel  on  the  blank  £  ;  C  the  appearance 
of  the  rows  of  teeth.  The  lower  row  .should,  how- 
ever, have  been  shown  as  not  quite  squarely  across 
the  face  of  the  file. 

As  to  relative  fineness  of  teeth :  — 

Eough-cut.  Second-cut. 

Middle-cut.  Smooth. 

Bastard.  Superfine  or  dead  smooth. 

Appro.ximate  number  of  cuts  in  an  inch  of  files:  — 


Length  of  File  in  Inches.    4. 

6.       8.      12.     16. 

20. 

Rough    ...     56 

52      44      40       28 

21 

Dastard       .         .         76 

64      56      48       44 

34 

Smooth  .         .         .112 

83      72      72      64 

56 

Superfine    .         .       216 

144    112      88       76 

64 

See  any  in  the  follow 

mg  list,  under  their  al| 

ha- 

betical  heads  :  — 

Angular-file. 

Joint-file. 

Arm-file. 

Key-file. 

Balaiue-wheel  file. 

Knife-file. 

F..arrel-file. 

Lock -file. 

Bastard-file. 

Marble-workers'  file. 

Blunt-file. 

Middle-cut  file. 

Bow-file. 

Molding-file. 

Bread-rasp. 

Nail-file. 

Cabinet-file. 

>'icking-file. 

Cant-file. 

Oval  file. 

Carlet. 

Parallel-file. 

Checki-ring-file. 

Parting-tool. 

Circular-file. 

Perforated  file. 

Collier. 

Piercing-file. 

Concavo-convex  file. 

Pillar-tile. 

Cotter-file. 

Pinion-tile. 

Cross-file. 

Pivot- file. 

Cutting-file. 

Pottance-file. 

Dead-smooth  file. 

Quannet. 

Dental-file. 

Kasp. 

Double-file. 

Easji-cutting  machine. 

Double-cut  file. 

Kasper. 

Double  half-round  file. 

Kasp.     Mechanical 

Double-tang  tile. 

Pat-tail  tile.     * 

Dovetail-file. 

P.ifller. 

Entering-file. 

Pough-tile. 

Equaling-file. 

Pound-file. 

Feather-edge  file. 

Round-edge  file. 

File-blank. 

Eound-oll  file. 

File-blanks.     Rolling 

Rubber-file. 

File-carrier. 

Safe-edge  file. 

File-chisel. 

Saw-file. 

File-cleaner. 

Saw-filing  machine. 

File-cutting  machine. 

Second-cut  tile. 

File-sharpening. 

Screw-head  tile. 

File-stripper. 

Shouldering-file. 

Filing-block. 

Single-cut  file. 

Filing-machine. 

Slitting-file. 

Filings-separator. 

Smooth-file. 

Flat-file. 

Square- file. 

Float. 

Superfine-tile. 

Found. 

Swing-wheel  file. 

Graille. 

Taper-tile. 

Half-round  file. 

Three-square  file. 

Half-thick  file. 

Top]ier-file. 

Hand-file. 

Triangular-file. 

Hollow-edge  file. 

Turn-file. 

FILE-BLANK. 


841 


FILE-CUTTING  MACHINE. 


Valve-file. 
Vcrj,'e-lile. 
AViirdino-file. 


Watchmakers'  file  (varie- 
ties, see  Watchmakehs' 
Files). 


The  sculptor's  file  is  kno\ni  as  a  riffler,  and  is 
curved  in  various  forms.  Hiram  Powers's  file  is  per- 
forated to  allow  esca[)e  of  plaster  or  marble-dust. 

The  metliod  of  handling  the  chisel  depends  in 
great  measure  on  the  kind  of  tootii  to  he  cut.  The 
file  is  held  to  its  place  on  the  leaden  anvil  by  means  of 
a  leathern  strap  passing  over  each  end  ol'  the  file,  and 
then  under  the  feet  of  the  workman  in  the  manner 
of  stirrups.  At  every  blow  of  the  hannner  the  chisel 
is  made  to  cut  a  tooth,  and  the  blows  follow  each 
other  in  rapid  succession,  the  workman  after  every 
blow  advancing  the  chisel  forward  by  a  slight  move- 
ment. The  chisel  forms  a  numb^jr  of  angular  grooves 
parallel  to  each  other,  the  tooth  being  formed  by 
the  metal  raised  between  every  two  grooves.  As 
the  work  proceeds,  he  shifts  the  fde  forward  by 
loosening  his  tread  upon  the  straps.  When  one 
surface  is  covered  with  single  cuts,  he  proceeds,  in 
double-cut  files,  to  add  a  secoml  row  of  teeth, 
making  them  cross  the  former  oblir|uely. 

The  files  are  ne.xt  hardened,  unless  they  are  to  be 
used  upon  wood,  ivory,  and  other  soft  substances  ; 
such  files  admit  of  being  slnrpeneil  up  with  a  hand- 
file.  Some  of  the  curved  files  us'd  by  sculptors  and 
die-sinkers  are  made  of  iron  and  case-hardened. 

Mr.  Holtzaptfel  describ.'s  the  operation  of  cutting 
in  the  following  terms  ;  "  The  first  cut  is  made  at 
the  point  of  the  file  ;  the  chisel  is  held  in  the  hand 
at  a  horizontal  angle  of  aljout  55°  with  the  central 
line  of  the  file,  as  in  the  upper  row  of  outs  at  C,  and 
with  a  vertical  inclination  of  about  12°  to  14°  from 
the  perpendicular,  as  represented  at  A."    (Fig.  1965.) 

"The  blow  of  the  hammer  upon  the  chisel  causes 
the  Intter  to  indent  and  slightly  to  drive  forward 
the  steel,  thereby  throwing  up  a  trilling  ridge  or 
bur ;  the  chisel  is  immediately  replaced  on  the 
blank  and  slid  from  the  operator,  until  it  encounters 
the  ridge  previously  thrown  up,  which  arrests  the 
chisel  or  prevents  it  from  slipping  farther  back,  and 
thereby  determines  the  succeeding  position  of  the 
chisel.  The  heavier  the  blow,  the  greater  the  ridge, 
and  the  greater  the  distance  from  the  preceding  cut 
at  whiidi  the  chisel  is  arrested.  The  chisel,  having 
been  placetl  in  its  second  position,  is  again  struck 
with  the  hammer,  which  is  mad.i  to  give  the  blows 
as  nearly  as  jiossible  of  unifoiin  strength  ;  and  the 
process  is  repeated  with  considerable  rapidity  and 
regularity,  si,\ty  to  eighty  cuts  being  made  in  one 
minute,  until  the  entire  length  of  the  file  has  been 
cut  with  inclined,  jiarallel,  and  equidistant  ridges, 
whi'h  are  collectively  deuominateil  the  first  course. 
So  far  as  this  one  face  is  concerned,  the  file,  if  in- 
tend 'd  to  be  single  cut,  would  Iw  then  ready  for 
hardening.  Most  files,  however,  are  double  cut; 
that  is,  they  have  two  series  or  courses  of  chisel 
outs.  In  cutting  the  second  course,  the  chisel  is 
inclined  vertically  as  before,  at  about  12°,  but  its  edge 
only  a  few  degrees  from  the  transverse  line  of  the 
file,  or  about  5°  to  10°  from  the  rectangle.  The  blows 
are  now  given  a  little  less  strongly,  so  as  barely  to 
penetrate  to  the  bottom  of  the  first  cuts,  and  from 
the  blows  being  lighter  they  throw  up  smaller  burs, 
conse(|uently  the  second  course  of  cuts  is  somewhat 
finer  than  the  first.  The  two  series,  or  courses,  fill  the 
surface  of  the  file  with  teeth,  wdiich  are  inclined  tow- 
ards the  point  of  the  file."  See  Holtzapftel's  Turn- 
iiij  and  Mcchankal  Manipulaiion,  London,  1847. 

File-blank.     A  piece  of  soft  .steel,  shaped  and 
grounil  ready  for  cutting,  to  form  a  file. 
File-car'ri-er.    A  tool-holder  like  the  stock  of 


Fig.  1966. 


Fik-  Carrier. 


a  frame-saw,  and  used  to  mount  a  file  in  a  manner 
similar  to  that  of  the  saw  in  the  case  cited. 

File-chis'el.  The  cold  chisel  (A,  Fig.  1965)  for 
rough  files  is  about  3  inches  long,  2:^  wide,  and 
the  angle  of  the  edge  is  about  50°.  (See  File.) 
The  edge  is  straight.  The  file-blank  rests  U]ion  a 
block  of  lead  which  forms  the  anvil.  The  narrower 
chisel,  for  cutting  smaller  and  smoother  files,  has  a 
length  of  about  2  inches,  width  A  inch.  It  is  very 
thin  and  sharpened  to  an  angle  of  about  35°.  It  is 
used  with  a  hammer  weighing  one  or  two  ounces. 
Other  chisels  are  of  intermediate  proportions.  The 
edge  is  always  wider  than  the  file  to  be  cut. 

The  chisel  is  held  in  the  left  hand  at  an  inclina- 
tion of  4°  to  15°  from  the  perpendicular,  according 
to  the  character  of  the  file. 

The  blow  of  the  hammer  drives  forward  the  chisel, 
raising  a  bur,  the  liight  of  which  determines  the 
distance  of  the  next  cut,  as  the  sliding  of  the  chi.sel 
against  the  ridge  previously  thiown  up  att'ords  a 
gage  for  the  position  of  the  chisel  at  tlie  ne.vt  blow, 
the  operator  being  guided  by  the  sense  of  touch. 
The  cuts  are  made  at  the  rate  of  60  to  80  per  min- 
ute.    The  file-blank  is  gi-eased  before  cutting. 

File-clean'er.  A  scratch-brusli  of  wire.  A  thin 
brass  edge  which  acts  as  a  rake.  A  card  such  as  is 
used  in  carding  cotton. 

To  remove  wood,  dip  the  file  in  hot  water  to  swell 
the  wood.  It  is  then  removed  by  a  liard  brush  ; 
the  wainith  ev.iporates  the  moisture. 

FUe-cut'ting  Ma-chine'.  A  machine  by  which 
files  are  cut  automatically.  The  usual  forili  has  a 
table  to  which  the  blank  is  secured,  and  on  which 
it  is  fed  beneath  the  chisel,  which  receives  the  blows 
of  a  trip-hammer  above. 

Many  attem|its  have  been  made  in  this  direction 
in  France,  England,  and  the  United  States.  Among 
these  may  be  mentioned  Duverger,  1699  ;  Fardouet, 
1725  ;  Tliiout,  1740  ;  Brachal  and  G.imain,  1756, 
1778;  Eaoul,  1800;  Ericsson,  1836;  Eobison,  1843. 
See  also  Skilton's  machine,  "  Ure's  Dictionary," 
Vol.  II.  pp.  202-204,  edition  of  1860.  See  also 
"  Transactions  of  the  American  Philosojihical  Soci- 
ety," Vol.  II.,  in  which  a  machine  is  described  in 
which  the  file  is  fixed  on  a  bed  of  lead,  and  a  chisel 
fixed  at  the  end  of  a  lever  is  struck  down  by  a  ham- 
mer. The  lever  is  again  raised  by  means  of  a  spring, 
and  during  its  rise  moves  a  ratchet-wheel  connected 
with  the  supjiort  of  the  bed,  which  is  shifted,  together 
with  the  file,  after  each  stroke.  In  Thiout's  ma- 
chine ("Traite  de  I'Horologie,"  Paris,  1740),  the 
file  is  attached  to  a  screw-slide  susjiended  at  the 
end  by  pivots  and  covered  with  an  anvil-])late  of 
tin.  The  slide  works  upon  a  stationary  anvil,  and 
is  worked  by  a  feed-screw  moved  at  intervals  the 
distance  of  the  pitch  of  a  tooth  by  means  of  a  pin- 
wheel.  The  chisel  is  held  on  a  jointed  arm  beneath 
which  is  a  spring  to  raise  it  after  each  blow,  the 
latter  being  given  by  a  vibrating  drop-hammer. 
Ericsson's  machine  was  adapted  to  cut  several  files 
at  a  time,  and  is  especially  commended  for  the  in- 
troduction of  means  by  which,  in  cutting  taper 
files,  the  hammer  is  less  raised  in  cutting  the  ends 
of  the  files  than  at  the  middle,  so  as  to  proportion 
the  force  of  the  blow  to  the  width  and  depth  of  the 
cut  at  different  parts  of  the  file.  Two  machines 
were  used  for  double-cut  files,  the  bed  of  one  in- 
clined to  the  right  and  the  other  to  the  left,  to  give 


FILE-CUTTING  MACHINE. 


842 


FILE-STRIPPER. 


the  dift'ereiit  horizontal  inclinations  proper  to  the.se 
teeth,  and  a  machine  with  a  strai<,'ht  bed  was  useil 
for  single-cut  Jiimts,  and  lor  round  and  hall'-rouiid 
files.  The  machines  make  abo\it  240  strokes  per 
minute,  which  is  about  three  times  the  rate  of  liand- 
woik,  and  two  beds  are  employed,  so  that  one  may 
be  cutting  while  the  blanks  are  being  adjusted  upon 
the  other. 

Sir  Jo'lm  Robison,  formerly  president  of  the  Royal 
Scottisli  .Society  of  Arts,  suggested,  in  1843,  the 
making  of  iMirvilinear  liles  by  cutting  Hat  strips  of 
steel  plate  and  tlien  rolling  tliem  into  shape  and 
tempering  them.  Cammel's  improvement  was  to 
make  the  plate  thinner  towards  the  edges,  so  that  it 
might  bend  e(iualiy,  and  not  too  much  in  the  middle, 
as  it  was  apt  to  do  when  of  an  even  thickness.  He 
also  suggested  to  make  the  teeth  by  a  graver,  in  an 
automatic  machine. 

Fig.  1967  shows  a  file-cutting  machine  in  which 

rig.  1967. 


I  movement  are  supported  on  a  turn-table,  by  whose 
'  adjustment  the  inclination  of  the  teeth  is  detennined. 
The  chisel  is  supported  U])on  a  flexible  rod  which  is 
connected  to  the  h.immer-handle  by  a  spiral  t|ning. 
The  hammer  is  attachi-d  to  a  lock-shaft,  wduch  has 
an  adjustable  arm  acted  ou  by  a  cam  on  the  main 
shaft. 

File-grind'ing  Ma-chine'.  A  machine  for  sur- 
facing forged  or  rolled  tile-blanks  to  bring  them  to 
form  previous  to  cutting. 

In  the  example  the  tiles  are  secured  one  after  an- 
other upon  a  carriage  which  moves  under  a  revolv- 
ing cutter  on  a  curved  bed  in  such  a  manner  that 

Fig.  1969. 


fee 


.    to  |a      el  a[ 

^A/'iiiiin-m(> 


■   Rotherham  and  Holden^s  File-  Catting  Machine. 

the  blanks  are  secured  side  by  side  on  the  upper 
surface  of  the  bed,  which  is  automatically  fed  after 
each  stroke  by  the  feed-screw  ;  a  separate  chisel  and 
ham  ner  act  ni)on  each  blank  ;  the  chisels  are  sup- 
ported l)y  springs  on  arms  with  roller  feet,  which  bear 
upon  the  blank  ;  the  chisels  are  thrown  back  after 
each  cut  to  raise  a  burr. 

In  Fig.  lydS,  the  sliding  head  to  which  the  shank 
of  the  blank  is  clamped  is  actuated  by  a  feed-.screw 
and  half  nut,  the  latter  being  automatically  raised 
to  stop  the  feeil-motion  at  the  proper  time.  The 
anvil  has  a  hemisiihericiil  block,  whose  convex  .side 
rests  in  a  socket  of  its  sufiport.  The  anvil  and  feed- 
Fig.  1968. 


Card  and  Studley's  File-  Cutter, 


Fde-Gnnding  Machine. 

the  shape  of  each  file  depends  entirely  iijion  the 
curvature  of  the  bed ;  and  as  long  as  this  cnrva- 
tui'c  remains  unchanged,  all  the  tiles  tui-ned  out 
upon  it  are  uniform  in  shape.  The  files  are 
held  in  position  upon  the  cairiage  by  a  sliding 
clamp  operated  by  a  toothed  .segment.  This 
segment  connects  with  a  hand-lever  in  such 
manner  that  when  the  clamp  has  been  made  to  catch 
over  the  end  of  the  file,  the  toothed  segment  is  locked 
and  the  clamp  thus  prevented  from  spontaneously 
releasing  the  file. 

Fil'er.  An  office  device  for  holding  bills  and 
loose  papers.     See  Paper-file. 

File-sharp'en-ing.  Worn  files  are  first  cleaned 
by  hot  watei'  and  soda  ;  then  placed  in  connection 
with  the  positive  ])ole  of  a  battery,  in  a  bath  com- 
posed of  forty  parts  of  sulphuric  aciil,  eighty  parts 
of  nitric  acid,  and  a  thousand  parts  of  water.  The 
negative  pole  is  formed  of  a  cojiper  spiral  surround- 
ing the  files,  but  not  touching  them  ;  the  coil  ter- 
minates in  a  wire  which  rises  towards  the  surface. 
When  the  files  have  been  ten  minutes  in  the  bath 
they  are  taken  out,  washed,  and  dried,  when  the 
hollows  will  be  found  to  have  been  attacked  in  a 
very  sensible  manner  ;  but  should  the  effect  not  be 
sufficient,  they  are  replaced  for  the  same  period  as 
before.  Two  operations  are  sometimes  necessary, 
but  rarely. 

File-strip'per.      A   machine   in    which    a 
worn-out  file,  after  being  softened  by  heat  and 
slow  cooling,    is    smoothed    to   prepare    it    for 
J]]  being   re-cut.     In    the    example,    the    file    is 
held    by  adjustable  jaws   upon   a  slightly  ro- 
tating bed  supjicn'ted   by  springs.      The   cross-bar, 
to   which   the   stri))ping-tool    is   attached,    is   con- 
nected at   each   end   by  a   connecting   rod  with   a 
crank  upon  the  end  of  the  driving  shaft,  and  is  re- 
ciprocated in  guides  upon   a  frame   hingeii  at  one 
end  to  the  driving-shaft,  and  which  may  be  elevated 
to  raise  the  stripper  off  the  file  through  the  in.«tn\- 
mentality  of  a  rock-shaft  and  a  system  of  levers  at 
the  other  end. 


FILE-TEMPERING. 


843 


FILLET. 


Fig.  1970. 


Fig  1971. 


File- Stripper. 

File-tem'per-ing.  The  files  are  Jm\ni  through 
beer-grouiuls,  yeast,  or  other  ailhesive  tUiid,  anil 
then  tlirough  common  salt  mixed  with  roasted  and 
pounded  cow's  hoof,  the  objects  of  which  are  to  pro- 
tect the  teeth  from  the  ilirect  action  of  the  fire  and 
the  oxiilizing  influence  of  the  air  ;  to  aflbrd  an  inde.x 
of  temperature,  the  fusion  of  tlie  salt  s'lowing  when 
the  hardening  heat  is  attained  ;  and  to  lessen  the  ten- 
dency of  the  files  to  crack  on  being  ininier.sed  in 
water.  The  file  is  held  by  the  tang  with  a  jiair  of 
tong.s,  and  immersed  quickly  or  slowly,  vertically 
or  obliquely,  according  to  its  form  ;  that  method 
heing  adopted  which  has  been  found  by  e.xperience 
best  calculated  to  keep  the  fil«  straight.  After  the 
hardening,  the  tang  is  tempered  by  inmiersing  it  in 
molten  lead  ;  if  the  tang  were  left  as  the  file,  it 
would  be  liable  to  snap  ott'  during  use. 

The  files  are  next  scoured  with  sci'ubbing-brushes 
dipped  into  sand  and  water  or  coke-dust  and  water  ; 
they  are  next  put  into  lime-water  and  left  for  some 
hours.  They  are  then  thoroughly  dried  at  the  fire, 
and  lastly  rubbed  over  with  olive-oil  containing  a 
little  turpentine. 

Pil'i-gree.  Delicate  jewelry-work  of  gold  or  sil- 
ver wire  drawn  flat  or  round.  The  wire  is  twisted 
by  ])inchers  into  beautiful  forms,  and  soldered  at  the 
junctions. 

The  word  is  Italian.  The  original  form  seems  to 
have  been  a  wire  with  grains  or  beads,  and  the  term 
now  includes  plaited,  interlacing,  or  granular  work 
in  golil  or  silver  wire  worked  into  ornamental  forms. 
The  nations  bordering  on  the  Mediterranean  excel  in 
the  art. 

The  filigree  of  India  comprises  various  personal 
ornaTnents  of  gold  and  .silver,  groups  of  flowers,  and 
small  boxes  and  caskets.  Their  apparatus  consists 
merely  of  a  few  small  crucibles,  a  piece  of  bamboo 
for  a  blowpipe,  small  hammers  for  flattening  the 
wire,  and  sets  of  forceps  for  interweaving  it. 

Fil'i-gree-glass.  (ff/«ss.)  One  of  the  kinds  of 
ornament.\l  glass  for  which  Venice  was  formerly 
celebrated,  and  wdiich  has  been  recently  revived. 

Small  filigree  canes  of  white  and  other  colored 
enamels  are  drawn  ;  whetted  o  f  the  required  lengths, 
arranged  in  clusters  in  a  cylindrical  mold  of  the  ri'- 
quired  shape,  and  then  fused  together  liy  heat.  The 
canes  are  then  aggregated  by  flint  glass  at  a  welding 
heat,  and  the  mass  twisted  if  a  spiral  ornament  be 
desired.  Vases  or  other  objects  are  made  of  oina- 
mental  masses  of  this  glass,  blown  in  the  usual 
manner. 

The  Venetianhall,  familiarin paper-weights,  ismade 
of  waste  pieces  of  filigree  in  a  pocket  of  flint-glass. 

Pil'ing-block.    A  block  of  apple,  pear,  or  box- 


Fdin^-Block. 

wood,  gripped  in  the  jaws  of  a  vise,  and  having 
grooves  of  varying  depth  in  which  small  i-ods,  bars, 
or  wires  may  be  laid  to  be  filed.  The  wire  is  shown 
as  grasped  by  a  hand-vise. 

Fil'ing-ma-chine'.  1.  A  machine  used  in  the 
mint  to  reduce  the  weight  of  coin  planchets,  when 
above  the  standard.  The  pieces  are  laid  parallel  in  a 
trough,  and  their  edges  rest  u]ion  a  cylindrical  file, 
whereby  a  portion  of  metal  is  removed,  the  pieces 
rotating  as  the  work  proceeds,  in  order  to  preserve 
their  circularity. 

2.  A  machine  in  which  a  file  is  mounted  as  a  jig- 
saw ;  or  to  reciprocate  in  a  manner  similar  to  that 
of  a  file  in  the  hands  of  a  workman. 

In  the  example,  the  file  n-ceives  vertical  recipro- 
cation from  a  pitman  whose  cross-head  has  a  hori- 
zontal slot  traversed  by  a  crank-piu  on  a  rotating 

Fig.  1972. 


Filing-Machine. 

disk.  The  table  is  pivoted  and  has  a  semicircular 
rack  which  is  engaged  by  a  screw-gear  to  incline  the 
table.     See  also  S.iw-FILING  Machixe. 

Fil'ings-sep'a-ra'tor.  A  machine  in  which  fil- 
ings of  iron  and  copper  are  sc])arated  by  exposure 
to  m^ignets  which  are  brought  into  contact  with  all 
of  the  particles,  and  select,  retain,  and  remove  the 
iron  particles  from  those  of  brass  and  copper,  so  that 
the  latter  may  be  used  for  re-melting.  There  are 
several  forms  of  machines  for  the  purpose. 

Fil'let.  1.  A  strip  of  card-clothing.  A  strip  of 
leather  furnished  with  the  bent  wire  teeth  peculiar 
to  carding-engines. 


FILLET-PLANE. 


844 


FILTER. 


2.  A  ring  on  the  muzzle  or  cascabel  of  a  gun. 

3.  A  viblion  of  metal  of  gaged  proiiortions  fed  to 
the  innchine  which  punches  out  the  plunchets  for 
coining. 

4.  (Carpentry.)  a.  A  square  molding,  frequently 
forming  an  upper  finish  or  coruva.    A  bund  or  llslcl. 

h.  A  .strip  nailed  to  a  wall  or  ])artition  to  sup- 
port a  shelf. 

c.  A  stop  for  room  or  elo.set  doors  to  clo.se.  against. 

d.  A  strip  inserted  into  the  angle  formed  by  two 
hoards  or  surfaces. 

."j.  (Dairy.)  A  perforated  curb  to  confine  the 
ciirdi  in  making  cheese. 

C.  (fldiiL-hiniliiir/.)  A  rolling  tool  which  has  a 
plain  line,  lines,  or  band  ;  diliering  in  this  respect 
from  the  ornamental  rolls. 

7.  (Jrchilr.dure.)  The  projection  between  the 
flutes  of  a  column. 

8.  (Prinfiiiij.)  A  rule  with  broad  or  broad  and 
nari'ow  lines,  principaliy  used  as  a  border. 

'.K  (Gildinij.)  A  band  of  gold-leaf  on  a  picture- 
frame  or  elsewhere. 

10.    The  thread  of  a  screw. 

Fil'let-plane.  A  molding-plane  for  dressing  a 
fill't  or  square  head. 

Filling.  1.  (Railroading.)  An  embankm'.'ut  of 
stone,  giavel,  earth,  etc.,  to  make  a  raised  bed  for 
a  roail,  railroad  track  (a),  or  canal.  An  artificial, 
elevated  way. 

In  the  laying  out  of  a  permanent  way,  it  is  usual 
to  uiake  the  cz(i^t?i(/sanilj^///?;//.s  counterbalance  each 


Fig  1973. 


6     - 


"^- 


.^--1 


other,  as  near  as  may  be,  but  in  a  flat  country  the 
tray  is  maihf  by  throwing  the  sides  to  the  middle, 
making  a  biink  bounded  by  two  ditches  (b).  The 
customary  soil  in  such  situations,  however,  is  unfit 
for  the  repose  of  the  ties,  and  it  becomes  necessary 
to  carry  sound  ballast,  such  as  broken  .stone  or  good 
gravel,  before  the  pcrmannU  way  can  he  said  to  be 
in  good  order.  Such  is  especially  tlie  case  in  ground 
naturally  swampy.  In  such  cases  the  track  is  either 
supported  by  piles,  or,  as  in  the  annexed  illustration 
(f),  which  repre.sents  a  railroad  embankment  in 
Holland,  by  fascines  and  stakes,  bound  together  and 
placed  alternately  across  and  longituilinally. 

Among  the  largest  embankments  of  modern  times 
are  the  Tring  filling  of  the  Northwestern  Railway, 
Enu'land,  containing  1, .500, 000  cubic  yards;  the 
Gadelbach,  on  the  Ulm  and  Augsburg  Railroad, 
1,750,000  yards;  the  Oberhauser,  on  the  Augsburg 
and  Lindau  Railway,  2,500,000  cubic  yards. 

Chat-Moss,  on  tlie  Liverpool  and  Manchester 
Railway,  is  4^  miles  across  and  from  20  to  40  feet 
deep.  Cattle  could  not  stand  upon  it.  To  form  an 
embankment  of  277,000  yards,  670,000  yards  of 
material  were  thrown  into  the  bog. 

2.  (Shipbuilding.)  Pieces  or  composition  fitted 
in  between  the  frames  of  the  hold,  to  increase  the 


water-tightness,  resist  compre-ssion,  and  prevent  the 
collection  of  dirt,  bilge-water,  .and  vermin.  Blocks 
of  wood,  bricks,  mortar,  cement,  asjilialte,  have  been 
used. 

3.  (Nautical.)  A  slip  of  wood  foiTning  a  part  of 
a  built  structure,  such  as  a  made  mast ;  or  a  piece 
inserted  to  fill  a  defect. 

The  covering  of  a  pile,  below  water,  w  ith  broad- 
headed  nails,  to  exclude  the  Teredo  navati.t. 

4.  (IFeaviiig.)  The  itr/^-thread  which  fills  up 
the  ivarp,  being  introduced  by  the  shuttle  and 
lieatcn  up  by  the  batten  or  lat/ic.  Also  known  as 
the  woof,  slwot,  or  tram. 

5.  A  .stopping  for  carious  teeth.  The  filling  of 
decayed  teeth  with  gold  was  practiced  by  the  Egyp- 
tians, as  is  proved  by  some  niunmiies  Ibund  at  Thebes. 
See  I)I':nt.\l  In.stuuments  and  Apri,i.\NCEs. 

Fill'ing-en'gine.  (Silk-machinenj.)  A  machine 
in  which  wa.stc  and  flo.ss  silk  from  the  regular  silk- 
machinery  is  disentangled,  and  the  fibers  laid  paral- 
lel. The  silk,  previously  hackled,  is  fed  between 
rollers  and  subjected  to  the  action  of  a  series  of  mov- 
ing combs.  It  then  passes  to  the  druiciny-fravic, 
where  it  is  subjected  to  a  farther  process  of  substan- 
tially similar  character.  From  the  draviiig-frame 
it  passes  to  the  scKte/ter,  and  thence  to  the  ciUtivg- 
engine,  which  cuts  it  into  lengths  of  about  1^  inches. 
The  staple  is  then  cleansed,  dried,  and  eventually 
cifrdcd  and  doubled,  drairn  and  spun,  like  cotton. 

Fill'ing-in  Pie'ces.  (Carpentry.)  Timbers  oc- 
curring in  partitions,  groin.s,  and  roofs  of  less  length 
than  those  with  which  they  range  ;  as  the  jack-raf- 
tei's  next  a  hip,  and  the  short  rafters  filled  in  the 
side  of  a  roof  next  the  chimney-shaft. 

Fill'iiig-pile.  (Jli/draulic  Engineering.)  A 
backing  or  ri'taining  ]iile  in  a  cott'er-dam. 

Fill'ing-post.  (Architecture.)  A  middle  post 
in  a  woo(h-n  liame. 

Fill'ing-tim'bers.  (Shipbuilding.)  Those  placed 
between  tlet  tranies  to  fill  up. 

Fil'lis-ter.  1.  The  rabbet  on  the  outer  edge  of 
a  sash-bar,  to  hold  the  glass  and  the  putty. 

2.  A  plane  for  making  a  rabbet.  The  varieties 
are  kuow'n  as  sirff-fiUisters  and  s«sA-fillisters. 

The  former  is  regulated  for  depth  by  a  movable 
stop.     Si-e  Plane. 

Fil'ter.    A  vessel,  chamber,  or  reservoir  through 


Fig.  1974. 


Filters. 


FILTER. 


845 


FILTER. 


which  water  or  other  liquid  is  jiassed  to  arrest  mat- 
ters raeehaiiically  suspended  tlierein.  Tlie  idea  does 
not  necessarily  include  sjiecific  chemical  action, 
though  doubtless  animal  and  vegetable  charcoal 
have  a  faculty  lor  absorbing  gases  and  deleterious 
and  effete  matter,  es])ecially  organic. 

The  filter  {a.  Fig.  1974)  of  the  laboratory  is  made 
of  a  circle  of  bibulous  paper,  folded  and  opened  into 
a  quadrant  and  inserted  into  a  funnel  of  glass  or 
porcelain,  and  the  filtering  material  is  a  quadrant 
of  bibulous  paper  which  is  rolled  into  a  cone  and 
fitted  into  the  funnel.  Cru.shed  and  powdered  glass, 
and  gun-cotton  are  also  used. 

The  filter  b  (Fig.  1974)  is  placed  within  a  water 
hath  which  has  a  leg  heated  by  an  alcohol  lamp. 
This  is  used  for  filtering  matters  whiidx  become 
viscid  by  cooling,  such  as  gelatine,  tallow,  wax, 
stearic  acid,  etc.  All  filters  for  the  laboratory,  in 
which  a  sheet  of  paper  is  made  to  line  a  funnel 
and  contain  the  liquid,  shouhl  have  sides  subtend- 
ing an  angle  of  60° ;  this  for  the  reason  that  a  sheet 
of  paper  folded  in  four,  and  one  corner  opened  so  as  to 
form  a  cone,  dills  a  funnel  of  the  shape  described. 

The  domestic  filter  frei^uently  consists  of  a  sub- 
merged jar  or  box  made  of  a  natural  or  artificial  po- 

Fig.  1975. 


Filter  and  Cooler. 


Domestic  Filter. 

reus  stone,  through  which  water  passes,  and  which 
is  withdrawn  by  a  faucet  which  crosses  the  intervening 
space  and  passes  to  the  outside.  In  another  form  it 
is  a  chamber  at  the  bottom  of  the  water- reservoir,  as 
in  Fig.  197.').  The  water  passes  down  into  the  sponge- 
pocket,  and  thence  follows  around  the  circuitous 
chamber  charged  with  filtering  material  to  the  outlet. 
In  another  form,  the  filter  is  placed  within  a  bar- 
rel, and  the  water 
^Fig.  19i6.  pa.sses   through   a 

coarse  filter  D  be- 
neath it,  and  up 
a  central  tube  C 
to  an  upper  cham- 
ber, and  from  this 
chamber  through 
the  filtering  ma- 
terial contained 
between  two  per- 
f  o  r  a  t  e  d  d  i  a  - 
phragmsi^ff.  The 
water  is  drawn 
from  the  lower  an- 
nular chamber  by 
a  siphon  ft' having 
a  stoji-cock  at  its 
lower  end. 

A  good  donips- 
tii:  form  consists 
of  a  dee])  wooden 
tub  divided  bv  a 
tight  vertical  partition  through  the  middle,  the  ]iar- 
tition  at  the  bottom  being  perforated  with  numerous 
sinall  holes.  The  tub  is  nearly  filled  on  both  sides 
of  the  partition  with  granulated  charcoal  made  from 
sugar-maple,  and  screened  through  a  mesh  of  one 


Sipkon-Filler. 


sixteenth  of  an  inch,  the  fine  dust  being  separated 
by  bolting.  The  foul  water  enters  the  tub  on  one 
side  at  the  top,  passes  downward  and  through  the 
small   holes  iu 

the     partition.  Fig  1977. 

and  rises  up- 
ward on  the 
otherside,  leav- 
ing its  impuri- 
ties, both  solid 
and  gaseous,  in 
the  charcoal. 

Fig.  1977 
shows  a  filter 
and  cooler  com- 
bined. The  wa- 
ter from  the  res- 
ervoir A  above 
passes  into  a 
tube  B,  whose 
mouth  is  verti- 
cally adjusta- 
ble, and  is  in- 
troduced below 
the  filter-bed 
£,  through 
which  it  passes  upward  into  tlie  ice-chamber  K. 

Fig.    1978  is  a  reversible  filter   interposed  in  a 
length  of  pipe.    The  water  flowing  from  J  to  the  fil- 
tering-surface Thas  its  impurities  detained,  while 
the  strained  water  runs 
oti'ati?,  andpur.suesits  Fig  1978. 

course  along  the  pipe. 
When  the  filter-surface 
T  has  become  foul,  the 
handle  //  is  turned,  throw- 
ing the  dirt  to  thedelivery 
side,  by  which  it  is  car- 
ried off,  the  water  being 
allowed  to  run  to  waste 
until  the  surface  is 
cleansed  and  the  water 
runs  clear. 

The  filter  for  rain-water 
is  a  part  of,  oris  placed  at, 
the  end  of  the  .spouting 
or  conductor  for  the  rain- 
water. 

It  is  usually  a  box  or 
chamber  containing  char- 
coal or  sand,  which  pre- 
vents leaves,  decayed  wood,  or  other  foreign  matter, 
frompassingtothecistern.  It  has  a  detachable  section 
which  intervenes  between  the  conductor  and  the  fil- 
ter, and  has  a  perforated  strainer  which  arrests  leaves 
and  other  larger  matters  which  can  be  removed  from 
time  to  time  by  separating  the  sleeve-joint  coupling. 

Asbestus  has  been  used  for  filtering',  and  has  this 
merit  among  others,  that  it  may  be  purified  readily 
by  making  it  red  hot. 

M.  Maurras's  filter  is  a  water-tight  iron  box  5J 
feet  square,  with  a  filtering  surface  of  GO  sujierficial 
feet,  which,  with  a  head  of  l'2i  feet,  is  calculated  to 
filter  150,000  gallons  of  water  per  diem.  It  ]ierco- 
lates  from  the  circumference  inward,  passing  through 
fine  and  coarse  sand,  is  received  iu  a  central  cham- 
ber from  whence  it  is  discharged  by  a  lupe.  The 
chamber  contains  a  number  of  perfoiated  boxes  con- 
taining sand  which  cannot  pass  the  interstices  ;  be- 
tween these  ar^  layers  of  fine  and  coarse  sand.  The 
reversal  of  the  current  agitates  the  contents  so  as  to 
stir  up  the  sediment,  which  passes  off  to  the  waste- 
pijie,  till  the  sand  is  cleaned.  The  ordinary  flow  is 
then  resumed. 


Reversible  Filter. 


FILTER. 


846 


FIN. 


The  mode  of  filtration  in  those  of  the  London 
Water- Works,  wherein  this  process  of  imiification  is 
used,  is  by  the  descent  of  the  water,  wliieh  passes 
through  strata  of  tine  and  coarse  river  sand,  broken 
slu'lls,  and  pebbles,  small  and  large  gi'avel.  These 
are  placed  in  the  bottom  of  the  reservoir,  so  as  to 
present  an  undulated  surface.  Be!ow  these  are  tun- 
nels made  of  brick,  built  open-jointed.  Th^  sedi- 
m  ■•It  psnetriites  to  a  depth  of  from  6  to  9  inches,  and 
th  it  much  of  the  surface-sand  is  freiiuently  removed, 
portions  of  the  area  at  a  time.  An  acre  of  area  fil- 
ters 300,000  to  400,000  cubic  feet  daily. 

A  natural  filter  is  used  at  Nottingham,  England, 
the  reservoir  being  dug  in  such  position  as  to  receive 
its  water  liy  percolation  from  the  river  through  a  bed 
of  line  sand,  which  intervenes  between  the  two.  The 
sedimentary  matter  is  continually  washed  away  from 
the  river  face  of  the  filter  by  the  action  of  the  stream. 

The  filter  of  Greenock,  Scotland,  is  a  tank  50  feet 
long,  12  wide,  and  8  deep.  The  water  percolates 
either  upward  or  downward  through  the  filtering 
ni  iterial  as  it  may  be  directed.  After  the  filter  has 
b-come  foul,  by  oi)ening  a  sluice  the  water  is  turned 
iu  the  other  direction,  passing  upward  through  the 
filter,  and  passing  otf  by  a  waste-sluice.  After  the 
water  is  cleansed,  the  sluices  are  changed  and  the  fil- 
ter operates  as  before.  There  are  three  of  these 
filters  in  the  works. 

The  filter  of  Paisley  (c.  Fig.  1974),  constructed 
by  Thorn,  is  upon  the  principle  just  stated.  Water 
is  admitted  to  the  filter  by  opening  a  sluice,  and 
runs  upon  the  surface  of  the  filtering  material 
through  which  it  percolates,  and  passes  off  by  the 
main.  The  stop-cock  is  kept  closed  so  long  as  the 
filter  does  effective  duty,  but  when  it  becomes 
choked  by  sedimentary  matter  and  mud,  the  stop- 
valve  of  the  main  is  closed,  the  stop-cock  lowered, 
and  the  water  carried  by  a  pipe  benadh  the  filtering 
m  iteri;il,  so  that  the  upward  (u-essure  will  dislodge 
the  mud  and  carry  it  up  through  the  various  strata 
of  gravel  and  sand. 

Upon  the  floor  of  the  filter  bricks  are  laid  edge- 
ways, a  little  apart  from  each  other  at  all  points  ; 
upon  these  perforated  tiles  are  laid,  nearly  touching. 
The  sti'ata  of  filtering  material  are  successively,  — 

Gravel,  about  -f^  inch  in  diameter. 

Gravel  and  sand,  four  courses  of  gradually  in- 
creasing fineness. 

Sand,  fine,  clean,  and  sharp,  2  feet  deep.  The 
upper  6  or  8  inches  mixed  with  broken  animal 
charcoal ;  say  pieces  t^;  inch  in  diameter. 

When  cleaning  the  filter  bed  by  the  upward  press- 
ure of  water,  the  upper  part  of  the  stratum  of  sand  is 
raked  to  disloilge  the  mud,  which  is  apt  to  accumu- 
late at  the  surface. 

The  filter-beil  is  60  x  100  feet  in  area,  divided  into 
three  compartments  capable  of  se]iarate  use.  It  is 
nude  iu  a  level  piece  of  ground  excavated  to  the  depth 
of  6  to  8  feet,  and  lined  on  sides  and  bottom  with  a 
wall  puddled  in  the  rear,  and  laid  in  hydraulic  cement. 

The  water  filtered  amounts  to  106,632  cubic  feet 
in  twenty-four  hours. 

Natural  filters  consisting  of  beds  of  gravel  or  sand 
intervening  between  a  pumping  well  and  a  muddy 
river  or  sea  water,  as  the  case  may  be,  are  fouiul  in 
many  places  ;  Dayton,  Ohio,  and  Cape  Cod  may  he 
mentioned,  in  addition  to  that  at  Nottingham, 
England,  just  cited. 

The  filter  for  sirups  is  charged  with  bone-black, 
revived  from  time  to  time  by  relnirning  to  consume 
the  absorbed  organic  matter.  As  a  nu're  filter,  cloth 
covered  with  paper  pulp  has  been  used  succes>ifully  for 
siruns.  See  Si'n.vu-FiLTER  ;  Centhiflioai.-machine. 

The  filter  for  separating  the  nuicilaginous  matters 


from  vinegar  is  charged  witli  wood-shavings,  straw, 
spent  tan-bark  or  rapes.  The  latter  consists  of 
stalks  and  skins  of  grapes  fi-om  which  the  must  has 
been  expressed.  Rapes  are  far  preferable  to  any 
other  material.  The  vinegar  is  passed  again  and 
again  through  the  filter. 

Air-lilters  are  used  for  arresting  dust,  steel-filings, 
smoke,  etc.,  according  to  circumstances  and  ex- 
posure. (See  Ain-FILTF.ll.)  A  filter  recommended  by 
Professor  Tyndall  consists  of  a  cylinder  four  or  five 
inches  long  and  two  inches  or  more  in  diameter. 
Its  interior  contains,  at  the  top,  a  layer  of  cotton- 
wool which  has  been  moistened  with  glycerine,  then 
a  layer  of  dry  cotton-wool,  then  a  layer  of  charcoal, 
then  cotton-wool,  with  wire-gauze  covers  jit  both 
ends,  and  at  the  upper  end  a  niouth-jiiece  so  shaped 
as  to  fit  closely  over  thi>  moutli  of  the  wearer.  I'v 
drawing  the  breath  through  this  instrument,  the 
most  dense  smoke  may  be  entered  with  impunity. 
When  places  are  to  be  entered,  such  as  mines  or 
wells,  wliere  carbonic-acid  gas  is  present,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  add  another  layer  of  cotton-wool,  and  to 
place  between  the  two  bottom  layers  of  cotton  a 
layer  of  slaked  lime  to  arrest  moisture  and  carbonic- 
acid  gas.     See  also  Iniialf.k  ;  Respirator. 

See  under  the  following  heads  :  — 

Air-filter.  Laboratory-instruments. 

Air-pressui-e  filter.  Oil-filter. 

Bag-filter.  Petroleum-filter. 

Bent-pipe  filter.  Physeter. 

Capillary-filter.  Pressure-filter. 

Centrifugal-filter.  Rape. 

Charcoal-filter.  Reversildelfiltev. 

Cistern-filter.  Sponge-filter. 

Drill-stone.  Stoneware- filter. 

Faucet-filter.  Strainer. 

Filter-bed.  Sugar-drainer. 

Filtering  hydrant.  Sugar-filter. 

Filtering-paper.  Tube-filter. 

Filtering-press.  Upward-filter. 

Globe-filter.  Vacuum-filter. 

Hippocrates-sleeve.  Well-tube  filter. 
Hydro-extractor. 

Fil'ter-bed.  A  settling  pond  whose  bottom  is  a 
filter.  It  may  consist  of  a  reservoir  5  i'eet  dee]i  with 
a  paved  bottom  covered  with  open-jointed  tubular 
drains  leading  into  a  central  conduit.  The  drains 
are  covered  with  a  layer  of  gi'avel  and  a  top  layer  of 
sand.  The  water  is  delivered  upon  the  surface  uni- 
formly, and  the  rate  of  subsidence  is  about  six  inches 
an  hour.  The  more  rapid  the  rate  (other  things  being 
equal)  the  less  efi'ective  is  the  operation.    See  Filter. 

Fil'ter-fau'cet.  One  having  a  chamber  contain- 
ing sand,  sponge,  or  other  material  to  arrest  impuri- 
ties in  watiT. 

Fil'ter-ing  Ba'sin  or  Tank.  {Hydraulic  En- 
gineering.) The  chamber  in  wdiich  the  water  from 
the  reservoir  of  water-works  is  received  and  filtered 
previous  to  entering  the  mains.     See  Filter. 

Fil'ter-ing-hy'drant.  One  which  subje  ts  the 
water  from  the  service-pipe  and  main  to  the  action 
of  a  material  to  arrest  mud. 

Fil'ter-ing-pa'per.  A  liibulons,  unsized  paper, 
thick  and  woolly  in  texture,  used  for  filtering  solu- 
tions in  the  pharmacy  or  laboratory.  Swedish  fil- 
terins-paper  is  thinner  and  of  superior  quality. 

Fil'ter-ing-press.  One  in  which  the  passage  of 
a  li(|uid  through  a  body  of  filteiing  material  is  expe- 
dited by  pressure  applied  thereto.     A  pressure-filter. 

Fin."  1.  A  mark  or  ridge  left  in  casting  at  the 
junction  of  the  parts  of  the  mold. 

2.  A  slip  inserted  longitudinally  into  a  shaft  or 
arbor,  and  left  projecting  so  as  to  form  a  guide  for 


FINDER. 


847 


FINGER-BAR. 


an  object  which  may  slip  thereon,  but  not  rotate. 
A  spline  or  feather. 

3.   A  tongue  on  the  edge  of  a  board. 

Find'er.  (Optics.)  A  sniii^ll  telescope  fixed  to  the 
tube  of  a  larger  one,  the  a.xes  of  the  two  instruments 
being  parallel.  The.A'iicfcr  has  a  larger  field  of  view 
than  tlie  principal  instrument,  and  its  purpose  is  to 
find  an  object  towards  which  it  is  desired  to  direct 
the  larger  telescope. 

Fine-arch.  (Gla-is.)  The  smaller  fritting  -  fur- 
nace of  a  glass-house. 

Fine-arts.  So  far  as  this  subject  is  considered 
in  this  work,  it  may  be  found  under  the  following 
Iieads  :  — 


Albertype. 

Anaglyptography. 

Anastatic-printing. 

Aipuitint. 

Autopyrography. 

Autotype. 

Bank-note. 

Bantam-work. 

Basso-rilievo. 

Block-printing. 

Bronzing. 

Bahl. 

Burin. 

Bist. 

Calico-printing. 

Calking. 

Calotype. 

Cahjuing. 

Caniaieu. 

Cauieo. 

Camera. 

Canvas-stretcher. 

C'arb(m-printing. 

Cartoon. 

Chalcography. 

Chasing. 

Cheniitype. 

Chiaro-oscuro. 

Chromatic-printing. 

Chromo-lithography. 

Chromo-.xylography. 

Cliche. 

Crystallo-engraving. 

Crystallo-ceramic. 

Copperplate-engraving. 

Cradle. 

Crayon. 

Cycloidal-engine, 

Dab. 

Daguerreotype. 

D.'ad-coloriug. 

Deadening. 

Demi-relief. 

Demi-tint. 

Distemper. 

Diamond-point. 

Die-sinking. 

Easel. 

Electypography. 

Electrotint. 

Elydoric-paiuting. 

Embossing. 

Embroidery. 

Enameling. 

Enamel-painting. 

Encaustic-painting. 

Enchasing. 

Engraving. 

Engi-aviug-tools, 


Etching. 

Flatting. 

Fresco. 

Galvanoglyphy. 

Galvanography. 

Gelatine  process. 

Gem-engraving. 

Gilding. 

Glass. 

Glass-coloring. 

Glass-enameling. 

Glyphograph. 

Glyptograph. 

Graining. 

'Graph  (see  list  under  this 

head). 
Graver. 
Gumming. 
Hair-pencil. 
Half-relief 
Hatching. 
Head-rest. 
Heliograph. 
Heliotype. 
High-relief. 
Inl.aying. 
Intaglio. 
Japanning. 
Lay-fignre. 
Lithography. 
Lithoiihotography. 
Lithotint. 
Lithotype. 
Low-relief. 
Mari^uetry. 
Mat. 

Maul -stick. 
Medal. 

Medal-mochine. 
Medallic-engraving. 
Metallo-chrome. 
Metallogi'aphy. 
Mezzo-relievo. 
Mezzotint-engraving. 
Miniature. 
Monogram. 
Mosaic. 

Nature-printing. 
Negative. 
Niello. 
Palette. 

Paneiconograph. 
Panorama. 
Parian. 
Panpietry. 
Passe-partout. 
Pastel. 
Pencil. 
Photogalvanograph. 


Photograph. 

Photograph-cutter. 

Photographic-apparatus. 

Photographic-camera. 

Photographic-engraving. 

Photographometer. 

Photolithograph. 

Photosculpture. 

Photozincograph. 

Pique-work. 

Plaster-cast. 

Plate-holder. 

Polychrome. 

Pottery-painting. 

Print-holder. 

Printing-frame. 

Pyrogi-aph. 

Reisuer-work. 

Relief. 

Relief-line  engraving. 


Rilievo. 

Scribbet. 

Sculpture. 

Scumbling. 

Sepia. 

Silhouette. 

St.atuary  casting. 

Statue. 

Statuette. 

Stencil. 

Stereochromy. 

Stereograph. 

Stereoscope. 

Stretcher. 

Stump. 

Vignette. 

Wax-modeling. 

Xylogi'aph. 

Xylopyrography. 

Zincography. 


Fine-draiv'ing.  A  finishing  process  with  cloth 
in  which  it  is  subject  to  a  strong  light  while  all 
faulty  parts  or  breaks  in  the  fabric  are  closed  by 
sound  yarn  introduced  by  a  needle. 

Fine-nail.  A  name  used  in  some  trades  to  dis- 
tinguish a  relatively  thin  from  a  coarse  nail,  such  as 
a  fencing  nail  or  clout.     A  finishing  nail. 

Fine'ness.  The  ijnantity  of  pure  metal  in  an 
alloy  expressed  in  1,000  parts;  as  the  fineness  of 
United  States  coin  is  900,  the  other  100  being  alloy. 

FJn'er-y-fur'nace.     A  sjiecies  of  forge-heaith 
in  which  gray  cast-iron 
is  smelted   by  fuel  and  Fig.  1979. 

blast,  and  from  which  it 
is  run  into  iron  troughs 
for  sudden  congelation. 
The  result  is  a  finer  qual- 
ity of  cast-iron  of  whiter 
color,  which  is  subse- 
quently puddled  and 
made  malleable.  The 
furnace  is  of  brick  with 
hollow  iron  lining, 
through     which     water 

circulates.     The   fuel  is  Finery-Fumace. 

coke    or    charcoal,    and 

the  melted  metal  is  run  from  the  crucible  into  a  pit, 
where  it  is  quenched  with  water  to  render  it  brittle, 
and  perha]is  oxidize  it  somewhat. 

Fine-stuff.  Lump  lime  slaked  to  a  paste  with 
a  moderate  volume  of  water,  and  afterward  diluted 
to  the  con.sistency  of  cream,  and  then  left  to  harden 
by  evaporation  to  the  required  consistency  for  work- 
ing over  a  floating-coat  of  coarse-stutf. 

In  this  state  it  is  used  for  a  slippcd-coat,  and  when 
mixed  with  sand  or  plaster-of-paris  it  is  used  for  the 
finishing-coat. 

Fin'ger.  1.  (Machincnj.)  a.  A  small  project- 
ing rod  or  wire,  which  is  brought  into  contact  with 
an  object  to  effect  or  restrain  a  motion.  The  deriva- 
tion of  the  name  from  the  human  finger  is  apparent, 
and  the  action  is  sometimes  marvelously  similar  ;  as 
in  the  delicate  pieces  of  tactile  and  pi  ehensile  mech- 
anism in  the  stop-motions  of  machines  working  in 
fiber.     Known  as  a  gri]iper  in  printing-machinery. 

b.  One  of  a  row  of  .similar  projections,  as  the  fin- 
ger of  a  rake.  Sometimes,  as  in  the  example,  synony- 
mous with  tooth. 

2.  (Husbandry.)  One  of  the  projecting  pieces  on 
a  finger-bar  of  a  harvester,  within  and  against  which 
the  knives  play.     See  Finger-bar. 

Fin'ger-bar.  (Agriculture.)  The  har  of  a  reap- 
ing or  mowing  machine,  whose  front  edge  has  pro- 


FINGER-BOARD. 


848 


FIRE-ALARM. 


jecting  fingers,  called  guards,  through  whose  hori- 
zontal slots  the  serrated  knife  reciprocates.  (See 
Ginr.l).)  Moving  in  either  direction,  the  knife  sec- 
tions make  a  shear  cut  against  the  sliarp  edges  of 
the  guards,  so  as  to  sever  the  stalks  of  grain  or  grass 
which  are  divided  either  way  hy  the  guards,  which 
holil  the  stalks  laterally  as  the  knives  make  their 
draw-cuts  against  the  stems.  The  illustration  sliows 
the  linger-bar  in   its  relation    to   the   ijuandrantal 


Fig.  1980. 


Grain- Harvester. 


platform,  revolving-rakes  and  driving  and  support- 
ing ineclianiMU. 

Fin'ger-board.  The  neck  of  a  stringed  instru- 
ment of  the  viol,  banjo,  or  guitar  class,  on  which 
the  strings  are  pressed  by  the  fingei-s  in  playing. 

Fin'ger-grip.  (IVcU-bm-ing.)  A  tool"  for  re- 
covering  roils  or  tools  dropped  into  a  bored  shaft. 
It  consists  of  a  rod  having  a  foot  which  is  twisted 
around  so  as  to  penetrate  beneath  the  object  and 
enable  it  to  be  lifted  and  withdrawn.  See  GcAB. 
Fin'ger-nut.  A  nut  with  wings  to  afford  a  hold. 
Fiu'ger-plate.  A  plate  on  the  side  of  a  door, 
near  the  edge,  to  keep  finger-marks  from  the  paint. 

Fing'roms.     {Fabric.)     Cloth   made   of    combed 
wool. 
Fin'i-al.    A  pointed  ornament  or  pinnacle  sur- 
mounting the  ape.\  of  a  Gothic 
gable. 

Specifically,  a  bunch  of  foliage 
which  terminates  pinnacles, 
canopie.'!,  pediments,  etc.,  in 
Gothic  architecture. 

Fiu'ing.  1.  Material  used  to 
add  to  a  turbid  liquid  to  clear  it. 
As  the  isinglass  or  albumen  sub- 
sides in  the  litjuor,  it  I'arries  down 
the  particles  mechanically  sus- 
pended therein.  In  this  way, 
wine,  cider,  sirups,  and  many  .so- 
lutions are  cleared. 

2.  (Mctallurqy .)  Treatment  of 
metal  to  remove  impurities  and 
foreign  matters,  as  the  fining  (re- 
fining) of  cast-iron  to  convert  it 
to  malleable  iron  by  the  removal 
Finial.  of  the  carbon,  etc. 


Fig.  1981. 


Fin'ing-forge.  (Metal! urr/ii .)  An  open  hearth 
with  a  blast  by  which  iron  is  freed  of  inijiurities  or 
foreign  matters.  Cast-iron  is  thus  rendered  malle- 
able.    See  Fig.  1979. 

Fin'ing-pot.  (Mdallurgy.)  A  crucible  in  which 
metals  are  refined. 

Fin'ing-roll'er.     (Paper-making.}     A   cylimlri- 

cal  wire-rloth  sieve  in  the  paper-making  machine, 

which   allows   the   finely  giound  stuff  to  pass,  but 

restrains   the    coarse    fibers    and 

knots. 

Fin'ingB.  A  solution  of  isin- 
glass, gelatine,  or  white  of  egg, 
for  c'larifying  liquids. 

Fin'ish-er.  1.  (Puptr-mnHng.) 
The  second  bealing-enginc,  or  half- 
stuff  cntjine,  which  operates  U[  on 
the    partially    worked   rags    that 
have  been  previously  redum-d  in 
the  stuff-engine  and  then  bleached. 
2.    The   final   carding- 
niaehine,    which   perfects 
the  flceee  or  delivers  the 
as  distinguished  from  the 
machine,     known    as    the 
breaker.     A  Jin  ish  ivg-card. 

Fin'ish-er's  Press.  (Book- 
binding.)  A  small  press,  like  a 
cutting-press,  used  by  the  finish- 
er, who  does  the  ornamental  work 
on  the  cover. 

Fin'ish-ing.  1.  (Engraving.) 
The  work  of  the  graver,  dry-point, 
and  machine-ruler  u2)on  an  etched 
plate. 

2.    (Bookbinding.)      The   orna- 
mental work  on  a  book  alter  it  is 
simply    covered   with   leather   or 
cloth,  which  is  known  as  foru-arding. 

The  tei'm  has  many  applications  in  the  useful  and 
ornamental  arts,  when  a  second  set  of  workmen  take 
up  and^?iw/t  a  work  which  is  sy.stematically  passtd 
thiough  a  series  of  hands  in  regular  order  of  time. 

Fin'isb-ing-card.  A  machine  in  which  the  pro- 
cess of  carding  is  repeated.  The  niachine  which  first 
ojierates  upon  the  material  is  known  as  the  hreakcr- 
card.      See  C.\i:mNG-MACHINF.. 

Fin'ish-ing-coat  (Plastering.)  The  third  coat 
on  the  better  style  of  work.  For  painting,  it  consists 
of  the  best  stuff,  and  is  called  stucco.  For  pa]ier,  it 
consists  of  the  same  as  the  previous  coat,  and  is 
called  setting. 

Fin'ish-ing-ham'mer.  The  last  hammer  used 
by  the  gold-lieater.     The  series  is  as  follows  :  — 

The  flat  or  enlarging  hammer ;  the  commencing- 
hammer  ;  the  sprcading-hannntv ;  the  fimshing- 
hamuier. 

The  latter  has  a  more  convex  face  than  either  of 
its  predecessors  ;  it  has  a  face  i  inches  diameter,  and 
weighs  1.3  or  14  pounds.     See  Ooi.D-r.E.vTixo. 

Fin'ish-ing-rolls.  A  second  set  of  rolls  in  a 
rolling-mill.  The  first  set  is  the  rovghing-rvlls, 
which  operate  on  the  bloom  from  the  tilt-hannuer 
or  sipieezer  and  reduce  it  to  bar  form.  This  is  then 
cut  up,  piled,  reheated,  and  taken  to  the  finishing- 
rolls,  which  make  it  into  bar  or  rod  iron.  The  re- 
heating ])urifie.s,  and  the  second  rolling  improves 
the  tenacity  by  the  repetition  of  the  drawing.  The 
finishing-rolls  run  at  a  speed  two  or  three  times 
greater  than  the  roughing-rolls,  according  to  size. 

Fire-a-larm'.  An  automatic  arrangement  by 
which  notice  of  fire  is  given.  It  depends  for  its 
action  uiion  the  increased  temperature  of  the  air  in 
the  vicinity  of  the  fire,  or  upon  the  burning  away 


FIRE-ALAEM. 


849 


FIRE-ALARM  TELEGRAPH. 


of  certain  connecting  cords  which  are  stretched  in 
exposed  situations. 

Some  of  these  alarms  are  designed  to  give  audible 
notice  in  a  central  situation,  .say  at  a  police  or  fire- 
alarm  telegraph  station,  the  office  of  a  warehouse  or 
store,  the  bedroom  of  a  dwelling,  the  cabin  of  a 
vessel.  Others,  in  addition  to  the  .said  notice,  turn 
on  a  body  of  water  to  the  floor  whence  the  notice 
has  come,  or  break  a  bottle  of  acid  to  liberate  car- 
bonic-acid gas  in  a  reservoir  of  chemicals  previously 
prepared. 

a.  That  form  of  fire-alarm  which  depended  upon 
the  burning  away  of  hempen  springs  to  give  the 
alarm,  was  patented  in  England  by  Joseph  Smith, 
1802.  Cords  are  stretched  tlirougli  various  rooms 
in  the  house,  and  connect  with  an  alarm  apparatus 
in  the  office  or  the  bedroom  of  the  person  in  charge. 
The  cords  are  saturated  with  inllammable  material, 
which  assists  in  their  combustion  when  the  fire 
reaches  them,  and  the  breaking  of  either  causes  its 
alarm-weight  to  fall. 

b.  Anotlier  kind  of  fire-alarm  has  tubes  through- 
out the  building.  The  tubes  proceed  from  each 
floor  auil  apartment  to  a  central  office,  and  the  oc- 
curi'ejice  of  fire  in  either  causes  an  expansion  of  air 
which  is  evidenced  by  a  blast  of  air  from  the  tube. 

In  the  example,  a  farther  arrangement  is  made, 
by  which  from  the  office  M  a  stream  of  water  from  a 


Pneumat] 


tank  T  on  the  roof  may  be  turned  on  to  the  floor 
when  the  alarm  has  been  transmitted. 

c.  The  increased  heat  of  the  apartment  causes  ex- 
pansion of  a  body  of  mercury,  and  brings  it  in  con- 
tact with  a  wire  of  a  metal  which  readily  amalga- 
mates. The  wire  then  breaks  with  the  strain  applied 
to  it.  The  fracture  of  the  wire  releases  the  escape- 
ment of  the  clock-work,  and  the  hammer  strikes  the 
alarm-bell.  The  same  automatic  agency  turns  a 
cock  and  admits  an  extinguishing  agent  which  is 
kept  in  reserve. 

d.  A  thermostatic  arrangement  by  which  a  closure 
of  an  electric  circuit  is  made  when  the  metal  expands 
under  the  increment  of  heat.  The  thermostat  is  a 
column  of  mercury,  which  ascends  in  a  tube  and 
makes  the  electric  connection  ;  or  a  plate  or  coil  of 
two  metals  on  the  principle  of  the  chronometer-bal- 
ance, or  it  is  an  elongating  rod. 

The  connection  made,  an  armature  in  the  tele- 
graphic-wire circuit  is  attracted  by  its  magnet  and 
releases  a  clock-work  alarm. 

The  TunnicliH'e  fire-alarai  has  a  cylindrical  barrel 
3  inches  long  bv  U  inches  in  diameter,  which, 
54 


by  a  screw  attached  midway  along  its  length,  may 
be  readily  secm-ed  to  the  ceiling  or  any  part  of  the 
room  desired.  It  contains,  when  ready  for  use,  a 
small  charge  of  powder,  to  which  is  attached  an  inch 
of  fuse.  This  fuse  is  formed  of  a  chemical  mi.xture 
that  will  ignite  whenever  the  surrounding  atmos- 
phere is  heated  to  200°  F.  In  case  of  fire,  the  lieat 
which  ascends  to  the  ceiling  quickly  ignites  the  fuse 
and  causes  an  explosion  sufficiently  loud  to  be  heard 
all  over  an  ordinary  four-story  building.  The  alarms 
can  be  so  arranged  as  to  ring  bells  in  any  desiied 
room  in  the  building  where  placed,  and  may  be  at- 
tached to  wires  connected  with  buiglar-alarms  in 
stores  and  residences. 

Fire-a-larm'  Tel'e-graph.  The  name  ai )  li.d 
to  the  system  of  telegraphy  usually  adopted  in  this 
country  for  giving  notice  of  files. 

The  first  practical  applications  of  the  telegraph  to 
this  purpose  were  in  1851  in  the  cities  of  New  York 
and  Berlin,  that  in  the  latter  under  charge  of  one  of 
the  Siemens  brothers.  These  systems  simply  con- 
nected a  series  of  watch-towers,  wherein  watchn:en 
were  stationed,  hj-  an  ordinary  Worse  line,  .so  that 
the  watchmen  could  telegraph  to  each  other  the  lo- 
cality of  a  fire. 

The  present  system  is  that  of  Fanner  and  Chan- 
ning,  American  patent  of  May  19,  1857. 

Mr.  Channing  fii-st  devoted  his  attention  to  this 
subject  in  1845,  and  published  several  articles  that 
year  attempting  to  show  its  feasibility.  In  1848, 
Jlr.  M.  G.  Farmer  invented  a  method  of  ringing 
bells  by  electricity,  and  in  an  experimental  tiial 
that  year  the  bell  in  the  tower  of  IJoston  City  Hall 
was  rung  by  an  operator  in  New  York. 

In  1851,  Boston  appropriated  money  to  build  a 
fire-alarm  telegraph,  and  early  in  1852  the  line 
was  completed,  put  in  operation,  and  proved  a 
success. 

That  system  is  still  in  use,  the  improvements 
being  in  the  mechanical  devices  for  carrying  it 
into  effect. 

It  comprised  a  central  station,  a  series  of  signal- 
boxes  at  suitable  intervals  over  the  city  connected 
in  one  or  more  circuits  to  the  central  station,  and 
a  series  of  alarm-bells  connected  to  the  cential 
office  on  another  circu  t. 

The  signal-boxes  contained  a  circuit-breaking 
wheel,  having  upon  its  periphery  cogs  or  teeth, 
upon  which  a  spring,  pressing,  closed  the  circuit. 
These  cogs  or  teeth  and  their  interdental  .spaces 
were  so  arranged  on  each  wheel  that,  when  tlie 
wheel  was  revolved  by  hand,  the  circuit  was  made 
and  broken,  to  indicate  the  number  given  to  the  box 
makiiig  the  signal.  This  number,  being  received  at 
a  central  station,  was  immediately  transmitted  on 
the  bell-circuit,  bells  being  struck  so  as  to  indicate 
the  box  from  which  the  alarm  originated. 

In  the  original  boxes  the  circuit-wheel  was  turned 
by  hand  ;  in  the  later  boxes  the  wheel  is  turned  by 
clock-work  driven  by  a  spring.  In  lieu  of  an  oi)er- 
ator  at  the  central  station,  a  repeater  is  theie  used, 
the  alarm  from  the  box-circuit  being  automati- 
cally repeated  thereby  upon  the  bell-circuit.  Some- 
times the  bells  and  boxes  are  united  in  one  cin  uit. 
so  that  from  a  box  the  general  alarm  is  directly 
given.  These  modifications  con.stitute  what  is  known 
as  the  "Farmer  and  Channing  improved"  or  "au- 
tomatic sy.«tem,"  from  the  fact  that  no  ojierators  at 
all  are  necessary,  the  turning  in  of  an  alarm  at  any 
.station  setting  in  motion  all  the  machinery  of  the 
system. 

William  B.  Watkins,  in  his  patents  of  January 
31,  1871,  h^-s  extended  the  system  so  that  fire  or  the 
operations  of  burglars  automaticallygivcan  alaim  at  a 


FIRE-ANNIHILATOR. 


850 


FIRE-ARM. 


central  station.  In  each  house  (and  each  room,  if  de- 
sired) thei'niostata,  composed  of  metallic  strips,  are  so 
arranged  as  to  close  the  circuit  of  a  local  line  upon 
a  certain  elevation  of  temperature,  e.xpanding  the 
strips.  Such  closing  actuates  a  local  magnet,  whose 
armature  releases  a  detent  of  the  .signal-bo.v  mech- 
anis:n,  allowing  the  signal-bo.'C  in  main  circuit  to 
send  in  the  alarm.  On  tlie  same  local  circuit  are 
also  arranged  burglar-detectors,  so  that  a  door  or 
window  being  opened  closes  the  local  circuit  with 
the  same  result. 

Fire-an-ni'hi-la'tor.  Invented  by  Phillips  in 
1849.  A  vessel  is  charged  with  a  mi.xture  of  dried 
feiTO-cyanide  of  potassium,  sugar,  and  chlorate  of 
jiotassa.  It  is  set  in  action  by  a  blow  on  a  glass 
bottle  which  contains  sulphuric  acid,  which  ilows 
over  the  charge  and  liberates  gas  which  is  emitted 
at  a  nozzle  and  expended  upon  a  fire  to  quench  it. 

See  FlIlK-E.KTINGUISHEU. 

Fire-arm.  .\  weapon  which  projects  a  missile  by 
the  e.^jilosion  of  gunpowder.  It  succeeded  the  long 
and  cross  bows,  but  the  periods  of  the  two  weapons 
in  Europe  lapped  upon  eacli  other.  (See  Aiiiiow  ; 
Bow.)  The  bow  and  arrow  are  yet  used  by  millions 
in  Asia,  Africa,  and  America,  but  the  owners  are 
always  glad  to  trade  for  muskets  and  riHes. 

The  first  fire-arms  were  doubtless  rockets,  in 
which  the  force  of  th:  explosion  carried  the  tube. 
To  these  probably  succeedeil  something  of  the  nature 
of  the  lire-works  known  as  Roman  randies,  in  which 
pallets  are  loaded  into  a  tube  and  fireil  by  a  match 
at  the  tube-uiouth.  The  tubes  were  of  bamboo, 
I)aper,  or  cloth,  probably  each  of  these,  according  to 
circumstances.  (For  early  notices,  see  Gunpow- 
der.) The  cracker  was  used  as  a  grenade  an- 
ciently in  China,  and  in  theSthcentury  by  the  Greeks. 

The  first  fire-arms  used  in  Europe  were  cannon. 
(See  Artillery  ;  C.i.NNON.)  Fire-arms  to  be  carried 
by  the  soldier  were  a  later  invention.  The  arquebus 
was  used  in  14S0.  The  musket  by  Charles  V.  in 
1540.  These  used  m.itches  or  match-locks.  The 
wheel-lock  was  invented  1517  ;  the  Hint-lock  about 
1692.  The  percussion  principle  by  the  Rev.  Mr. 
Forsythe,  in  1807.     See  Gun-lock. 

For  varieties,  see  under  the  folio  wing  heads  :  — ■ 

Accelerator.  Gatling-gun. 

Armstrong-gun.  Gun. 

Arquebus.  Howitzer. 

Barbette-gun.  Jingal. 

Battery-gun.  l.ancaster-gun. 

Birding-piece.  Magazine  fire-arm. 

Blunderbuss.  Mitrailleur. 

Bombard.  Mortar. 

Breech-loader.  Musket. 

By.ssa.  Musketoon. 

C.dab:iss.  Needle-gun. 

Cannon. '  Ordnance. 

Carbine.  Parrot-gun. 

C'arronade.  Pistol. 

Casemate-gun.  Pistol-carbine. 

Chassepot-gun.  Pivot-gun. 

Coehorn.  Repeating  fire-arm. 

Columbiad.  Revolver. 

Culverin.  Rifle. 

Dahlgren-gun.  Shot-gun. 

Double-barreled  gun.  Shunt-gun. 

Enfield-rifie.  Si  ge-gun. 

Eprouvette.  Small-arm. 

Field-gun.  Swivel-gun. 

Fowling-piece.  Tinker. 

Fusil.  Whitworth-gun. 

This  article  treats  of  breech-loading  small-arms 
generally  ;   maijazine  Jirc-arins,    necdlc-guns,   revol- 


vers, pistols,  cannrni,  and  battery-guns  are  also  con- 
sidered under  their  respective  heads. 

"It  was   in   1430,"   says  Biblius,    "that  small- 
arms  were  contrived  by 
the      Lucijuese,     when  Fig.  198-3. 

they  were  besieged  by 
the     Florentines."      A" 
French    translation    of 
Quintius  Curtius,   pre- 
served  in    the    British 
Museum,        has       the 
earliest  illustration  of  hand 
fire-arms  yet  discovered.   The 
cut  is  from  the  "Penny  En- 
cydopiedia." 

In  the  Music  d'Arlillerie, 
Paris,  is  a  breech-loading 
arm  of  the  time  of  Henry  II. 
of  France,  prior  to  1550,  and 
a  match-lock  revolver  of  the 
same  period. 

In  the  United  Service 
Museum,  of  London,  is  a  re- 
volver of  the  time  of  Charles 
1.  It  is  called  "a  snap- 
liaunceself-loadingpetronel."  Fire-Arm  of  the  Fifteenth 
It   has   a  revolving  cylinder  Century. 

containing    seven    chambers 

with  touch-holes.  The  action  of  lifting  the  hammer 
causes  the  cylinder  to  revolve,  and  a  fresh  chamber 
is  brought  into  connection  with  the  barrel.  Six  of 
the  seven  chambers  are  exposed  to  view,  and  the 
charges  are  inserted  without  the  aid  of  a  rann'od. 

Speaking  generally,  the  early  hand-guns  were 
breech-loaders.     See  Revolver. 

Abraham  Hall's  English  patent,  1664,  had  "  a 
hole  at  the  ripper  end  of  the  breech  to  receive  the 
charge,  which  hole  is  opened  or  stopped  by  a  piece 
of  iron  or  steel  that  lies  along  the  side  of  the  piece, 
and  movable  by  a  ready  and  easy  motion." 

Henry  VIII.  took  much  interest  in  fire-arms,  and 
two  weapons,  yet  extant,  njanufactured  during  his 
reign,  were  substantially  the  same  as  the  modern 
Snider  rifle. 

Among  the  curiosities  of  this  branch  of  invention 
is  Puckle's  English  patent.  No.  418,  May  15,  1718. 
The  accompanying  illustration  is  from  the  original 
drawing  attached  to  the  patent,  and  the  description 
following  is  that  filed  by  the  inventor. 

"A  DEFENCE. 

Defentling  King  George,  your  Coontrt  and  Lawes 
/5  rleftudin^  YOURSELVES  and  Protest.\nt  cause. 

A  Portable  Gun  or  Machine,  called  a  Defence.  For 
Bridges,  Breaclies,  Lines,  and  Passes,  Ships,  Boats, 
Houses,  and  other  Places. 

No.  1.     The  barrel  of  the  gun. 

2.  The  sett  of  chambers  charg'd  put  on  ready  for 

fireing. 

3.  The  screw  upon  which  every  sett  of  chambers 

play  off  and  on. 

4.  A  sett  of  chambers  ready  cliarg'J  to  be  slip'd 

on  when  the  first  sett  are  puU'd  off  to  be  re- 
charg'd. 

5.  The  crane  to  rise  fall  and  turn  the  gun  round. 

6.  The  curb  to  level  and  fix  the  guns. 

7.  The  screw  to  rise  and  fall  it. 

8.  The  screw  to  take  out  the  crane  when  the  grm 

witli  the  trepeid  is  to  be  folded  up. 

9.  The  trepeirl  whereon  it  plays. 

10.  The  chain  to  prevent  the  trepeids  extending  too 

far  out. 

11.  The  hooks  to  fix  the  trepeid,  and  unhook  when 

the  same  is  folded  up  in  order  to  he  carried 
with  the  gun  upon  a  man's  shoulder. 


1 


Martini. 


Needle-gun. 


Merrill. 


.^'  .C~11~;t:v 


CTiassepot. 


Maynard 


F 


/'^'-^ 


Spencer. 


If 


Laidley. 


i^ 


Richards. 


I  Snider. 


"^ 


BREECH-LOADING  FIRE-ARMS. 

(^mericnu  and  Europeav.) 


See  page  851. 


FIRE-ARM. 


851 


FIRE-ARM. 


Fig.  1984. 


No.  12.  The  tube  wherein  the  pivot  of  .the  crane  turns. 

13.  A  charge  of  twenty  square  bullets. 

14.  A  single  bullet. 

15.  The  front  of  the  chambers  of  a  gun  for  a  boat. 

16.  The  plate  of  the  chambers  for  a  gun  for  a  sliip, 

shooting  square  bullets  against  Turks. 

17.  For  round  bullets  against  Christians. 
13.  A  single  square  chamber. 

19.  A  single  round  chamber. 

20.  A  single  bullet  for  a  boat. 

21.  The  mold  for  casting  single  bullets." 

The  parts  of  a  gun  are  :  — 

Ante-chiimhcr ;  the  cavity  which  connects  the  hol- 
low of  the  nipple  with  the  chamber  in  the  breech. 

Barrel ;  the  tube  out  of  which  the  load  is  dis- 
charged. 

Be  id  ;  the  silver  knob  for  sighting  on  the  end  of 
the  barrel. 

Bolt :  the  sliding  piece  which  secures  the  barrel 
to  the  stock. 

Breech :  the  piece  containing  the  chamber  which 
screws  into  the  barrel. 

Butt ;  the  broad  end  of  the  stock  which  is  placed 
to  the  shoulder. 

Cn.j^ ;  the  brass  tube  which  incloses  the  worm  of 
the  ramrod. 

Chamber ;  the  cavity  of  the  breech  in  which  the 
powder  is  deposited  and  exploded. 

False-brecch ;  the  iron  piece  on  the  gun-stock 
which  receives  the  breech-claws,  and  a.ssists  in  hold- 
ing the  barrel  firmly  to  the  stock. 

Guard;  the  metallic  scroll  which  defends  the 
triggers. 

Heel-plate:  the  plate  on  the  butt. 

Loek ;  the  piece  of  many  parts  by  which  the  gun 
is  fired.     See  Gun-look. 

Loop  ;  the  clasp  on  the  barrel  through  which  the 
bolt  passes  and  secures  it  to  the  stock. 

Nipple;  the  tube  on  which  tlie  cap  is  placed,  and 
through  which  the  powder  reaches  the  charge. 

Nipple  or  cone  u:rcnch ;  a  small  turning  tool  for  se- 
curing or  loosening  the  nipple,  to  and  from  the  barrel. 


Pipes  ;  short  tubes  which  hold  the  ramrod  to  the 
bari'el. 

Jtib  (upper  and  under)  ;  the  center-piece  which 
unites  the  barrels. 

Side-iiail;  the  screw  which  fastens  the  lock  to 
the  barrel.  . 

Siglit  (breech  and  muzzle)  ;  an  object  or  depres- 
sion on  the  breech,  a  bead  or  knob  on  the  muzzle, 
by  bringing  which  into  line  with  the  object  the 
line  of  lire  is  directed. 

Trigger-plate  ;  the  iron  plate  in  which  the  triggers 
work. 

Worm  ;  the  screw  at  the  end  of  the  ramrod. 

Of  the  gun-lock  the  parts  are  the 

Bridle.  Sear-.spriiig. 

Chain,  or  swivel.  Spring-cramp. 

Cock,  or  hammer.  Trigger. 

Lock-plate.  Tumbler. 

Main-spring.  Tumbler-screw. 
Sear.  See  Gun-lock. 

The  first  patent  in  the  United  States  for  a  breech- 
loading  fire-arm  was  to  Thornton  and  Hall  ot  North 
Yarmouth,  Mass.,  May  21,  1811.  Between  that  time 
and  1S39  more  than  10,000  of  these  arms  were  made 
and  were  issued  to  the  troops  in  garrison  and  on  the 
frontier.  This  gun  is  represented  at  N,  Plate  16, 
and  had  a  breech-block,  which  was  hinged  on  an  axial 
pin  at  the  rear,  and  tippied  upwardly  at  front  to  expose 
the  front  end  of  the  charge-chamber.  The  flint-lock 
and  powder-pan  were  attached  to  the  vilirating 
breecli-block.  The  arm  is  shown  and  described  in 
detail  in  General  Norton's  "American  Breech-Load- 
ing Small-Arms,"  New  York,  1872. 

Before  the  war  of  1861  -65,  the  principal  breech- 
loading  small-arms  were  Sharps's,  Burnside's,  May- 
nard's,  Merrill's,  and  Spencer's. 

Sharps's  rifle  (0,  Plate  16)  has  the  barrel  rigidly 
attached  to  the  stock,  the  rear  being  opened  or  closed 
by  a  vertically  sliding  breech-block,  which  slides  up 
and  down  in  a  mortise  operated  by  the  trigger-guard, 
which  is  pivoted  at  the  front  end,  or  by  a  lever. 


FIRE-ARM. 


852 


FIRE-ARM. 


The  primer  consists  of  small  pellets  of  fulminate  in- 
closeil  in  a  copper  casing  so  as  to  be  water-proof. 
These  are  placed  in  a  pile  in  a  hole  in  the  lock-plate, 
forced  iipwaid  by  a  spiral  spring,  the  upper  one  fed 
forward  by  a  plunger,  caught  by  the  cup  of  the  ham- 
mer, and  carried  down  upon  the  nipple.  The  car- 
tridge is  in  cloth,  the  end  covered  with  tissue-paper 
saturated  with  s:iUpi;ter,  through  which  the  fulmi- 
nate will  ignite  the  powder. 

Bumside's  rlHe  {P)  lias  the  barrel  attached  to 
the  stock,  the  breech-i)iece  being  pivoted  beneath 
the  barrel,  so  as  to  swing  downward  and  e.xpose  the 
chamber  in  the  front  end  of  the  breech-piece  for 
the  insertion  of  tile  cartri  Ige. 

In  Maynard's  rille  {L»  the  barrel  is  pivoted  to 
till!  front  end  of  the  stojk,  and  its  rear  end  tips 
upwariUy,  e.\ponng  the  chamber  for  the  cartridge, 
wlien  the  barrel  is  tipped  down  against  a  solid 
brejch-piece  anil  locked.  The  Miynard  primer  con- 
sists of  pellets  of  fulminate  placi'd  at  regular  inter- 
vals between  narrow  strips  of  paper.  This  is  coiled 
in  a  chamber  in  the  lock-plate,  and  is  fed  forward  by 
a  wheel  operated  by  a  hammer,  so  as  to  bring  a  pel- 
let on  top  of  the  nipple  at  each  discharge. 

The  Merrill  gun  IS)  was  constructed  for  a  paper 
cartridge.  The  breech  was  closed  by  a  sliding  jilug 
locked  in  place  by  a  combination  of  levers.  The 
charge  was  exploded  by  a  copper  cap,  placed  upon 
the  nipple  in  the  ordinary  m  inner. 

The  Spencer  rifle  {F)  is  both  a  magazine  and  a 
single  brejch-loader,  seven  cartridges  being  placed  in 
a  magazine  in  the  but,  and  being  thrown  forward  to 
the  chamber  as  required.  The  breech-block  is  a 
sector  pivoted  beneath  the  level  of  the  barrel,  and 
retreating  backward  and  downward  to  expose  the 
rear  of  the  bore  for  the  insertion  of  the  cartridge. 
The  trigger-guard  forms  the  lever  for  moving  the 
breech-block. 

The  Roberts  gun  (L)  has  a  breech-block  pivoted 
at  the  rear,  operated  by  a  lever  which  extends  back- 
war  lly  over  the  small  of  the  stock;  the  forward  end 
of  the  breech-block  being  depressed,  the  center  of 
its  motion  and  its  abutm.mt  in  tiring  being  a  eon- 
cave  solid  base  centering  on  the  e.xact  prolongation 
of  the  axis  of  the  barrel.  The  breech  parts  are 
four  in  number,  articulated  without  )iins  or  screws. 
The  liring-pin  passes  centrally  through  the  breech- 
block, and  is  driven  forward  on  the  center  of  the 
cartridge  by  a  blow  of  the  hammer. 

The  Martini  gun  {A)  is  the  invention  of  a  Swiss. 
The  breech-block  is  pivoted  at  its  upper  rear  portion, 
being  moved  up  and  down  by  a  lever  at  the  rear  of 
the  trigger-guard.  The  filing  is  by  a  spiral  spring, 
which  actuates  a  firing-pin.  The  cartridge-shell  ex- 
tractor works  on  a  pivot  below  and  behind,  the  barrel 
being  operated  by  the  descent  of  the  front  end  of  the 
breech-block  upon  one  arm  of  the  bell-crank  lever. 

The  Chassepot  gun  {B)  is  the  French  arm,  and  is 
named  after  its  inventor.  It  is  what  we  term  a 
bolt-gun,  an  opening  on  the  right  hand  of  the  cham- 
ber admitting  the  insertion  of  the  cartridge.  The 
forward  thrust  of  a  knob  drives  the  cartridge  into 
the  breech,  and  a  partial  rotation  of  the  knob  locks 
the  breech-piece.     The  firing  is  by  a  needle. 

The  Prussian  needle-gun  (C)  is  also  a  bolt-giin, 
having  an  inner  bolt  which  forms  the  fiiing-iiin, 
a  sleeve  around  it,  and  an  outer  cylinder.  The  parts 
are  shown  with  the  needle  in  its  fired  position. 
In  preparing  to  reload,  the  rear  knob  is  withdrawn, 
and  the  axial  bolt  retained  by  a  catch  which 
engages  a  projection,  withdrawing  the  needle.  The 
chamber  is  then  unlocked  by  the  knob  and  .slid 
back,  the  cartridge  inserted  and  diiven  into  the 
breech  by  the  chamber,  which  is  locked  by  a  partial 


rotation.  The  firing  is  done  by  releasing  the  needle- 
bolt. 

The  Laidley  gun  C?)  has  a  breech-block  ])ivotBd 

beneath  the  barrel  and  lotating  backward  and  down- 
ward to  open  thechamber.  When  in  position  forfii  ing, 
it  is  fastened  by  a  locking-brace  which  is  operated 
by  a  spring,  and  vibrates  on  the  same  axis  as  the 
hammer.  The  breech-block  is  unlocked  by  a  cam 
and  thrown  back  by  a  pawl  attached  to  the  locking- 
brace  and  ai:tuated  by  the  hammer. 

The  AVestley-Hiehards  gun  (77)  is  an  English  arm 
having  a  pivoted  briech-block  whose  front  end  is 
depressed  by  the  action  of  a  lever  pivoted  to  the 
stock  beneath  the  rear  of  the  ba.rrel. 

The  Snider  gun  (/),  liuilt  at  Enfield,  England,  is 
similar  to  our  Springfield  converted  rille,  of  which 
presently.  The  breech-block  is  hinged  to  the  rear  of 
and  above  the  barrel,  the  block  throwing  upward 
and  forward,  exposing  a  chamber  in  rear  of  the  liore. 
Into  this  the  cartridge  is  droppeil,  pushed  into  the 
bore,  the  block  bronglit  down  and  locked  by  a  latch 
in  the  rear.  The  Ining-pin  passes  obliquely  thiough 
the  block  and  is  struck  by  the  ordinary  liannner. 

The  Berdan  form  of  this  type  is  shown  at  J, 
and  has  a  breech-block  in  two  sections  hinged  to- 
gether. 

K  is  the  Peabody  gun,  which  has  a  falling  breech- 
block, hinged  at  the  rear  and  depressed  by  the 
guard-lei'er,  whose  short  arm  engages  in  a  recess  of 
the  block  and  controls  its  movements.  When  the 
block  is  down,  the  cartridge  is  slijiped  into  the  bore, 
and  the  jiiece  is  fired  by  the  fall  of  the  hammer  upon 
a  firing-pin  sliding  in  a  groove  in  the  side  of  tlie 
block.  In  opening  to  reload,  the  block  drops  n]ion 
an  elbow  lever  and  withdraws  the  sjient  cartridge- 
shell. 

Allen's  gun  (M)  is  double-barreled,  and  the  breech- 
block is  hinged  at  the  side,  swinging  upwardly  and 
laterally.  It  carries  both  iiring-pins,  and  is  locked 
shut  by  a  latch. 

Plate  17  gives  views  of  the  three  arms  recom- 
mended this  year  (1873)  by  the  army  conmiissioii 
at  Springfield. 

li  is  tlie  Springfield  arm,  having  a  breech-block 
hinged  to  the  upper  edge  of  the  barrel  and  swinging 
upward  and  foiward.  The  indorsement  of  the 
board,  as  the  best  all  things  considered,  entitles  it 
to  an  honorable  place  in  the  series  of  examples.  Ji 
is  a  side  view  of  the  gun,  witli  the  breech-block  d 
thrown  up  ;  a  is  the  bottom  of  the  receiver,  c  the 
brcech-pin,  with  its  circular  recess  to  receive  the 
cam-latch/,  which  locks  the  breech-block  in  place  ; 
!/  is  the  cam-latch  si)ring,  h  is  the  firing-pin,  nhich 
transmits  the  blow  of  the  hammer  to  the  priming 
of  the  cartridge,  and  is  pressed  back  by  a  spiral 
s[iring  after  the  delivery  of  the  blow  ;  /  is  the  cart- 
ridge-shell ejector,  k  its  spring  ;  I  an  incline  which 
tips  up  the  ejected  shell  so  as  to  throw  it  out  of  the 
recinver. 

A"  is  a  top  view  of  the  gun  with  block  closed.  H^ 
is  a  longitudinal  vertical  section  with  the  breech- 
block closed.  The  dotted  lines  show  the  block 
raised. 

The  breech-block  is  raised  upward  and  forward  in 
the  act  of  opening  by  a  thumb-piece  )//,  which  re- 
lea.ses  it  by  turning  up  the  cam-latch  out  of  its  rece.ss 
in  the  breech-pin.  When  fully  o|)en,  it  discloses  the 
chamber,  or  rear  end  of  the  barrel,  ready  for  the  in- 
sertion of  the  charge  contained  in  a  cojqier  cartridge- 
case,  holding  seventy  grains  of  musket-powdei',  and 
firing  a  bullet  f'rf'ii  of  an  inch  in  diameter  and  weigh- 
ing about  4(10  gr.ains.  When  the  breech-block  is 
closed,  it  is  held  down  and  braced  against  the  effort 
of  the  heaviest  charges  bv  the  cam-latch,  which  Hies 


The  "Ward-Burton"  Breecli-loader. 


Plate  XVII 


BEEECH-LOADING   FIRE-ARMS. 
Ifiecommended  by  the  United  States  Board,  1873.) 


ijM  page  862. 


^yi)lc7^esfer'ii  Repeating  Gun, 


Plate  XVIU 


BREECH-LOADING   FIRE-ARMS. 

{American  and  Swiss.) 


See  page  8S3. 


FIRE-ARM. 


853 


FIRE-ARM. 


into  place  in  closing.  The  piece  is  fired  by  the  ordi- 
nary side-lock  taken  from  the  old  muzzle-loaders. 
In  opening  the  piece  after  firing,  the  breech-block 
strikes  the  lump  on  top  of  the  exti'actor,  and  revolves 
it>so  as  to  carry  the  now  empty  cartridge-shell  to  the 
rear.  After  passing  a  certain  jwint,  the  spiral  .s])ring 
in  front  of  the  extractor  is  released,  and  accelerates 
its  motion,  so  that  the  cartridge  is  thrown  sharply 
against  the  beveled  surface  of  the  ejector-stud,  by 
which  it  is  deflected  upward  and  expelled  from  the 
gun. 

S  S"  are  two  views  of  the  Elliot  carbine  recom- 
mended b)'  the  same  board  for  trial  in  the  field,  as 
exhibiting  "remarkable  facility  of  manipulation  in 
requiring  but  one  baud  to  work  it."  This  arm  has 
a  breech-block  hinged  to  the  breech-pin  and  oper- 
ated by  the  hammer.  Fig.  S  shows  the  gun  in  load- 
ing position,  and  6'  in  the  position  "ready  to  fire." 
Alter  firing,  the  hammer  d  is  pulled  back  to  the  ]x>- 
sition  shown  in  S,  and  in  so  doing  draws  by  the 
yoke  b  upon  the  breech-block  a,  to  which  it  is  piv- 
oted at  c.  This  pulls  down  the  front  end  of  the 
breech-block,  exjxising  the  rear  of  the  liarrel  for  the 
insertion  of  the  (uirtridge.  Having  done  this  work, 
the  pin  e  of  the  yoke  slips  out  of  the  socket  /  into 
the  lower  portion  of  the  gioove,  while  the  lower 
branch  of  the  yoke  engages  over  the  pin  17,  so  that 
when  the  hammer  is  again  pulled  back,  the  breech- 
block is  pushed  up  again  into  the  position  shown  at 
S',  where  the  hammer  is  on  full  cock  and  the  arm 
ready  to  fire.  A  is  a  strap  which  works  the  re- 
tractor, so  that  the  shell  is  ejected  as  the  breech- 
block is  pulled  down.  S  show.s  the  cartridge-ejector 
pulled  out  ;  S'  shows  it  in  its  bed.  One  pull  on  the 
hammer  depresses  the  breech-block  and  ejects  the 
empty  shell  ;  another  pull  clo.ses  the  breech-block 
ami  puts  the  hammer  in  position  for  firing ;  a  pull 
on  the  trigger  fires  the  arm. 

T  T  are  two  positions  of  the  Ward-Burton  gun, 
which  is  on  the  bolt  principle,  like  the  Prussian 
neeiUe-gnn  and  the  French  Chassepot.  This  gun, 
in  its  m.igazine  form,  was  also  recommended  "for 
fiiither  trial  in  the  field."  This  gnn,  having  been 
fired,  is  opened  by  raising  the  handle  a  of  the  bolt 
and  withdrawing  it  directly  rearward ;  the  position 
is  shown  in  Fig.  7"  of  Plate  17.  As  the  cartridge- 
shell  is  pnlleil  out  by  the  spring-hook  on  the  uiijier 
edge  of  its  Hanged  rim,  the  jiin  which  rests  against 
its  lower  jtortion  conies  in  contact  with  the  front  end 
of  the  trigger-pin,  which  tips  it  up  and  throws  it 
out  of  the  receiver.  Another  cartridge  is  then  intro- 
duced by.  hand  or  by  automatic  devices  from  the 
mag:iziue,  and  pushed  into  the  bore  of  the  gun  by 
the  longitudinal  forward  motion  of  the  bolt.  Near 
the  head  of  the  bolt  is  seen  a  part  of  the  sectional 
screw  which  engages  with  a  corresponding  section 
within  the  gun  when  the  piece  is  closed,  and  the 
handle  turned  down  into  place,  so  as  to  support  the 
bolt  against  the  force  of  the  discharge.  The  firing- 
jiin  is  an  axial  spring-pin  released  from  the  bolt  by 
a  downward  |)ull  by  means  of  the  trigger  and  lever. 
Fig.  T  is  the  position  "  ready  to  fire,"  the  driving- 
s]iring  being  condensed  and  ready  to  act.  Fig.  T' 
shows  the  bolt  withdrawn  and  the  cartridge  tumbling 
out.  When  the  bolt  is  Avithdrawn,  the  sleeve  of  the 
firing-pin  is  so  far  retracted  that  a  shoulder  catches 
behind  the  trigger.  When  the  bolt  is  pushed  home, 
driving  the  cartridge  into  the  barrel,  it  leaves  the 
shovdder  of  the  firing-pin  resting  against  the  trigger, 
as  shown  in  Fig.  T. 

Plate  18  shows  three  other  American  forms  of 
fire-arms,  and  the  Swiss  adopted  pattern,  which  is  a 
bolt  needle-gun. 

U  U'  are  two  positions  of  the  Remmington  gun  ; 


the  left-hand  figure  is  "  fired,"  the  right-hand 
"ready  to  load."  The  breech-block  6  swings  u|ion 
a  strong  pin  within  a  mortise  of  the  stock,  c  is  a 
tumbler  which  braces  the  breech-jiiece  against  recoil 
at  the  time  of  firing,  and  forms  a  part  of  the  ham- 
mer which  strikes  a  firing-pin,  which  jiasses  through 
the  tumbler  and  is  driven  against  the  cap  or  part  of 
the  cartridge-case  containing  the  fidminate. 

The  breech-piece  b  and  tumbler  c  are  so  formed 
that  when  the  former  is  closed  the  rounded  njiper 
portion  of  the  tumbler  works  in  a  concavity  in  the 
back  of  the  breech-piece,  as  shown  in  Fig.  U,  and 
when  the  hammer  is  drawn  back  to  half-cock  or 
full-cock  the  rounded  back  of  the  breech-piece  works 
in  a  concavity  in  the  front  of  the  tumbler,  as  shown 
in  Fig.  v.  This  mode  of  matching  the  breech- 
piece  and  tumbler  prevents  the  possibility  of  the 
hammer  falling  until  the  breech-piece  is  jierfectly 
closed,  and  so  obviates  the  possibility  of  premature 
explosion  of  the  charge.  The  extractor,  by  which 
the  discharged  cartridge-.sheils  are  drawn  out  from 
the  chamber  of  the  barrel,  works  between  the  re- 
ceiver and  the  breech-piece,  and  is  operated  by  the 
opening  movement  of  the  latter.  The  breech-piece 
is  opened  by  the  thumb-piece.  A  guard-lever  d 
prevents  the  trigger  being  drawn  when  the  breech, 
piece  is  open. 

W  W  are  two  views  of  the  Dodge  breech-loader, 
shown  as  a  double-barreled  breech-loading  fowling- 
piece.  W  is  a  perspective  view,  and  U"  a  .sectional 
view.  The  barrels  are  hinged  to  the  front  end  of 
the  stock,  so  as  to  tilt  u]iwarilly  at  the  rear  and 
nearly  balance  upon  the  hinging-poiut,  the  motions 
being  made  by  means  of  the  pivoted  lever  d,  which 
laps  over  the  trigger-guard  and  locks  the  ban'els  iu 
firing  position  by  engagement  of  a  hook  c  with  a  pin 
jiassing  through  the  lug  r/.  The  front  end  of  the 
lever  extends  beyond  the  pin  on  which  it  turns,  and 
works  in  a  -slot  in  the  center  of  lug  g  beneath  the 
barrels,  which  it  senes  to  elevate  and  depress.  As 
the  barrels  are  elevated,  the  front  end  of  the  lever 
strikes  against  a  ]iiojection  on  the  stem  of  the  ex- 
tractor, and  retracts  the  spent  cartiidge  capsule. 
The  frame  c  is  made  of  a  .>.iiigle  piece  of  metal  ex- 
tending from  the  front,  where  the  1  arrelsare  hinged, 
to  the  grip  in  the  rear  of  the  breech  ;  and  the  locks 
are  fitted  in  reces.ses  therein,  dispen.sing  with  sepa- 
rate lock-plates.  The  locks  are  "  rebounding,"  that 
is,  they  go  forward  and  fire  the  cap  and  return  to 
half-cock.  The  hammers  draw  back  the  fiiing-pin 
when  full-cocked.  The  barrels  are  adjusted  on  the 
frame,  and  wear  is  compensated  by  means  of  the 
block  b.  In  use,  the  left  hand  need  not  be  moved 
from  where  it  is  in  firing ;  the  breech  is  brought  under 
the  right  ami,  the  lever  thrown  down,  fresh  cart- 
ridge inserted,  the  lever  returned,  the  hammer 
cocked,  and  the  piece  is  leady  to  fire. 

The  gun  adopted  by  the  Swiss  Federal  government 
has  the  magazine  and  cartridge-carrier  of  the  Win- 
chester, with  the  needle-exploder  and  bolt  breech. 
The  large  figure  is  a  longitudinal  central  section  ;  x 
is  a  perspective  view  of  the  bolt,  fiiing-pin,  and  lever 
detached  ;  x'  is  a  view  of  a  piece  of  th  breech-cyl- 
inder ;  2-  is  a  view  of  the  cartiidge-carrier  detached. 
The  motions  are  as  follows  :  the  lever  a  is  raised,  ro- 
tating on  the  firing-pin  b,  and  rocking  the  latter  by 
the  pressure  of  a  cam  upon  the  y-ansveire  tiigger-bar 
c  ;  the  bolt  is  then  drawn  back,  carrying  the  firing- 
pin  and  the  hook,  which  retracts  the  spent  cartridge ; 
the  motion  eventually  rocks  the  bell-crank  lever  d 
and  raises  the  carrier  e,  which  brings  another  car- 
tridge in  line  with  the  barrel.  The  bolt  h  is  then 
pushed  back,  pressingdown  the  canier  e  and  diiving 
the  cartridge  into  the  barrel ;  a  partial  rotation  of 


FIRE-ARM. 


854 


FIRE-ARM. 


the  bolt,  by  means  of  the  lever  a,  locks  it  firmly  by 
the  catching  of  studs  /  ou  the  bolt  behind  lugs 
g  on  the  breHch-cylinder.  The  firing-pin  has  re- 
mained on  cock  since  the  first  motion  of  semi-rota- 
tion of  the  bolt,  and  is  now  pulled  otf  by  the  trigger. 
The  combination  is  known  as  Vetterlin's. 

y  is  the  Henry  magazine  rifle,  now  known  as  the 
Winchester  repeating-gun.  It  may  be  used  as  a  sin- 
gle-loader or  a  repeater.  As  a  repeater,  the  motion 
of  the  lever  a  withdraws  the  spent  shell  of  the  pre- 
vious charge,  raises  the  hammer,  recharges  the  gun, 
and  relocks  the  breech  mechanism.  The  magazine 
contains  seventeen  cai-tridges,  which  can  be  dis- 
charged in  as  many  seconds.  With  single  loading, 
the  cartridge  is  |daced  in  the  carrier-block,  and  a 
single  motion  puts  it  in  order  for  firing.  The  car- 
tridges are  placed  in  the  magazine  by  ]ire.ssing  them 
through  the  trap  b  on  the  right-hand  side  of  the 
gun,  the  magazine  being  easily  filled  while  the  gun 
swings  at  the  side.  They  are  fed  from  the  magazine 
into  the  carrier-block  by  a  spiral  spring. 

F  is  a  section  of  the  gun  inmiediately  after  dis- 
charge ;  c  is  an  empty  shell ;  d  one  in  the  carrier- 
block  ;  e,  one  in  the  magazine  ;  by  the  forward 
motion  of  the  lever  a  the  links  take  the  position 
shown  in  1",  the  piston  y  is  witlidrawn,  raising  the 
hammer  to  the  full-cock,  and  extracting  the  empty 
shell  c,  which  is  tlirown  upward  at  the  same  time 
the  carrier-block  A  with  the  carriage  which  it  con- 
tains is  raised  by  the  lever  i  placing  the  cartridge 
opposite  the  chamber.  This  position  is  seen  at  Y'. 
The  returning  motion  of  the  lever  drives  the  piston 
forward,  leaves  the  hammer  at  full-cock,  forces  the 


cartridge  contained  in  tli£  carrier-block  into  the 
chamber,  drops  the  carrier-block  to  receive  the  fol- 
lowing cartridge  from  the  magazine,  and  places  the 
arm  in  readiness  to  be  fired. 

The  United  States  has  adopted  the  Springfield.  ■ 

England  adopts  Snider's  improvement  on  the 
Enfield. 

France,  the  Chassepot. 

Belgium,  the  Albini. 

Holland,  the  Snider. 

Turkey,  the  Remington  and  Winchester. 

Austria,  the  Wanzl. 

Sweden,  the  Hiigstrom. 

Russia,  the  Laidley  and  Berdan. 

Switzerland,  the  Winchester. 

Portugal,  the  Westley- Richards. 

Prussia,  the  needle-gun.  Tlie  well-known  form 
shown  at  C,  Plate  14,  has  been  superseded  by  the 
Mauser  gun.     See  Needle-gun. 

The  bieecli-loaders  purchased  by  the  American 
government  between  January  1,  1861,  and  January 
30,  1866,  were  of  number  and  kind  as  follows  :  — 


Ballard        . 

.     1,500 

Maynard     . 

.  20,002 

Ball 

1,002 

Palmer   . 

1,001 

Burnside,    . 

.  55,567 

Remington . 

.  20,000 

Cosmopolitan  . 

9,342 

Sharps    . 

80,512 

Gallagher    . 

.  22,728 

Smith 

.  30,062 

Gibbs      . 

1,052 

Spencer  . 

94,156 

Hall    . 

.    3,520 

Starr  . 

.  25,603 

Joslyn     . 

11,261 

Warner  . 

4,001 

Lindner 

892 

Wesson 

151 

Merrill    . 

14,495 

CLASSIFICATION    OF    BREECH-LOADING    FIRE-ARMS    PATENTED    IN    THE    UNITED 

STATES. 


P3 


O  a 


1.  Sliding  longitudinally  foi-ward. 

2.  Tilling 


3.  Swinging  laterally  on  verticalpin. 

4.  Rotating  mi  parallel  longitudinal  pin. 

1.  Sliding  longitudinally  backward 


{a.)  Down  at  muzzle  and  up  at  breech, 
(ft.)   With  nuizzle  upward, 
(c.)   On  hinged  joint. 


(a.)  Operated  b}'  a  lever. 

(6.)   Withdrawn   by  hand  bj'  a  thumb  or   spring 

catch,  or  by   a   handle,  and   fastened  Ijy  a 

bayonet-catch. 

{a.)  Hinged  to  top  of  barrel  and  turning  upward 

and  forward. 
(0.)   Hinged  to  .side  of  b.arrel  and  swinging  laterally 

forward, 
(c. )   Hinged  beneath  barrel  and  swinging  forward 

and  downward  through  mortise. 
{d.)  Swinging  on  centers  or  trunnions. 
(e. )   Hinged  at  rear,  to  swing  upward  and  backward. 
(/. )   Hinged  at  rear  and  swinging  laterally. 
(g.)  Hinged  at  rear  and  swinging  downward  and 

backward  through  mortise. 

Sliding  tran^crschj  through  mortise I  |j;-^'  Moving  kterau'^* 

Sivi^igivg  or  rotating  laterally I  (f  >  2"  ".  lo"ftudinal  pin  or  hinge. 

^    •'  ^  •'  I  (ft.)  Having  the  lomi  ot  a  rotating  sleeve. 


2.  Swinging  or  tilting. . 


(a.)  Having  chamber  in  the  faucet. 

(J.)   Having  chamber  in  the  barrel  in  front  of  faucet. 

(a. )  Behind  a  barrel  ;  cylinder  charged  in  fiont. 
(b.)   Behind  a  barrel ;  cylinder  charged  at  rear. 
(C.)   Cylinder  without  other  barrel  ("pepper-box  "). 

Chambered  cylinder  revolving  on  vertical  axi^^  behind  a  barrel. 

Chambered  cylinder  revolving  on  horizontal  transverse  axis,  behind  a  barrel. 

Revolving  hammer  acting  on  several  stationary  ban-els. 


5.   Inform  of  a  faucet  or  spigot 

* 

1.   Chambered  cylinder  revolving  on  parallel 
axis 


1 


FIRE-ARM. 


855 


FIRE-ARM. 


CLASSIFIED  LIST  OF  BREECH-LOADING  FIRE-ARMS  PATENTED   IN  THE  UNITED 

STATES. 

[The  star  (*)  designates  magazine-gans.] 

Class  A.  —  Barrels  moving  with  Relation  to  the  Stock  or  Breech. 


1.   Sliding  Longitudinally  Forward. 


No. 


8,690 
14,253 
16  288 
17,644 
1T,915 
23,505 
24,437 
24,936 
28,460 
31,809 
33,421 
32,790 
34,561 
43,284 

•45,638 
46,207 

•46,286 
51.837 
52,258 
58,525 
65,704 

•66,110 
66.913 
70,264 
71,349 
76,734 
82,908 

•87,038 

88,605 

92,799 

•112.795 


C.  V.  Xickerpon 

RoberUou  and  Simpson 

Schroeder,  Siilewski,  and  Schmidt 

G.  Smith 

T.  Buckman 

T.  E  Shull 

T.  Bailey 

A.  V.  Uill 

\V.  H    EUiot 

E.  Lefaucheur 

A.  V.  HiU 

C.  Sharps 

W.  H.  Brown 

F   Beal.* 

R.  Roberts 

F.  Heals 

H.  F.  Wheeler 

B.  F.  .losljn 

F.  Beals 

D.  William  -on 

R.  E.  Step'.iens 

H.  F.  Wheeler 

Thrasher  and  Aiken 

S.  S.  Rembert 

E.  Whitney 

C    H.  Alsop 

D.  Werner 

W.  Gardner 

W.  Briggs 

L.  Delassize 

H.  K.  Forbis 


Date. 


Jan.  27, 
Feb.  12, 
Dec  23, 
June  23, 
Aug.  4, 
Apr.  5, 
June  14, 
Aug  2, 
May  29, 
Mar.  26. 
May  8, 
July  9, 
Mar.  4, 
June  28, 
Dec.  27, 
Feb.  7, 
Feb.  7, 
Jan.  2, 
Jan.  30, 
Oct.  2, 
June  11, 
June  25, 
July  16, 
Oct.  29, 
Nov.  26, 
Apr.  7, 
Oct.  6, 
Feb.  16, 
Apr.  6, 
July  20, 
Mai-.  21, 


1852. 
1856. 


1857. 
1859. 


1860. 
1861. 


1862 
1864. 

1865. 

1866. 

1867. 


1868. 
1869. 


2.   Tilting,    (a.)  Down  at  Muzzle  and  up  at  Breech. 


147 

203 
960 
1,810 
8,126 
11.477 
13.941 
14,057 
16,761 
17,642 
22,752 
24,730 
25,926 
26,364 
27,399 
27,723 
29,152 
30,228 
30,372 
31,050 
32,653 
32.895 
33,.571 
35,925 
39,494 
39,707 
42,648 
42,649 
42,698 
43,929 
44,123 
44,i90 
44,312 
46,054 
47,755 
48,966 
50,048 
50,432 
50,854 
52,654 


T.  McCarty Mar. 

U.  C.  Fay May 

S.  Adams Oct. 

S.  Day Oct. 

E.  Maynard May 


J.  C.  Day. 

J.  C.  Day 

L.  H.  Gibbs 

Tilton  and  Flovd 

J.  P.  Schenkl 

C.  Sharps 

Gallagher  and  Gladding.. 
Aresson  and  Harrington. 

E.  Maynard 

J.  M.  Wampler 

Letort  and  Mathews 

M.  J.  Gallagher \ 

F.  Jones 

C.  0.  Wood 

C.  0.  Wood 

H.  Schroder 

C.  D.  Schubarth 

M.  Moses 

F.  Wesson 

J.  Percy 

C.  E.  Sneider 

W.  H.  Elliot 

W.  H.  Elliot 

E.  T.  Starr 

G.J,  Richardson 

J.  Stevens 

W.  C.  Dodge 

W.  D.  flillis 

C.  E.  Sneider 

C.  E.  Sneider 

E,  Maynard 

T.  L   Sturtevant 

W.  Richards 

T.  L.  Sturtevant 

A.  Henry 


Aug. 

Dec. 

Jan. 

Mar. 

June 

Jan. 

July 

Oct. 

Dec. 

Mar. 

Apr. 

July 

Oct. 

Jan. 

Jan. 

June 

July 

Sept. 

Nov. 

Aug 

Aug. 

May 

May 

May 

Aug. 

Sept, 

Sept. 

Sept. 

Jan. 

May 

July 

Sept. 

Oct. 

Nov. 

Feb. 


11 

1S.S7 

22 

3 

1S38 

IS 

1SM<) 

27 

ISnl 

8 

18,54 

IS 

1S.55 

H 

1S56 

3, 

1857 

23,    •■ 
2i,1859 
12,    " 
25,    " 

6,     " 

6, 1860. 


13, 1866. 


1861. 

1862 
1863. 
1864. 


1865. 


2.  Tilting,    (a.)  Botcn  o(  Murzfe,  tic  — Continued. 


No. 


52,938 

55,613 

59,110 

59,706 

59,723 

60,592 

62,465 

64  941 

65.783 

70,463 

n,149 

72.434 

78,519 

78,847 

84  373 

86,252 

87,814 

88,470 

88,890 

89,947 

90,214 

91,616 

91,624 

93,023 

95,998 

100,455 

104,502 

104,682 

108,942 

109,255 

109  890 

112,763 

114,081 

114,230 

114,374 

114,653 

117,843 

118,350 

119,474 

119,834 

125,775 

130,984 

131,484 

135,928 

138,887 

141,198 


Name. 


J.  F.  C.  Carle 

J   Burke 

E.  U'etmore 

P.  Bourdereaux  .. . 

W.  H   Miller 

T   L.  Sturtevant. . . 

A,  I.  Burgess 

G.  W.  Bowlby 

T.  W.  Webley 

W   R.  Pape 

)  J.  Elsou 

D.  B.  We.==son 

E.  H.  K«cherich  . . . 

D.  B.  Wesson 

W.  R.  Pape 

C.  E.  Sneider 

G.  T.  Abbev 

W.  Go'.cher 

J-  MrGovem 

G.  Schulz 

F.  Wohlgemuth 

L.  T.  Fairbanks  . . . 
J.  A  Hackenback  . 

G. H   Todd  

W.  Golcher 

E.  L,  Sargent 

E.  L.  .Sargent 

L.  V.  Young 

M    M.  Scott 

E.  L.  Sargent 

C.  Green 

W   C.  Dodge 

Abbey  and  Foster. . 
Tiesing  and  Gemer. 

D.  B.  Wesson 

W.  C.  Dodge 

A.  E,  Whitmore  ... 
Dodge  and  Dodge  . . 

G.  R.  Peiroe 

O.  H.  Ferriss 

A.  E.  Whitmore  . . . 

F.  S.  Dangerfleld... 
U.  Walker 

E.  Maynard 

J.  S.  Heath 

P.  Bourdereaux 


Feb.  27, 
June  19, 
Oct.  23, 
Nov.  13, 
Nov.  13, 
Dec.  18, 
Feb.  26, 
May  21, 
Junell, 
Nov  5. 
Nov.  19, 
Dec.  17. 
June  2, 
.Tune  9, 
Nov.  24, 
Dec.  22. 
Mar.  16, 
Mar.  30, 
Apr.  13, 
May  11, 
May  18, 
June22, 
June  22, 
July  27, 
Oct.  19, 
Mar.  1, 
June  21, 
June  21, 
Nov.  1, 
Nov.  15, 
Dec.  6, 
Mar  14, 
Apr.  25, 
Apr.  25, 
May  2, 
May  9, 
Aug.  8, 
Aug.  22, 
Oct.  3, 
Oct  10. 
Apr.  16, 
Sept.  3, 
Sept  17. 
Feb.  IS, 
May  13, 
July  29, 


isrxi. 


1867 


1868. 


1870. 


1871. 


1872. 
1873. 


2.     (6.)   With  Muzzle  upward. 


24,774 
34,729 
51,440 


P.  AUmaier July  12.  1859, 

H    Berg Mar.  25,  1862 

W  H.  Elliot :  Dec.  12,1865. 


2.    (c.)  On  Hinged  Joint. 


15,496 

22,094 
23,762 
27.600 
32,929 
35,356 
49,844 
54,680 
60,698 
93,403 


G.  Smith 

J.  C.  Svmnies.. 
W.  C-  Ellis.... 

E  Sneider 

A.  .^pellerberg. 

H.  Kellogg 

J.  D.  DougaU   . 

J.  Burke 

S.  Crispin 

J.  D.  Blaker  . . 


Aug.  5, 1856. 
Nov.  16, 1858. 
Apr.  26, 1859. 
Mar.  20,  18H0. 
July  30,  1861. 
May  20.  1862. 
Sept.  5,  1865. 
May  15,  1866. 
Jan.  1,  1S67. 
Aug.  10,  1869. 


3.  Swingijlg  Loterally  on  Vertical  Pin. 


35,941 
43,259 


J.  Lee 

S.  M.  Perry  . 


July  22,  1862. 
June  21.  18*4. 


FIRE-ARM. 


856 


FIFE-ARM. 


3.   Sivingin^  Laterally  on  Vertical  Pin.  —  Continued. 


43,260 
4o,  iir 
47,3ilj 
61,9M 
U3.  iil5 
9S,579 
101, 63r 
102,129 
ll)2,43i 
105  3SS 
13r,927 


S.  M.  Perry 

E.  Alien 

J.  W.  Cochran 

F.  D  Xc.vbury 

0  II.  Ballard 

G.  H.  Kox 

.1.  M   Marlin 

Perry  and  Goddard  . . 

E.  S.  Reiiwick 

F.  A.  Toiler 

A.  £■  and  P.  J.  Jarre 


June  21, 

Mar.  7, 
Apr.  25, 
Jan.  », 
Apr.  9 
Jan.  4, 
Apr.  5, 
Apr.  26, 
Apr.  26, 
July  12, 
Apr.  15, 


ISM. 

ISiiS. 

1866. 
1867. 
1870. 


1S73 


4.  Rotating  on  Parallel  Longitudinal  Pin. 


8637 
11,167 

13,691 
•14,0.34 
•27,374 


R.  S.  Lawrence 
J.  D  Greene..  ., 
H.  B.  Weaver.. , 

J .  C.  .Smith 

J.  D.  Moore  .  . . 


Jan.  6, 1852. 
June  27,  1854. 
Oct.  16,  1856. 
Jan.  1,186). 
Mar.    6, 1860. 


4.   Rotati?ig  on  Parallel  Longitudinal  Pin. — Continued. 


27,778 
29,3W 
31,473 
•32,316 
:ii,241 
37,1125 
•37,854 
37,937 
42.227 
43.571 
43,840 
44,868 
•45,361 
49,057 
50,760 
55.752 
58,niM 
73494 
88  ,,540 
103.094 
106,083 
112,803 


Name. 


C.  Cox 

K.  F.  Cook 

D.  Moore 

L.  Siebert  

\V.  Johnston 

Armstrong  and  Taylor 

K.  F.  Cook 

Jackson  and  Goodrem 

A.  U.  Uo«e 

Francis  Clark 

W.  H.  Elliot 

\V.  Johnston 

L.  Triplett 

M.  L.  M.  Descoutures 

H.  F.  Wheeler 

II.  F.  Wheeler 

W.J.  Christy 

Boyd  and  Tyler 

Boyd  and  Tyler 

F.  Wesson 

Simpson,  Gniy,  and  Romans. 
Gray  and  Romans 


Apr.  10, 

1800. 

July  24, 

" 

Feb.  19, 

1861. 

May  14, 

" 

May   13 

1862. 

Nov.  25, 

" 

Mar.  10 

iH6;i 

May  17, 

" 

Apr.    5 

1864. 

Julv  19, 

" 

Aug.  16, 

" 

Nov.    1, 

" 

Dec.    6, 

" 

July  25, 

1865. 

Oct.  31 

" 

June  19. 

1866. 

Sept  18, 

" 

Jan.  21 

1868. 

Apr.    6, 

1869. 

May  31 

ik;o. 

Aug.    2, 

'• 

Mar.  21, 

1871. 

Class  B.  —  Brf.ech-Block  moving  with  Relation  to  Bakrel. 


1.   Siding  Longitudinalltf  Backward,    (a.)  Operated  by  a 
Lever. 


No. 


747 
7443 
•8,317 
•10,635 
15,995 
16,797 
20,825 
20,954 
•30,446 
30,714 
32,032 
32,0.33 
32,451 
33.536 
33.847 
34,869 
36.284 
ai,9S9 
•3nlr4 
36,7:il 
3i,779 
37,3.6 
38  280 
3S.IU6 
38,943 
40,884 
41.S14 
42,941 
46.202 
•45,466 
46,977 
48,337 
49,463 
50,126 
,60,3">8 
•52,933 
•52,934 
♦55,012 
•56,939 
•57.636 
•57.808 
•58,937 
»59,126 
•63,5C>4 
65,812 
•jJ,,51 
68,;86 

•82,819 

•84,698 

85  616 

•86,723 


Name. 


W.  Jenks 

W.  W.  Marston 

U.  Smith 

Smith  and  Wesson 

0.  W.  .Morse 

W.  C.  Hicks 

G.  H.  Soule 

J.  U   Merrill 

B.  l'\  Henry 

J.  Boynton  

J.  H.  Merrill 

J.  H.  Merrill 

J.  H   Merrill 

J.  11.  Merrill 

D.  Moore 

C.  B.  llolden 

W.  U.  Elliot 

C.  C.  Bnind 

J.  Q.  A   Scott 

J.  V.  Meiss 

S.  Howard 

Le  Uoy  S.  White 

C.  <'.  Brand 

E.  H.  Ashcrofl 

C   C    Brand 

J.  II   Merrill 

W.  C    Hick.x 

H.  Gross 

Bergen  and  Williamson 

J .  F.  Appleby 

D.  Williamson 

Joshua  Gray 

W.  F.  Wilson  and  H.  Flather 

C.  Howard 

C,  llowar.l 

J.  D.  Smith 

J.  D   Smith 

N.  King 

II.  W.  Hayden 

N.  King 

0.  F.  Winchester 

G.  W.  Briggs 

V.  FOfc'erty 

P   Slieckl'er 

W    W  Huhhell 

E.  L.  Sturteyant 

M.  IMilault  and  G.  Elieze  (dit  La- 
pea")  

V    Fogerty 

L.  Wheelock 

P.  Schuler 

S.  G.  Bayes 


May  25 
June  18 
Aug.  26, 
Feb.  14, 
Oct.  28, 
Mar.  10 
July  6, 
July  20, 
Oct.  16, 
Nov. 
Apr.  9, 
Apr.  9 
May  2S. 
Oct.  22 
Dec.  3 
Apr.  1 
May  13 
July  29. 
Aug.  12 
Oct.  21 
Oct.  28, 
Jan.  6 
Apr.  28 
May  26 
June23i 
Dec.  8, 
Mar.  1 
May  31 
Nov.  22 
Dec.  20 
Mar.  21 
June  20, 
Aug.  16, 
Sept.  26, 
Oct.  10, 
Feb  27 
Feb.  27 
May  22 
Aug.  7,, 
Aug.  28 
Sept.  4 
Oct.  16, 
Oct.  23 
Apr. 
June  is; 
July  16 

Sept  10 
Oct.  6, 
Dec.  1 
Jan.  5, 
Feb.    9, 


1838. 
1850. 
1851. 
1864. 
1866. 
1857. 
1858. 

1860. 


1862. 


1863. 


18S4 


1865. 


1868. 


1.   Sliding  Longitudinally  Eacktcard.    (o.)  Operated  by  a 
Lever.  —  Continued. 


86,739  '  T.  M.  Deprez 

86,971      T.  B.  Couklin 

87,997      D.  Miniums  on 

•111,500      L.  Wheelock 

|*112,.563      H.J.Drew 

•112,604      U.  J.  Drew    

1*116,642      G.  H.  Stetson 

•125,988      0   .M    Robinson 

127,873  William  W.  Hannah 


Date. 


Feb.  9, 
Feb.  16, 
Mar  16, 
June  31, 
Mar.  14, 
Mar.  14, 
July  4, 
Apr.  23, 
Junell, 


1869. 
1871. 

(4 

1872. 


(b.)  Withdrawn  by  Hand  by  a  Thumb  or  Spring  Catek^ 
or  by  a  Handle,  and  fastened  by  a  Bayonet- Catch, 


6,871 
•6,973 

7,334 
11,198 
11,836 
11,938 
15.522 
16,072 
18,631 
25,470 
26,475 
32,450 
34,i:84 
34  422 
31.706 
34,911 
36,107 
36,681 
36,8.54 
37,354 
37,723 
38,903 
a).136 
4fl.572 
41,017 
44.099 
44,127 
44  ..545 
45,262 
4S.1.33 
60.&34 
6fl,S32 
63,217 
63,303 
66,509 
73,351 
74,387 


C.  Hartung 

L  Jennings 

J.  MurlHein 

A.  N.  Newton 

C   F.  and  A  H.  Palniire 

F.Maton 

A.  N.  Newton 

C.  Sharps 

J.  Durell  Greene 

J.  Rider 

B.  Burton 

J.  H  Merrill 

F.  G.  Woodard 

J.  D.  Greene 

T.  Twickeler 

J .  L  Swan 

J.  P.  Marshall 

W.  Terry 

J.C.  Nye 

J.  C.Nye 

J.  K.  Millner 

O.  D.  Lull 

W.  H.  Elliot 

W.  Morgenstem  and  E.  Morwitz  . 

W.  Palmer 

W.  R.  Landfear 

Townsend  and  Clement 

D.  F.  Mellen 

W.  Morgenstem 

W.  Morgenstem 

N.  S.  Clement 

A.  A .  Chassepot 

J.  W.  Cochran 

Thom.ii'  Restell 

E.  K.  Root 

H.  Lord 

H.  Lord 


Nov.  13, 
Dec  25, 
Apr.  30, 
June  27, 
Oct.  24, 
Nov.  14, 
Aug  12, 
Nov.  11, 
Nov  17, 
Sept.  13, 
Dec.  20, 
May  28, 
Jan.  7, 
Fib.  18, 
Mar.  18, 
Apr.  8, 
Apr.  29, 
Oct.  14, 
Nov.  4, 
Jan.  6, 
Feb.  17, 
June  16, 
July  7, 
Nov.  10, 
Dec.  22, 
Sept.  6, 
Sept.  6, 
Oct.  4, 
Nov.  29, 
June  6, 
Oct.  10, 
Jan.  1, 
Mar.  26, 
Mar.  26, 
June  4, 
Jan  14, 
Feb    11, 


1849. 


1851. 
1854. 


1856. 


1857. 
1859. 


1861 
1862. 


1863. 


1864. 


1885. 
1867. 


1868 


FIRE-ARM. 


857 


FIRE-ARM. 


1.    (6.)  Withdrawn  by  H'lnd ,  etc.  —  Continued. 


No. 


Name. 


75,627 

78,'i03 

80,IH3 

81,059 

81,293 

*8i,459 

85,162 

*83,494 

85,645 

•85,897 

85,999 

85,091 

•85.520 

8i,5i'i 

83,690 

87,05S 

83,1  -.1 

88,730 

89,902 

90,3S1 

•92,013 

92,048 

•92,129 

93,822 

94,047 

94,45S 

94,377 

97,167 

97,734 

•97,821 

99,504 

99,898 

101,82) 

103,4S8 

•103,304 

104,100 

103,83^ 

108,8^9 

109,218 

109,277 

109,731 

110,353 

110,505 

111,991 

112,.5-23 

115,911 

117,3« 

119,93J 

119,94) 

124,156 

125329 

129,312 

13^,505 

134,200 

131,359 

13i,993 


J.  W.  Cochran ,  Mar.  17,  1868. 

S.  Morris,  W.  and  P.  Mauser i  June  2,    " 

Thomas  Wilson ;  July  14,    " 

B.  Burton '  Aug.  11,     " 

C.B.Richards Aug.  18,    " 

A.  WvUe Nov.24,     " 

H.  Berdan Dec.  «2,    " 

F.  Vetterlin Dec.  29,     " 

J.  W.  Cochr  tn Jan.    5, 1369. 

C.  \V   Baldwin Jan.  19,     " 

Carter  and  E lizards :  Jan.  19,    '* 

L.  .4.  Merriam Jan.  19,    " 

V.  Fogertj- Feb.    2,    " 

E.  .M  tyn  irj Feb.    2,     " 

L.  ilemington Feb.    9,    " 

L.  A.  Merriim Feb.  16,     " 

J.D.Greene Mir.  23      '* 

J.  D.  .S.  Newell Apr.    B,     " 

S.  F.  Van  Cnoate Miy  11,    " 

J.  D.  S.  Newell May  25,     " 

B.  Burton Jane29,    " 

M.  J.  Hinden June29      " 

W.  G.  Hard June29,     " 

B.  B.  Hotchkiss Aug.  17,    " 

S    F.  Van  Choate Aug.  24,     " 

W.  G.  Ward |Aug.31,    " 

F.  V.  Di,iz I  Sept.   7,     " 

A.  A.  Ch  issepot Nov.  23,     " 

W.  0.  Ward I  Dec.     7,    " 

W.  S  Smoot Dec.  14,    " 

W.G.Ward l  Feb.    1,1870. 

B.  B.  Hotchkiss Feb.  13,     " 

J.  J.  Cloes Lipr.  12,'    " 

.V.  Muller .May  24,     " 

O.M.Robinson .May  24,    " 

K.  V.  Birnekoo Jnatfl4,    *' 

P.  Schuler ;  Nov.    1,    " 

H.  BerUn '  Nov.    1,    " 

B.  F.  Joslyn i  Nov.  15,     " 

F.  Vetterlin Nov.  15,    *' 

J    H-lo30n Nov.  29,    ** 

S  Gera?ro;s ,  Deo.  20,    " 

J.  Sniiles .    [  Dec.  27,     " 

W   0.  Ward Feb.  21,  1871. 

J.  M  Mison I  .Mir.    7,    '* 

S.  P.  VanChoate I  June  13,     " 


Valentine  Fo.^rty  . 
Ge  "r^c  .Merrill- .  . . 

George  .Merrill 

R   G'jiheo 

I  .M.  Milbank.... 
H.  Brusmann  .... 
S.  F.  Vin  Caoite  . 
F.  Gueurv 

I  M.  .Milbauk  .... 

II  Hoppeneau 


July  Z.3, 
Oct.  17, 
Oct.  17. 
Feb.  27, 
Apr.  lo, 
July  16, 
Oct.  22, 
Dec.  24, 
Mir.  1-i, 
Mar.  13, 


1872. 


1873. 


2.   Swinging  or  Tilting,     (a.)  Hinged  to  Top  of  Barrel^  and 
turning  Upward  and  Forward. 


610 
1,611 
13,5  ir 
14,919 
15,3)7 
15,31  > 
25,611 
33,655 
•31,7r6 
3i,331 
39,24  i 
40,131 
43,126 
47.113 
47.912 
49,718 
49.9.59 
51,.391 
62.734 
52,337 
52,923 
54,601) 
55,520 
67,2a 
60.6=14 
61,932 


H.  an!  0.  Diuiela 

J.  R  TiijmaH 

B.  F.  .loilyn 

N   S   Clement 

\V.  M.  Storin 

F.  W.  Iloffniin 

J.  P   Mirshill 

S.  W   Mirsh 

L.  C.  Rodier  

B.  S.  Roberts 

W.  Richard' 

J   H.  Wick.nxn 

E.S.  Wrigit 

C.  Chabot 

W.  U.  and  G    W.  Miller 

C   Chabot 

E  S.  Allin 

E.  S  Piper 

I.  M.  Milbank 

B.  S.  Roberts 

H.  Berdan 

H.  Revnolds 

I.  M.  Milbank 

J.  H.  Selwyn    

A   Ball 

I.  M.  Milbank 


Feb.  15, 1333. 
May  19,  1840. 
Aug.  28, 1355. 
Mav  27,  ia56. 
July    8,    " 
.*.ug  12,    " 
Oct.    4, 13.59. 
Nov     5,  1361. 
Mar  25, 1862. 
Sept.  2.3,    •' 
July  14, 1363. 
Sept  29,     " 
Nov.    5,  1864. 
Apr.    4,  1365. 
Mav  23,     '■ 
Sept.   5,     " 
Sept.  19,     " 
Dec.     6,    " 
Feb.  20, 1866. 
Feb.  27,     " 
Feb.  27,     " 
Mav     8,     " 
Junel2,     " 
Aug.  14,     •■ 
Jan.    1, 
Jan.    8, 


,  1867, 


2.  Swinging  or  Tilting,  etc.  —  Continued. 


61,865 
64,701 
65,5.35 
68,099 
72,526 
74,119 
79,291 
86,434 
37,190 
88,43o 
83,.5;30 
88,531 
89,889 
90,792 
93,330 
101,413 
105,058 


J.  W.  Preston 

Poultnev  and  Crispin  . . . . 

1.  M    Milbank 

V,'.  H   and  G.  W.  Miller. . 

W.  Morgenstern 

F  MuUer 

W.  Mop,5enstem 

W.  Morgenstern 

W.  Morgenstern 

H.  Berdan 

A.  L.  Varney 

A.  L.  Varney 

W.  Richards 

W.  S-  Smoot 

AV.  Morgenstern 

H.  Berdan 

A  B.  Ely  and  E.  C.  Clay  . 


Date. 


Feb.  5, 
May  14, 
June  11, 
Aug.  27, 
Dec.  24, 
Feb.  4 
June  23, 
Feb  2, 
Feb.  23, 
Mar  30, 
Mar  30, 
Mar.  30, 
May  11, 
June  1, 
Aug.  3, 
Apr.  6, 
July    5, 


1867. 


1868. 
1369. 


1870. 


2.    (&.)  Hinged  to  Side  of  Barret  and  Swinging  Laterally 
Forward. 


60,670 
55,719 
61,715 
64,999 
SI  ,283 
84,666 
109,419 


Jvon  der  Papperbuig Oct.  24, 1865. 

A.  Sayer June  19,  1366. 

I.  M.  .Milbank Feb.    5,1367. 

J  and  G   U.  Needham May  21,    " 

J.  Merlett '  Aug  13,  1368. 

I.  M.  .Milbank |   Dec.     1,     '■ 

A.  B   Kay ,   Nov.  22,  1870. 


2.    (c  )  Hinged  beneath  Barrel  and  Swinging  Forward  and 
Downward  through  Mortise, 


12,001 
12,633 
14,491 
15,521 
20,073 
21523 
25,470 
26,332 

•27.393 
27  509 
27,374 
33,317 
33,745 
35.217 
35,354 
35,433 

•36,062 
36,466 
37,501 
33,042 
39,120 
39.646 
41X887 
40,992 
41,281 
41,489 
42,471 
42,702 
43.957 

•45.043 
46,123 
45.152 

•45,356 
46,797 

•45,9-52 
46,671 

•46.328 
46.866 
47.350 
47.372 
47.809 
48  227 
43,238 

•49,409 
49.994 
50.507 
51,739 
51.991 

•52..547 
83.187 
53,543 

•54,068 


A.  D.  Peny 

R.  White 

A.  F.  Burnside 

F.  D.  Newbury 

T.  Lee 

E.  T.  Starr 

J.  Rider 

S.  W.  Marsh 

C  M.Spencer 

N.  L.  Babcock 

G.  P.  Foster 

F.  Curtis 

T  Lee 

C.  C.  Coleman 

J.  M.  Seymour 

J.  C.  Cooke 

CM.  Spencer 

F.  W-  Howe 

L.  Geiger 

I.  Hartshorn 

J.  W.  Cochran 

H.  Gross 

J.  Rider 

J.  W.  Cochran 

F.  Curtis 

F.  Curtis 

G.  Uancock 

F.  Trulender 

W  H-  Smith 

G  W.  Hughes 

J.  Rider 

A.  Grillet 

E.  Stabler 

J.  Rider 

C.  M.  Spencer 

F  W.  Howe 

E.  Stabler 

I.  Sutvan 

A.  M   White 

W.  H   Elliot 

W   H   Elliot 

H-  H.  Wolcott 

B.  F   Joslyn 

Hughes  and  Busey 

Foster  and  Foster 

J  Stillman 

W.  H.  and  G.  W.  WiUer. 

H.  Berdan 

W.  C-  Dodee 

Robertson  and  Simpson. 

J.  Rider 

J.  Gray 


1354. 
1355. 
1856. 

1858. 

1859. 

1860. 

1861. 
1862. 


,1863. 


,1864. 


Nov.  28, 
Apr.  3, 
Mar.  25, 
Aug.  12, 
Apr.  27, 
Sept.  14 
Sept  13, 
Dec  9. 
Mar.  6, 
Mar  20, 
Apr.  10, 
Sept  17, 
Nov.  19, 
May  1.3. 
May  20, 
June  .3, 
July  29- 
Sept.  16 
Jan.  27 
Mar.  31 
July  7, 
Aug.  25, 
Dec.  8, 
Dec.  22. 
J»n.  19 
Feb.  9 
Apr.  26,  " 
Mav  10,  '• 
Ang  23,  " 
Nov.  15,  " 
Nov  15,  " 
Not.  22,  " 
Dec.  6,  " 
Jan.  3.  1865. 
Jan.  17,  *' 
Mar  7,  " 
Mar.  14,  " 
Mar.  14,  " 
Apr.  18,  " 
Apr.  18,  " 
May  23,  " 
June  13,  " 
June20,  " 
Aug.  15,  " 
Sept  19,  " 
Oct.  17.  " 
Dec.  26,  " 
Jan.  9, 1866. 
Feb.  13,  " 
Mar.  13,  " 
Mar.  27,  " 
Apr.  17,    " 


FIRE-ARM. 


858 


FIRE-ARM. 


2.    (c.)  Hhiqed  beneath  Barrel,  etc.  —  Continued. 


61 100 
64.713 
66,.3,I3 

6«,114 

•B3.;;i7 

•58,73S 

69,501) 

60,10) 

*60,91U 

60,9.H 

61,722 

62,873 

64,731) 

65,1113 

•67,242 

68,230 

68,29J 

72SJ3 

74,423 

74,760 

76.595 

89,399 

91,421 

92,393 

104,211 

104,3*7 

111,314 

112,505 

112,604 

112.997 

113,408 

113,470 

114,742 

115,907 

116,103 

116,3)3 

116,3)4 

117,906 

»118,la2 

•119,020 

119, )03 

120,738 

122,16) 

122,470 

122,717 

124,994 

125,229 

12),446 

127,3?  i 

127.633 

129,-303 

129,133 

»129,.523 

129, 137 

13), 165 

131,137 

131,921 

132,710 

1.33,0)3 

►131,539 

133,405 

1.35,671 

137,625 

13-1,157 

138.2)7 

141,3<3 

lll,3n 

141,603 

142,39J 


Name. 


C.  E,  Billings 

Laitlloy  and  Emery 

G,  1'.  and  iJ.  K,  Foster 

J    Bradley 

It.  MeC  lio.sney 

C.  M ,  Spencer 

(.'.  M.  Spencer 

C  C.  Coleman 

II.  H.  Wolcott 

T,  W.  Laae 

II  M.  and  M.  J.  Chamberlain. 
Sil  IS  Cri.ipin 

A,  .3.  MuDgcr 

W,  II.  and  U.  IV.  .Miller 

It.  McC!)e^ney 

J.  .\.  \\'liitney 

W.  S.  Smoot 

W.  H.  Klliot 

I,.  Conroy 

.I.Riler 

B.  H.  Jenks 

J .  BrJUg'iton 

A.  C  Stevens 

L.  Conroy 

J.  T   Stoalces 

0.  \V.  SchoQeld 

J .  .\I.  W'hittemore 

M   J.  Chamberlain 

Smith  and  Ch  iraberlain 

\V.  C.  and  P.  T.  Dod:ie 

E.  Whitney 

\V.  C,  Dod,»e 

Tresing  and  Gernor 

J .  Yg'.csias 

Eli  (Vhitney 

)V.  S.  Smoot 

Vf.  T.  Sueiden 

W.  T  Sneddea 

James  M .  .Mason 

J.  aider 

W.  R.  Evans  

Horace  Up J^graif 

\V.  S.  Smoot 

B.  B    Hotchki.^s 

■James  Lee 

A.  T.  Freeman 

Eli  Wiitney 

John  F.  Thom  Ls 

John  \y .  Cochran 

John  F.  Thom  IS   

W.  C.  and  P.  T   D.id,'e 

M.J.  Chamberlain 

D  Smith 

A.  Burge.^s 

E.  Whitney  and  F   Tresing 

II.  Updesri.! 

J .  iM.  Whittenio.'e 

J   .M.  Whitterajre 

W.  .Mont  Storm 

W  S.  Smoot 

A.  Burgees 

W.  .1.  Chamberlin 

C. M  Spencer 

C.  Shirp< 

Holt  and  .M.arthall 

D.  Smith  

J.  Rider 

J.  Riler 

Satith  and  -Marshall 

D.  Hug 


Apr.  24, 
May  15, 
July  17, 
Aug  7, 
Oct.  'i, 
Oct.  9, 
Oct.  9, 
Nov  6, 
.Nov.  27, 
Jan.  1, 
Jan.  8, 
Feb.  5, 
Mar  12, 
May  14, 
May  28, 
July  30, 
Aug.  27, 
Aug  27, 
Dec.  31, 
Feb.  11, 
Frb  25, 
Apr,  14, 
M.iy  4, 
June  15, 
July  6, 
June  14, 
June  14, 
Feb.  14, 
Mir  7, 
Apr.  4, 
Mar-  21, 
.^pr  4, 
Apr.  4, 
May  9, 
June  13, 
June20, 
June  27, 
June  27, 
Aug.  8, 
Aug.  15, 
Sept  19, 
Sept  19. 
Nov.  7, 
Jan.  2, 
Jan.  2, 
Jan.  16, 
Mar  26, 
Apr.  2, 
May  7, 
.Miiy  28, 
Junell, 
July  16, 
July  13, 
July  1), 
July  lo, 
Aug.  6, 
Sept.  17 
Oct.  1, 
N^v.  5. 
Nov.  12, 
Jan.  17, 
Feb.  4, 
Feb.  11, 
Apr.  8, 
Apr.  22, 
Apr.  22, 
July  20, 
July  20, 
Aug  5, 
Sept.  2, 


1868. 


1837. 


1858. 

1869. 

1870. 
1871. 


1873. 


2.    id.)  Swinging  on  Centers  or  Trunnions. 


•10,084  I  E.  II,  Graham.... 

10,801  J.  D   Greene 

•11,944  E  H,  Graham.... 

12.244  A,  D.  Perry 

12,90)  H.  Oro<i3 

14,819  i  E.  Snider 

•15,734  E.  H   Or.aham  . . . 

17,135  G.  A.  Blittkowski. 

39,270  G,  R.  Bacon 

39,465  J.  S,  Adams 

44,.377  J.  S  Adams 

46,495  !  H.  W.  Haydeu... 


Oct.  4, 
Jan.  3, 
May  16, 
Jan.  16, 
May  22, 
May  6, 
Sept.  16, 
Apr.  28, 
July  21, 
Aug.  14, 
Sept.  27. 
Dec.  20, 


1853. 
1854. 


1855. 
1856. 


1857. 
131)3. 


1864, 


2.    («.)  Hinged  at  Rear  to  swing  Upward  and  Backward. 


No. 


865 
1,141 
3,686 
5,141 
11.536 

•12,667 
18  072 
18,472 
19,068 
20,503 

•21,149 
23,224 
23,378 
24,394 
25,259 
26,076 
32,837 

•34,922 

•35,548 
36.891 
37,048 
37,407 
37.764 

•.39,.541 
43,733 
47,088 
61,213 
52,679 
•1.35,947 


William  Thornton  and  J .  H.  Hall 

II.  L.  Thistle 

N    Starr 

Savage  and  North 

H.  S.  North 

W.  A  Sweet 

A.  T.  Watson 

H.  Gross 

Skinner  and  Tryon 

W.  Burghart 

G.  W.  Morse 

F.  B.  Prindle 

Barber  and  Reinfried 

E.  Lindner 

D.  Leavitt 

II.  Gross 

W.  II.  Arnold 

W.  Palmer 

C .  Dragar 

N.Smith 

Bostwick  and  Sargent 

I.  M.  Milbank 

J .  Oliphant 

C.  Perloy 

J.  N.  Smith 

J.  Browness 

J.  W.  Cochran 

F.  B.  Prindle 

J.  W.  Cochran 

Swingle  and  Huntington 


May  21, 
Aug.  1, 
May  3, 
July  30. 
June  6, 
Aug  15, 
Mar.  20, 
June  10, 
Oct.  20, 
Jan.  12, 
June  8, 
Aug.  10. 
Mar.  15. 
Mar.  29, 
June  14, 
Aug.  30, 
Nov.  15, 
July  23, 
Apr.  8, 
June  10, 
Nov.  11, 
Dec.  2, 
Jan.  13, 
Feb.  24, 
Aug.  18, 
Aug.  2, 
Apr.  14, 
Nov.  28, 
Feb.  20, 
Feb.  18. 


1811. 
1838. 
1839. 
1844. 
1847. 
1854. 
1855. 
1866. 
1857. 
1858, 


1861. 
1862. 


1863. 


1864. 
1865. 


1866. 
1873. 


2      (y.)  Hinged  at  Rear  and  swinging  Laterally. 


34,319 
44,991 
48,073 
133,770 
139,190 


C.  Parkhurst.. 
C.  M.  Spencer.. 
E.  Whitney  . . . 
B.  F.  Jo.'^lyn... 
A.  T.  Freeman. 
T.  Restell 


Sept.  25, 1837. 
Feb.  4.  1862. 
Nov.  8,  1864. 
June  6,  1865. 
Dec.  10,  1872. 
May  20,  1873. 


2.    [g.)  Hinged  at  Rear  and  swinging  Downward  and  Back- 
ward tkrougli  Mortise. 


2,627 

12,528 

35,947 

36,709 

•38,702 

•38,935 

39,479 

41,166 

41242 

•43,827 

60,607 

65,607 

70.141 

72,076 

76,805 

83,442 

•89,705 

90,024 

90,614 

91,668 

92,673 

96,396 

•106,093 

110,024 

112,665 

I14,,540 

114.9.51 

115,641 

116,068 

117.652 

•119.115 

119,218 

120,576 

120.800 

121,499 

122.772 

123.1,59 

125,127 

127,737 

128,208 

132,222 


C.  H.  Ballard 

B.White 

H.  0.  Peabody 

E.  Gwyn  and  A.  C.  Campbell 

C.  M.  Spencer 

A.  Ball 

H,  Gross  

J.  Merwin  and  E.  P.  Bray 

W.  X.  Stevens 

A.  Ball 

T.  Yates 

B.  S.  Roberts 

L.  Wheelock 

H.O.  Peabody 

H.  0.  Peabody 

E.  F.  Qunn 

L.  Z.  Terrell 

B.  S.  Roberts 

F.  Vou  Martini 

W .  Richards 

Z  R.  Von  Wessely 

A.  L.  Varney 

J.  Krafiirt 

W  II.  Elliot 

J.  Duval 

W.  II.  ElUot 

James  Lee 

F.  Von  Martini 

James  Ijee 

J.  Manton 

A.  Burgess 

A.  Burgess 

W.  H.  Elliot 

F.  Von  Martini 

W.  H.  Elliot 

James  Lee 

J ,  Duval 

W.  H.  Elliot 

A.  Burgess 

A.  Burgess 

F,  Von  Martini 


Nov.  5, 
Mar,  13, 
July  22, 
Oct.  21, 
May  26, 
June  23, 
Aug.  11, 
Jan,  5, 
Jan.  12, 
Aug.  2, 
Dec.  18, 
Junell, 
Oct.  22, 
Dec.  10, 
Apr.  14, 
Dec,  29. 
May  4, 
May  11, 
May  25, 
June  22, 
Julv  13, 
Sept.  28. 
July  5. 
Dec,  13, 
Mar.  14, 
May  9, 
May  16, 
May  30, 
June  20, 
Aug.  1, 
Sept.  19, 
Sept.  26, 
Nov.  7, 
Nov.  7, 
Dec.  6, 
Jan.  16, 
Jan  80, 
Apr.  2, 
Junell, 
June  26, 
Oct    16, 


1851. 

1856. 
1862, 

1863. 


1864. 


1867. 


1868 
1868. 
1869. 


1370 
1871. 


1872. 


FIRE-ARM. 


859 


FIRE-ARM. 


2.     [g.)  Hinged  at  Rear,  etc.  —  ContiDued. 

No. 

Name. 

Date. 

133.665 
134,014 

W.  Richards 

J .  F.  Swinburn 

Dec.    3, 1872. 
Dec.  IT,    " 

3.  Slidiji^  Transversehi  through  Mortise,    (a.)  Moving 
'VerlicaUy. 

*1,084 
•o.Ui 
5.7(53 
•5,311 
*6,13.3 
»3,G33 

•11,283 
12,529 

*12,C55 

•13,471 
14,554 

•14,774 
15,240 
15,.347 

•20,041 
22,940 
24,414 
24,437 
23,304 

•26,734 

•2S,64G 
30,033 

•30,760 
33,007 
33,769 
31,32,5 

•34,504 
35,086 
37,3-)9 
37,544 
33,455 

•38,004 
41,313 

42,130 

42,685 

42,743 

•44,995 

•15,105 

•45,560 

•45,919 

49,533 

51.243 

51,253 

54,744 

64,934 

59,540 

62,077 

64,(550 

66,709 

67,' 33 

81,100 

86,387 

88,645 

•88,863 

89,955 

•101,846 

104,775 

114,259 

•116,066 

119,145 

123,595 

126,748 

'136,060 

•138,439 

138,837 

139.323 

139,423 


Bailey,  Ripley,  anj  Smith 

E.  \Ve.=iSon 

C.  Sharp 

M.  M.  Uas3 

G.  W.  Buchel 

W.IIunt 

E.  Baldwin 

U.White 

U.  II.  Soule 

J.  Swyny 

C.  Conant 

F.  Newbury 

B.  F.  Joslyn 

O.II.  Soule 

C.  Co.x 

F.  Curtis 

W.  PI.  Storm 

T.Bailey 

R.  S.  Lawrence 

T.  P.  Gould 

N.  ^y.  Brewer 

E.  Allen 

J.  S.  Rwdcr 

C.  .Sharps 

K.  Hamilton 

Q.W.  V.'hito 

E.  JL.Tudd 

F.  Dewzkr 

G.  W.  White 

J.  Davis 

W..\!dric'.i 

W.U. Kicc 

Mix  and  Hortoa 

J.  Gray 

C.  B.  ilolden 

C.  F.  Payne 

L.  N.  Chapin 

.1 .  Gr-.y 

R.  Viil.^on 

J.Gray 

W.  Fitzgera'd 

L.  W.  Broad  well 

W.  Tibbals 

J.  Davis 

.7.  Lee 

J.  V.  Meigs 

J.  N.  Aronsou 

C.  .Sharps 

J.  Elson 

A.J.  n.  Hilton 

J.  Elson 

J.  V.  Meigs 

Elson  and  Schaefer 

R.  S.  Lawrence - 

T.  CuUon 

L.  B.  Tiebel 

D.  Ellis 

S.  Rydberk 

H.  Buchner 

J.  L.Kirk 

Henry 

O.  H.  Tibbets 

C.F.  Russell 

G.  D.  Luce 

Rodier  and  Bates 

G.  Aston 

A.  Marelli 

W.  Richards 


,  1856. 


■', 


Feb,  20, 1339. 
June  5,  1347. 
Sept.  12, 1848. 
Sept.  26,    '■ 
Feb,  20,  1849. 
Aug.  21,    " 
July  11,  1,354. 
M  ir.  13,  1855. 
Apr.    3-     " 
Aug,  21, 
Apr,     1, 
Apr,  29, 
July     1,    " 
July  15,    " 
Apr,  27, 1353, 
Feb,  15,  1859. 
June  14,    " 
June  14,     " 
Dec.  20.     " 
Jan,    3,  1360. 
June  12,    " 
Sept  13.     " 
Not,  27,    " 
Oct.  29,  1361. 
Nov   19.     '' 
Feb,    4,1,362. 
Feb,  25,    " 
Apr.  29,     " 
Jan,    6, 1863 
Jan.  2., 
May  12, 
May  19.     " 
Jan,    9,  1834. 
.Ian.  26,    " 
Mar,  29,    " 
-May  10,     " 
May  17,    " 
Nov.    8,    " 
Nov.  15,     " 
Dec.  20,     " 
Jan,  17, 1885. 
Aug  22,     •• 
Nov.  28,    " 
Nov.  28,    " 
May  15,  1866. 
May  22,     " 
Nov.  13,     " 
Feb.  12,  1837. 
May  14,     '■ 
July  16,    " 
July  23,    " 
Aug,  18, 1868. 
Feb.  21,  1869. 
Apr.  16,    " 
Apr.  13,    " 
May  11,     " 
Apr.  12, 1870. 
June23,    " 
May    2, 1871. 
June20,     " 
Sept,  19,     " 
Feb.  13,  1872. 
Mav  14,     " 
Mar.  11,  1873. 
Apr.  29,     " 
M.1V  13,     " 
.May  27,     " 
May  27,    " 


3.     (&.)  Moving  Laterally. 


14,667 
•19,387 
33,560 
35,6.''^ 
51,225 


Fisher  and  Chamberhn , 

P,  Lancaster 

C.  C.  Terrill 

Vittum  and  Stevens 

P.  J.Jarre 

E. Schopp 


Apr,  17,  1837. 
Apr.  15,  1856. 
Feb.  16,  1S5S. 
Oct.  22,  \m\. 
June  24,  1362. 
Nov.  28,  1865. 


4.  Swinging  or  rotating  Laterallu.    (a.)  On  a  Longitudim.l 
Pin  or  Hinge. 


193 

•3(34 

3,649 

6,139 

•9,701 

•14,017 

•14,406 

20,315 

26,626 

30,537 

33,435 

33,907 

•34,126 

34  449 

34,854 

36,(588 

•35,996 

•36,358 

37,208 

38,336 

33,643 

33,'>44 

39,193 

39,407 

41,732 

42,000 

42,.529 

42,542 

42,573 

44.798 

45,650 

45,701 

45.809 

46,125 

46,532 

48  423 

49.13) 

49,491 

63,.523 

56,669 

•56,846 

68,733 

69.941 

72.849 

73.357 

74,712 

74  737 

74.888 

80,9.35 

84,922 

84.929 

84,933 

85,268 

104,223 

•112,127 

112,589 

118,171 

11S,.569 

•122,182 

•128,671 

129,115 

133,711 


W.  W.  Hubbell 

S.  Day 

W.  W.  Hubbell 

D.  Minesinger 

C.N.  Tyler 

B.  Groom 

F.  Newburv 

C.  W.  Alexander 

I.  H   Sears 

E,  Maynard 

B,  F  Jo.slvn 

W,  H.  Smith 

Brady  and  Noble 

B.  F.  Skinner  and  A.Plummer,Jr. 

S.  W.  Wood 

B,  F,  Joslyn 

J.  B,  Doolittle 

J.  Nichols 

S.  Strong 

L.Albright 

S.  Strong 

S.  Strong 

J.  Davis 

B.  F   Joslyn 

J,  Warner 

B.  F.  Joslyn 

J,  Davis 

1,  Smith 

J.  Goulding 

H.  Hammond 

J.  Warner 

Francis  Clark 

Hiram  Berdan 

1.  M  Milbank 

J.  Rider 

E.  Maynard 

E.  Maynard 

E.  Allen 

F.  Clark 

J.  A.  Conover 

A.  M.  Bacon 

E.  F,  Gunn 

J,  Snider,  Jr 

H,  Hammond 

J,  E   McBeth 

W.  Morgenstem 

J.  Werndl 

C  Callaghan 

J.  E.  McBeth 

E.  Von  o  einsen 

E,  Alien 

J.  R-  Cooper 

Belden  and  Crabtree 

W,  Soper : . . . 

.T.  Davis 

H ,  Hammond 

J,  B,  Wayne 

J,  W.Wilkinson 

T,  Lee 

C.  R.  Stickncy 

G.  H,  Earnest 

J ,  P.  Taylor 


Mar  11,  1837, 
Aug,  31,     " 
July    1, 1844 
Feb.  27.  1819. 
May     3,  1853. 
Jan.    1,  1356, 
Mar.    1,      • 
May  25.  1853 
Dec    20,  iai9. 
Oct.  30,  1860. 
Oct.     8, 18(51. 
Dec.  10,    " 
Jan.  14, 1862. 
Feb.  18,     " 
Apr.    1,     " 
June  24,    " 
July  29,     " 
Sept.   2,     " 
Dec.   16,     " 
May    5,1863. 
May  19,    " 
May  19,     " 
July    7,     '' 
Aug,    4,     '* 
Feb,  23,  1864. 
Mar.  22,     " 
Apr.  25,     " 
Apr.  26,    " 
May     3,    " 
Oct.  25,    " 
Dec.  27,     " 
Jan.    3,1865. 
Jan,  10,    " 
Jan.  31,     " 
Feb.  21,     " 
June  27,    " 
Aug.   1,     " 
Aug,  22,     " 
Mar,  27,  1866 
July  24,    " 
July  31,     " 
Sept,  1(1,  1867- 
Oct.   15,     " 
Dec.  31,    " 
Jan.  14,  1868. 
Feb.  18,    " 
Feb.  18,    " 
Feb.  25,    " 
Aug.  11,     " 
Dec.  15,    " 
Dec.  15,     " 
Dec.  15,    " 
Dec,  29,    " 
June  14,  1870. 
Feb.  28, 1371. 
Mar.  14,    " 
Aug  15,    " 
Aug.  29,    " 
Dec.  26,    " 
July    2,1872. 
July  16,     •• 
May    6,1873. 


4.    (6.)  Having  the  Form  of  a  Rotating  ^eeve. 


•7,496 
16,070 


Percival  and  Smith . 
G.  Schaeffe 


July    9,1850. 
Nov.  11,  1856. 


5.  In  Form  0/  a  Faucet  or  Spigot,     (a.)  Having  Chamber  in 
tlie  Faucet. 


•3,945 
•10,520 
•19,6,'-i3 
20,778 
•23,226 
•26,046 
33,772 
39,1.33 
45,801 


A.  D.  Perry 

F.  Cook  

A.  C,  Faivre 

Brooks  and  Walker 

P,  Boynton 

P.  Boynton 

H.  Underwood 

C.  W.  Howard 

C.  G.  Saez  


Dec  11,1345. 
Feb  14,  18.54. 
Mar.  9,  1858. 
.Tuly  6,  " 
Mar.  15,  1359. 
Jan.  3,  1360. 
June  2,  P63. 
Julv  14,  " 
Jan.    3.  1866. 


FIRE-ARM. 


860- 


FIRE-ARM. 


5.     (6.)  Having  Chamber  in  the  Barrel  in  Front  o/Faucet. 

5.    (b.)  Having  Chamber  in  the  Barrel,  etc. — Continued. 

No. 

Name. 

D«te. 

No. 

Name. 

Date. 

11,035 
12,VS1 
13,154 

II.  W.  Adams 

Sept  19,  ia54. 
Apr.  10, 1855. 
July    3,     " 

14,077 

1o,'JJ0 

113,la4 

J.  II.  Merrill 

T  A.  Washington 

R.  Henuinger 

Jan.    8,1856. 
Oct.  28,    " 
Mar.  28, 1871. 

E..\llen 

Class  C.  —  Revolveus. 

[The  dagger  (t)  signifies  tliat  tlie  cylinder  has  a  cartridge-shell  extractor.] 


1.   Ciambtreit  Cij'.ituter  revolving  on  Parallel  Axis,     (o.)  Be- 
hin  t  a  Bitrrei ;   Cijlinltr  char^td  at  Front. 


132 

•3;i 

21  i 

40J 

6m 

717 

713 

83i 

1 ,1  )i3 

1,U4 

1,3' 14 

5,31! 

6,;y 

7,il3 
7,«)-9 
7,8)2 
7,3J4 
8,Jii) 
8,U2 
8,J32 
9.3J1 
9,929 
19,259 
10.J12 
10,521 
10,93) 
11,119 
11,117 
ll,li"0 
11,593 
1I,|15 
12,139 
12  323 
12,4ro 
12,171 
12,555 
12,519 
12,90o 
13,039 
13,532 
13.569 
13,999 
14,106 
11,-120 
14,133 
14,710 
14,905 
15,110 
15.144 
15,167 
15,292 
15  333 
15,925 
16,367 
16,411 
16,5/5 
13,583 
1-5,716 
17/132 
17,044 
17,143 
17,359 
•17,333 
17,698 
17,994 
18.48) 
18,678 


Name. 


D.  G.  Colbum 

Saiuufl  L'olt 

D.  LeavitC 

S.  Diy 

0    W.  »V.ii;tier 

C.  Park'.iurst 

Tlieo.  F.  Strong 

Nic.iol'  an-J  Cliild-J 

M.  Nutting 

E.  Jaq-ii.j ,  . 

E.  B    Uuferfleld 

D.  Ed.vaids 

Samu(-1  t'olt 

L.  11.  Gibjs 

IS.  iVcsson   

Samuel  Colt 

Samuel  Colt 

J.  Stevens 

J.  Wiirner 

J.  Warner 

J.  .Stevens 

Xonli  a. id  Skinner 

Robei't  .Viam f 

J.  Stevens 

.M.  L.  Rood 

J.  Ells 

Charles  Buso 

J.  Peck  

J.  Ells 

E.  Whitney 

I.  W   Bro.in 

W.  H.  Morrison 

F   Deals 

J .  Stevens 

A.  0.  U.  P,  Sehorn 

Holliugsworth  and  Mershon. 
Hoilingsworth  and  Mershon. 

F.  Newbury 

R.  White 

H.  Gross 

F.  Newbury 

K.  Newbury 

W.  M.  Storm 

E.  K.  Root 

F.  Newbury 

W.  M.  Storm 

Blittkowski  and  IIotTman . . . 
Blittkowski  and  lloJnuin. . . 

Samuel  Colt 

Alexander  Hall 

U.  S.  North 

F.  Beals 

James  Warner 

0.  S.  Pettengill 

Alexander  Le  Mat 

E.  Allen 

A.  Tonks 

Brett^'ll  and  Frisbte 

Samuel  Colt 

Samuel  Colt 

J.  Ellis 

James  Kerr 

J.  Ellis 

F.  Beals 

E.  Lindner 

Jacob  Shaw,  Jr 

J.  Warner 

George  R.  Crooker 

Samuel  Colt 


June  29, 1833. 
Feb.  25,  1.333. 
Apr.  29,  1837. 
Aug.    3,     •■ 
May  30,    " 
Sept.  25,     " 
Apr.  21,  1838. 
Apr.  24,    " 
Apr.  25,    " 
July  12,    " 
Mar.  1 5,  1839. 
Apr.  27,    " 
Aug.  29,    " 
Oct.     2,  1847. 
Aug.  28,  1S49. 
Sept.  4,  1850. 
Sept.  4,    " 
Nov.  26,    " 
Jan.  11,  1851. 
July  15,     " 
Oct.      7,    " 
June    1,  1852. 
May    3  1853. 
Aug.    9,     ■' 
Nov.  22,     " 
Apr.  25, 1854. 
Apr.  25,    " 
Miy  16,    " 
Aug.    1,    " 
Aug     1,     " 
Aug.   8,    " 
Sept.  19,     " 
■Sept.  26,    " 
Jan.    2,  1855. 
Jan.  30,    " 
Feb.  27,    " 
Fob    27,     " 
Mar  20,     " 
Apr.    3,    " 
Mav  22,    " 
Junel2,    " 
Sept.  18,    " 
Oot.     9,    " 
Dec.  25,    " 
Mar.  11,  1856. 
M.ir  11,     ■' 
Apr.  22,     " 
Apr.  22,     " 
May  20,     " 
June  10,     " 
June  17,     " 
June  24,     *' 
June24,     " 
July  22,    " 
Oct".  21,    " 
Jan.  13, 1857. 
Jan.  13,     " 
Feb.  19,      " 
Feb.  24,     " 
Mar.    3,    " 
Apr.  14,    " 
Apr.  14,    " 
Apr.  28,     " 
May  26,    " 
Mav  26,    " 
JuneSO,     " 
July  28,     " 
Oct.  20,    " 
Nov.  24,    " 


1.    Cliamljereil  Ciilin'hr  revolvins:  on  Parallel  Axis,     (a.)  Be- 
hind a  Barrel:   Cylinder  charged  at  Front.  —  Continued. 


18.835 
19,327 
19,739 
19,858 
20.144 
20,1-50 
20,496 
20,765 
21,054 
21,215 
21,478 
21,623 
21,7.30 
22,412 
22,511 
22,656 
22,9.15 
23,087 
23,711 
23,851 
24  274 
24,312 
24,942 
26,t541 
27,518 
27,8  58 
28,:331 
29,213 
29,538 
29,864 
30,-i60 
31.1,494 
30,602 
30,843 
32..3.33 
32,6a5 
33,770 
33,932 
34,032 
34,Oi)3 
34.226 
34,803 
35.052 
35,404 
35,999 
36,861 
37.004 
37.329 
37,921 
37,961 
33.336 
38,9.34 
39,409 
39,771 
39,825 
39.869 
40.021 
40  ,.5.53 
41,134 
41,803 
41,848 
42.435 
43,709 
44  ,.303 
44  ,.363 
43,290 
45„5.32 
46,131 
43,612 


Date. 


E.  Allen Dec.  15,  1857. 

F.  D.  Newbury Feb.     9,1858. 

F.  D   Newbury War  2.3,  " 

II.  S.  North Apr.    6,  " 

Samuel  Colt May    4,  *' 

B.  F.  Joslyn   May    4,  " 

M.  Kinsey June  8,  *' 

F   D.  Newbury June29,  " 

Raviiiond  and  Robitaillc July  27,  " 

J,  Rider Aug  17,  " 

F.Beals Sept.  14,  " 

William  Palmer Sept.  28,  " 

T   R.  Austin Oct.   12,  " 

J.  W  Cochran Dec.  28,  " 

C.  S.  Pettengill Jan.    4,1859. 

North  and  Savage Jan.  18,  '' 

J.  Walch Feb.     8,  " 

W.  C.  Haynes Mar.    1,  " 

J.  Rupert'us Apr.  19,  " 

J.  Rider May     3,  " 

T.Bailey June   7,  " 

Alexander  Lc  Mat June   7,  '' 

Lewis  and  Pfl' gar Aug.    2,  " 

Gruler  and  Rebety Dec.  27,  '• 

W.  H   Bell Mar.20,  1860. 

F.D.Newbury Apr.  10,  •' 

Savage  and  North May  15,  *' 

C   R  Alsop July  17,  " 

C.  R   Alsop Aug.    7,  '• 

J.M.Cooper Sept,    4,  " 

Aug.  Spcllier Oct      2,  " 

F.D.Newbury Oct   23,  " 

.John  .\dams Nov.    6,  '* 

ET. Starr Dec.     4,  " 

C.  R.  Alsnp May  14,  1861. 

J,  A.  DeBrame July    2,  " 

C.  II.  Al.-iop Nov.  26,  " 

W.H.Elliot I  Dec.  17  ■" 


Dec.  24,  " 
Jan.    7, 1862. 

Jan.  21,  " 

Mar  25,  " 

Apr.  22,  " 

May  27,  " 

July  29,  " 

Nov.   4,  " 

Nov.  25,  '* 
Jan.    6,1863. 

Mar.  17,  " 

Mar.  24,  " 

Apr.  28,  " 

June  16,  *' 

Aug    4,  " 

Sept.    1,  " 

Sept.    8,  " 

Sept.   8,  " 

Sept  22,  " 

Nov.  10,  " 

Jan.    5,  181)4. 

Mar.    1,  " 

Mar.    8,  " 

Apr.  19,  " 

Aug.   2,  " 

Sept.  20,  " 

Sept  20,  " 

Nov.  59,  " 

Dec.  20,  " 
Jan   31, 1865. 

C.  E.  SneiderT ]  Feb.  28,  " 


Thomas  Shaw 

W  J.  Pitt 

C.  R.  Alsop 

C.  R.  Alsop 

J.  A.  Whalen 

A.  C-  Vaughan 

G.  W.  B.  Gednev 

H.  S.  Rogers 

T.  J.  MayaU 

P.  Beals 

S.  Remington 

A.  Hall 

James  Reid 

L. W.  Pond 

James  Kerr 

C.  W,  Harris 

Mershon  and  Hollinsworth . 

J.  H   Vickers 

J.  M.  Cooper 

J.  W.  Cochran 

D.  Williamson .   

S.  W,  Wood 

B.  Kittredge 

Thomas  Gibson 

Rohitail  and  Dahis 

S.  Ouilbert 

S.  W.  Wood 

R.lVhite 

E.  T.  Starr 

F.  D.  Newbury  . 


FIRE-ARM. 


861 


FIRE-ARM. 


1.    OiambfTtd  Cylinder  r^rdrimg  oh  PoralUl  Axis,    (a.)  Be- 
kind  a  Sorrel :   Cylimdrr  rharged  at  Fronl.  —  Continued. 


47,TO7  W.  H.  Eliot 

47,712  G  H.  drJiirr 

43.287  B.  F.  JoslvD 

51.  jK  R.  T.  Sttrr 

51,®)  G  C.  Bansen 

52,1«  S.  W.  Wood 

53.9»  G.S.  CroxeU 

55.74-3  muiun  Tibhais 

0«.«i  Williim  Tibbiis 

*d6.;42  K.  J.  Frost- , 

6'3.512  R.  Wliit* 

72.844  J.Gorlon 

82.259  F. -4.  Thner 

»,S.<3  B  R.  mil 

1'J9,J14  Linhepgand  PhiLijB. 

112,tn  E.  S.  Leivcroft 

112.472  E.  S.  l«»Tcioft 

115,253  E-  \raitnej 

129r^3(  J.  GorJoa 

131,442  O.  Sch^Klock 

14X^376  BK.Donran 


1.     (6  )  BeJiini  a  Barrel;   CifUnier  eiargfd  at  Rtar. 


,1853. 


1.    (6.)  Behind  a  Barrel ;  Cylinder  dutrged  at  Rear. —  Con- 
tinued. 


Na 


M*7    9,1965. 
>I»T  16,    " 
Joneaa,    " 
Dec.  19,    " 
Dec.  M,    " 
Jul.  16, 1866. 
Apr.  17,    '* 
JnnelS,    " 
JnlTl7,    " 
June  U,  1867. 
Julr    9,    " 
Dec.  31,    " 
Sept  L5,  1868. 
Feb.  15, 1370. 
Dec.    6,     " 
Mar-    7,18n. 
Mar.   7,    " 
May  23,    " 
Joiv  K,  1872. 
Dec.  31,    '• 
Sept.  2,1873. 


,1^. 
.  liiS. 
,  1S5S. 


,1839. 
llSSO. 


,186L 


I 

12.643  ,  R.  White Apr. 

15,032  F.  B.  E.  Beaumont JuaeS. 

19,351  R    iroite .\pr.  13, 

20,»7  F   H   airriaston JonelS. 

21400  E.  .tUen Sept.    " 

22,'XI5  R.  AUen Xor.    9, 

22,313  B.  Claaie Dec.  21, 

24,3  n  ?mi;i  aal  Wt;s5on JuJv 

24,r26  Ells  and  <riiite July  12; 

36,^1^  Mjrris  anl  Brovn Jan.  24^ 

27,52;  J.  M.  CooTer Mar.  30, 

28,4.37  A.  J.GilMon Hay  22, 

28.951  E.  AUen July    3, 

29.125  .4  J.  Gibson ■  Jolv  10, 

30,079  D.Moare Sepi.18, 

3X245  ■  E.  A.  P.-eacott Oct.     2, 

3-1,3)9  I  A.  J.  Gibson OcL     9, 

30,7J5  I  C.  Siarpa Not.27, 

3).9*)-  Smith  and  Wesson Dec.  13, 

33ZS  EthanAllen Sept.24, 

SJ.-Si))  E.  Allen '  Oct.  22 

33.^5  H.  Gro^ Dec     3.    " 

34.013  A.  Smiti Dec.  24,     " 

«.067  D.Moore Jan.    7.  1S52.     I 

34,703  C.  E   Sneider Mar.  1«,     " 

34,922  C.  Drieg  r Apr.    8,     " 

»,>57  E.  AUen Apr.  29,     " 

35,419  C.  W.  HopMns. Miv  27,     " 

35,523  L.  W  Pond Jane  17,     " 

35.657  J.  il  Tiikcis Janel7,    '* 

3^,b%  C.  C.  Brand ■. Sept.S,     " 

35,934  S.  W.  Wool Xov.13,     " 

37,0)4  T.  J.  MaraU....- Not.  25.    " 

37v)53  J.  Rapertm Dec     2,    " 

37,075  J  Jenkinson Dec.     2,     " 

37,091  A,  T   Freeman Dec.     9, 

37,531  F.  P.  Slocam Jan.  27 

37.393  J.  C  Hoie Feb.  17, 

3<3>4  F.  P.  Slocom Apr.  14, 

38,279  C  C.  Biaad Apr.  23, 

i*,iA  D.Moor- Apr.®, 

33,)2l  Smith  and  Wesson Junel3. 

39313  EUi=and  White Julr  21, 

3S<.li5  '  B.  F.Joslvn I  Aoj.    4, 

t.33.J)>  B   F.JoslVn .4ag.  4, 

3J,il»  S.  W.  Wool Aug.13. 

39,aJ  M.  F.  Geraghty .4ng  25, 

.1*  515  H.  Gross- .\nff  25, 

33,350  H   D.  WaM ,  Sept.  8. 

4).)37  E.H.Graham ,  Sot.  24. 

41117  Bri^TS  and  Hopkins Jan.    5 

41.3.57  W.'Pahner Mar     S. 

42.379  B.  F.  Joslvn Apr.  19, 

t42,JS3  H   nevnoidi >Iar  10, 

4i823  D   Williamson M»"t  17, 

43.V29  R.D   O.Smith JalV  12. 

44  125  W.Tileston Sept,   6, 

4t.Jj3  F.  W   Hood XoT.    8. 

45.176  H.  Revnoids Xoi.  22, 

n5..il2  W.  C.  Dodae Jan.  17 

t4.5.933  W.  C.  Dodge Jan.  24 


46,023 

t46.225 

46.243 

46.562 

47.352 

47,775 

I     43,287 

♦48.775 

I     S0.224 

I     51,092 

1   tol417 

:     51.369 

:     51,833 

I   t51,935 

:   t52,l« 

52.2J8 

52-532 

53J39 

153,548 

t53331 

154,065 

57,.8S4 

'     59.629 

I     63,450 

65,510 

,     75,016 

193.572 

193,653 

194,003 

97,780 

i   19J,S05 

:   199,690 

'     99,693 

I   10037 

102,782 

103,0L3 

104,6K 

n09,417 

1111,5.34 

U3,053 

;  115.4S3 

115:916 

116.078 

116,422 

tUi,»9 

1113.593 

1117,461 

1113.752 

119,043 

121,193 

122.132 

1123.644 

1123  .Ml 

132,357 

1-33.732 

135  377 

1.35^8 

1133.131 

1135,343 

1135,8n 

1137,043 

137.9SS 

1133.047 

139,461 

140,033 

140,516 

142475 


K.  H.  Plass. Jan-  24,1965. 

W.H.Elliot Feb.     7,    " 

B.  F.  Joslm Feb.     7,    " 

P.  Haaghain I   Feb.  28,    " 

.4.  Gnerriere Apr.  11,     ** 

J.  H.  Tickers Marie,    " 

'  B.  F.  Joslvn JnDe2a,    " 

L.  C.  Rojier ;  Julr  11,     " 

S.  Crispin :   Oct'     3,    " 

Smith  and  Wesson Nov  21,    " 

I  W.Mason Xot.21.    " 

iJ.RiJer  SoT.38,     " 

I  B.F.Joslyn ,  Jan.    2,1866. 

I  E.  Whicney Jan.    9, 

.  H.  Hammond- '  Jan.  23, 

H.  S.  Josselra Jan    ^, 

B.  T.  Loomis Feb.  13, 

W.Mason Mar.  27, 

,  P.  Polain MaT.2(, 

S.H.  Roper i  Apr.  10, 

J.  B.  DooUltJe I  Apr.  17, 

A.  Christ Sept.ll, 

A.  L-  Munson Xot.  13, 

B- W.  Drew Apr.    2. 

E.  K.  Root June  4, 

G.  Holman Slar.    3. 

;  J.  Adams. Dec.  29. 

R.  White Ang.lO, 

R.  White Aog.  10, 

C.  A.  King Aug  24, 

F.  A.  LeMat Dte.  14, 

R.  White Feb.    1, 

J.M.MarUn Feb.    8, 

J.C.Miller Feb.    8, 

R.White Feb.  22, 

Felix  and  De  Dartien May  10, 

G.  W.  H.  CalTer MaV  17. 

W.  I.  Pass Jnne21 

B.  F.  Jofli-n X0T.22, 

G.H.Harrington. Feb, 

S.  S  Hopkins Mar.  28, 

B.F.Joslvn May  .30,    " 

F.  Wesson June  13,    " 

Moss  and  Johnson June  20.     " 

Forehand  and  WadsTorth jQne27,     " 

F.  G.  Cochr»n July    4,    " 

F.W-.Hood JnlT   4,    " 

C.B. Richards JnlV  25,    " 

C.  Sharps. Sept.  5,    " 

C.  B.  Richards Sept.l9,    " 

(  J.  Rnpertos |   Not.  21,     *' 

I  T.Lee Dec.  26.     " 

W  Ma^n July    2,1872. 

Wesson  and  King July  16,    " 

J.Daris Oct'.  22,     " 

C.S.  We;L= Dec.  10,    " 

O.A.Smith Jan.  28, 1873. 

0.  A.  Smith Jan.  58,    " 

W.  Clews Feb.  25,    " 

D.  B.  Wesson Feb.  25.     " 

Smith,  Smith,  and  Sweeney 3Iar.  18,    '* 

D.  WiUiamfon Mar,  18,     " 

O.A.Smith Apr.  15,    " 

G.  W.  Schofield Apr.  22,    " 

C.  Foehl June  3,    " 

C.F.Galaod JnDel7.    " 

J.M  MarUn Jnlv    1,    " 

W.  H.  PhiBp Ang.26,    " 


1867. 
1868. 
1869. 

4( 

1870. 


7,1871. 


L    (c.)  OUiufo- iritAoKl  olAcr  Barrel  ("  P<7>pcr-Baz  " 


,  136L 


,  1«55. 


....   I  B.  and  B.  M.  Darling ;  Apr.  13. 1836. 

3J998      E.  AUen :   Apr.  16, 1=45. 

6.453     J.  Post M«TL5,lf49. 

6,723     G.  l^eonard.  Jr Sepl.18,    " 

6.925      Pecare  and  Smith '  Dec.    4,     " 

7.31O      D  H   Chamberlain ;  Apr.  23.  ISO. 

7.493      G  Leonard.  .Ir Julv    9.     •' 

7.S87      S  W.  .Mareton Jan.    7. 1S51. 

9,922     Georee  Leonard Aug.   9. 1'53. 

13,531      W.W.Marstnn .«e)>t.  I«.  16.55 

14,118     E.T.StarT. Jan    1=1,  lf56. 

1.5.797      J.  Adams Sept-3\     •• 

21.1<«3      W.H  Elliot ,   Aus.  17.  1=.5?. 

28.460      W.  H   Bliot May  29.  1«9). 


FIRE-ARROW. 


862 


FIRE-CAGE. 


1.    (c.)  Cylinder  without  other  Barret,  etc.  —  Coatinued. 


28,461 
33,:]  32 
39,0-32 
42,'j-43 
43,305 
61,732 
57.443 
57,6-22 
84,976 


W.  H.  Elliot 

W  U.  Elliot 

J.  C.  Campbell 

W    n.  Elliot 

J.  Rupertus 

J.  Rciil 

J   H.  Vickers 

Converse  and  Hopkins 
F.  Wesson 


May  29, 1860. 
Oct.  1,  18Jl. 
June  31, 181)3. 
May  10,  1864. 
July  19,  •' 
Dec.  28,  1865. 
AUJ-.21,  1866 
Aug.  28,  ■' 
Dec.  15, 1868. 


Chambered  Cylinder  revolving  on  Vertical  Axis  behind  a 
Barret. 


183 

183 

603 

677 

7,213 


J.  W.  Cochran 

J.  \V.  Cocbran 

ilaTJlind  ajd  Bennett. 

H.  ana  C.  Daniels 

II.  Ivereoa 


Apr.  28  1837. 
Apr  29,    " 
Feb.  15,  1338. 
Apr.    5,    •' 
Mar.  28,  1850. 


2.  Chambered  Cylinder  revolving  on  Vertical  Axis  behind  a 
Barrel.  —  Continued. 


No. 


Name. 


12.235  E.  II  Graham.. 

14,780  8.  V   Stonton.. 

15,7.34  E.  H.  Graham  . 

16,477  U.  Genhart. . . . 


Jan.  16. 1865. 
Apr.  29,  1856. 
Sept  16,    " 
Jan.  27,  1857. 


3.    Cylinder  revolving  on  Horizontal  Axis  behind  a  Barret. 


8.210 
10.944 
11,917 


P.W.Porter Julv    8.  1,»51. 

E.  II.  Graham May  16,  1864. 

W  Wright Not.   7,    " 


4.  Revolving  Hammer  acting  on  several  Stationary  Barrels. 


6,960 
17.386 
22,753 
42,698 


C.  Sharps 

W.  W.  Marston. 

C.  Sharps 

E.  T.  Starr 


Dec  18.  1849. 
Mav  26,  1857. 
Jan.  26,  1859. 
May  10,  1864. 


For  illustrations  of  revolvers,  see  under  the  head  Revolver. 


Pire-ar'row.  An  arrow  carrying  a  combustible 
for  iiiceniliarv  purposes. 

Fire-back.  The  back-wall  of  a  furnace  or  fire- 
place. It  i.^  frequently  of  fire-brick,  in  order  to  pr.)- 
tect  the  iron  walls  of  the  furnace,  but  i.s  sometimes 
of  iron  ribbed,  partly  to  protect  and  stiffen  it  and 
partly  to  allow  access  of  air  close  to  it.  Som 'times 
tlie  fire- back  is  perforated  to  admit  air  at  that  point ; 
or  it  may  lie  hollow,  and  form  a  heater  for  water  for 
household  imiposes. 

Fire-ball.  A  projectile  of  oval  shape,  formed 
of  a  sack  of  canvas  filled  with  combustible  coniposi- 
tion.  They  are  thrown  into  an  enemy's  works  for 
the  purpose  of  lightin,^  them  up,  and  are  loaded 
with  shells  to  prevent  them  from  being  approacdied. 
A  wrought-iron  bottom  is  attached  to  the  bag  to 
j)revent  breakage  when  discharged. 

Fire-bal-loon'.  1.  A  balloon  whose  ascensional 
power  is  derived  from  a  body  of  heated  air  rising 
from  a  fire  beneath  the  open  mouth  of  the  bag. 
Moutgolfier's  balloon  was  of  this  kind.     See  Bal- 

LOOV. 

Fig  3985.  2.     A    balloon 

sent  up  at  night 
witli  fire-works. 

Fire-bar.  A 
gi'ate-har  in  a  fur- 
nace resting  on  a 
frame,  called  the 
Jire  -  bar  frame  ; 
inside  the.;frc-6o.j;. 
See  Gr.ATE-nAR. 

Fire-bas'ket. 
A  portable  grate 
or  cresset. 

Fire-bell.  A 
fire-alarm  bell. 
One  designed  to 
indicate  by  a  defi- 
nite number  of 
strokes  the  dis- 
trict or  locality 
in  which  a  con- 
flagration is  pre- 
vailing. 

The  illustra- 
tion showsastrik- 
ing-apparat  us 
consisting    of    a 


series  of  levers  connected  with  the  clapper  of  the 
bell,  and  operated  by  a  person  stationed  in  a  lookout- 
lantern  above. 

The  signal-bells  are  now  usually  sounded  by  elec- 
tricity.    See  Fire-alarm  Telegraph. 

Fire-board.  A  board  to  close  a  fireplace  in 
summer. 

Fire-box.  The  fire-charaber  of  a  locomotive- 
boiler.  It  is  jacketed  with  a  water-chamber  to  pre- 
vent radiation  of  heat.  The  fire-box  door  may  also 
be  double  and  have;  a  circulation  of  water  through 
the  hinges.  A  partition  in  the  bo.x  somi'times  di- 
vides the  fire-space  into  two  parts,  and,  being  full 
of  water,  increases  the  fire  surface. 

Fire-box  stays  are  rods  which  prevent  the  crushing 
down  of  the  top  of  the  bo.x  by  the  pressure  of  steam. 

Fire-brick.  A  brick  of  refractory  clay  for  lining 
furnaces,  ovens,  etc.  Fire-clay  is  a  nearly  pure 
silicate  of  alumina. 

Fire-bridge.  A  plate  or  wall  at  the  back  of  the 
furnace  to  sujiport  the  ends  of  the  grate-bars  and 
prevent  the  fuel  being  earned  over.  It  also  serves 
to  give  an  up  turn  to  the  flames  against  the  bottom 
of  the  boiler. 

Fire-buck'et.  •    rig.  1986. 

One  made  of  can- 
vas, leather,  or 
wood,  and  kept 
in  readiness  for 
emergencies.  On 
boaril  ship,  a  tire- 
bucket  has  a  sen- 
nit lanyard  of  a 
length  regulated 
to  reach  the  water 
alongside,  from 
the  Stat  ion  whence 
the  fire-bucket  is 
to  l)e  thrown  over- 
board to  be  filled. 

The       illustra- 
tion .shows  the  firemen's  apparatus  of  old  time,  — 
buckets,  fire-hooks,  hammer,  and  squirt. 

Fire-cage.  A  skeleton  box  or  basket  of  iron  for 
holding  lighted  fuel.     A  cresset. 

The  form  illustrateil  wa.s  invented  by  I'r.  Frank- 
lin. The  cage  turns  upon  axes  supported  by  a 
crotchet  fixed  on  a  stem.  The  stem  may  set  in  a 
step  in  the  hearth,  when  used  as  a  domestic  giate, 


Firemen's  Apparatus. 


FIRE-CHAMBER. 


863 


FIRE-ENGINE. 


Fire-  Cage. 


Fig.  1987-  or  the  fire-cage  may  be  used  for  a 

beacon  light.  The  fuel  is  intro- 
duced after  withdmwiiit;  the  up- 
per bar,  and  when  the  kindling 
on  top  has  begun  to  burn  well,  the 
cage  is  upset,  bringing  the  lighted 
kindling  to  the  bottom. 

Fire-cham'ber.  (Paddling.) 
The  chamber  at  the  end  of  the 
puddling-furnace,  whence  the  Hame 
passes  to  the  reverberating  chamber 
W'here  the  clrarge  is  placed. 

Fire-cock.  A  street  plug  for 
attachment  of  hose  for  extinguishing  lire,  or  for 
other  municipal  purposes. 

Fire-damp  A-larm'.     One  which  indicates  the 
presence  of  dangerous  quantities  of  gas  or  hre-damp 
in  coal  workings.      A  gax-alann  or  rjiisoscope. 
Fire-dog.    An  A.n'dikos  (which  see). 
Fire-door.     The  door  of  a  furnace  ;  feetling  and 
storing  ai'e  usually  performed  at  the  opening. 

Fire-en'gine.  A  form  of  pump  for  throwing 
water  to  extinguish  a  fire. 

The  original  fire-engine  was  probably  a  large 
squirt,  the  piston  being  worked  by  manual  pressure, 
the  barrel  being  filled  from  a  tub  after  each  dis- 
charge.    In  this  form  it  existed  till  a  late  day. 

The  oldest  known  engine  is  described  in  the  Spiril- 
(tlia  of  Hero,  about  150  B.  c,  and  the  description 
might  stand  for  the  ordinary  form  of  hand-engine 
used  at  the  present  day.     The  drawing  is  made  from 

^  Fig.  1988. 


Hero's  Fire-Engine  (150  B.  c. ). 

the  description.  The  engine  had  two  single-acting 
j)umps  worked  by  one  beam  by  means  of  brakes. 
The  streams  united  in  a  common  discharge-pipe 
p;i.-.sing  up  a  trunk  in  which  was  an  air-chamber 
and  out  at  a  nozzle  which  was  capable  of  being  pre- 
sented in  any  direction. 

The  fire-brigade  of  Imperial  Rome  was  a  company 
six   hundred   freedmen,   organized  by  .\ugustus 


of 


C'sesar,  A.  v.  c.  732.  A  fire-preventive  committee, 
consisting  of  seven  freedmen  and  a  president  of  the 
equestrian  order,  was  organized  fifteen  years  after- 
wards, say  B.  c.  7.  Augustus  gave  the  form  stated 
to  a  preexisting  organization. 

We  do  not  find  in  any  Roman  %vriter  a  description 
of  a  machine  so  perfect  as  that  of  Hero.  The  .<!ipho 
of  the  Romans  is  referred  to  by  Pliny  in  a  letter  to 
Trajan  :  he  states  that  the  people  of  Nicomedia 
were  too  lazy  to  put  out  a  fire  in  that  city,  and  that 
they  had  no  sipho.  Strabo  alludes  to  the  siplioiMS, 
which  it  appears  were  kept  in  a  house,  in  prepara- 
tion for  accidental  fire.  Apollodorus,  the  architect 
of  the  bridge  of  Trajan  across  the  Danube,  mentions 
t\ie  sipho.     Its  construction  seems  to  be  unknown. 


Apollodorus  recommends  a  leathern  bag  of  water  with 
hollow  canes  for  discharging-nozzles. 

The  first  notice  of  the  modern  fire-engine  is  in  the 
Chronicles  of  .\ugsburg,  1518,  which  speaks  of  the 
"  water-syringe  useful  at  fires."  They  were  mounted 
on  wheels,  and  worked  by  levers.  Similar  devices 
are  referred  to  by  Lucar,  1590  ;  Greatorix,  1656  ; 
and  Morland,  1670. 

The  fire-engine  of  Nuremberg  described  by  Cas- 
par Schott,  1657,  was  of  a  ditt'erent  character.  It 
was  mounted  on  a  sled  4x10  feet,  and  drawn  by 
two  horses.  It  had  a  cistern  2x8  feet  and  4  feet 
deep,  in  which  were  two  horizontal  cylinders.  The 
brakes  were  worked  by  twenty-eight  men,  and  the 
combined  streams  from  the  cylinders  issued  at  a 
one-inch  orifice,  and  reached  a  hight  of  80  feet. 

An  English  patent  appears  of  the  date  of  1632 
to  Thomas  Grant,  and  one  to  John  Van  der  Heyden 
(or  Heide),  of  Amsterdam,  1663.  He  is  credited 
with  having  brought  the  machine  to  the  present 
modern  form  of  hand-engine.  The  brothers  Van 
der  Heyden  appear  to  have  been  the  inventors  of 
the  leathern  hose  in  detachable  sections. 

In  1699,  a  patent  was  granted  in  France  to  Du- 
perrier  for  a  pmnpc  portative  for  extinguishing  fires  ; 
to  this  Perrault  added  the  air-chamber.  I'ajiin  also 
adopted  it.  Hooks  and  fire-ladders  must  be  as- 
sumed to  have  been  long  in  use,  but  come  into 
historic  notice  about  this  time.  Fire-plugs  were 
laid  down  in  the  streets  of  London  in  1710  ;  previous 
to  that  time  the  water  was  carried  in  buckets  and 
poured  into  the  fire-engine  reservoirs. 

Much  attention  was  drawn  to  the  matter  of  fire- 
engines  by  the  disastrous  fire  of  London  in  1666, 
and  an  act  of  Comtnon  Council  was  passed  shortly 
after  the  event,  compelling  parishes  and  incorporated 
companies  to  maintain  an  efficient  su]qily  of  "buck- 
ets, hand-squirts,  and  fire-engines." 

If  we  may  judge  by  the  description  in  Clare's 
"  Motion  of  Fluids,"  1735,  some  of  the  features  of 
the  Continental  engines  had  not  yet  been  received 
in  England.     He  states  :  — 

"  Engines  for  extinguishing  fires  are  either  forcing 
or  lifting  pumps,  and,  being  intended  to  jiroject 
water  with  great  velocity,  their  eff'ect  in  great  meas- 
ure depends  upon  the  length  of  their  levers  and  the 
force  with  which  they  are  wrought.  A  common 
squirting-engine,  constructed  on  the  lift  principle, 
consists  of  a  large  circular  cistern,  like  a  great  tub 
mounted  on  four  small  solid  wheels.  A  ]ierforated 
cover  was  fixed  inside  the  cistern  about  three  feet 
from  the  bottom.  In  the  center  was  fixed  a  lifting- 
pump,  to  the  piston-rod  of  which  was  attached  a 
cross-tree  carrying  two  vertical  connecting-rods, 
which  were  simultaneously  worked  up  and  down  by 
manual  labor  by  means  of  handles  on  oiq)Osite  sides 
of  the  machine.  During  the  downward  motion  of 
the  piston  a  quantity  of  water  passes  through  the 
valve  on  to  its  upper  side,  and,  w  hen  the  piston  as- 
cends, this  water  is  ]>rojected  with  great  velocity 
through  a  branch  pipe  provided  with  a  flexible 
leather  joint,  or  by  a  ball-and-socket  motion,  screwed 
on  top  of  the  pump-barrel.  Between  the  strokes 
the  stream  is  discontinued.  The  cistern  is  supplied 
by  water-buckets." 

Towards  the  close  of  the  seventeenth  century  the 
double-cylinder  portable  pump  with  air-chamber 
was  introduced  into  England  by  Newsham  ;  single- 
cylinder  engines,  like  the  modern  garden  syringe, 
being  used  in  France  and  Geimany,  and  credited  to 
Dui)errier  and  Leupold  respectively. 

The  Newsham  engine  was  improved  from  time  to 
time,  retaining  its  main  features,  aiul  was  still  in 
use  in  London  till  1832,  when  it  was  superseded  by 


FIRE-KNGINE. 


864 


FIRE-ENGINE. 


a  more  compact  form,  wliich  was  adapted  to  be  drawn 
by  horses,  and  from  tliis  period  dates  the  efficient 
fire-brigade  system  of  Lumlon. 

Newsham's   tire-engine  was  a  side-brake  double- 


Fig.  1989. 


Barton^s  Engine. 

cylinder  engine,  mounted  on  four  wheels,  and  with 
an  air-chamber,  goose-neck,  and  suction-pipe.  The 
work  on  the  brakes  was  assisted  by  men  on  tlie  lio.x, 
who  threw  tlieir  weiglit  upon  treadles  on  tlie  [lump- 
leveis.  Pum]is  were  single-action  force-]iumps, 
worked  bv  chains  passingover  segmentson  the  pump- 
levers.  The  engine  was  perhaps  the  first  successful 
fire-engine,  and  Newsliam  did  very  well  by  it.  His 
patent  was  extendeil  for  a  second  term. 

The  engine  whii'h  eventually  superseded  that  of 
Newsliam  was  made,  ratlier  tlian  invented,  by  Simp- 
kin,  and  patented  in  1792. 

The  main  improvement  was  in  compact- 
ness and  adaptation  to  traveling  with  speed 
to  the  spot  where  its  services  were  demanded. 
The  valves  were  contained  in  separate  cham- 
bers, instead  of  being  phiced  in  the  cylinders 
and  air-chamber.  By  this  means  they  were 
easily  reached,  without  the  disconnection  of 
the  main  portions  of  the  pump. 

Another  form  of  fire-engine  was  invented 
by  Bramah,  1793,  improved  by  Rowntree  and 
eventually  by  Barton.  The  engine  of  the  lat- 
ter (.4,  Fig.  19S9)  was  on  the  vibrating  prin- 
ciple. To  the  levers  h  h  was  attached  a  ra- 
dial piston  6,  which  oscillated  in  the  cylin- 
drical chamber.  As  the  piston  moved  in  one 
direction,  a  valve  beneath  this  piston  opened 
to  allow  water  to  pass  from  the  cistern  c,  amb 
the  water  in  front  of  the  piston  was  forced 
through  the  valve-way  above  it  into  the  air- 
chamber  and  )iassed  out  at  the  eduction-pipe 
to  the  hose.  The  ditKculty  with  this  engine, 
as  with  the  rotary  steam-engine  and  other 
piim]is  with  annular  chambers,  \v.^s  to  keep  the 
end  and  sides  of  the  jiiston  eH'ectually  jiacked. 
B,  Fig.  19S9,  shows  the  principle  of  the  mod- 


ern hand-worked  fire-engine,  which  has  two  single- 
acting  cylinders  with  induction-valves  in  the  branch- 
es of  a  pipe  which  connects  with  the  cistern  or  water- 
main  ;  and  eduction-valves  in  pipes  which  discharge 
into  an  air-chamber,  whence  the  wa- 
ter passes  by  a  hose  to  a  nozzle. 

C  is  the  Knglish  form  of  hand 
fire-engine  which  has  brakes  h  on 
side-levers  p.  The  suction  isuniteil 
at  /',  and  the  discharge  is  at  m  ;  n  is 
the  air-chamber. 

Steam-power     for    extinguishing 
fires  was  in   use  in  manulaoturing 
e.stablishments  many  years  before  it 
was  employed  on  portable  machines. 
Every  factory  of  any  pretensions  had 
its   steam-driven   jnimp,  with   hose 
and  other  attachments  calculated  to 
reach  every  portion  of  the  establish- 
ment.    Alaout  the  year  1830,  Cap- 
tain   Ericsson,   then   of  the   firm   of   Braitlnvaithe 
and  Ericsson,  London,  England,  built  and  exhibited 
a  portable  steam  fire-engine.     In  1842  or  1843  he 
produced  a  similar  engine  in  New  York  City,  and  it 
was  tested,  but  never  brought  into  regular  service. 
The  engine  delivered   9,000   gallons  an   hour  to  a 
hight  of  ninety  feet  through  a  J-inch  nozzle.     It  was 
ignited  at  the  station,  and  drawn  by  horses  to  the 
fire.     The   time  occupied  in  getting  up  steam  was 
eighteen  minutes.     The  motion  of  the  wheels  worked 
the  bellows  to  blow  the  fire  in  the  furnace. 

Cincinnati  was  the  first  city  to  adopt  the  steamer 
as  a  pennanent  portion  of  its  tire-departnient  force. 

This  was  due  to  the  inventive  and  constructive 
skill  of  the  brothers  Latta  and  Mr.  Abel  Shawk,  sup- 
plemented by  the  foresight,  persistence,  and  tact  of 
Mayor  Miles  Greenwood,  all  of  that  city. 

The  metropolitan  fire-department  of  New  York 
City  numbers  34  steamers  of  about  SO-horse  power 
each,  equal  to  185  men,  or  in  the  aggregate  6,290 
men  ;  while  the  actual  number  of  men  employed,  even 
adding  the  12  hook-and-ladder  companies,  is  only 
about  550;  thus  relieving  5,740  men  from  the  la- 
bors, dangers,  and  exposure  of  the  fireman. 

The  Cincinnati  engines  and  system  are  excelled 
nowhere,  and  have  been  copied  into  the  principal 
cities  of  the  world.  Tlie  steamer  "Citizens'  Gilt," 
one  of  the   earliest  of  the  Cincinnati  steam  fire-en- 

Fig.  1990. 


Eng'tsh  Steam  Fire-Engine. 


FIRE-ESCAPE. 


865 


FIRE-ESCAPE. 


Fig.  1991. 


Ameriean  Steam  Fire-Engine, 


gines,  was  bnilt  in  1853,  and  thirteen  years  afterward 
gave  the  followins;  record :  Time  of  raising  .steam, 
three  minutes  and  forty  seconds  from  the  time  the 
torch  is  applied  until  water  is  thrown  from  the  nozzle  ; 
size  of  nozzle,  1^  inches  ;  distance  thrown,  310  feet, 
mea.suring  from  the  end  of  the  nozzle  to  the  place 
where  solid  water  fell  ;  size  of  steam  cylinder,  10 
inches  bore,  2i  inches  stroke  ;  pumps,  6  inches  bore, 
24  inches  stroke ;  double  engine-cranks  at  right 
angles  ;  large  air-vessels,  connected  together  ;  length 
of  hose,  100  feet ;  steam,  100  pounds  to  the  square 
inch  ;  pressure  on  water  cylinder,  240  pounds  to  the 
square  inch  ;  speed  of  engine,  110  revolutions;  220 
strokes  of  pumps  ;  grate  surface,  16  feet ;  heating 
surface,  560  feet. 

The  chemical  tire-engine  is  one  on  the  principle 
of  the  fire-e.xtinguisher  (which  see),  in  which,  by 
throwing  a  body  of  sulphuric  acid  on  to  an  alkali,  a 
body  of  carbonic  acid  is  generated  and  ejected  into 
the  H.ime,  usually  in  combination  with  a  spray  of 
water  which  is  ejected  from  its  reservoir  by  the  press- 
ure of  the  gas,  or  by  the  play  of  the  pump-brakes. 

In  connection  vnth  this  subject  it  may  be  stated 
that  the  rate  of  insurance  by  land  and  sea  among  the 
Hindoos  was  left  to  the  custom  of  the  trade,  accord- 
ing to  the  risk.  — Inslitutex  of  Menu  a.  n.  880. 

Nicholson  states  that  fire-insuranceoflfices  were  first 
introduced  under  the  reign  of  the  Emperor  Claudius. 

The"Handin  Hand"  Fire  Insurance  Company  was 
the  first  e.stablished  in  Ix>ndon,  1696.  The  "Sun" 
Fire  Insurance  Company  was  established  in  1700. 
Marine  insurance  had  long  been  common  in  Venice. 
The  "Amicable"  Li/c  Insurance  Company  of  Lon- 
don was  chartered  in  1706. 

Fire-insurance  offices  established  in  Paris,  1745. 

Fire-es-cape'.  Fire-escapes  are  divided  into 
three  classes :  — 

55 


Ladders. 

Portable  escapes. 
Carriage-escapes. 

1.  Fire-ladders  are  made  of  several  lengths,  to 
reach  second,  third,  or  fourth  storj'  windows,  and 
are  mounted  on  a  suitable  carriage  for  transportation. 
The  upper  ends  are  usually  provided  with  hooks 
which  catch  again.st  the  building,  on  a  window-sill, 
cap,  coping,  or  cornice,  and  give  some  degree  of 
security  to  the  ladder. 

Another  form  of  the  ladder  is  made  of  several 
sections,  which  may  be  united  to  form  a  ladder  of 
any  length  required.  The  sections  are  tmited  by 
tubular  sockets  or  clasps. 

Another  form  is  that  in  sliding  sections  of  gradu- 
ally decreasing  width,  so  that  when  )iacked  the  differ- 
ent sections  form  a  ne.st  of  parallel  lengths.  The  sec- 
tions are  slipped  on  each  other  by  cogs  and  pinion  or 
by  tackle. 

2.  Portable  escapes  are  those  which  are  contained 
in  a  compact  form  to  be  raised  and  placed  in  position 
in  an  emergency. 

Among  these  are  — 

A  l-jiofted  rope. 

Hope-ladders  kept  within  the  house  and  provided 
with  a  means  for  lashing  to  some  stationary  object 
in  a  room  or  on  a  staircase,  while  the  ladder  itself 
depends  from  the  window, 

jrire  ot  c?uii>i  ladders,  on  the  same  principle, 
are  compact  and  strong,  not  subject  to  decay  or  to 
be  burned  away  when  in  position. 

Both  descriptions  of  ladders  are  also  made  with 
grapnels,  so  arranged  as  to  be  elevated  from  the  out- 
side and  attached  to  a  window-sill  for  the  escape  of 
the  occupants  of  the  house. 

Slings  are  used,  and  forms  of  tackle. 

One  sling  lias  the  bight  of  the  rope  secured  be- 


FIRE-ESCAPE. 


866 


FIRE-EXTINGUISHER. 


neath  the  window-sill  and  the  ends  held  apart  ^y 
persons  in  the  street.  A  clasp  is  buckled  to  the 
person  and  slides  on  both  rojies,  the  descent  being 
checked  by  the  divergence  of  the  ropes. 

Of  forms  of  tackle,  one  is  the  single  whip,  the 
person  sitting  in  a  sling  at  one  end  and  veering  out 
the  fall  through  his  hands.  In  another  form  the 
]ierson  sits  in  a  sling  suspended  from  the  bight  of  a 
rope,  and   lowers  himself  by  allowing  the  rope  to 


Fig.  1992. 


Fire- Escapes. 


veer  through  the  holes  of  a  block,  like  a  euphroe. 
It  is  a  tackle  with  dead-eyes  instead  of  sheaves.  It 
is  mentioned  in  Rees's  Encyclopedia. 

The  Edinburgh  (Scotlanil)  fire  brigade  is  furnished 
W'ith  cross-hows  and  three-ounce  leaden  bullets  to 
which  are  attached  fine  cords  130  feet  long.  The 
bullet  is  fired  over  the  house,  and  persons  in  the  rear 
of  the  building  pull  at  the  cord  to  raise  a  stronger 
one  from  which  a  chain  or  ladder  or  escape  is  sus- 


pended. The  men  are  regularly  trained  to  the  ex- 
ercise. 

Of  caniage-escapes  four  types  may  be  cited,  but 
room  cannot  be  spared  for  a  treatise.  They  may  be 
called  the  cxtennon-hidtkr  with  guys  and  stays,  a; 
the  liidtlcr  icithsegmciU  rack;  b;  the  boom  or  crane,  c; 
and  the  lazij-tongs,  d.  The  cuts  will  be  understood 
without  lengthy  description. 

Fire-ex-tm'guish-er.  A  portable  apparatus 
for  extiuguisliing  fires  either  by  ejection  of  water,  sa- 
line solution,  or  carbonic-acid  gas. 

1.  The  vessel  contains  chemicals  whose  reaction, 
when  brought  into  contact,  releases  a  gas  which 
presses  upon  the  surface  of  the  water  and  ejects  it 
at  the  nozzle. 

a.  The  chemicals  may  be  contained  in  two  cham- 
bers ;  inversion  of  the  ajiparatus  or  the  breaking  of 
a  bottle  of  acid  mixes  the  ingredients,  and  tlie  chem- 
ical reaction  evolves  a  gas  which  presses  upon  the 
water. 

b.  The  chemicals  may  be  mixed  in  the  water  and 
generate  the  pressure  which  is  immediately  avail- 
able when  the  nozzle  is  opened  and  air  admitted. 

c.  The  water  is  saturated  with  gas,  in  the  manner 
of  the  soda-fountain,  so  as  to  forcibly  expel  the  wa- 
ter when  the  outlet  is  opened. 

d.  A  body  of  mechanically  compressed  air  is  con- 
tained in  a  compartment  of  the  lesscl,  and  is  ad- 
mitted to  the  water,  when  required,  by  turning  a 
stop-cock. 

2.  a.  The  receptacle  contains  two  vessels,  one 
of  which  is  usually  a  salt  and  the  other  an  acid. 

When  it  is  to  be  brought  into  jilay  a  plug  is  driven 
in,  which  breaks  the  bottle  containing  the  acid  and 
allows  it  to  flow  over  the  salt  of  soda,  potash,  mag- 
nesia, or  ammonia,  as  the  case  may  be,  the  evolved 
carbonic-acid  gas  flowing  in  volumes  from  the  nozzle 
of  the  vessel. 

The  acid  used  is  usually  sulphuric,  but  hydro- 
chloric and  tartaric  are  occasionally  employed. 

The  salt  is  a  carbonate  of  an  alkali ;  soda,  jiotasli, 
ammonia,  or  magnesia  being  employed,  as  just 
stated.  Other  combinations  of  salts,  chlorides,  and 
sulphates,  are  employed. 

In  some  of  the  apparatus,  water  is  ejected  along 
with  carbonic  acid  ;  in  others,  sufficient  heat  is  gen- 
erated to  evaporate  the  water,  and  steam  is  ejected 
with  the  gas. 

b.   The  vessel  contains  inflammable    substances 

Fig  1993. 


Fire-Extinguishers. 

which  generate  carbonic  acid  when  air  is  admitted, 
and  eject  the  gas  in  volumes. 

The  chemicals  used  are  jihosphate  of  lime,  nitrate 
and  chlorate  of  potash,  carbon,  sulphur,  and  various 
other  materials  in  a  multitude  of  combinations. 

There  are  perhaps  sixty  patents  for  various  forms 
of  \\\e  fire-annihUator.  The  devices  particularly  re- 
fer to  the  modes  of  construction,  the  acid  and  alkali 


FIRE-EXTINGUISHER. 


867 


FIREPLACE. 


chamber,  the  modes  of  precipitating  the  former  upon 
the  latter  and  availing  the  proiluct.  The  Phillips 
firc-annikilaloT,  .so  called,  patented  in  1849  and 
shown  at  A,  has  a  compound  of  sugar  and  chlorate 
of  (lotash  so  placed  as  to  receive  the  contents  of  a 
bottle  of  sulphuric  acid  which  is  broken  by  striking 
a  plug  on  the  top  of  the  can  when  a  fire  occurs. 
The  mass  of  salt  and  sugar  h  is  in  the  inner  chamber, 
and  the  vial  of  acid  imbedded  in  it,  so  as  to  be  brok- 
en by  a  blow  on  the  central  plunger,  when  the  lid 
is  taken  off  for  that  purpose.  Around  the  perforated 
case  containing  the  filling  h  is  another  one,  and  that 
is  in  a  third,  between  which  and  the  outer  one  is  a  body 
of  water.  The  carbonic  acid  produced  by  combustion 
passes  out  of  the  top  of  the  machine,  meeting,  on  its 
passage  out,  with  the  water  which  is  raised  in  the 
side  pipe  by  the  pressure  and  heat  of  the  combus- 
tion in  the  can,  thus  saturating  the  g.-i.s. 

The  —  so-called  —  American  fire-e.vtinguisher  has 
a  cylinder  containing  bicarbonate  of  soda  in  solu- 
tion, and  an  interior  tube,  containing  crystallized 
tartaric  acid,  the  whole  being  hermetically  closed, 
but  a  communication  left  at  the  bottom  of  the  tube, 
through  which  a  reaction  takes  place,  gradually  con- 
verting the  bicarbonate  into  tartrate  of  soda,  and 
liberating  the  carbonic  acid.  This  reaction  being 
complete,  the  apparatus  is  ready  for  use,  and  on 
opening  a  cock  at  the  bottom,  the  contents  can  be 
violently  ejected  through  a  short  hose. 

The  Gardner  consists  of  two  cylimlera,  in  one  of 
which  is  diluted  sulphuric  acid, 
and  in  the  other  the  aqueous 
solution  of  bicarbonate  of  soda. 
When  the  apparatus  is  required 
for  use,  connection  is  made  by 
opening  cocks  between  these  two 
cylinders  and  a  dram  below  them, 
.  into  which  the  liquids  flow,  and 
where  the  carbonic  acid  is  lib- 
erated, and  the  necessary  pressure 
acquired  to  throw  a  jet  through 
the  hose. 

The   machine  shoivn    in    Fig. 
I  1994   contains   acid    in    a    glass 
J  bottle,    which    is    shattered     by 
dropping  upon  a  stud  when  forced 
'  below  the  Manges  of  the  tin  cylin- 
der which  holds  it. 

The  Xational  has  a  glass  tube 

which  contains  the  sulphuric  acid. 

It    is   protected    from    accidental 

shocks  by  a  metallic  tube  which 

surrounds  it,  and   which  is   per- 

Fire-Ertinguisher.   forated  to  permit  the  free  passage 

of  liquid  through  its  walls.    When 

the  apparatus  is  to  be  used,  a  piston  is  stn'cwed  down 

upon   this  glass  vessel,  crushing  it,  and  permitting 

its  contents  to  escape. 

The   Babcock  {B,    Fig.    1993)    contains   the   sul-  [ 
phuric  acid  in  a  leaden  bucket,  hung  upon  trunnions 
below  its  center,  so  that,  if  set  free,  the  bucket  im-  I 
mediately  turns   upside-down.     It    is  kept  rigiilly  J 
upright,  however,  by  a  stopper  attached  to  a   rod 
passing  through  the  cap  of    the  apparatus.     This 
stopper  also  completely  prevents  communii'ation  be- 
tween the  acid  and  the  alkali.     When  the  extin- 
guisher is  to  l>e  used,  the  .stopper  is  pulled  up  by  I 
means  of  an  exterior  handle  ;  the  bucket  instantly  [ 
turns  over,  and  empties  itself  into  the  liquid  in  the 
cylinder. 

In  another  form,  the  machine  is  set  in  operation 
by  tipping.  Another  is  set  in  action  by  a  fuse 
tipped  with  a  substance  ignited  at  120°  F.,  or  some 
other  degree,  as  may  be  thought  desirable.     The  ap- 


paratus is   mounted  on  a  carriage  to  operate  on  a 
larger  scale. 

A  different  description  of  fire-extinguisher  consists 
of  an  arrangement  of  pipes  throughout  a  buildir.g, 
so  arranged  as  to  throw  water  into  the  apaitnunts 
and  on  the  walls,  when  the  water  is  tumtd  on. 
With  some  of  these  arrangements  the  water  is  con- 
tained in  cisterns  on  the  roof ;  in  others  the  j  iy  es 
are  connected  with  the  water-distributing  maii:s  cf 
the  town. 

An  early  instance  of  the  kind  is  the  English  pat- 
ent of  Sir  William  Congreve,  dated  February  7, 
1S09,  and  No.  3201.  In  it  almo.st  all  the  more 
modem  devices  of  this  kind  are  shown.  The  perfo- 
rated pipes  run  along  the  cornices  and  ceilinfs, 
the  showers  or  jets  proceed  from  center  to  circum- 
ference and  conversely.  On  the  chandelier  ]  eiidant 
rotates  a  rimless  wheel  whose  spokes  distril  ute  jets 
of  water. 

The  apparatus  is  actuated  by  the  heat  of  the  rrcm 
by  means  of  fusible  matters,  such  as  wax  which  melts 
at  92°  F.,  or  a  trinary  alloy  of  lead,  tin,  and  bis- 
muth, which  melts  at  lfO°.  An  arranji nient  isaho 
described  by  which  the  rising  of  the  column  in  the 
mercurial  thermometer  ;s  made  to  set  the  appaiatus 
at  work. 

The  general  discharge  may  be  made  by  a  person 
in  any  one  of  the  rooms  of  the  building  so  furnished. 

A  common  fomi  has  a  cistern  on  the  roof,  centi?! 
vertical  tnink,  and  radiating  pipes  with  jet-holes. 
See  Fig.  1982,  under  Fike-alakms.  Modern  patti.ts 
concern  mere  details. 

Fire— fan.  A  small  blast  apparatus  adapted  to  a 
portable  forge,  or  one  —  say  a  loikiinitli's — vhitli 
has  small  proportions. 

Fire-gild'ing.  The  mode  of  gilding  in  which 
the  gold  is  put  on  in  the  foini  of  an  amalgam  and 
the  quicksilver  afterward  driven  od'  by  heat. 

Fire-guard.  A  wire  fran  e  plac  ed  before  an  open 
fire  to  arrest  .sparks  and  burning  coals.   See  Fendkr. 

Fire-hook.  1.  A  large  hook  on  the  end  of  a 
pole  for  tearing  down  buildings  on  lire,  or  to  an  est 
a  fire. 

2.  {Steam-eiigineeriTig,)  A  kind  of  hook  for  ir.kir.g 
and  Stirling  the  fumace  fire. 

Fire— i'rons.  The  implements  for  terding  a  fire. 
Poker,  tnngs,  and  shovel. 

Fire-lad'der.  The.e  were  introduced,  as  a  part 
of  the  machinen,-  for  extinguis-hiiig  fire.s,  about  1672. 
They  seem  to  have  originated  in  the  Netherlands. 

Many  and  ingenious  have  been  the  devices  for 
enabling  the  firemen  to  reach  the  scene  of  coiiHagia- 
tion,  and  to  pour  in  the  jet  of  water  at  close  quarters 
or  into  a  jiart  oil  the  building  which  cannot  be 
reached  from  the  ground.  Experi- 
enced men  seem  now  to  have  settled 
domi  upon  a  set  of  ladders  of  vary- 
ing length  for  different  occasions, 
and  mounted  upon  a  long  carriage 
drawn  by  a  pair  of  horses. 

Some  forms  of  ladders  are  cited 
under  Fif!E-KSC.\PE  (which  see). 

Fire-lock.  A  musket  or  mili- 
tarv  liHe.     See  Fiee-abm. 

Fire-pan.  A  pan  for  holding 
fire.  The  pan  which  held  the  prim- 
ing of  the  old  flint-lock  gun. 

Fire'place.  That  part  of  a  room 
in  which  the  tire  is  built. 


Fig  1995. 


1,  slab. 

2,  hearth. 

3,  jamb. 

4,  fireplace. 


5,  mantel-piece. 

6,  throat. 

7,  gathering.  ^ 

8,  funnel.  Fireplace. 


FIREPLACE. 


868 


Fl  REPLACE-HEATER. 


9,  flue. 

10,  mantel. 

11,  back. 


12,  grate. 

13,  breast. 

14,  damper. 


The  earliest  example  of  a  fireplace  cited  in  this 
work  is  tliat  of  Coiiinsborougli  Castle,  in  Englaml, 
of  the  Aiiglo-Noriiiaii  period.  The  mantels  are  con- 
structed of  Hat  arches.  The  example  is  adduced  to 
show  the  earlier  form  of  chimney,  and  perhaps  the 
most  ancient  one  in  existence,  anticipating  by  several 
centuries  the  first  chimneys  erected  in  Italy.  (See 
Chimney.)  Tlie  fireplace  (.A,  Fig  1996)  in  the  hall 
of  Vicar's  Close,  Wells,  England,  is  an  example  of 
the  fireplace  of  some  centuries  back. 

Louis  Savot,  of  the  Faculty  of  Medicine  at  Paris 
(1579-1640),   published  a   work  on   warming  and 


Fireplacei 


ventilation  in  1624.  His  is  the  first  recorded  at- 
tempt at  comliining  the  cheerfulness  of  an  open  fire 
with  the  economy  of  an  inclosed  stove.  Fig.  B 
.shows  a  front  view  and  an  elevation  of  his  ingenious 
arrangement.  The  hearth,  covings,  and  back  were 
lined  with  thick  iron  plates  tliree  inches  distant 
from  the  masonry.  Air  entered  at  a,  passed  along 
the  chambers  /;,  and  entered  the  room  at  c  c. 

P  is  Prince  Rupert's  fireplace,  somewhat  cele- 
brated in  its  time.  It  had  a  diving  flue  and  false 
fire-back. 


About  1658,  Sir  John  Winter  invented  a  coke 
furnace  or  fire-cage  (O)  which  was  placed  on  a  close 
box  about  eleven  inches  high,  in  front  of  which  was 
an  ojiening  d,  fitti^d  with  a  door,  which  always  kept 
closed  except  when  the  ashes  were  being  removed. 
A  pipe  a  communicated  with  the  external  air,  and 
was  closed,  when  required,  by  a  damper.  When 
the  valve  was  opened,  a  brisk  draft  urged  the  fire. 
The  Hue  was  closed  by  an  iron  plate  or  register  at  c. 

Cardinal  Polignac,  in  1715,  published  under  the 
name  of  another  man  (Ganger's 
"Treatise  on  the  Art  of  warming  T'E-  TSbl- 
Rooms")  an  account  of  improved 
mechanical  arrangements  for  fire- 
places. This  is  shown  at  E  in  the 
figure.  The  hollow  metallic  case 
forming  the  back  of  the  chinmey 
is  divided  into  three  or  more  cali- 
ducts  which  are  not  in  contact 
with  the  back  wall.  The  jambs 
are  iron  plates,  solid  backed.  The 
channel  a  conducts  the  external 
air  into  the  caliducts,  wluch  form 
a  fire-back,  and  the  warmed  air 
escapes  into  the  room  at  z.  He 
also  introduced  the  paraboUo 
sides. 

Eumford  contract- 
ed the  fire-chamber 
and  throat,  and  in- 
clined the  jambs. 
See  Coving.  cf 

In  1745,  Dr.  Ben- 
jamin   Franklin  in- 
troduced a  fireplace 
which  he  named  the  "Penn- 
sylvanian,"  in  which  Prince 
Rupert's  descending  flue  was 
combined     with      Polignac's 
caliducts.     This  is  shown  at 
F.     (Fig.  1997.) 

Count  Rumford's  improve- 
ments consisted  mainly  in 
the  contraction  of  the  chim- 
ney at  the  throat,  the  round- 
ing of  the  breast-work,  and 
the  flaring  of  the  covings,  as 
illustrated  in  the  accompany- 
ing plan  and  section  G  H. 
He  preferred  an  angle  of  45° 
for  the  covings. 

Arnott  also  made  himself 
a  name  in  this  line. 

/  J  are  a  vertical  section 
and  plan  showing  an 
English  tubular  fire- 
place designed  to  warm 
a  current  of  pure  air 
derived  from  the  out- 
side, and  direct  it  into 
the  interior  of  a  room  ; 
the  air  passes  from  the  Fireplaces. 

Hue    a   to   the   under 

side  of  the  hearth-plate  b  (shown  in  the  plan), 
thence  upward  through  the  upright  tubes  at  c  c  to  a 
horizontal  tube  d  (sliown  in  the  elevation),  which 
has  an  opening  through  its  entire  length  on  the 
upper  side,  whence  the  hot  air  passes  into  the  room, 
through  the  aperture  h  i  over  the  mantel.  The 
supply  of  air  may  be  regulated  by  moving  the  strip 
i — which  directs  the  air  upward  —  nearer  to  or 
farther  from  the  ledge  h. 

Pire'place  Heat'er.  A  stove  or  closed  grate 
set  within  or  principally  within  the  fireplace,  and 


FIRE-PLUG. 


869 


FIKE-PKOOF  STRUCTURE. 


Fig.  1993. 


Fireplace- Heater. 


serving  to  waiTO 
the  room,  the 
])ilie  discliarg- 
iiig  into  the 
cliimney.  The 
kind  known  as 
tlie  Latrobe  is 
a  hase-buniing 
fireplace- heater 
whose  pipe 
passes  up  the 
brick  flue  to 
heat  the  air 
wliich  passes 
between  the 
pipe  and  the 
Hue  to  the  rooms 
above,  into 
wliie.li  it  passes 
tlirough  regis- 
ters. 

Fire-plug. 
A  device  for 
connecting       a 


fire  or  watering  hose  with  a  branch  from  a  main. 
It  usually  consists  of  a  screw  nozzle  to  which  the 
hose  may  be  coupled,  and  a  key  and  rod  by  which 
the  valve  is  moved.  In  the  cxamjile,  at  the  point 
where  the  branch  pipe  is  coupled  to  the  main,  the 
stop-cock  is  placed,  and  it  is  operated  by  gearing  and 


Fig.  1999. 


connecting  shafts  from  a  hand-wheel  in  the  vicinity 
of  the  Jilug. 

Fire— pot.  1.  The  box  or  pot  in  a  stove  which 
liolds  the  fuel.  Especially  applii-d  to  a  frustum  of 
a  hollow  cone  or  conoid,  used  in  base-burning  and 
other  heating  stoves  ( which  see). 

2.  A  crucible.  In  various  metallurgic  oj^rations 
the  crucible  is  always  termed  the  pot. 

Fire-proof  Fab'ric.  The  term  incombustible 
cloth  was  originally  applied  to  fabric  made  of  as- 
bestus,  which  was  used  among  the  ancients  to  a 
considerable  extent.     See  Asiuisn'.s. 

Cloth  or  wood  impregnated  with  certain  saline 
substances  will  not  blaze.  Borax,  alum,  and 
jihosphate  of  soda  or  ammonia  are  recommended  as 
most  suitable  for  this  pur|iose. 

]5y  treating  cloth  with  graphite  in  a  bath  in 
Avhich  the  mineral  is  suspended,  and  then  subjecting 
it  to  the  action  of  the  electro-metallic  bath,  the 
i.doth  may  be  coated  with  metal. 

The  chemists  who  experimented  on  this  subject 
by  direction  of  Queen  Victoria  recommend  "  a  con- 
centrated   neutral    solution  of   tungstate  of   soda, 


diluted  with  water  to  28°  Twaddell,  and  then  mixed 
with  thi-ee  per  cent  of  phos|iliate  of  soda."  Tissues 
dipped  in  this  fluid  may  char  or  shrivel,  but  they 
will  not  blaze. 

Woolen  and  ordinary  stuffs  may  lie  treated  with 
borax,  alum,  or  soluble  glass,  but  the.se  cannot  w  ell 
be  apjjlied  to  the  lighter  descriptions,  which  are 
most  liable  to  take  hre. 

A  weak  solution  of  chloride  of  zinc  has  long  been 
eniploj'ed  by  stage-danceis  to  render  their  dresses 
incombustible,  il.  Lunere  recommends  adding  to 
the  starch  with  which  the  material  Is  done  up,  half 
its  weight  of  chalk,  and  M.  Patua  jiroposes  a  solu- 
tion of  4  parts  borax  and  3  sulphate  of  magnesia,  in 
20  to  30  parts  water.  By  a  new  piocess,  eipial  paits 
of  chloride  of  calcium  and  acetate  of  lime  are  oom- 
bined,  forming  crystals,  which  is  mixed  with  the 
starch  used  in  .stiffening. 

Though  not  strictly  coming  under  the  denomina- 
tion of  flre-prooting,  an  interesting  fact  is  stated  by 
M.  Come  in  a  conjniunication  addressed  to  the 
Academy  of  Natural  Sciences,  that  by  previously 
dipping  the  hands  in  liquid  suljihurous  acid,  they 
may  then  be  immer.sed  in  melted  lead  or  iron  with 
perfect  impunity.  This  is  owing  to  the  extremely 
volatile  character  of  the  acid,  which  has  been  made 
use  of  in  the  curious  experiment  of  freezing  water 
in  a  red-hot  crucible. 

Fire-proof  Safe.  One  for  the  .<iafe  keeping  of 
valuables  for  protection  in  ease  ol'  the  burning  of  a 
building  in  which  they  are  placed.     See  Safe. 

Fire-proof  Struct'uxe.  A  vault,  safe,  or  build- 
ing proof  against  destruction  by  fire,  either  from  the 
outside  or  by  the  burning  of  its  contents. 

The  provision  against  outside  tire  is  the  usual  ob- 
ject, but  in  fire-proof  structures  the  internal  floors 
or  partitions  must  al.so  be  impenetrable  by  fire,  to 
make  the  building  technically /)-(;-;)ron/. 

The  principal  portions  of  a  building  are  the  walls, 
floors,  and  roof,  and  several  modes  of  constructing 
each  have  been  proposed,  to  the  end  that  they  may 
be  secure  from  fire. 

The  term  fire-proof  Imilding  is  somewhat  loosely 
ap]died,  and  may  be  held  to  mean,  — 

A  building  absolutely  incombustible,  such  as  one 
whose  walls,  floors,  and  roofs  are  of  metal,  stone, 
brick,  Ol-  cement. 

A  building  cajiable  of  opposing  the  access  of  fire 
from  without,  having  walls,  window  shutters,  and 
roofs  which  are  incombustible  from  external  flame 
and  heat. 

Among  the  first  instances  may  be  cited  some 
government  buildings,  whose  walls  are  of  stone  and 
brick,  ceilings  and  floors  of  brick  arches  and  pave- 
ment ;  or  of  metal,  brick,  and  cement ;  rafters  and 
roof-covering  of  metal,  or  metal  and  slate. 

The  Bogardus  buildings  of  ca-st  and  wrought  iron, 
and  the  Paxton  buildings  of  iron  and  glass,  are  other 
illustrations  of  fire-proof  structures,  unless  the 
amount  of  combustibles  contained  should  be  such 
that  their  conflagration  will  melt  or  crumble  the 
material  of  which  the  building  is  constructed.  Such 
was  the  case  with  a  part  of  the  Crystal  Palace  at 
Sydenham,  the  internal  fittings  of  that  portion,  the 
louver  boarding,  and  the  furniture  making  a  bonfire 
which  melted  the  skeleton  frame.  Iron  buildings 
in  serious  external  fire  exposure,  or  with  combustible 
contents,  are  far  from  deserving  the  name  of  fire- 
proof, though  they  may  resist  a  certain  amount  of 
scorching. 

The  usual  mode  of  making  fire-proof  floors  is  to 
construct  girders  and  beams  of  iron  (see  Bf,.\m),  sup- 
porting flat  arches  of  brick,  as  in  the  U.  S.  Treas- 
ury,    Medical    Museum,    and    other    government 


FIRE-PROOF  STRUCTURE. 


870 


FIRE-PROOF  STRUCTURE. 


buildings,  or  of  a  pavement  of  stone  slabs  resting  on 
flanges  of  the  beams.  The  ceiling  in  such  a  case 
may  be  of  plaster  on  lath  made  of  hoop-iron  or  wire- 
work  riveted  to  the  beams.      See  Fldok  ;   Lath. 

Many  European  buildings  are  thus  constructed, 
being  tilled  abov(!  the  arches  with  incomliustihle  rub- 
bish, and  the  tiled  Hoor  laid  in  cement  thereupon. 

Besides  the  ju'ojects  for  rendering  materials  fire- 
proof, a  number  of  plans  have  been  devised  for 
adding  to  the  security  of  a  building,  although  the 
structure  cannot  be  considered  as  actually  ^rc-;)roo/. 
Sonu'  of  these  may  be  mentioned. 

The  Doors  of  .some  Edinburgh  houses  are  of  plank 
two  and  a  half  or  three  inches  thick,  grooved  and 
tougueil  to  each  other  or  united  by  a  tin  of  metal 
lonning  a  tongue  which  runs  the  entire  length.  Tlie 
jilaukiug  is  litteil  air-tight  to  the  walls,  the  object 
being  to  })revent  the  passage  of  fire,  and  depend 
upon  the  thickness  of  the  Hooring  to  hold  fin!  at  bay 
in  a  given  part  of  the  building,  until  the  usual 
means  of  extinguishing  it  can  be  brought  to  bear. 
It  is  laid  on  iron  joists.  Cement  on  the  upper  and 
lower  surfaces  adds  to  the  security.  This  is  an  ex- 
cellent plan. 

Another  plan  is  to  form  the  floors  and  roofs  of 
hollow  earthenware  tubes  and  cement,  resting  upon 
joists  or  rafters,  as  the  case  may  be.  The  tubes  are 
made  scpiare  in  section.  The  floor  has  about  one 
fifth  the  weight  of  stone.  Frost's  cement  of  levigated 
clialk,  2  parts  ;  clay,  1  part ;  <lried,  broken,  burned, 
and  ground  to  powder.  This  is  an  approach  to  the 
po/znolana,  and  is  mixed  with  twice  its  quantity  of 
sand  and  water,  sufficient  to  form  a  mortar.  See 
CoNi'iiETB  ;  Ckmenp. 

There  are  various  concretes  which  may  be  made 
into  slabs,  capable  of  resting  upon  iron  beams  at 
the  usual  distance,  and  thus  form  a  perfectly  fire- 
jiroof  floor. 

It  should  be  mentioned  as  an  imperative  necessity 
that  the  staircase  should  be  absolutely  incombus- 
tible, of  met.al  or  .stone,  or  the  two  combined. 

When  a  building  has  some  of  the  protections 
against  fire,  without  being  absolutely /)roo/,  the  stairs 
and  hatchvays  must  be  inclosed  in  such  a  manner 
as  not  to  be  involved  by  a  fire  breaking  out  on  any 
of  the  floors.  Otherwise  the  vertical  shaft  forms  the 
best  possible  means  of  commuuiiatiug  fire  from  one 
]iortion  to  another,  especially  if  the  fire  be  low  down 
in  the  building. 

Other  plans  are,  — 

Iron  facing  for  walls ;  secured  by  anchors  or 
studs.  Iron  skeletons  filled  with  brick  or  concrete. 
Concrete  or  beton  walls.  Hollow  tile  walls.  Iron 
fraTne  with  wire-work  riveted  thereto  and  covered 
over  with  plaster  or  concrete.  See  Wall,  where 
many  varieties  are  illustrated. 

The  means  for  fire-proofing  the  necessary  open- 
ings, that  is,  the  door  and  window  ways,  are  by 
louvers,  folding,  sliding,  swinging,  and  rolling 
shutters  of  iron.  Some  made  double  with  interven- 
ing air-space  ;  others  made  to  close  automatically  by 
the  increase  of  heal  when  exposed  to  fire. 

Hartley's  patent,  1775,  consisted  of  a  plan  for 
sheathing  wooden  work  with  thin  iron  plates. 

Earl  Stanho]ie's  ])lan  was  to  pack  all  the  inter- 
spaces of  wood-work  with  incombustible  material ; 
preferably  concrete. 

Of  other  English  plans  of  late  date  may  be  cited, 
iron  joists  with  concrete  filling  and  upper  bed  sup- 
porting the  flooring.  See  Floouing,  where  several 
varieties  are  shown. 

Anotlicr  plan  is  cellular  joists  of  earthenware  tubes 
imbeihled  in  cement. 

Loudon  recommends  a  floor  of  cement  with  im- 


bedded ties  of  wrought-iron  rods,  supported  by 
pillars  at  intervals;  and  double  sides  of  concrete 
suppcu'ted  by  panels  or  lattice,  leaving  intervening 
spaces  between  walls. 

lu  large  fire.s,  cast-iron  is  found  to  be  a  treacher- 
ous and  destructible  material,  as  was  proved  in  Chi- 
cago, 15o.ston,  and  elsewhere,  fairly  melting  in  the 
fire.  Mr.  Braidwood,  of  the  London  Fire  Depart- 
ment, stated  that  iron  columns  were  liable  to  give 
way  suddenly,  owing  to  the  expansion  and  con- 
traction by  heat  and  jets  of  water.  Mr.  MuIIett, 
tile  supervising  architect  of  the  Treasury  De|iart- 
ment,  indorses  the  statement,  and  prefers  sound  oak 
timber  to  cast-iron,  especially  if  it  be  treated  with 
a  li(iuid  .silicate. 

Fire-juoofing  by  rendering  the  timber  of  the  struc- 
ture incombustible  has  been  frequently  attempted. 
Payne's  proce.ss  consists  of  immersion  in  a  solution 
of  barium  or  calcium.  Professor  Fuehs  of  Munich 
recommends  as  a  material  for  rendering  wood  fire- 
proof a  comjiosition  of  potassa  or  soda,  10  ])arts  ; 
siliceous  earth,  15  parts  ;  charcoal,  1  ]iart,  fu.sed  and 
formed  into  a  water-glass  and  applied  in  solution. 
It  forms  a  vitreous  coating. 

An  English  composition  is  as  follows  :  Fine  sand, 
1  part  ;  wood  ashes,  2  parts  ;  slaked  lime,  3  jiarts. 
Grinil  in  oil,  lay  on  with  a  painter's  brush,  the  first 
coat  thin  and  the  next  thick. 

Fire-proofing  may  be  said  to  be  accomplished 
when — 1,  the  building  is  of  a  material  which  neither 
burns,  melts,  cracks,  nor  crumbles  with  the  heat. 
Well-made,  homogeneous,  and  well-burned  bricks 
are  the  best.  Granite,  marble,  and  sandstone  per- 
ish by  the  heat. 

2.  Every  o)iening  communicating  with  the  exter- 
nal atmosphere  must  be  ke|it  clo.sed  with  fire-proof 
doors  and  shutters,  not  iron  meiely,  which  v.ill 
buckle  up,  warp,  and  uudt. 

3.  The  walls  must  be  of  sufficient  thickness,  and 
should  be  built  with  an  air-space  to  prevent  tl'.e 
transmi-ssiou  of  heat. 

4.  The  joists  should  in  no  case  be  carried  into  the 
walls,  but  should  be  supported  on  corbel  courees  of 
brick,  ami  connected  with  the  walls  them.selves  only 
by  wrought-iron  anchors. 

5.  The  windows  and  doors  to  be  protected,  ns 
before  saiil,  with  fire-proof  shutters,  and  the  roof  to 
be  of  slate  or  metal.  The  use  of  roofs  conqiosed  of 
shingles,  coal-tar,  or  other -similar  substances,  should 
be  prohibited  by  law  in  cities. 

6.  An  i-solated  stone  or  iron  staircase  should 
reach  every  story,  having  fire-]iroof  doors  at  eai'h 
floor,  and  a  line  of  water-pipes  communii'ating  with 
the  mains  in  the  streets  or  a  cistern  on  the  roof. 

7.  Partition-walls  between  houses  rising  above 
the  roof.  In  the  case  of  warehouses,  as  few  openings 
through  the  party  wall  as  possible,  and  these  capable 
of  being  closed  efi'ectually. 

A  lefinement  upon  the  brick  construction  consists 
in  using  fire-brick  with  joinings  of  fire-clay,  instead 
of  mortar  or  cement ;  and  the  isolation  of  rooms  in- 
stead of  Hoors  only  is  rcconnnended  in  a  report  to 
the  London  Society  of  Arts  ;  farther,  to  have  no 
opening  into  the  rooms  except  to  exteiiial  fire-proof 
corridors  on  each  story  ;  ascended  by  cii-cular  stair- 
ways. Doors,  shutters,  as  well  as  walls,  floors,  and 
roof,  to  be  of  fire-brick,  making  each  room  an  her- 
metically sealed  vault. 

For  the  purpose  of  extinguishing  fire  in  any  of 
the  apartments,  it  is  proposed  to  lay  tubes  of  fire- 
clay in  the  spandrels  of  the  building  with  small  jet 
tubes,  or  pipes,  commanding  each  room  or  corridor 
of  the  whole  warehouse,  so  that  the  water  can  be 
turned  on  to  any  part  required,  to  Hood  if  necessary 


FIRE-KEGULATOR. 


871 


FIRST-COAT. 


•the  entire  room.  In  such  ease  the  water  would  run 
down  the  walls  to  the  floor,  where,  by  a  system  of 
pipes  leading  to  the  main  sewer,  the  proper  drainage 
would  be  ert'ected.  It  is  also  proposed  to  open  and 
shut  all  the  doore  and  shutters,  and  work  all  the 
cranes  by  machinery  in  another  building  to  be  under 
the  supervision  of  a  watchman,  properly  instructed, 
and  competent  to  see  that  the  system  is  in  working 
order  at  all  times.  The  same  system  of  Jiiping  used 
to  extinguish  fires  may  also  be  used  to  cleanse  the 
rooms,  as  occasion  may  require. 

This  system  of  protection  against  loss  by  fire, 
or  rather  mode  of  overcoming  tire,  by  abundant 
ramifications  of  water-pipes  throughout  all  the 
apartments  and  passages  of  a  house,  as  well  as  upon 
the  roof  and  walls,  is  thoroughly  described  in  Sir 
William  Congreve's  English  patents.  No.  3201  of 
1809,  No.  3606  of  1812,  and  there  seems  but  little 
to  be  added  to  his  proposals  where  jets  are  by  the 
turning  of  a  plug  caused  to  issue  from  center-piece, 
cornice,  skirting-board,  eave,  comb,  gable,  aud 
everywhere  else.  As  this  was  before  the  era  of 
water-mains,  except  in  a  few  situations,  the  pro- 
posed supply  was  brought  from  cisterns  on  the  roof 
or  from  pumps,  and  each  floor  or  gallery  had  plugs 
by  which  the  system  of  pipes  of  the  respective 
stories  were  supplied. 

A  large  flax-manufactory,  to  be  run  by  steam- 
power,  was  erected  about  1790,  by  Mr.  Bage,  at 
Shrewsbury,  England.  It  was  four  stories  high  ; 
the  floors  of  brick  arches  were  supported  on  cast- 
iion  columns.     The  roof  was  also  of  iron. 

Fire  -  reg'u-la'tor.  A  thermostatic  device  to 
open  or  close  the  access  of  air  to  the  lire,  or  to  gov- 
ern the  draft-area  in  the  chimney,  in  order  to  urge  or 
moderate  the  fire  as  it  may  sink  below  or  rise  above 
the  desired  point  to  which  the  thermostat  is  adjusted. 

Fire-screen.     1.  A  fire-guard  or  fender. 

2.  A  screen  to  place  between  a  pei-son  and  the 
fire  to  intercept  the  direct  rays. 
"  Fire-shield.  A  portable  structure  on  wheels  or 
on  legs,  used  to  protect  a  fireman  on  duty  from  the 
heat  of  a  burning  building,  or  to  isolate  a  fire  and 
prevent  its  s)ireading  to  adjacent  buildings.  It  is 
usually  a  screen  of  sheet-iron  supported  by  posts 
and  stayed  by  guys. 

Fire-ship.  A  vessel  freighted  with  combustibles 
and  explosives,  and  turned  adrift  so  as  to  float  among 
the  vessels  of  the  enemy,  against  a  bridge  or  other 
object  which  may  be  burned  by  the  fire  or  destroyed 
by  the  resulting  explosion. 

Fire-ships  were  used  at  the  siege  of  insular  Tyre. 

By  the  Rhodians  against  the  Syiians,  150  B.  c. 

In  the  action  near  Carthage,  when  the  fleet  of 
Basilicus  was  destroyed  by  Genseric. 

In  the  naval  warfare  of  the  Knights  of  Malta  and 
the  Turks. 

At  the  siege  of  Antwerp,  1585.  By  Sir  •  Francis 
Drake  against  the  Sjianish  Armada,  1588. 

By  the  Greeks  against  the  Turks,  1826. 

The  Chinese  against  the  English  in  the  villainous 
opium-war. 

In  1760  they  formed  a  regular  portion  of  the  Brit- 
ish navy.  As  a  distinct  class  of  vessels,  they  are 
now  discontinued. 

They  are  particularly  serviceable  in  defence  and 
in  attacking  ships  at  anchor,  and  besides  the  skillful 
but  ineffectual  use  of  them  by  the  Chinese,  the  in- 
stance may  be  mentioned  of  the  fire-rafts  which  were 
launched  by  the  Confederate  forces  against  the  ap- 
proaching fleet  of  Farragut  as  he  forced  the  passage 
of  the  Mississippi. 

Fire-steel.  A  steel  used  in  connection  with  a 
flint  for  striking  fire. 


Fire-stop.  The  fire-bridge  at  the  back  of  a  fur- 
nace  ;  so  called  because  it  prevents  coals  being 
pushed  over. 

Fire-sur'face.  (Stenm-engvu:.)  The  area  of  sur- 
face of  the  boiler  which  is  exposed  to  the  direct  and 
radiant  action  of  the  flames. 

The  heating-surface  of  a  boiler  is  made  up  of  the 
fire-sitrfacc  a.nii.  flue-surface. 

With  an  average  boiler  15  feet  of  heating-surface 
of  the  boiler  are  allowed  for  each  horse-power.  The 
Cornish  engine  has  a  much  larger  heating-suiface 
per  horse-power  ;  as  high  as  60  feet  being  sometimes 
allowed. 

The  locomotive  has  a  smaller  heating-surface  per 
horse-power,  a  more  intense  fire  being  kept  up  and 
less  economy  of  fuel  being  practiced. 

Fire-tel'e-graph.  See  Fire-alarm  TELEor.Arn. 

Fire-tube.  {^Strain  -engine.)  A  furnace-tube 
through  which  the  flame  and  heated  air  pass  from 
the  fire-chamber.     Afluc;  &  pipe-flue ;  o\-  flame-tube. 

Fire-'work.  The  Chinese  led  the  worhl  in  this 
line  in  point  of  priority,  and  perhaps  do  yet  in  qual- 
ity. .  Fire-works  are  said  to  have  been  fii'st  used  in 
Europe  by  the  Florentines,  and  are  mentioned  as  a 
part  of  the  pageant  at  the  marriage  of  Henry  VIII. 
and  Anne  Boleyn.  The)'  were  not  common  during 
the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  but  came  into  popular  use 
during  the  reigns  of  the  Stuarts. 

Marcus  Gr^cus,  in  a  treatise  on  pyrotechny  (Li- 
ber Ignium)  published  about  A.  D.  825,  describes 
the  nature  of  the  com]iositiou  for  making  fire- 
works. 

The  bearing  of  fire-works  on  the  invention  of  fire- 
arms is  referred  to  in  the  article  on  GuxpowDiir. 
{which  see).     See  li.st  under  Pyrotf.chmcs. 

Fir'ing.  1.  (Furnaee.)  The  mode  of  introducing 
fuel  into  the  furnace  and  working  it. 

Hard-firing ;  charges  in  quick  succession  with 
frequent  stoking. 

Heamj-firing :  large  charges  of  fuel  and  frequent 
stoking.  Known  also  as  cVosc-firing,  thick- firing, 
and  eharging,  from  the  large  body  of  fuel  introduced 
at  a  time. 

Light-firing ;  moderate  and  frequent  in  quantity  ; 
coking  the  charge  on  the  dead-plale  and  then  push- 
ing it  on  to  the  coals.  Also  called  oywH-firing,  as 
the  charge  is  tliinly  sjiread  on  the  grate-bars  and 
the  draft  is  free. 

2.  {^Glass.)  The  process  of  fixing  the  colors  upon 
glass.  The  colors  are  metallic  oxides,  ground  up 
with  flint  glass  and  borax,  and  laid  by  a  paint-brush 
upon  the  pieces  or  sheets  of  croum-gl(iss.  These  are 
then  removed  to  the  kiln,  where  the  colors  become 
fused  and  unite  inseparably  with  the  surface  of  the 
glass  on  which  they  are  laid,  the  flux  enabling  the 
color  to  melt  before  the  glass  plate  becomes  distorted 
by  the  heat.  The  cronm-giiiss  being  a  silicate  of 
potash  and  lime  is  much  more  intractable  than  a 
glass  into  whose  composition  lead  enters.  See  Glass- 
coLOKiNG  ;  Glass  -  PAINTING  ;  Gla.s.s- staining  ; 
Enamel. 

Fir'ing-i'ron.    A  farrier's  cautery. 

Firm'er-chis'el.  A  chisel,  usually  thin  in  pro- 
portion to  its  width.  It  has  a  tang  to  enter  the 
handle,  in  contradistinction  to  the  framing-chiael, 
which  has  a  socket  into  which  the  handle  fits. 

Firmer-chisels  are  usually  eight  or  twelve  in  a  set 
of  dift'erent  widths.  They  are  shorter  than  parivg- 
chi.sels  and  lighter  than/ra?ni7i.(7-chisels. 

First-coat.  (Plastering.)  The  primarj' coat  of 
coarse-stuff.  That  of  two-coat  work  is  called  laying, 
when  executed  on  lath,  and  rendering,  when  on  brick. 

The  first  coat  of  three-coat  work  is  called  pricking- 
vp  on  lath,  roughiiig-in  on  brick. 


FISH. 


872 


FISH-HOOK. 


Pish.  1.  A  strengthening  or  stiffening  bar  laid 
alon-jsido  .inothnr  ;  as  — 

Till'  Jl  :h-bar,  wliich  splices  the  ends  of  adjacent 
railroad  rails  and  deorea.ses  the  tremor  or  depression 
at  the  joint.      See  Fl.sHING. 

One  of  a  pair  of  bars  laid  on  oppo.'iite  sides  along 
and  tightly  lashed  to  a  spar  which  has  been  .sprung. 
See  SiM.K-E. 

2.  A  purchase  for  hauling  in  on  to  the  gunwale  the 
fluke  of  an  anchor. 

Fish-bar.  The  splice-bar  which  brealcs  the  joint 
of  two  meeting  objects,  as  of  railroad  rails  or  scarfed 
tiiiilier.      Sre  FisilINU. 

Fish-beam.     A  beam  with  a  bulging  belly. 

Fish-bel'lied.  Bellying  on  the  under  side,  as  a 
beam,  a  lail,  etc. 

Fish-block.  {Nautical)  The  block  of  the 
fish-tackle  fur  raising  the  anchor. 

Fish-da'vit.  (Shipbui/ding.)  A  spar  or  small 
crane  piojecting  from  the  bow  of  a  ship  for  the  sus- 
pension of  the  tackle,  called  the  fir^k-faU,  used  in 
hauling  up  the  arms  of  the  anchor  in  getting  it 
aboard.  The  fish-davit  is  such  a  distance  abaft  the 
cat-hiad  as  the  length  of  the  anchor  may  reipiire, 
and  is  used  to  lift  the  fluke  of  the  anchor  to  the 
bill-board  ;  a  roller  keeps  the  fluke  from  bruising 
the  vessel's  side. 

In  preparing  for  leUiii'j  go  the  anchor,  it  is  sus- 
pended by  its  throat  from  the  Jisk-davit  by  a  chain 
or  rope  called  the  shaiik-paiiUcr,  which  is  ca.st  loose 
simultaneously  with  the  cat-head  stopper,  the  two 
being  secured  on  board  liy  means  of  movable  pins 
called  tumb/ert,  which  are  moved  by  a  lever  and  dis- 
engage the  chains  or  ropes  at  the  .same  instant. 

Fish'er-man's-bend.  A  sailor's  knot,  used  in 
bending  halyards  to  a  studding-sail  yard.  Two 
turns  are  taken  round  the  spar,  the  end  passed  lie- 
tween  them  and  the  spar,  and  half  hitched  around 
the  standing  part. 

Fish-fall,  (yaulicnl.)  The  tackle  depending 
from  Wxa  fish-davit  and  used  in  hauling  up  the  amis 
of  the  anchor. 

Fish-flake.  A  structure  on  which  fish  are  spread 
to  be  ;iir  and  sun  dried. 

Fish-froat.  (Xaulical.)  Curved  pieces  of  timber 
bound  upon  the  outside  of  a  broken  spar  to  stiffen 
it  rid  make  it  serviceable. 

Fish-garth.  A  staked  or  dammed  enclosure  on 
the  ni.irgi  I  of  a  river  to  form  a  fish-preserve. 

Fish-gig.  A  spear  with  several  barbed  prongs 
ushI  iu  spearing  fish.  It  has  usually  five  prongs, 
cal'ed  lira  I, IS. 

Fish-globe.  A  spherical  glass  vessel  forming  an 
aquiriiiKi. 

"Thence  to  see  my  Lady  Pen,  where  my  wife  and 
I  were  shown  a  fine  rarity  ;  of  fishes  kept  in  a  glass 
of  water,  that  will  live  so  for  ever,  and  finely  marked 
they  are,  being  foreign."  —  Pei'Y.s's  Diary,  1665. 

Pi3h-.^lue.     Isinglass. 

Fish-hook.  Fish-hooks  are  mentioned  in  the 
Bible  iu  several  places,  in  connection  with  brooks, 
rivers,  and  the  sea. 

The  first  fish-hooks  were  made  of  bones  or  thorns, 
the  latter  being  indicated  by  the  root  of  the  Hebrew 
word. 

"Canst  thou  draw  out  leviathan  with  a  hook" 
(ancient  version,  "thorn"^,  "  or  his  tongue  with  a 
cord  which  thou  lettest  down  ? " 

"Canst  thou  put  a  hook  into  his  nose  ?  or  bore 
his  jaw  through  with  a  thorn  ?"  — Job  xli.  1,  2. 

The  latter  verse  bears  a  peculiar  significance,  refer- 
ring to  the  practice  of  attaching  a  fish  by  a  hook 
and  cord  to  a  stake,  so  as  to  keep  it  alive  in  the 
water.     The  crocodile,  if  it  be  the  animal  referred 


to,  would  require  a  hook  rather  larger  than  those 
used  by  the  anglers  of  the  Euphrates,  with  which 
river  we  suppose  the  patriarch  of  Uz  to  Iiave  been 
familiar. 

The  natives  of  the  South  Seas  in  the  regions 
visited  by  Magellan,  Cook,  La  Perouse,  Anson,  and 
others,  made  fish-hooks  of   bone,  carved  or  neatly 


Fig.  2000. 


framed    together    and 
bound     with      sinews. 
Such    are   common    in 
the     mu.seums,      along 
with    the   bone    knives 
and      cutting      instru- 
ments made  of  shark's 
teeth  lashed  to  a  back 
piece,     the      primitive , 
saw.        A      mothei-of-  j 
jiearl    hook    with     at-  ' 
tached  tuft  of   hair  to 
act  as  bait  is  known  as 
wilte-wittee. 

The  old  Egyptian 
fish-hooks  were  of 
bronze.  See  one  in 
Dr.  Abbott's  collection. 
New  York. 

Homer  mentions  the 
"barbed  books"  as 
used  by  Uly.sses  and 
his  companions  in  Sicily  :  — 

*'  AH  fish  and  birds,  and  all  that  come  to  hand 
With  barbed  hooks." 

Odyssty,  XII.  321 

Athemeus  .states  (a.  i>.  220)  that  "the  hooks 
were  not  forged  in  Sicily,  but  were  brought  by  them 
in  their  vessel."  —  Athen,  Epit.,  B.  I.  22. 

Of  the  Grecian  fish-hooks,  some  were  bent  around 
and  others  were  straight,  with  a  barb. 

In  the  cut  are  shown  a  number  of  fish-hooks,  of 
which  a  b  are  two  forms  of  a  spring  hook  in  which  a 
mousing-piece  engages  the  barb. 

c  rf  are  two  positions  of  the  same  spring  hook,  one 
set  and  the  other  sprung. 


FISHING. 


873 


FISH-JOINT. 


e  is  intended  to  give  the  hook  a  square  presenta- 
tion, and  prevent  glancing  of  the  hook  in  striking. 

/  has  a  tripping  hook  which  strikes  from  above, 
and  supplements  the  primary  hook. 

g  has  a  spiral-spring  shank. 

h  has  a  spring  hook  attached  to  the  snood,  which 
affords  the  means  of  attaching  a  bait  or  other  hook. 

i  has  an  additional  hook,  which  is  sprung,  and 
thus  su)iplements  the  primary  hook. 

j  has  spiral  vanes,  so  as  to  revolve  it  when  drawn 
through  the  water  in  trolling. 

k  I  shows  two  forms  —  on  different  scales  —  of  a 
spring  hook  whose  claws  are  thrown  down  upon  the 
fish  which  tampers  with  the  bait. 

In  making  the  hooks,  straight  wires  of  the  proper 
size  and  length  are  flattened  at  one  end,  and  the 
barb  formed  by  a  single  blow  with  a  chisel.  The 
point  having  been  sharpened,  the  proper  curve  or 
twist  is  given  to  the  hook  ;  the  soft  iron  is  then 
case-hardened,  to  give  it  the  stiffiuss  and  elasticity 
of  steel,  by  immersion  in  hot  animal  charcoal.  The 
hooks  are  subsenuently  brightened  by  friction,  and 
tempered.  In  the  hook-making  machine,  the  wire 
is  run  from  a  reel  into  the  machine,  and  on  the 
other  side  tlie  fish-hook  drops  out  completed,  with 
the  exception  that  it  must  be  tempered  and  colored. 
After  the  wire  reaches  a  certain  point,  the  reijuisite 
length  is  clipped  off.  The  next  operation  barbs  it ; 
the  other  end  is  flattened.  It  passes  around  on 
revolving  dies,  whose  teeth,  formed  like  the  notched 
spikes  of  a  wheel,  catch  it,  and  bear  it  from  one 
operation  to  the  next  until  it  is  smoothed  and  filed, 
when  it  jiasses  between  rollers  that  give  it  the  pre- 
scribed twist  and  turn,  and  it  drops  into  the  re- 
ceiver awaiting  it. 

Fish'ing.     1.   Uniting  by  clamping  betwecH  two 


Fig  2001. 


■:          ;i 

■n 

rV^ 

;;  r 

ls°   ;' 

□:;  |- 

W        V 

i' 

w" 

short  pieces  which  cover  tlie  joint.  As  a  compound 
beam,  b  d  e.  Fig.  2001. 

At  /  is  shown  a  combination  of  fisliing-pieccs, 
coaks,  and  bolts ;  the  coaks  on  the  lower  surface  are 
substitutes  for  the  indents  of  the  surface  above. 

g  o'  g"  show  one  form  of  clasping  plate  in  several 
views. 

The  fish-plate  h  Ji'  for  railway-rails  has  a  bend 
which  laps  upon  the  foot  of  the  rail,  and  a  drooiiing 
flange ;    the    bent    form  giving  a  rigidity  which 


strengthens  the  rail  against  deflection.  The  rail  is 
prevented  from  opening  at  the  joint,  or  s]jreading, 
as  is  usual  with  the  ordinary  fish-joint,  whose 
strength  is  only  equal  to  one  third  that  of  the  rail. 

2.  (Nautical.)  Lifting  the  anchor-fluke  on  to 
and  over  the  gunwale. 

3.  Fishing,  as  an  occupation,  is  perhaps  almost 
coeval  witli  our  race.  The  distinction  between  net- 
ting, trajiping,  and  angling  was  early  understood. 
"The  tisliers  also  shall  mourn,  and  all  they  that 
cast  angle  into  the   brooks  shall  lament,  and  they 

that  spread  nets  njion  the  waters  shall  languish 

They  shall  be  broken.  .  .  .  that  make  sluices  and 
ponds  for  6sh."  (Is.  xix.  8,  10.)  See  also  Habak- 
kuk  i.  14,  15  ;  Amos  iv.  2  (787  B.  c. ).  Oppian 
wrote  a  Greek  epic  on  fishes  and  fishing  about  A.  D. 
198.  Wynkyn  de  Worde's  "Treatyse  of  Fy.sshinge" 
appeared  in  1496,  and  Walton's  "  Comjilete  Angler  " 
in  1653. 

Fish'ing-line.  A  flaxen  or  fine  hempen  cord  for 
angling. 

The  Grecian  fishing-lines  were  of  horsehair,  white 
nearest  to  the  hook.  Horsehair,  catgut,  and  silk 
ai'e  now  useil  for  snoods. 


Fish'ing-liue  Reel. 

attached  to  a 
fishing-rod, and 
upon  which  the 
line  is  wound. 

In  one  qk^k  _ 
it  is  furnished  fes—taT 
with  an  alami, 
so  that  a  sleepy 
fisher  may  have 
notice  when  a 
fish  runs  away 
with  the  bait. 

Fish'ing- 
net.    See  Net. 

Fish'ing- 
rod.  Angling 
for  fish  was 
common  in 
ancient  Egypt, 


A    little   winch,    usually 


Fishing-Line  Reel, 


but  they  do  not  ajipear  to  have  used  a  float.  The 
line  was  comparatively  .short,  and  the  rod  in  a  single 
length.  They  used  landing-nets.  They  do  not 
seem  to  have  practiced  fly-fishing.  Spearing  fish, 
especially  with  the  bident,  is  shown  frequently  in 
their  se]iulchral  paintings.  The  fish-spear  was  at- 
tached to  a  cord  which  was  wound  on  a  reel. 

The  hook  and  fish-spear  are  mentioned  in  the 
Book  of  Job.  Fishing-lines  of  horsehair  are  men- 
tioned by  Aristotle. 

The  Grecian  fishing-rod  wa.s,  as  now,  a  reed,  — 
ailamus.     It  was  not  maile  in  jointed  sections. 

Modern  rods  are  made  of  bamboo  lengths  fastened 
together  by  telescopic  or  screw  couplings. 

Pish'ing-smack.  A  sloop  having  a  water- 
chamber  in  the  hold  to  keep  fi.sh  alive. 

Fish'ing-tube.  (Microscopy.)  An  open-ended 
glass  tube  for  selecting  a  mieroscoi>ic  object  in  a 
fluid.  The  tube  is  closed  at  the  upper  end  by  the 
finger  until  the  lower  end  is  close  to  the  object. 
The  finger  being  raised  the  water  rushes  in,  carrying 
the  object  witii  it. 

Fish-joint.  A  plate  or  pair  of  plates  fastened 
upon  the  junction  of  a  couple  of  meeting  portions  of 
a  beam  or  plate.     See  Fishing. 

The  fish-joint  for  connecting  railway-rails  was  first 
designed  by  W.  B.  Adams,  England,  1847,  and  was 
soon  extensively  introduced.  It  consisted  of  a  pair 
of  plates  18  inches  long,  3  by  j  inches,  bolted  to- 
gether through  the  rails  by  4  bolts,  allowance  being 


FISH-KETTLE. 


874 


FLAG. 


made  by  oval  bolt-hole.s  for  expansion  and  contrac- 
tion of  the  rails. 

Tlie  KsU-joiiit  with  keys  instead  of  bolts  was  first 
used  ( Holley )  by  Barrof  Newcastle,  Delaware,  in  1843. 
In  Samuel's  ti.sli-joint  the  bolt  jiasses  through  a 
hole  in  one  tisli-plate  and  is  tapjied  into  the  other. 
This  obviates  the  nut,  which  is  apt  to  be  in  the  way 
of  the  wheel-flange. 

Fish-ket'tle.  A  long  kettle  adapted  to  boil  fish 
of,  say,  from  four  to  ten  pound.s'  weight,  without  de- 
stroying the  synnnetry  of  the  fish  or  cutting  it  into 
pieces 

Fish-lad'der.  A  dam  with  a  series  of  steps  to 
enable  fish  to  ascend  the  fall  by  a  succession  of 
lea]is.     See  FlsH-W.VY. 

Fish-plate.  A  |ilate  used  to  secure  together  the 
ends  of  adjacent  rails,  to  hold  them  strictly  in  line, 
avoiding  lateral  deflection  or  sagging.  It  usually 
consists  of  a  plate  on  each  side  of  the  joint,  clasping 
the  vcb  of  the  rail,  and  secured  by  bolts  and  nuts. 
See  Fismxr,. 

Fish-pot.  An  open-mouthed  wicker  basket  con- 
taining bait,  and  sunk  in  the  haunts  of  fish  to  catch 
them. 

Fish-skin.  The  rough  skin  of  the  dogfish  or 
shui'k  is  used  as  a  rasp. 

Sluigieen  is  a  leather  of  fish-skin. 

The  skins  of  the  porpoise,  beluga,  and  seal  are 
tanned. 

Eel-skins  are  used  as  whanij. 

Sole  and  other  skins  are  used  in  making  a  kind  of 
isinc;la^s  for  clarifying  lic|nors. 

Fish-slice.  A  broad-bladed  silver  knife  used  for 
serving  fish  at  table.  The  trowel-shaped  blade  ena- 
bles a  jportion  of  fish  to  be  removed  from  the  back- 
bone without  lireaking  it  into  unsightly  fragments. 

Fish-spear.  A  barbed  spear  for  catching  fish. 
A  9'9- 

Fish-spears  are  mentioned  by  Job  and  by  the 
Greek  writers.  They  had  one,  two,  or  more  barbed 
prongs.  Neptune's  trident  was  a  fish-spear,  tri- 
dented  or  three-toothed. 

Fish-tack'le.  (Nautiail.)  A  purchase  to  raise 
the  llukes  of  an  anchor  to  the  gunwale,  for  stowage, 
after  bi'ing  catted.     A  fish-fall. 

Fish-tail  Burn'er.  A  gas-burner  whose  burn- 
ing jet  assumes  a  two-lobed  form,  like  the  tail  of  a 
fish. 

Fish-tail  Pro-pel'ler.  A  single-winged  pro- 
peller hinged  to  the  stern-post  and  oscillating  like 
the  tail  of  a  lish. 

Fish-trap.  A  bo.x  or  basket  set  in  a  river  and 
having  bait  slung  in  a  bag  to  attract  fish  ;  it  is 
siirung  by  hand. 
^  A  basket,  net,  or  staked  area  with  a  divergent- 
sided  or  funnel-shaped  opening  through  wliich'  fish 
pass,  and  in  which  they  find  a  difficulty  in  retracing 
their  course,  owing  to  obstacles  or  blind  sacs. 

Fiah-way.  A  device  to  enable  a  fish  to  ascend 
a  fall.     It  may  consist  of  a  series  of  steps  over  which 

Fig.  2003. 


Fish-Way. 


the  water  descends,  turning  a  fall  into  a  cascade, 
and  sometimes  known  as  a  fish-ladder  ;  or  it  may 
consist  of  a  chute  with  a  .sinuous  track  for  diminish- 
ing the  velocity  and  assisting  the  passage  of  the  fish 
to  the  level  above  the  dam.  In  the  example,  it.  is 
an  inclined  chute  having  a  series  of  chambeis  con- 
taining comparatively  still  water,  the  current  being 
eon  lined  to  a  relatively  smaller  space. 

Fis'sure-nee'dle.     A  spiral  needle  for  catching 
together  the  gaping   lips  of  wounds.      ISy 
revolution,  the  point  is  made  to  pierce  the  Fig  2004. 
lips  alternately,  carrying  its  thread  Mith  it. 
Tiemann's  needle   for  cleft  palate  is  hollow 
throughout  its  length,  and  carries  a  .silver 
wire   which   is  left   in   its   place  when   the 
needle  is  retracted  by  backward  rotation. 
Fis'tu-ca.     A  })iie-driver.     A  inonkcij. 
Fis'tu-la.     A    water-jiipe,  according    to 
Yitruvius,  who  distinguishes  three  modes  of 
conveying  water  :  by  leaden  pipes,  by  earthen 
pipes,  and  by  channels  of  masonry. 

Fit-rod.      (Stiijwrii/htiiuj.)     A  gage-rod 
used  to  try  the  depth  of  a  bolt-hole  in  older 
to  determine  the  length  of  the  bolt  re(juired. 
Fix.     See  FlXlNO. 

Fixed  Ammu-ni'tion.  A  charge  of 
powder  and  shot  inclosed  together  in  a 
wi-apper  or  case,  ready  for  loading. 

Fixed   Light.     One   character   of  light 
disjdayed  from  a  lighthouse.      Its  bermis  are  Fi.^svre- 
constant,  ditl'eiing  from  those  termed  flash-  Ptt'dt'- 
iiuj,  rcvolvivg,  and  inlerwitlent.     It  is  sus- 
ceptible of  variation,  as  u-hite  or  mtarcd,  m\(jU  or 
double.     See  Light  ;  Catoptkic-light. 

Fixed  Star.  (Pijrotcchnirs.)  A  composition  in- 
troiluced  into  a  rocket-case  and  emitting  fire  at  five 
iioles,  to  represent  a  star.  The  composition  is  niter, 
sul|ihur,  gunpowder-meal,  antimony. 

Fixed  Sun.  (Pyrotechnics.)  A  device  composed 
of  a  certain  number  of  jets  of  fire  distributed  circu- 
larly like  the  spokes  of  a  wheel.  All  the  fuses  take 
fire  at  once  through  channels  charged  with  quick- 
matches. 

Glories  are  large  suns  with  several  rows  of  fusees. 
Fans  are  portions  of  a  sun,  being  sectors  of  a  circle. 
The  patic  d'oic  is  a  fan  with  only  three  jets. 
Fix'ing.     1.   (Photography.)     Of  a.  negalire ;  the 
removal,   by  a  solution  of  hy])osidphite  of  soda  or 
cyanide  of  jiotassinni,  of  the  unaffected  deposit  of 
iodide  and  bromide  of  silver  in  the  collodion  film 
after  exposure  and  develo]iment  of  the  picture. 

Of  a  positive  ;  the  I'emoval  of  the  unaltered  chlo- 
ride of  silver  from  the  surface  of  the  jdiotographic 
jiaper  after  exposure  \inder  the  negative. 

2.  (Metallurgy.)  The  material  used  in  preparing 
the  hearth  of  a  puddling  or  boiling  furnace  for  re- 
ceiving its  charge.  A  certain  amount  of  ore,  cinder, 
and  scrap  are  banked  up  around  the  bo.shes,  the 
amount  and  kind  varying  with  the  character  of  the 
iron  and  the  construction  of  the  furnace.  It  is  called 
fettling  in  some  parts  of  England,  the  word  fettle 
being  provincial  English,  and  substantially  the  same 
as  our.^.r. 

Flack'et.     A  barrel -.shaped  bottle. 
Flag.     1.  A  banner  indicating  nationality,  occu- 
pation, or  intelligence. 

Flags  of  nationnlily  are  standards,  ensigns,  pen- 
nants (pendants),  jacks. 

Flags  of  occupation  indicate  service,  a.s  war,  mer- 
chant, despatch,  pilot,  yacht-squadron,  liiieis,  etc. 

Flags  of  intelligence  are  of  various  colors  and  of 
three  shapes:  square  (a),  pointeil  (b),  burgee  (c). 
They  are  used  in  various  combinations  to  transmit 
messages  according  to  a  printed  or  secret  code. 


FLAG. 


'875 


FLATL. 


The  standtird  {miiitary  or  navnl)  is  a  ii^ar  fiag. 

The  eiusign  {d,  American  ;  c,  English)  is  national. 
It  has  the  union  in  the  upper  corner  next  the  stall',  the 
other  portion  of  the  Hag  being  denominated  the  Jli/. 

In  the  English  service  the  ensign  with  a  white 
fly,  a  red  cross,  and  the  jack  in  the  corner,  belongs 
to  war-vessels.  Other  government  vessels  carry 
the  red  ensign  (red  Hv). 

The  blue  ensign  belongs  to  the  merchant  service. 

The  pennant  {/)  is  a  long  strip  of  bunting,  and  is 
used  to  indicate  the  conunodore's  vessel,  and  for- 
merly, ill  connection  with  an  ensign,  to  indicate  a 
government  vessel  of  the  nationality  to  which  the 
ensign  belongs. 

The  yaci-  is  a  flag  having  the  union  of  the  ensign 
without  the  fly.     g,  American  ;  h,  English. 

An  anvil  is  a  little  narrow  flag  or  pennon  on  the 
end  of  a  lance. 

A  b'Xnncr  is  a  small  flag  edged  with  fringe. 

A  bandrol  is  a  small  streamer  from  a  masthead. 

A  fimion  is  a  smiU  flr:;  for  a  surveying-station  ; 
from  the  Italian  gon/'i'one,  a  standard. 

A  guidon-  is  a  small  swallow-tailed    flag  used  in 


Fig.  2005 


cavalry  regiments.     One  is  furnished  to  each  com- 
pany.    See  Guinox. 

A  sfrea^ntr  is  a  relatively  narrow  flag  or  pennon. 
Flags  with  special  rlesigns  are  used  on  particular 
occasions,  as  the  flag  known  as  "  blue-peter"  indi- 
cates that  the  vessel  is  about  to  sail.  It  is  a  blue 
flag  with  a  white  square  in  the  middle.  There  are 
many  other  signal  Hags,  and  some  to  represent  num- 
bers, by  which  messages  may  be  signaled  according 
to  a  printed  code.  See  Haswell's  "Engineers,  etc., 
Pocket  Book,"  p.  149. 

The  hight.  of  an   ensign  is  the  hoist  or  depth,  and 
is  IS  of  its  length. 

The  length  from  the  staflf  to  the  outer  edge  is  the 
fly- 
In  the  United  States  service,  — 
The  garrison  flag  has  20  feet  head,  36  feet  flv. 
The  storm-flag  has  10  feet  head,  20  feet  flv. " 
The  regimental  flag  has  6  feet  head.  6  ft.  6  in.  fly. 
Camp-colors  are  of  bunting,  18  inches  square. 


T\ie  field  has  13  horizontal  stripes  of  red  and  white 
alternately,  beginning  with  red. 

The  union  has  a  blue  field  in  the  upper  corner, 
next  the  head,  four  tenths  of  the  length  of  the  field 
and  seven  stripes  in  depth,  with  white  stars  ranged 
in  equidistant  horizontal  and  vertical  lines,  equal  in 
number  to  the  number  of  States  in  the  Union.  See 
"Army  Regulations,"  ed.  1863,  p.  461. 

2.  A  slab  of  stratified  stone  for  sidewalks,  etc. 

3.  The  uneven  end  of  an  uncut  tuft  of  hair  in  a 
brush. 

Flag'e-o-let.  (Music.)  A  wooden  musical  wind- 
instrament  having  a  mouthpiece  and  six  principal 
holes  which  are  stopped  by  the  fingers,  as  in  a  tute. 

The  double  flageolet  is  said  to  have  been  invented 
by  Bainbridge,  and  upon  it  duets  may  be  ]ilayed. 
It  is  mentioned  by  Pepys. 

"To  Drnmbleby's,  the  pipe-maker,  there  to  ad- 
vise about  the  making  of  a  flageolet  to  go  low  ai.d 
soft ;  and  he  shew  nie  a  way  which  do  do,  and  also 
a  fa.shion  of  having  two  pipes  of  the  same  note 
fastened  together,  so  as  1  can  ]'lay  on  one,  and  then 
echo  it  on  the  other,  which  is  mighty  pretty."  — 
Pf.PYs's  Diary,  1668. 

"  I  took  my  flageolette,  and  played  upon  the  leads 
in  the  garden,  where  Sir  W.  Pen  come  out  in  lis 
shirt  into  his  leads,  and  there  we  .staid  talking  and 
singing  and  drinking  greater  draughts  of  claiet,  and 
eating  botargo  and  bread  and  butter,  till  12  at 
night,  it  being  moonshine,  and  so  to  bed,  being  very 
near  fuddled."  —  Pepys's  Dinry,  1661.  (Botargo  is 
a  sausage  made  of  eggs  and  the  blood  of  the  sea- 
mullet.) 

Flag'glng-i'ron.  {Coopering.)  A  prying-rod  with 
a  iloubie-hooked  head,  used  in  flagging  ca.sks. 

Flag'on.  A  pitcher  with  a  narrow  mouth  to  hold 
a  beverage,  ale  or  wine. 

Notably  it  is  of  metal,  and  used  to  contain  the 
wine  of  the  communion-.'service,  which  is  poured 
from  thence  into  the  chalice  and  drunk  therefrom. 

Flag-stone.  A  sandstone  which  cleaves  into 
flat  slabs  suitable  for  paving. 

Flail.  1.  (Husbandry.)  A  wooden  instrument 
for  threshing  small  grain  by  hand. 

"The  fitches  are  beaten  with  a  stafi',  and  the 
cummin  with  a  rod."—  Isoioh. 

It  was  used  among  the  Hebrews  for  grain  which 
would  not  bear  the  tramping  or  the  grinding  action 
of  the  .sled  or  cart. 

The  flail  consists  of  the  hand-slojf  and  the  souplc, 
or  siriple,  which  are  joined  by  a  jiiece  of  whang  or 
eelskin  to  a  swivel  called  the  hooding. 

The  im.ages  of  the  Egyptian  Osiris  are  represented 

Fig.  2006. 


Japanese  Thrashers. 

with  two  instruments,  usually  called  the  croolc  and 
flagrllum.  We  are  much  disposed,  however,  to  con- 
sider them  a  sickle  and  flail,  and  the  association  on 
the  same  figure  of  the  plow  and  harrow  reniiers  the 


FLAKE. 


876 


FLASHING. 


supjiosition  probable.  The  crook  was  not  held  in 
as  nuich  honor  as  the  sitkle,  nor  the  tender  of  ani- 
mals as  the  cultivator  of  the  land.  A  weapon  like 
a  flail  was  used  in  war,  but  Osiris  was  einiueutly 
peaceful  and  useful,  and  his  emblems  had  tlie  same 
character. 

The  flail  is  the  ordinary  means  of  thrashing  in 
Japan.  It  ditt'ers  in  no  essential  respect  from  that 
of  other  countries.  The  illustration,  from  a  native 
painting,  shows  that  both  sexes  engage  in  the  work. 

2.  Au  ancient  weajion  used  in  war.  It  was  a  club 
swinging  from  the  end  of  a  long  handle,  like  the 
morning-stars  of  the  London  train-bands,  three  cen- 
turies since. 

A  war-club  studded  with  iron  spikes  and  mounted 
like  a  Hail  was  found  at  Sakkarali,  and  is  in  the  Ab- 
bott Museum  of  Egyjitian  Antiijuities  iu  New  York. 

Flake.  1.  A  platform  of  slats,  wands,  or  hur- 
dles, on  which  hsh  or  fruit  is  placed  to  dry.  A.  fish,- 
Jtai'e. 

2.  A  stage  suspended  over  the  side  of  a  ship  for 
the  convenience  of  the  painters  or  calkers. 

Flame-bridge.  A  wall  rising  from  the  floor  of 
a  furnace  to  cause  the  llame  to  impinge  upon  the 
bottom  of  the  boiler. 

Flame-en'gine.  An  early  name  for  the  ga-s-en- 
gine,  in  which  the  piston  is  moved  by  the  expan- 
sion due  to  the  sud(len  combustion  of  a  body  of  gas 
in  the  cylinder.     See  Gas-enoine. 

Flang.     A  two-pointed  miner's  pick. 

Flange.  (Machiiicri/.)  A  projecting  rib  or  rim 
for  strength,  as  a  guide,  or  for  attachment  to  another 
object. 

1.  A  strengthening  rib,  as  in  the  flange  of  a  fish- 
bellied  rail,  or  girder. 

2.  A  guide-tlauge,  as  in  the  rib  of  a  car-wheel 
projecting  beyond  the  tread. 

3.  A  fastening  flange,  as  on  the  end  of  pipe, 
steam-cylinder,  etc. 

Flange-joint.  A  joint — such  as  that  of  pipes 
—  where  the  con- 
Fig  2W7.  necting  pieces  have 
perforated  flanges 
by  which  the  parts 
are  bolted  together. 
Flange-raiL  A 
rail  having  a  bent- 
iip  flange  to  keep 
tlie  wheel  on  the 
track. 

Flang'ing  -  ma- 
chine'.  (Shccl- 
mctal.)  A  machine 
usually  having  two 
rollers  so  construct- 
ed and  arranged  as 
to  bend  over  the 
edge  of  a  piece  of  tin-plate  which  is  passed  between 
them.  The  modes  of  bending  are  known  as  bend- 
ing^ burring,  seaming,  JUinging,  etc. 

In  the  e.vample,  the  outer  circumferential  corner 
of  the  lower  disk  is  turned  out  rectangularly,  and 
the  other  disk  has  a  peripheral  flange,  which  enters 
the  groove  and  forms  an  out-turned  flange  around 
the  edge  of  the  cylinder.  See  Double-seamino 
Machine. 

Flank.  1.  {Gearing.)  The  acting  surface  of  a 
cog,  within  the  pitch-line.  The  outer  portion  is  the 
face. 

2.  (Archileclure.  \  The  Jiamich  of  an  arch  ;  the 
shoulder  between  the  crown  and  the  springing. 

3.  The  thin  portion  of  a  skin  of  leather ;  that 
which  previously  covered  the  flank  of  the  animal. 

4.  (Fortificalion.)     That    portion  of    a    bastion 


Flansed  Sections. 


Fig.  2008, 


Flan^n^-Mackine. 

which  reaches  from  the  face  to  the  curtain.  The 
flank  of  one  bastion  commands  the  ditch  before  the 
curtain  and  the  face  of  the  opposite  bastion.  See 
Bastion. 

5.  The  return  side  of  any  body,  as  of  a  house,  a 
wall,  an  ashlar  in  position,  etc. 

Flan'nel.  (Fabric.)  A  soft,  open  woolen  stuff", 
of  which  there  are  many  kind.s,  twilled  or  plain  and 
undressed,  milled,  gauze,  colored,  and  checked. 
Also  made  for  specific  purposes,  as  house,  horse, 
juinter's  blankets. 

Flan'ning.  (Building.)  The  internal  flare  of  a 
window  jamb.     The  embrasure. 

Or  of  a  fireplace.      Coving. 

Flap.     A  hinged  leaf  of  a  table  or  shutter. 

An  inside  shutter  has  several  pieces,  the  principal 
one  of  which  is  the  front  shutter;  the  one  which 
folds  into  and  is  concealed  in  the  boxing  is  the 
bac/i-Jlirp. 

Flap-tile.  A  tile  with  a  bent-up  portion  to  turn 
a  comer  or  catch  a  drip. 

Flap-valve.  A  valve  which  opens  and  shuts 
upon  one  hinged  side.     A  clack-valve. 

The  eonnnon  pump-valve  consists  of  a  disk  of 
leather  opening  ujnvard  when  the  pnm]i-rod  de- 
scends, and  has  a  leaden  or  brass  weight  attached 
to  it. 

Flar'mg.  Overhanging,  as  of  the  bows  of  a  ship, 
the  top  side  forwaid. 

Increiising  in  diameter  upward,  as  of  an  upwardly 
cx]ianding  pan.  Funnel-shaped,  conical,  trumpct- 
ntitnfhcd. 

Flash'er.  {Steam.)  A  form  of  steam-boiler  in 
which  small  bodies  of  water  are  injected  into  a  heated 
l)oiler  and  flashed  into  steam,  sufficient  being  injected 
at  each  time  for  one  stroke.     See  Instantaneous- 

GENEIIATOR. 

Flash 'ing.  1.  {Eydraulic  Engineering.)  Con- 
centrating a  fall  of  water  at  one  point,  so  as  to  in- 
crease the  depth  to  allow  the  jrassage  of  a  boat  from 
one  level  to  another,  as  at  a.  The  river  having  a 
dam  across  it  and  a  sluice  at  one  point,  the  sluice- 
gate is  opened,  and  duiing  the  temporary  increase  of 
depth  in  tlie  sluice-way  the  boat  is  drawn  tlirough. 

It  is  a  very  ancient  device  (see  Sluice),  and  is 
still  used  in  many  countries  with  boats  of  moderate 
size. 

A  memorable  case  of  fla.shing  is  that  when  Lieu- 
tenant-Colonel Bailey  rescued  the  fleet  of  gunboats 
on  Red  River  after  the  defeat  of  the  Union  army 
under  General  Banks.  The  gunboats  were  flashed 
over  the  falls  at  Alexandria  by  means  of  a  wing-dam 
made  of  log  cribs  filled  in  with  stone. 

2.  {Plumbing.)  a.  A  lap-joint  (i)  used  in  sheet- 
metal  roofing,  where  the  edges  of  the  sheets  meet  on 
a  projecting  ridge. 


FLASHISG-FURNACE. 


877 


FLASK. 


6.   A  strip  of  lead  leading  the  drip  of  a  wall  into  a 
gutter. 

Slep-JiashiTtgs  are  those  situated  at  the  junction  of 

the  sloping  side 
Fig.  2009.  of  a  roof  and  a 

wall.  They  are 
turned  in  at  each 
course  of  bricks 
and  stepped 
down  as  the  roof 
descends. 

3.  (Glass-mak- 
iHj.)  a.  A  re- 
heating at  a  fur- 
nace aperture  (c) 
in  conuection 
with  a  rotary 
movement,  caus- 
ing the  opening 
in  the  flatted 
sphere  of  glass 
to  enlarge  and 
eventually  to 
dis*ppear  entire- 


length  of  the  pipe,  and  communicates  flame  to  the 
jet.  The  stop-cock  is  then  closed,  and  the  row  of 
small  jets  is  extinguished.  Substitutes  for  the  Jiafh- 
pipe  are  found  in  the  various  modes  of  lighting  gas 
by  electricity  (which  see). 

Plash--vyheeL  A  water-raising  wheel  having 
arms  radial  or  nearly  so  to  its  axle,  and  revolving 
in  a  chase  or  curved  water-way  by  which  the  water 
passes  from  the  lower  to  the  higher  level  as  the 
wheel  rotates.  See  Scoor-WHEEL.  See  also  Hy- 
DRACLic  Devices. 

Flask.  1.  (Founding.)  A  frame  or  box  which 
holds  a  portion  of  the  mold  for  casting.  Pf  the 
mold  be  contained  in  two  pieces,  they  constitute  a 
tico-part  flask.  The  upper  part  contains  the  cope 
(a),  the  lower  part  the  drag  (6). 

In  hollow-ware,  kettles,  etc.,  the  cope  consists  of 
two  parts  c  d,  which  divide  laterally,  and  the  drag  e 


FiB.2010. 


FJasking. 


ly  as  the  table  of  glass  assumes  a  flat  shape. 

The  flashing  heM  is  also  applied  to  smooth  the 
sheared  edges  of  a  goblet  or  other  article,  or  to  re- 
heat an  article  daring  manufacture  to  restore  its 
plastic  condition. 

b.  A  mode  of  covering  transparent  white  glass 
with  a  film  of  colored  glass,  in  order  to  give  the  ap- 
pearance of  color  to  the  whole  ware.  In  some  cases, 
the  ruby  coating  is  ground  away  in  an  ornamental 
pattern,  so  that  the  glass  is  party-colored.  The  col- 
ored glass  is  prepared  with  a  composition  called 
SCHMELZE  (which  see). 

Plash'ing-fur'nace.  One  at  which  a  globe  of 
crown-glass  is  reheated,  to  allow  it  to  spring  open 
flatty  as  it  is  whirled.     See  Fl.4.shixg. 

Flash'ing-light  One  character  of  light  as  ex- 
hibited from  lighthouses.  It  is  produced  by  the 
revolutioQ  of  a  frame  with  eight  sides,  having  reflect- 
ors arranged  with  their  faces  in  one  vertical  plane 
and  their  axes  on  a  line  inclined  to  the  perpendicu- 
lar. The  rate  of  revolution  is  such  as  to  show  a  j 
flash  of  light  every  five  .seconds,  alternating  with  I 
periods  of  dimness.  [ 

This  light  is  one  of  the  modes  of  varying  the  ap- 
pearance, so  that  a  mariner  may  be  able  to  distin- 
guish one  light  from  another  when  coming  near  i 
land  on  a  coast  where  the  number  of  lights  is  con-  | 
siderable  ;  as,  for  instance,  the  three  kinds  on  Cape 
Henry  and  Cape  Charles,  at  the  mouth  of  Chesapeake 
Bay,  and  at  Hog  Island,  on  the  coast  of  Northamp- 
ton County,  Virginia,  about  thirty  miles  north  of 
Cape  Charles. 

Lights  are  distinguished  as  — 


Fixed. 

Revolving. 

lutermittent. 


Flashing. 

Colored. 

Double. 


These  are  variously  combined,  as :  revolving 
whil: ;  revolving  red  and  white  :  rerolvi)ig  red  and 
two  whites;  double  fixed  ;  double  rcrolvivg.  etc.,  etc. 
Sei  Light;  Lighthouse.  See  "  Lighthouses,  their 
Construction  and  Illumination,"  by  Allan  Steven- 
son :  Weale's  Series,  No.  47. 

Flash-pipe.  A  mode  of  lighting  gas  by  means 
of  a  supplcmentan,-  jiipe  pierced  with  numerous 
small  holes  throughout  its  length.  The  ^ffjsA-pijw 
reaches  from  the  burner  to  a  position  within  reach 
of  a  person,  and  is  provided  with  a  stop-cock.  The 
cock  being  turned,  gas  is.sues  from  each  orifice. 
One  jet  being  lit,  the  flame  flashes  along  the  whole 


has  one  part  and  holds  the  core,  or  nowcl  g,  which 
is  the  mold  of  the  interior.  This  requires  a  three- 
part  flask. 

An  example  of  a  four-part  flask  is  one  in  which 
the  cope  or  casing  is  in  three  pieces  ;  one  upper 
piece  h  which  is  bfted  off,  and  two  side  pieces  i  k 
which  are  removable  laterally.  The  core  or  noirel  m 
resting  upon  the  fourth  part  I,  the  drag.  The  drag 
I  i-ests  upon  a  bottom  board  m,  and  has  ears  at  the 
sides  into  which  the  pins  of  the  cope  enter,  so  as  to 
preserve  the  parts  in  relative  lateral  position.  AVhen 
the  object  is  molded  and  the  pattern  withdrawn, 
the  parts  of  the  flask  are  secured  lietween  top  and 
bottom  boards  by  means  of  the  clamps  ?i.  See 
Mold. 

Fig.  2011  shows  a  car- wheel  in  a  mold  with  its 
upper  and   lower  parts 
and     a     circular     ring  Fig.  2011. 

which  forms  and  at  the 
same  time  chiUs  the 
tread. 

Fig.  2012  shows  a 
two-part  flask  with  the 
mo<le  of  securing  exact 
correspondence  of  the 
parts  by  locking  honks 
and  keepers.  Cm-Wheel  Mold. 

2.  A  leathern  or  me- 
tallic case  for  holding  gunpowder  or  shot. 

3.  (Glass.)  a.  A  kind  of  bottle  for  oil,  liquor, 
or  quicksilver.     The  latter  is  of  iron. 

b.  A  vessel  used  in  a  laboratory  for  sublimation  or 
for  digesting  in  a  sand-bath. 


FLASK-CLAMP. 


878 


FLATTING-MILL. 


fig.  2012 


Two-Pun  Flask. 


Flask-clamp.  A  binding  device  for  securely 
holding  togetiier  the  parts  of  a  flask.  In  the  e.vam- 
jile  it  is  a  hooked  bar  and  a  lever  cam. 


Fig.  2013. 


Flask-  Clamp. 

Flaak'et.  A  long  shallow  basket  with  two  han- 
dles. 

Flat.  1.  A  Western  river-boat  or  barge  for  car- 
ryin.:;  produce,  coal,  or  merchandise. 

2.  A  piece  of  bone  for  a  button-blank. 

3.  A  surface  of  size  over  gilding. 

4.  A  story  in  a  dwelling. 

5.  A  platform  railway  ear. 

6.  (Otirdbvi.)  A  strip  of  wood  clothed  with  bent 
teeth,  and  placed  above  the  large  cylinder  of  a  card- 
iug-machine. 

The  clothing  is  known  as  the  fiat  top-cardi,  in 
contradistinction  to  the  cards  wliich  clothe  the  drum, 
lickcr-in,  card-rollers,  teazer,  and  doff^r,  whose  sur- 
faces are  curved. 

7.  (Shipliaildincf.)  a.  A  flat  part  in  a  curve  ;  as 
a  timber  which  has  no  curve,  as  the  floor-timbers  of 
the  dead-flat  amidships. 

b.  One  of  a  number  of  ship's  frames  of  equal  size, 
and  fiirming  a  straight  middle  body. 

Flat'baud.     A  plain,  square  impost. 

Flat-boat.  A  barge  for  transporting  produce  on 
the  Western  rivers.      Aflat  :  an  ark. 

Flat-oap.  A  size  of  writing-paper  usually  14  x  17 
incliei. 

Flat  Chis'el.  A  sculptor's  chisel  for  smoothing 
surfii'es. 

Plat  File.  A  file  wider  than  its  thickness  and 
of  rectangular  section.  When  bellied,  it  is  known 
as  a  taper  file  ;  when  the  size  is  maintained  from  end 
to  end,  it  is  known  as  a  parallel  file. 

Flat  Ham'mer.  The  hammer  first  used  by  the 
gold-beatiT  in  swaging  out  a  pile  of  quarticr.i,  or 
pieces  of  gold  riljbon,  1  x  li  inches  square.  Tliese 
are  placed  24  in  n  pile  and  beaten  till  they  are  two 
inches  square.  They  are  then  packaged  with  inter- 
leaves of  vellum  and  beaten  by  other  hammers, 
known  as  the  commencing,  spreading,  and  finishing 
hammers. 

Flat-head  Nail.  A  forged  nail  with  a  round, 
flat  head  and  a  light,  rounded,  pointed  body. 


Flat-i'ron.  An  iron  with  a  flat  face,  \ised  for 
smoothing  clothes.     A  «afZ-iron.     See  Smooth iNo- 

IltON. 

Flat-i'ron  Heat'er.  A  stove  specially  adapted 
for  heating  smootliing-irons.      A  laundry-store. 

Flat-lead.     Sheet-lead. 

Flat-nail.  A  small,  sharp-pointed  wrought  luiil, 
with  a  fiat,  thin  head,  larger  tlian  a  tack.' 

Flat-pa'per.     That  which  has  not  been  folded. 

Flat-press.  A  jiress  used  in  the  iuilia-rubber 
Imsiness  for  l!;ittening  together  a  number  of  ]iiles  cif 
folded  cloth  while  they  are  vulcanized  and  blended 
together  by  a  steam  heat  of  say  280°  F. 

Flat-rail.  A  railroad  rail  consisting  of  a  simple 
Hut  bar,  spiked  to  a  longitudinal  sleeper.  Tram- 
ways of  wood  were  laid  down  by  Beaumont  at  New- 
castle, in  16(12.  They  were  protected  by  Hat  straps 
of  iron  in  1738,  at  Whitehaven.  Flat  cast-iron 
plates  were  laid  at  Coalbrookdale  in  1767.  The  an- 
gular cast-iron  rail  was  uted  in  1776.  Edge  rails 
of  cast-iron  in  1789.  Rolled  rails  in  1820.  See 
Rail. 

Flat-rope.  A  rope  made  by  plaiting  yarns  to- 
gether instead  of  twisting.      (Jaikct ;  sennit. 

Some  flat  ropes,  for  mining-shafts,  are  made  hy 
sewing  together  a  number  of  ropes,  making  a  wide. 
Hat  band. 

Flat-rope  Pul'ley.  A  pulley  having  a  true  cy- 
lindrieal  surfaic  and  two  rising  Hanges,  to  keep  the 
band  from  running  (iff.     See  Pullky. 

Flat'ten-ing-fur'nace.  A  furnace  into  wliich 
cylinder  glass  split  longitudinally  is  placed  to  flatten 
out   by   lieat.     A   spreading-oven.     See   Flatting- 

FVRNACE. 

Flat'ter.  1.  A  hanmier  with  a  very  broad  face, 
u.sed  by  sn  iths  in  Hat-lacing  work. 

2.  (IVirc-drawing.)  A  draw-plate  with  a  flat 
oi'iHee,  to  draw  flat  strijis,  such  as  watch-springs, 
skirt-wire,  etc. 

Flat'ting.  1.  (Painting.)  a.  A  style  of  inside 
hou.se-painting  in  which  the  colors,  pre|iare<l  with 
oil  of  turpentine  only,  are  dead,  without  luster. 

b.  A  tovering  of  size  over  gilding. 

2.  A  rolling  of  metal  into  plates. 

3.  {Glass-making.)  The  operation  of  opening  out 
a  split  cylinder  of  glass  so  as  to  make  it  fiat.  This 
is  jierformed  in  a  FLATTl.NC.-Fl'ItNACK  (which  see), 
and  is  assisted  by  a  tool  having  an  iron  handle  and 
a  wooden  cross-piece  at  the  end. 

The  plate  on  which  it  is  Hatted  is  of  devifiified 
glass,  fire-proof  clay,  sandstone,  or  other  niateiial 
which  will  resist  heat  and  maintain  the  essential 
perfectly  smooth  sui-l'ace. 

It  is  known  as  the  sijreacling-jilate,  fiatling-plate, 
flalling-stone,  or  finttivg-hcarth. 

Flat'ting-fur'nace.  One  in  which  a  split  cyl- 
inder of  glass   is 

opened  out.     See  Fig  2014. 

Flatting. 

William  C.iffan, 
of  Hamnionton, 
New  Jersey,  yiat- 
ented  a  machine 
for  flattening  cyl- 
inder glass,  Oc- 
tober 1,  1830,  . 
wliich  was  in- 
tended to  prevent 
injury  to  the 
glass  while  cooling  by  .shifting  the  stone  on  which 
it  was  flattened  from  the  flattening  to  the  cooling 
oven. 

Flat'ting-mill. 
sheet-metal. 


Flatting-Furnace. 


1.  A    rolling-mill     producing 


FLAT-TOOL. 


879 


FLAX. 


In  the  Mint ;  the  rolling-mill  for  producing  the 
ribbon  from  which  thp  plancliets  are  punched. 

The  first  tlatting-niill  in  England  was  erected  at 
Sheen,  near  Richmond,  by  a  Dutchman,  1663. 

2.  A  mill  having  a  pair  of  hard,  polished  steel 
rolls,  through  which  grains  of  metal  are  passed  to 
be  flatted,  for  ornamental  purposes.  The  produce 
is  known  as  metallic  diisl. 

Plat-tool.  A  turning-chisel  which  cuts  on  botli 
sides  and  on  the  end,  wliich  is  scjuare.  It  is  used 
as  a  bottoming-tool  for  bo.xes. 

Fla'w.     I .   ( JVm  riiiy. )     A  bore,  tangle,  or  skip. 

2.  {Metal.)  I  n  casting  or  forging  ;  a  fault,  as  where 
the  parts  of  the  metal  are  not  fairly  joined. 

Flaw-piece.  ( Wood.)  A  slab,  from  the  outside 
of  the  log. 

Plax.  The  first  m  mtion  of  flax  in  history  is  per- 
haps that  in  the  account  of  the  hail-stonn  in  Lower 
Egypt,  Exodus  ix.  31:  "The  Hax  was  boiled." 
The  Hebrew  word  is  rendered  linoii  in  the  Septua- 
gint ;  linain  in  the  Vulgate  :  with  us  it  is  line  and 
linen.  (See  LiXEM.)  Flax  was  used  to  the  exclu- 
sion of  wool  for  priestly  garments  and  cerements. 
Isaiah  refei-s  to  the  fine  linen  of  Egypt  ;  Herodotus 
refers  to  linen  shirts  as  the  ordinary  dress  of  the 
people  of  the  Nile  land. 

The  manipulations  of  Hax  to  render  it  fit  for  u.se 
are  shown  at   Beui   Hassan   in  Egypt,   about  1500 

Fig.  2015. 


F.ax  Ratting,  Braking,  etc.  (Btni  Hassan). 

B.  c.  In  the  illustration  the  men  on  the  left  are 
carrying  water  in  jars  to  pour  on  the  flax,  which  is 
placed  in  an  elevated  cistern,  partitioned  ofl'  into 
cells._  Another  man  removes  the  rotted  flax  and 
lays  it  out  to  Avy,  as  represented  by  the  six  bunches. 
Another  bunch  is  shown  in  a  loose  condition, 
probably  a  handful  in  condition  for  the  next  opera- 
tion, which  is  performed  by  tlie  three  kneeling  men, 
who  beat  upon  a  stone  with  a  mallet  a.  The  flax 
is  thus  made  into  a  rough  hank,  and  is  then  cleaned  I 


and  opened  out  more  fully  by  striking  it  u]on 
a  stone.  The  hank  is  held  in  two  jdaces,  swung 
in  the  air,  and  beaten  upon  the  flat  stone.  In  the 
next  scene  the  hank  is  twisted  and  worked  to  give 
it  a  farther  finish. 

The  description  given  of  the  process  by  Pliny, 
who  wi'ote  about  15fl0  years  afterwards,  will  nearly 
apply  to  the  serial  picture  just  described.  He  says  : 
"The  stalks  themselves  are  inmiersed  in  water, 
warmed  by  the  heat  of  the  sun,  and  are  kept  down 
by  weights  placed  ujjon  them  ;  for  nothing  is  lighter 
than  flax.  The  membrane  or  rind  becoming  loose 
is  a  sign  of  their  being  sufficiently  macerated.  They 
are  then  taken  out  and  repeatedly  turned  over  in  the 
sun  until  perfectly  dried  ;  and  afterwards  beaten  by 
mallets  on  stone  slabs.  That  which  is  nearest  to  the 
rind  is  called  stupet  (tow),  inferior  to  the  inner  fibers 
and  fit  only  for  the  wicks  of  lamps.  It  is  combed 
out  with  iron  hooks  until  all  the  rind  is  removed. 
When  made  into  j'arn  it  is  polished  by  striking  it 
frequently  on  a  hard  stone,  moistened  with  water ; 
and  when  woven  into  cloth  it  is  again  beaten  with 
clubs,  being  always  improved  in  jiroportion  as  it  is 
beaten." 

Answering  to  the  "iron  hooks"  described  by 
Pliny,  and  to  our  hackle,  were  the  combs  like  that 
shown  in  the  cut  b  ;  two  of  which  were  found  at 
Thebes,  with  some  flax-tow  attached,  and  are  now 
in  the  Berlin  ilusev.m.  One  of  them  has  29  and 
the  other  one  46  teeth,  c  is  a  netting-ntedle  from 
the  same  place. 

Flax  was  exported  from  Egjpt  to  Gaul  as  late  as 
the  Christian  era,  and  was  oidered  to  be  giown  in 
England  by  statute  of  Henry  Vlll.,  1533.  A  biak- 
ing  and  scutching  machine  was  lun  by  water-power 
in  Scotland  in  1750. 

To  prepare  flax  for  manufacture,  after  the  removal 
of  the  seeds,  the  hare  (useful,  fibrous  poition)  is 
separated  from  the  bomi  (the  refuse  portions  of  the 
stalk).  For  this  puipose  the  uniting  gluten  must 
be  dissolved  and  removed.  This  is  efl'ected  by  rot- 
ting, either  in  ]ionds  or  by  ex]  osure  to  dew.  In 
either  case  a  fermentation  ensues  which  renders  the 
gluten  soluble  in  water.  Caustic  alkali  has  the  same 
efl'ect  on  gluten,  and  forms  the  basis  of  many  modern 
processes  whereby  woody  fiber  is  rendered  suitable 
for  spinning  or  for  pajer  pulp.  The  next  ( rocess  is 
to  break  and  scutch  the  fiax  to  detach  and  remove 
the  rind  and  cellulose  matter,  and  yirejiare  the  fiber 
for  hackling  and  subsequent  operations. 

In  one  large  establishment  in  Leeds,  England,  the 
series  of  machines  is  as  follrws  :  — 

The  seed  is  removed  by  rollers  which  act  upon 
the  bolls.  Then  conie  the  Jiax-braking  machines ; 
these  have  fluted  or  grooved  rollers,  between  which 
the  flax  stem  is  made  to  pass,  so  that  the  woody 
portion  becomes  thorotighly  broken  without  cutting 
the  fiber.  Next  come  the  flax-sciitchiii(j  machines, 
in  which  revolving  blades  or  arms  beat  out  the 
woody  fragments,  and  the  fibers  are  to  a  certain  de- 
gree separated,  jifter  this  the  faic-hacklinr/  n:achines 
give  the  flax  a  thorough  combing,  by  means  of  long 
rows  of  teeth  or  spikes  ;  the  fibers  are  combed  out 
straight  and  tolcjably  clean  ;  and  the  tow  or  short 
fibers  are  removed,  to  be  used  for  other  Jiurposes. 
The  hackled  flax  is  then  in  a  state  to  be  acted  on  by 
the  various  machines  which  bring  it  into  tlie  state 
of  yarn  for  weaving  ;  these  machines  are  of  three 
kinds,  according  as  tow,  long  flax,  or  cut  flax  is  to 
be  acted  upon.  The  toir-earding  and  the  tcnc-rming 
machines  serve  for  the  first  kind  ;  the  fax-spread- 
ing, flax-carding,  and  flax-roving  machines  for  the 
second  ;  and  the  flax-cutting  machine,  followed  by 
those  for  carding  and  roving,  for  the  third.     The 


FLAX-BRAKE. 


880 


FLAX-BRAKE. 


spinning-machine  follows  all  these  ;  and  it 
dillers  from  cotton-spinning  machines  chiefly 
iu  having  a  provision  for  wetting  the  Max 
either  with  cold  or  hot  water  ;  there  is  still 
a  little  gum  or  mucilage  among  the  fihers, 
and  this  becomes  more  manageable  in  the 
machine  when  moistened. 

A  Swedish  method  of  treating  flax  is  by 
boiling  in  sea-water  with  the  addition  of 
birch-ashes  and  quicklime.  It  is  then  rinsed 
in  sea-w;iter ;  soaped,  rubbed,  bleached  in 
the  air,  being  turned  and  watered  every  day. 
The  wasliing,  soaping,  and  bleaching  are 
repeated.  The  flax  is  beaten,  dried,  and 
then  carded  and  spun  like  cotton. 

For  list  of  appliances  in  the  treatment  and 
manufacture  of  flax,  see  CoTTaN,  Flax, 
WoiiL,  ETC.,  Appliances. 

Flax-brake.  1.  A  machine  for  remov- 
ing the  woody  and  cellular  portion  of  flax 
from  the  tibrous.  The  hemp-brake  is  sub- 
stantially similar  in  its  construction  and 
identical  in  its  purpose. 

The  lirst  mode  adopted  may  be  assumed 
to  have  been  beating  the  rotted  flax  with  a 
stick  on  a  flat  .stone,  alternating  with  rub- 
bing by  the  hands.  A  sword  of  wood  which 
descends  upon  the  stalks  laid  over  a  pair 
of  slats  set  edgeways,  a  farther  improve- 
ment, which  is  shown  at  a,  in  which  the 
sword  is  drawn  down  by  a  treadle  and  lifted 
by  a  spring-pole.  To  this  succeeds  a  pivoted 
jaw  with  a  series  of  parallel  longitudinal 
serrations  descending  upon  a  similarly  provided  jaw 
on  the  bench. 

6  is  a  machine  having  a  system  of  three  rollers, 
the  upper  one  of  which  is  attached  to  a  lever  which 
draws  it  down  upon  the  other  two  by  means  of  a 
treadle,  clamping  the  flax,  which  is  then  drawn 
through  by  hand,  breaking  the  shives  from  the  hare. 
This  is  repeated  as  often  as  may  be  neccessary,  rais- 
ing the  head  each  time  for  the  insertion  of  the  flax. 
This  part  of  the  process  being  completed,  the  flax 
is  reduced  to  a  tine  straight  fiber  by  means  of  the 
hackle  aliove  the  lever. 

The  machine  shown  in  side  and  end  elevations  c  d 
has  cast-iron  fluted  rollers,  live  iu  number,  arranged  in 


Fig.  2016. 


Flax-Brakes. 

two  vertical  series,  the  front  one  of  two  rollers  and 
the  back  one  of  three. 

The  flax  straw  fed  into  the  machine  at  m  passes 
between  the  top  and  middle  rollers  of  the  back  series, 
and  is  directed  downward  by  the  back  plate  g,  so  as 
to  pass  between  the  middle  and  bottom  rollers  of 
the  same  series  and  then  through  the  two  roUeis  of 
the  front  series.  The  rollers  are  all  driven  and  their 
ends  have  plain  parts  truly  turned  so  that  the  flutes 
of  one  roller  work  into  the  spaces  of  the  next  ad- 
joining roller,  and  leave  a  space  for  the  flax  straw 
to  pass  through.  The  rollers  are  weighted,  and  the 
pressure  can  be  regulated  as  required. 

Fig.  2017  shows  a  machine  for  consecutive  rotary 


Fig.  2017. 


Flax  Brake,  and  Cleaner, 


treatment.  Tlie  devices  are  for  drawing,  straighten- 
ing, and  extending  a  layer  of  tangled  flax  so  as  to 
reduce  it  to  a  thin,  even  sheet  of  parallel  stalks 
ready  for  the  breaker,  scutcher,  beater,  and  picker, 
to  wliich  it  is  passed  directly  and  continuously. 

The  drawing-cylinder  has  alternately  long  and 
short  teeth,  and  the  roller  above  has  indentations  in 
the  peripheries  of  its  annular  rings  for  impaling  the 


stalks.  The  scutching  and  cleaning  cylinders  have 
flat,  narrow,  deeji  teetli.  with  inclined  front  edges, 
slightly  hooked  at  the  ends.  The  teeth  of  tlie  ])ick- 
ing-cylinder  are  made  of  pointed  round  wire,  and 
are  inclined  backward  at  their  ba.ses,  their  points 
(uuving  forward.  The  concave  of  the  cleaning-cyl- 
inder is  formed  of  parallel  curved  grate-bars,  between 
which  pass  the  teeth  of  the  cylinder.     The  hber  is 


FLAX-COTTON. 


881 


FLEMISH-EYE. 


forwarded   between    each  cylinder    by  chute    and 
toothed  shell  roller. 

2.  A  machine  for  shortening  flax  staple  to  adapt 
it  to  be  worked  by  a  given  class  of  machines. 

Plax-cot'ton.  A  process  was  invented  by  Chev- 
alier Claussen  for  cottoniiing  flax,  to  render  it  suit- 
able for  manufacture,  the  objects  being  to  expedite 
the  processes  of  separating  the  fiber  from  the  cellu- 
lar and  glutinous  matters,  and  then  reducing  the 
fiber  to  a  staple  which  can  be  readily  treated  by 
machinery.  The  flax-straw  is  boiled  for  four  hours 
in  a  solution  of  caustic  alkali  in  a  stone  vessel,  by 
which  the  extraneous  matters  are  loosened  ;  it  is 
then  placed  for  two  hours  in  a  bath  slightly  acidu- 
lated with  sulphuric  acid.  It  is  then 
dried  and  scutched  to  remove  the  cellu- 
lose. The  cottonizing  i^i  performed  by 
Bteeping  the  fiber  in  a  bath  of  dilute  bi- 
carbonate of  soda,  and  subsefjuently  in 
an  acidulated  linuid.  The  action  of  the 
acid  and  alkali  within  the  flax  fiber  gen- 
erates carbonic-acid  gas,  and  has  the 
effect  of  bursting  apart  the  fibers,  which 
assume  a  cottony  appearance.  It  is  then 
bleached  and  spun,  either  mixed  or  oth- 
erwise. 

In  the  first  volume  of  the  "Transac- 
tions of  the  Society  of  Arts  "  is  a  paper 
detailing  the  experience  of  Lady  Moira, 
about  1770,  in  attempting  to  introduce 
flax  cottou.  She  states  that  tow  and  refuse 
flax  of  all  kinds,  boiled  with  an  alkaline 
solution,  and  afterwards  soured,  is  converted  into  a 
sort  of  cotton  which  takes  dye  better  than  flax.  Her 
comments  are  really  noteworthy,  and  illustrate  the 
oft-told  tale  of  the  difficulties  which  inventors  and 
discoverers  have  to  struggle  against  in  the  precon- 
ceived opinions  of  others. 

Flax-cut'tiiig  Ma-ohine'.  Flax  is  sometimes 
cut  before  hackling  in  order  to  enable  its  separation 
according  to  i|u.ality.  The  machine  for  this  purpose 
has  a  circular  saw  which  partly  cuts  and  partly  tears 
its  way  through  the  bunch  of  flax  which  is  presented 
to  it  by  pairs  of  parallel  rollers  on  each  side  of  the 
saw. 

Flax-pull'er.    A  machine  for  pulling  flax-plants 

Kg.  2018. 


horizontal  as  to  draw  the  flax  from  the  ground  and 
deposit  it  on  the  platform. 

Flax-scutcher.    See  Scutcher. 

Flax-seed  Mill.  One  for  grinding  flax-seed 
for  the  more  ready  abstraction  of  the  oil,  generally 
known  as  linseed  (lint,  flax)  oil.  It  is  usually  a 
coarse  grist-mill,  but  is  sometimes  of  a  portable  form 
and  size  for  farm  or  plantation  use,  and  adapted  for 
other  grain  and  seeds.     See  Grinding-mill. 

Flax-thxasher.  One  for  beating  the  grain  from 
the  bolls  of  the  cured  flax-plant.  In  the  example, 
the  tangled  fla.x  is  impaled  by  the  spiked  roller 
against  the  indented  roller  above,  while  the  drawing 
rollers  straighten  the  stalk  and  feed  it  to  the  thrashing 


Fig.  2019 


tlax-Putter. 

in  the  field.    In  the  example,  the  flax  passes  between 
a  series  of  dividing  fingers,  and  is  seized  by  the  end- 
less rubber  belts  which  are  so  inclined  from  the 
56 


Flax-  Thrasher. 

cylinder,  which  removes  the  bolls  :  the  latter  then 
fall  between  the  crushing  rollers,  which  release  the 
seed  to  be  cleaned  by  the  vibrating  winnower  beneath. 

The  difficulty  in  thrashing  flax  consists  in  its  ten- 
dency to  wiup  around  the  shafts  and  thrashing 
cylinder. 

Fleam.    A  spring  lancet  for  bleeding  horses. 

A  gum-lancet.  The  fleam  (phlebotom)  was  used 
by  the  Greeks. 

Fleam-tooth.  Of  a  saw.  One  in  the  form  of 
an  isosceles  triangle.     A  pcrj-tooth. 

Fleche.  (Fartifimtion.)  An  advanced  work  at 
the  foot  of  the  glacis,  consisting  of  a  parapet  with 
faces  forming  a  salient  angle,  open  at  the  gorge.  It 
has  a  communication  with  the  covered  way  cut 
through  the  glacis. 

Fleece.  1.  The  fine  web  of  carded  fibers  which 
are  removed  by  the  comb  or  doffing-knife  from  the 
doffing-cylinder  of  a  carding-machine. 

2.   The  wool  of  a  sheep  in  an  unbroken  mat. 

Fleece-fold'er.  A  kind  of  press  used  in  con- 
densing the  folded  fleece  so  that  it  may  be  tied  by 
twine  into  a  compact  bundle  for  shipment.  The  plat- 
form is  composed  of  leaves  hinged  to  a  central  piece. 
The  wool  is  laid  on  the  leaves, 
which  are  then  raised  and  held 
in  position  by  notched  bars  un- 
til the  package  is  bound,  when 
they  are  lowered.  A  plate,  connecting  with  a  sjiring- 
balance  scale,  is  placed  in  the  central  piece  and  raised 
by  a  lever  until  the  package  of  wool  rests  upon  it.  See 

WoOI.-rACKF.K. 

Fleet.  (Nautical.)  a.  To  draw  apart  the  blocks 
of  a  tackle. 

b.  To  allow  the  cable  or  hawser  to  slip  on  the 
whelps  of  the  capstan  or  Avindlass,  from  the  larger 
to  a  part  of  smaller  diameter. 

Flem'ish-eye.  (Kautical.)  An  eye  made  at  the 
end  of  a  rope,  without  splicing.  The  ends  of  the 
strands  are  tapered,  jiassed  over  oppositely,  marled, 
and  sewed  with  spun-yarn.  A  made-eye,  in  contra- 
distinction to  a  spliced-eye. 


FLEMISH-HORSE. 


8S2 


FLINT-MILL. 


Fig.  2020. 


Fig.  2021. 


Fleece-Folder. 

Plem'ish-horse.  {Nautkil.)  A  foot-rope  for 
the  man  at  tliB  earing  in  reefing.  The  horse  e.xtends 
below  the  yard;  the  Flemish  horse  is  the  outer 
portion. 

Flesh-brush.    A  soft  brush  to  be  used  on  the 
skin  to  promote  circulation  and  e.Koite  the  surface 
secretions. 
Flesh-hook.     A  hook  to  hang  meat. 
A  liook  to  handle  mi'at  in  a  pot  or  caldron. 
Plesh'ing.     [Lcathcr-manufactare.)     Tlie  opera- 
tion of  removing  fat,  Hesh,  ami  loose  membrane  from 
the  flesh  side  of  skins  and  hides.     Tlie  operation 
follows  that  of  unhairing,  and  is  performed  o»i  a 
beam  by  a  conve.x  knife  with  a  sharp  edge. 

Flesh'ing-kaife.  A  (jonve.f  knife  with  a  sharp 
edge  used  in  removing  the  ftesh  and  fat  from  the 
inner  surface  or  flesh-side  of  the  hide. 

Ple'WS.  A  sluice  for  letting  waters  off  irrigated 
meadows  (Scotch). 

Flex'i-ble-bina'Iilg.  (Biokbinding.)  A  book 
sewn  on  bands  raised  above  the  back  of  the  folded 
sheets,  so  as  to  allow  them  to  open  more  freely. 
The  sewing-thread  passes  aroiuul  the  bands. 
Flex'i-ble-coup'ling.  Thirion's  fle.vihle  coup- 
ling is  used  for  conveying  power 
from  one  shaft  to  another  when 
they  are  not  in  line.  It  is  a 
spii'al  steel  band  attached  at  its 
opposite  ends  to  the  two  shafts 
to  be  connected.  The  diameter 
of  the  spiral  is  larger  tlian  that 
of  the  shaft,  and  the  attach- 
m"nt  is  shown  as  consisting  of 
a  cast-iron  cap.  For  a  joint  of 
transmission  amounting  to  a 
right  angle,  fifteen  coils  of  a 
spiral  will  be  sufficient.  Another  form  is  a  cylindri- 
cal plug  or  rod  of  india-rubber  connecting  the  shafts. 
See  also  Universal  Joint. 
Fli'er.     See  Flyer. 

Flight.  \.  {Carpentry.)  A  series  of  parallel  steps 
proceeding  in  one  direction  without  turning. 

In  dng-legrjed  stairs,  the  lower  is  the  leading  flight, 
the  upper  the  returning  flight. 

2.  The  slope  or  inclination  of  the  arm  of  a  crane 
or  of  a  cat-liead. 

3.  A  spiral  wing  or  vane  on  a  shaft,  acting  as  a 
propeller  or  conveyor. 

FUght'er.  A  horizontal  vane  revolving  over  the 
surface  of  wort  in  a  cooler,  to  produce  a  circular 
current  in  tha  licjuor. 

Flint.  A  variety  of  silicious  stone  used  to  strike 
fire  ;  also  largely  used  in  making  the  fine  kinds  of 
jiottery.  Its  uses  —  domestic  and  for  fire-arms  — 
for  striking  fire  are  now  much  abridged  among  civ- 
ilized nations.  The  friction-match  and  fulminating- 
powdi'r  have  superseded  the  flint  and  steel. 

Flint-glass.  This  description  of  glass  is  made 
into  tumblers  and   other  drinking-vessels,  fine  ta- 


Thirion's  Flftible 
Coupling. 


ble  ware  and  bot- 
tles, and  various 
articles  of  decorative 
furniture  and  fit- 
tings. It  is  made 
of  white  sand,  52  ; 
carbonate  of  jiotash, 
14  ;  and  oxide  of 
lead,  33  ;  alumina, 
1  ;  with  metallic 
additions  to  neu- 
tralize color.  The 
articles  are  made  by 
the  agency  of  the 
blow-pipe,  or]>oiity, 
the  mold  and  press,  and  frequently  by  a  combina- 
tion of  blowing  and  pressing.  The  silica  for  its  manu- 
facture was  formerly  derived  from  jiulverized  flints, 
and  hence  its  name.  The  presence  of  li'ad  gives  it 
a  peculiar  property  of  refracting  light,  which  causes 
it  to  be  used  fur  lenses,  and  it  forms  one  of  the 
parts  in  achromatic  compound  lenses. 

It  fuses  at  a  lower  temperature  than  ordinary 
glass,  such  as  the  n'ouii,  plate,  or  windoio  glass.  It 
has  also  less  color,  owing  to  the  use  of  the  alkali 
potash,  instead  of  soda,  the  latter  imparting  a 
greenish  tinge  to  glass. 

J'lint-glass  is  softer  than  some  other  varieties,  and 
is  the  kind  which  is  cut. 

Artificial  gems  consist  of  flint-glass,  colored  in 
imitation  of  the  natural  tints  of  the  gems.  See 
Stuass. 

Pure  white  sand  free  from  oxide  of  iron  is  re- 
quii'cd  for  flint-glass,  as  iron  imjiarts  a  green  color. 

The    Bohemian   glass  is  a  silicate  of  potash  and 
lime,  a  little  of  the  silicate  of  alumina  being  substi- 
tuted for  the  oxide  of  lead.     The  silica  for  this  glass 
is  obtained  by  pounding  pure  white  quartz. 
Flint-glass  work  is  classed  as  — 

1.  Blown. 

2.  Molded  and  pressed. 

3.  Cut  and  engraved. 

4.  Reticulated  and  spun  with  a  variety  of  colors, 
incrusted,  flashed,  enameled  of  .ill  colors,  opalescent, 
imitation  of  alabaster,  platinized,  silvered,  etc. 

5.  Gla.ss  mosaic,  Millefiori,  Aventurine,  and  Ve- 
netian glass  weights,  etc. 

6.  Beads,  injitation  pearls,  etc. 

7.  Glass  accessories  to  lamjis,  gas-lights,  brackets, 
etc.,  such  as  globes,  chimneys,  drops,  bells,  reflect- 
ors, etc. 

Flint-knife.  A  knife  of  archaeological  interest, 
made  from  flint  chip]ied  to  shape. 

Flint  was  very  early  used  as  a  cutting  implement 
by  the  nations  so  fortunate  as  to  possess  it.  A  sort 
oi"  saw,  which  passed  for  a  knife,  consisted  of  flakes 
of  flint  inserted  into  wooden  handles  and  secured  by 
bitumen  or  by  lashings  of  gut  or  sinews.  Obsidian 
was  used  in  the  same  way.  The  South-Sea-lslnnd- 
ers  had  no  flint  or  obsidian,  and  used  shell,  splinters 
of  bamboo,  and  flakes  of  tortoise-shell.     See  Knife. 

Flint-lock.  The  old-fashioned  lock  for  fire- 
arms, in  which  the  cock  held  a  piece  of  Hint  and 
came  glancing  down  upon  the  steel  cap  of  the  pan 
which  contained  the  priming. 

Flint-locks  were  invented  early  in  the  seventeenth 
century,  and  gradually  superseded  the  match-lock. 
Pyrites  or  marcasite  was  also  used.     See  Gun-lock. 

Flint-mill.  1.  (Pottery.)  A  mill  in  which 
burned  flints,  having  been  previously  stamped  to 
reduce  them  below  a  certain  size,  are  ground  to 
powder  for  niLxing  with  clay  to  form  slip  for  porce- 
lain. 

The  flint-mill  is  a  strong  circular  pan  ten  or  twelve 


FLINT-WALL. 


883 


FLOATING. 


feet  in  diameter,  having  a  bottom  of  quartz  or 
felspar  blocks,  and  a  runner  or  runners  of  hard 
silicioiis  stones,  called  chtrl,  lime  in  any  form  being 
inadmissible,  as  it  forms  a  flux  for  tlie  other  ma- 
terial which  would  vitrify  in  the  scgmrs  or  become 
blistered  by  the  escape  of  carbonic  acid. 

The  mill  is  of  the  nature  of  an  arrastra,  as  the 
running  stones  are  blocks  driven  by  depending  bars 
from  the  arms  which  pro- 
Fig.  2022.  ject    radially   from    the 
rotating  vertical  axis. 

The  fractured  flint  is 
fed  into  the  jian,  and 
water  to  the  depth  of 
eight  inches  is  added. 
The  flint  is  ground  by 
being  levigated  between 
the  runners  and  the  bed, 
Flint-UiU.  and  by  grinding  the  par- 

ticles against  each  other. 
The  machine  resembles  the  arrastra  of  Spain  and 
the  Spanish  countries  of  America,  excepting  that  in 
the  arrastra  the  blocks  are  dragged  around  in  the 
bed,  being  connected  by  thongs  to  the  revolving 
arras  ;  and  also  that  the  argentiferous  slimes  are 
treated  with  mercury  in  the  arrastra,  instead  of 
being  merely  levigated  in  water.     See  Arrastka. 

The  flint-pan  is  the  invention  of  Brindley,  so 
celebrated  for  his  energetic  prosecution  of  the  British 
canals.  Before  its  introduction  the  flints  were 
ground  dry,  and  the  dust  proved  very  fatal  to  the 
work-people. 

Mills  of  similar  character,  on  a  smaller  scale,  are 
used  for  grinding  felspir,  broken  porcelain,  and 
other  ingredients  used  in  the  pottery  and  porcelain 
manufacture. 

2.  {Mininj. )  A  mode  formerly  adopted  for  light- 
ing mines  in  which  flints  studded  on  the  surface  of 
a  wheel  were  made  to  strike  against  a  steel  and  give 
a  quick  succession  of  sparks  to  light  the  miner  at 
his  work.     Sparks  will  not  inflame  the  fire-damp. 

Flint-walL  A  wall  common  in  some  parts  of 
England,  made  of  broken  flints  set  in  mortar,  and 
with  quoins  of  masonry.  The  black  surfaces  of  the 
broken  flints  are  exposed  on  the  face  of  the  wall. 

Flint-^are.  (Pottery.)  A  superior  kind  of 
earthenware  into  whose  composition  ground  flint 
largely  enters.  See  Porcelain'. 
Flisk.  A  large-toothed  comb. 
Flitch.  (Carpentry.)  a.  One  of  .several  associated 
planks  which  are  fastened  side  by  side  to  form  a 
compound  beam,  or  bailt-beam. 

b.   A  bolt  of  planks,  united  by  the  stub-shot. 
Float.    [Hi/firaiUic  EiijiiKcriiig.)     1.   One  of  the 
boards  or  pvddles  attached  to  the  radial  arms  of  a 
paddle-wheel  or  water-wheel. 

2.  The  hollow,  metallic  ball  of  a  self-acting  faucet, 
which ^oi<i  upon  the  water  in  the  cistern  or  boiler. 
See  B.ALL-cocK. 

3.  The  quill  or  cork  from  which  the  bait  line  is 
suspended,  and  whose  motion  indicates  the  bite  of 
a  fish. 

4.  A  plasterer's  trowel  (i),  used  in  spreading  or 
floating  the  plaster  on  to  a  wall  or  other  surface. 

The  long  fliat  is  of  such  a  length  as  to  require 
two  men  to  use  it. 

The  hand-ficixt  is  that  in  ordinary  use. 

The  quirl:-f[oAt  is  used  in  finishing  moldings. 

An  angle-Sioxt  is  shaped  to  fit  the  angle  formed  by 
the  walls  of  a  room. 

5.  A  sing'c-eut  tile,  or  one  in  which  the  teeth  are 
parallel  and  unbroken  by  a  second  row  of  crossing 
teeth. 

Th3  usual  horizontal  obliquity  of  the  teeth  rela- 


tively to  the  central  line  of  files  is  55°,  but  single-cut 
files  are  much  less  inclined,  and  the  teeth  of  Jloati 
are  sometimes  square  across  the  face  of  the  file. 

The  floats  of  comb-makers  and  ivory-carvere  are 
made  of  various  shapes  (b  b),  and  those  of  the  former 

Fig.  2023. 


I  ^»V'0 


fli 


Floats. 

are  known  by  specific  names,  as  grnille,  found,  carlet, 
topper.  (See  Comb.)  The  teeth  have  a  forward  in- 
clination of  about  15°,  and  are  made  by  a  file,  not  a 
chisel.  They  are  of  a  lower  temper  than  usual,  and 
are  sharpened  by  a  burnisher. 

6.  The  serrated  plate  (e  d)  used  by  shoemakers  for 
rasping  off  the  ends  of  the  pegs  inside  the  boot  or 
shoe. 

7.  (Tempering.)  A  contrivance  for  afl'ording  a, 
copious  stream  of  water  to  the  heated  steel  surface 
of  an  object  of  large  bulk,  such  as  an  anvil  or  die  in 
the  process  of  tempering.  The  rajiid  production 
of  steam  prevents  the  constant  contact  of  cold  water 
when  the  object  is  merely  dijiped,  as  a  body  of  steam 
intervenes.  The  dashing  stream  of  water  exposes 
constantly  a  new  body  of  water  to  the  hot  surface, 
and  makes  the  hardening  more  complete. 

In  the  English  Hint,  a  powerful  jet  of  water  is 
used  in  hardening  the  dies. 

8.  A  coal-cart. 

9.  A  small  raft  of  timber,  say  18  feet  square  and 
1  foot  deep. 

10.  A  polishing-block  used  in  marble-working. 
A  runner. 

11.  An  inflated  bag  or  pillow  to  sustain  a  person 
in  tlie  water.  A  cork-jacket.  Ormsbee's  float  is  an 
annular  bag  placed  as  a  sleeve  upon  the  arm  or 
around  the  buttocks.  It  is  made  of  water-proof 
material,  and  is  inflated  when  required.  See  Life- 
preserver. 

Float-board.  One  of  the  boards  of  an  under- 
shot water-wheel  or  of  a  paddle-wheel. 

Float-case.  (Hydraulic  Enginccrinei.)  A  cais- 
son to  be  attached  to  a  submerged  ship  or  other 
body,  to  float  it  by  the  expulsion  of  water  and  sub- 
stitution of  air  in  the  case. 

Float'er.  (Hydraulic  Engineering.)  A  register- 
ing float  on  a  graduated  stick  to  indicate  a  level  at- 
tained between  periods  of  observation. 

Float'lng.  1.  (Weaving.)  A  term  applied  to  a 
thread  which  spans  a  considerable  number  of  threads 
without  intersection.  This  is  an  incident  to  twill- 
ing. (See  Twill.  )  Diapers,  for  instance,  are  fve- 
lecif  twills;  that  is,  every  warp  fioats  under  four 


FLOATING-ANCHOR. 


884 


FLOATING-DOCK. 


threads  of  woof,  and  is  raised  and  interwoven  with 
the  fifth.     Also  caWed  Jliishmg. 

2.  The  second  coat  of  thiee-coat  plastering. 

Float'ing - an'chor.  {.VaiUical.)  A  frame  of 
spars  and  sails  dragi^'ing  overboard,  to  lessen  the 
drift  of  a  ship  to  leeward  in  a  gale.  A  Drag-.\s- 
CHOR  (which  see). 

Floafiiig-bat'tery.  A  vessel  strengthened  so 
as  to  be  shot-proof,  or  as  nearly  so  as  possible,  and 
intended  for  operating  in  comparatively  smooth 
water,  for  defending  harbors  or  attacking  fortihca- 
tions. 

We  are  told  that  a  ship  of  this  kind  called  the 
"Santa  .\nna,"  sheitli.-l  wil'.i  lead,  of  1,700  tons 
biirJL'n,  o.irryi;ig  jiJ  gun  and  having  a  crew  of  300 
men,  was  built  at  Nice  in  1530.  Slie  belonged  to 
the  Knights  of  St.  John,  and  was  employed  by 
Charles  V.  against  Tunis  in  1535. 

At  the  .siege  of  Gibraltar  in  1782,  by  the  French 
and  .Spanish,  ten  Spanish  war  vessels  were  converted 
into  Hoating-batteries  by  strengthening  their  sides 
with  timber,  raw  hides,  and  junk,  to  a  thickness  of 

Fig.  2024. 


Crimean  Floatiug-Battery. 

seven  feet ;  they  were  also  fitted  with  sloping  bomb- 
proof roofs  or  decks,  and  are  said  to  have  mounted 
212  guns,  principally  32-pounders,  which  were  consid- 
ered heavy  guns  in  those  days  ;  they  were  manned 
with  more  than  5,600  men,  and  provided  with 
furnaces  for  heating  shot  and  arrangements  for  ex- 
tingiishing  fires.  Tliey  were  constructed  by  D'Ar- 
con,  a  French  engineer,  and  were  first  employed  in 
the  attack  of  September  13,  1782,  and  sustixined  the 
heaviest  fire  of  the  British  d\iring  nearly  the  whole 
of  that  day  without  apparent  injury,  but  were  at 
lait  set  on  fire  by  hot  shot. 

In  1813,  Robert  Fulton  submitted  a  plan  to  the 
United  States  government  for  the  construction  of  a 
large  floating-battery,  which  was  accordingly  built ; 
she  was  156  feet  in  length,  56  feet  beam,  and  20  feet 
deep,  propelled  hy  a  single  wheel  16  feet  in  diameter  ; 
her  sides  were  very  thick,  and  she  is  said  to  have 
attained  a  speed  of  five  miles  an  hour  against  the 
tide. 

During  the  Crimean  war  the  French  constructed 
several  floating-batteries,  which  were  sent  into  the 
Black  Sea,  and  rendered  very  efficient  service  at  the 
capture  of  Kinburn.      The  English  shortly  after- 


wards commenced  building  vessels  of  a  similar  class, 
but  none  of  these  were  completed  in  time  to  be  of 
service  during  that  campaign. 

Those  of  the  French  were  of  wood,  and  plated 
with  iron  four  inches  in  thickness  ;  thry  were  built 
very  flat,  but  were  to  a  cei-tain  extent  sea-going 
vessels. 

The  English  ones,  such  as  the  "  Erebus,"  were  con- 
structed almost  exclusively  of  iron,  and  mounted  a 
very  heavy  battery,  consisting  of  thirty  8-inch  guns. 

The  Stevens  floating-battery  is  a  very  sharp  screw 
steamer,  designed  for  gi'eat  speed,  and  will  he  found 
more  fully  described  under  the  head  of  Al'.MOK- 
PLATING.     See  also  Iron-clad  ;  Momtor  ;  etc. 

Float'ing-bridge.  1.  A  foi-m  of  ferry-boat 
which  is  guided  and  impelled  hy  chains  which  are 
anchored  on  each  side  of  the  river,  and  pass  over 
wheels  on  the  sides  of  the  vessel,  the  wheels  being 
driven  by  steam-power.  Lifting  platfoims  at  each 
end  admit  vehicles. 

2.  The  flonting-bridge  for  canals  rests  on  a  caisson 
or  pcmtun,  and  is  opened  and  closed  hy  chains  and 
windlasses.  When  it  is  open,  it  lies  in  a  recess  in 
the  side  of  the  canal  made  to  receive  it.  The  jion- 
ton  is  made  of  sheet-iron,  and  is  designed  to  act  as 
a  girder  when  the  bridge  is  closi'd. 

Bridges  across  the  Humoaze,  Humber,  and  Itchin, 
in  England,  and  the  bridge  which  so  long  crossed 
the  Susriuehanna  at  Havre  de  Grace,  llaryland,  are 
instances  of  fionting-bridges  which  might  almost  as 
well  be  called  ferry-boats  ;  the  distinction  is  not 
easy  to  draw,  and  is  not  very  important.  The  train 
ran  on  to  a  high  deck  and  was  floated  across  ;  the 
dirterences  of  level  due  to  tide  were  met  by  a  hinged 
trainway. 

Float'ing-clough.  A  barge  with  scra]iers  at- 
tached, which  is  driven  by  the  tide  or  current,  to  rake 
up  the  silt  and  sand  over  which  it  pa.sses,  so  that 
the  sediment  may  be  removed  by  the  current. 

Float'iag-dam.  {Hi/di-nulic  Engineeriiuj.)  A 
caisson  used  as  a  gate  for  a  dry-dock. 

Float'ing-der'rick.  One  adaj'tcd  for  river  and 
harbor  use,  in  raising  sunken  vessels,  moving  stone 
for  haibor  impro\ements,  etc.     See  Derrick. 

Float'ing--dock.  An  iron  vessel  of  a  rectangular 
shape,  with  a  rounded  bow  and  a  strong  caisson 
gate  at  the  stern.  The  vessel  has  a  double  skin, 
with  a  large  intervening  space.  Into  the  inner 
basin  a  ship  is  floated  while  the  dock  is  partially 
submerged  ;  the  caisson  being  closed,  the  water  in 
the  dock  and  in  the  space  intervening  between  the 
two  skins  is  pumi)ed  out,  so  that  the  interior  m.ay 
be  dry,  to  allow  work  on  the  vessel,  and  the  jacket 
may  have  sufficient  flotative  power  to  carry  its  load. 

The  estimated  proportions  of  the  inner  and  outer 
skin  are  :  the  latter  should  be  one  third  broader 
and  deeper  than  the  former.  The  intervening  space 
is  divided  by  bulk-heads. 

The  weight  or  unloaded  displacement  is  estimated 
ai  -fa  to  -psj  of  its  load  displacement,  giving  from 
1^  to  -jV  for  its  lading. 

The  largest  vessel  —  for  such  it  is  —  of  this  class 
is  the  "  Bermuda,"  built  in  England  and  navigated  to 
the  Bermudas,  being  towed  by  two  war  vessels  by 
way  of  JIadeira,  where  there  was  a  relay  of  tugs. 
This  dock  cost  .$1,250,000,  and  is  represented  on 
the  opposite  page.  It  has  the  following  dimensions : 
extreme  length,  381  feet ;  width  inside,  S3  feet  9 
inches;  width  over  all,  123  feet  9  inches;  depth, 
74  feet  5  inches.  The  weight  of  the  ilock  is  8,350 
tons. 

The  dock  is  U-shaped,  and  the  section  throughout 
is  similar.  It  is  built  with  two  skins  fore  anil  aft, 
at  a  distance  of  20  feet  apart.     The  space  between 


' 

\,  ?',' "' 

m. 

1 

i 

1 

i 

•; 

FLOATING-HARBOR. 


885 


FLOCK-CUTTER. 


the  skins  is  divided  by  a  water-tight  bulk-head,  run- 
ning witli  the  Tniddle  line  the  entire  length  of  the 
dock,  each  half  being  divided  into  three  chambers 
by  similar  bulk-heads.  The  three  chambers  are  re- 
spectively named  "load,"  "balance,"  and  "air" 
compartments.  The  first-named  chamber  is  pumped 
full  in  eight  hours  when  a  ship  is  about  to  be 
docked,  and  the  dock  is  thus  sunk  below  the  level 
of  the  horizontal  bulk-heads  which  divide  the  other 
two  chambei-s.  Water  sufficient  to  sink  the  sti'ucture 
low  enough  to  admit  a  ves.sel  entering  is  forced  into 
the  balance  chambei-s  by  means  of  valves  in  the  ex- 
ternal skin.  The  vessel  having  floated  in,  the  next 
operation  is  to  place  and  secure  the  end  caissons, 
which  act  as  gates,  and  eject  the  water  from  the 
" load "  chamber.  Then  the  duck  with  the  vessel 
in  it  rises,  the  water  in  the  dock  being  allowed  to 
decrea.se  by  opening  the  sluices  in  the  cais.sons. 
The  dock  is  trimmed  by  letting  the  water  out  of  the 
"  balance  "  chamber  into  the  structure  itself.  The 
inside  of  the  dock  is  cleared  of  water  by  valves  in 
the  skin,  and  it  is  left  to  cliy.  When  it  liecomes 
necessary  to  undock  the  vessel,  the  valves  in  the 
external  skins  of  the  "  balancg  "  chamber  are  opened 
in  order  to  fill  them,  and  the  culverts  in  the  caissons 
are  also  opened,  and  the  dock  sunk  to  a  given  depth. 
From  keel  to  gunwale  nine  main  water-tight  ribs 
extend,  farther  dividing  the  distance  between  the 
two  skins  into  eight  compartments.  Thus  there  are 
altogether  forty-eight  water-tight  divisions.  Frames 
made  of  strong  plates  and  angle-iron  strengthen  the 
skins  between  the  main  ribs.  Four  steam-engines 
and  pumps  on  each  side — each  pump  has  two  suc- 
tions, emptying  a  division  of  an  "air"  chamber — 
are  fitted  to  the  ilock,  and  these  also  fill  a  division 
of  the  "load"  chamber.  When  it  becomes  necessary 
to  clean,  paint,  or  repair  the  bottom  of  the  dock,  it 
is  careened  by  the  weight  of  water  in  the  load  cham- 
bers of  one  siile,  and  the  middle  line  is  raised  aboui 
five  feet  out  of  the  water. 

The  "Royal  .Alfred,"  bearing  the  flag  of  the  admi- 
ral on  the  station,  and  weighing  6,000  tons,  was  lifted 
by  this  dock,  her  keel  re.sting  on  a  central  line  of 
blocks  arranged  on  the  floor  of  the  dock,  the  ship 
being  shored  up  with  timbers  all  round  the  toji-sides. 
A  .similar  dock  was  sent  in  sections  to  Carthagena, 
and  lifted  several  vessels  of  from  3,800  to  5,600 
tons,  in  one  case  (the  "  Xuraancia")  supporting  the 
vessel  eighty  days. 

Ploat'ing-har'bor.  A  breakwater  of  cages  or 
booms,  ancliored  and  fastened  together,  and  used 
as  a  protection  to  sliips  riiling  at  anchor  to  leeward. 
Float'ing-light.  1.  A  light  exhibited  at  tlie 
mast-head  of  a  vessel  moored  on  a  spit  or  shoal 
where  no  adet^uate  foundation  exists  for  a  jienna- 
nent  structure.  The  scrcw-pih'y  in  aflbrding  a  new 
means  of  founding  structures,  has  enabled  light- 
houses to  supei-sede  floating  -  lights  in  numerous 
cases.     A  tight-ship. 

2.  A  life-preserving  buoy  with  a  light  to  attract 
the  man  overboard,  and  to  direct  the  crew  of  a  boat 
coming  to  his  rescue. 

Ploat'ing-plate.  {Stereotyping.)  A  flat  cast- 
iron  plate  placed  at  the  bottom  of  a  square  cast-iron 
tray  in  which  a  stereotype  is  cast.  The  plaster  mold 
is  laid,  face  down,  on  the  fiuafitig-plate,  and  the  two 
are  ]>!aced  in  the  heated  dippiit(j-pnn,  the  cover  of 
which  is  screwed  on.  The  dijyjyinrf-pan  is  plunged 
in  an  iron  pot  containing  the  molten  alloy,  which 
luns  in  at  the  gates  and  floats  the  jilate  and  mold  ; 
th?  litter  has  notches  at  its  edges,  which  allow  the 
im-tal  to  penetrate  between  it  and  the  plate.  The 
result  is  a  casting  with  a  flat  back,  and  a  face  with 
cameo  impression  resembling  the  original  type.  | 


Float'ing-safe.  A  buoy-shaped  receptacle  for 
papers,  letters,  and  valuables,  to  be  cast  overboard 
in  ca.se  of  foundering  or  wreck. 

Float'ing-screed.  (Plastering.)  A  strip  of  plas- 
tering first  laid  on  to  serve  as  a  guide  for  the  thick- 
ness of  the  coat. 

Float-stone.  (Bricklaying.)  A  rubber  used 
by  bricklayers  for  smoothing  conipass-brieks  for 
curved  work,  such  as  the  cylindrical  backs  and 
spherical  heads  of  idches.  It  takes  out  the  axe- 
inarks  acipiired  in  roughly  dressing  to  shajje. 

Float-valve.  A  valve  actuated  by  a  float  so  as 
to  open  or  close  the  port,  according  to  the  level  of 


Fig.  2025. 


\^^.:^^,iJj.:j^^jjj^j^^^, 


Float-  Valve. 

the  liquid  in  the  chamber  where  the  float  is  placed. 

It  is  tin-  eciui\alent  of  a  ball-cock. 

Flock.  1.  Wool-dust  used  in  coating  certain 
portions  of  the  patteins  in  wall-papers.  The  wool 
is  the  short  refuse  of  the  factory,  much  of  it  being 
derived  from  the  cloth-shearing  machine.  It  is 
scoured,  dyed,  dried,  and  ground,  sifted  into  grade.s, 
and  dusted  over  the  varnished  surface  of  the  paper. 

2.  A  fibrous  material  for  stuffing  upholstery,  njat- 
tresses,  etc.  It  is  made  by  reilucing  to  a  degree  of 
fineness,  by  machinery,  coarse  woolen  cloths,  rags, 
tags,  old  stockings,  etc. 

Flock-cut'ter.  A  machine  for  cutting  fiber  to  a 
very  short  staple,  called  Jlvck: 

Fig  2026. 


ir 


Tilion  ami  llilson''s  Flock-Cutter. 


FLOCK-DUSTER. 


886 


FLOOR. 


In  Baiber's  patent  (1846)  it  consists  of  a  cylinder 
with  si)iral  knives  rotating  in  contact  with  a  concave 
having  strai^lit  knives,  the  effect  being  a  shear  cut 
upon  the  fiber  passing  between  tlie  edges,  which 
shave  p.ist  each  other.  See  also  Chase,  1S62;  Pitts, 
ISJG  ;  Marble,  1872. 

Tlie  example  (Fig.  2026)  has  a  bed  in  which  knives 
are  arranged  in  parallel  groups,  of  which  one  in  each 
gronji  is  radial  and  the  others  of  the  group  parallel 
thei'ewith.  Tlie  lower  cutter  H  lias  a  rotary  motion 
and  a  vertii'al  ailjiistment.  Tlie  other  cutter  /  has 
a  self-adjusting  movement,  without  rotation,  but 
floating,  as  it  were,  on  the  surface  of  the  runner. 
Flock-dust'er.     For  removing  dust  from  flock. 

The  material  is 
Fig.  2027.  _  agitated     by 

beaters  in  a 
gauze  cylinder 
with       interior 

H  ,,-,        ,:^— --M-  T-- — ^^    fed     into     the 

hopper  at  one 
end  of  the  case 
and  is  dis- 
charged at  the 
other  end,  be- 
ing dusted  and 
loosened  by  the 
inclined  brush- 
es wliicli  impi'l  it  forward.  The  dust  escapes  through 
a  senii-eylindrii'.al  screen. 

Flook-grind'ing  Ma-chine'.  A  ease  of  the 
furiii  nf  a  hollow  cone,  containing  a  revolving  cylin- 
der of  the  for.n  of  tlu  frustum  of  a  solid  cone. 
Both  are  proviiled  with  spirally  arranged  knives, 
lield  between  segmental  bimler-plates.  Apertures 
at  both  ends  are  provided,  so  that  the  machine  may 
be  fed  and  run  in  either  direction,  to  sharpen  the 
knives  and  grind  at  the  same  time. 

M'.\lli.ster  s,  1870,  has  a  cylinder  of  oblique  blades 
operating  upon  vertical  parallel  blades  on  the  con- 
cave beneath. 

In  some  cases  the  grinder  is  a  frustum  of  a  cone 
discharging  at  the  bas-^. 

In  the  example  (Fig.  2023),  the  bo.x  has  radial 
agitators  on  a  vertical,  rotating  shaft.     The  endless 

Fig.  202S. 


Waterhouse's  Flock-Duster. 


yJ^  'y'.'-y^.^^^.-'. 


•' 


Flock -Grinder. 

apron  passes  np  one  side,  and  has  enps  carrj'ing  up 
the  material  and  conveying  it  to  the  hopper  of  the 
tearing  cylinder.  The  material  is  forced  down  upon 
the  tearing  cylinder  bv  reciprocal  plungers. 

Flock'ing-ma-chine'.  One  for  ilistributing 
flock  on  a  prepared  surface  of  cloth  or  paper. 

In  the  example,  the  cloth  is  passed  on  an  endless 


Chaffee^s  Flocking- Macktne. 

web  with  its  varnished  side  uppei-most,  beneath  a 
brush  whose  upper  portion  rotates  in  a  box  of  flock. 

Plock-o'pen-er.  A  machine  with  pickers  or  stiff 
brushes  for  teaiing  apart  the  bunches  of  flock,  so  as 
to  make  a  light,  loose  fiber  which  shall  feed  regularly 
to  the  cloth  or  paper  to  whose  varnished  surface  it 
is  to  be  attached. 

Flock-pa'per.  Wall-paper  on  which  pulverized 
wool  is  attached  by  size. 

Flog'ging-chis'el.  A  chipping-chisel  of  large 
size,  used  in  chijiping  off  certain  portions  of  a  cast- 
ing. 

Flog'ging-ham'mer.  A  hammer  used  by  ma- 
chinists, etc.,  intermediate  in  size  between  the  sledge 
and  luuul  haninicr. 

Flood-fence.  1.  One  anchored  to  prevent  its 
being  upset,  floated  off,  or  carried  away  during  time 
of  high  water  :  or, 

2.  One  which  is  laid  over  by  the  force  of  the  cur- 
rent, and  is  prevented  by  its  moorings  from  being 
carried  away. 

Flood-flank'ing.  (Hydraulic  Engineering.)  A 
mode  of  embanking  with  stiff,  moist  clay,  «luch 
is  dug  in  spits,  wheeled  to  the  spot,  and  then  each 
spit,  separately  being  taken  on  a  pitchfork,  is 
diished  into  its  place  so  as  to  unite  with  the  spit 
last  thrown.  The  crevices  which  appear  after  the 
contraction  of  the  clay  in  drying  are  lilled  by 
.iliidiling. 

Flood-gate.     1.  A  tide-gate  or  slnice. 

2.  a.  A  gate  or  sluice-door  in  a  water-way,  ar- 
ranged to  ojien  when  the  water  attains  a  hight  above 
a  given  level,  and  so  allow  it  to  escape  freely,  to 
prevent  injury  liy  flood. 

b.  A  gate  which  lies  down  when  the  stream  be- 
comes deep  and  powerful,  so  as  to  avoid  being  car- 
ried off. 

Systems  of  irrigation  including  flood-gates,  wheels, 
and  pumps,  were  introduced  into  Spain  by  the  Sara- 
cens. The  country  is  gradually  drying  up.  In  the 
time  of  Pliny  it  was  more  populous  and  prospeioiis 
than  now.  Since  the  time  of  Abderrahman  it  has 
become  still  more  dry  and  sterile. 

Flook'an.  {Mbung.)  The  shifting  of  a  vein  or 
lode  by  a  cleft.     Flooking. 

Floor.  1.  (Building.)  The  surface  on  which  a 
person  walks  in  a  room  or  house. 

It  may  be  of  masonry,  bricks,  tiles,  concrete, 
earth,  boards. 

The  term  usually  refers  to  boards  laid  tightly  to- 
gether and  nailed  to  timbers  which  are  termcil  jvi^ts. 

A  single-floor  (A)  is  one  in  which  the  joists  a  a 


FLOOR. 


887 


FLOOR. 


pass  from  side  to  side  of  the  house,  resting  upon 
wall-plates  and  sustaining  the  floor  above,  and  the 
ceiling  of  the  room  below. 

A  dhublc-Jioor  {B)  is  one  in  which  the  primary 
timliei-s  are  binders  b  b  which  rest  upon  the  wall- 
plates  and  support  the  Jloor  or  bridgiiig-joists  a  a 
and  the  ceiling-joists  c  c. 

A  framed  floor  (C)  has  an  additional  member, 
which  assumes  the  primary  position.  The  girder  d 
rests  on  the  wall-plates  and  supports  the  binding- 
joists  b,  whose  ends  rest  thereupon.  The  binding- 
joists  support  the  bridging  or  floor-joists  a  and  the 
«eiVj(i<jr-joists  c,  as  before  described. 

Diagonal  cross-pieces  nailed  between  the  top  of 
one  joist  and  the  bottom  of  the  ne.xt  are  called  struts, 
and  the  floor  is  said  to  be  strutted  (D).  The  eflect 
is  to  prevent  the  lateral  deflection  or  tilting  of  the 
joists,  and  to  make  them  mutually  sustaining  when 
an  excessive  weight  is  imposed  on  one  or  more. 

Fire-proof  floors  {E)  are  usually  constructed  with 
iron  girdei-s  e  a  short  distance  apart,  which  serve  as 

Fig.  2030. 


abutments  for  a  series  of  brick  arches  /,  on  which 
either  a  wooden  or  plaster  floor  may  lie  laid. 

i''  is  a  floor  with  beams  e  supported  on  iron  gird- 
ers g.  (?  is  a  fire-proof  floor  of  brick  and  cement, 
supported  on  iron  framing  on  iron  columns.  Over 
the  cement  is  a  wooden  floor  for  comfort.  It  is  from 
the  Harpers'  establishment  in  New  York. 

See  al^io  Stable-floor. 

A  folding-floor  is  one  in  which  the  heading-joints 
of  a  number  are  in  a  straight  line. 

In  a  straight-joint  floor,  each  board  breaks  the 
joint  of  the  preceding. 

A  floor  without  girders,  joists,  or  pillars  was  laid 
in  Amsterdam  for  a  room  sixty  feet  square.  Very 
strong  wall-plates  were  secured  in  the  walls,  and  the 
floor  consisted  of  three  thicknesses  of  one  and  a  half 
inch  boards  nailed  to  the  wall-plate.  The  first  two 
courses  were  separately  laid  and  nailed  diagonally 
across  the  space  and  crossing  each  other  at  right  an- 
gles.   The  next  course  was  laid  in  the  usual  manner, 


square  with  the  building.  The  floor  was  thus  sus- 
pended, and  strained  from  the  wall-plates. 

Among  the  modes  of  constructing  tire-proof  floors 
may  be  cited  girders  and  beams  of  cast-iron  and 
trusses  of  wrought-iron.  (See  Beam.)  Spanning 
the  intervals  between  the  beams,  brick  arches  are 
placed,  and  upon  these  concrete  floors,  with  a  simple 
covering  of  boards  for  comfort  or  appearance. 

Fig.  2031  shows  a  number  of  modes  of  constnic- 
tion. 

A  has  a  truss  of  three  members  resting  on  I-shaped 
iron  girders  a,  and  supporting  similarly  shaped 
joists  b,  on  which  a  floor  is  laid. 

£  has  a  sprang  arch  d  of  concrete  or  beton  resting 
on  a  skew-back  on  the  wall  and  the  foot  flange  of 
the  iron  girder.     On  it  rest  the  joi.sts  and  flooring  e. 

C  has  hollow  bricks  /,  which  are  suspended  Irom 


Fig.  2031. 


Ftre-Proof  Floors^ 

the  foot  flanges  of  the  angle-iron  girders  g,  and  sup- 
port the  ceiling. 

1)  has  blocks  i  of  cement,  concrete,  or  plaster-of- 
paris  cast  on  temporary  molds  between  the  beams  h 
and  around  cores. 

E  has  arched  and  hollow  tiles  I  which  rest  on  the 
beams  k  and  support  the  floor  y. 

F  has  hollow  tiles  »h  which  meet  above  and  below 
the  beams.  The  tiles  are  in  two  tiers,  and  their 
thrust  is  sustained  by  a  tension-vod. 

G  has  arched  tiles,  three  voussoirs  o  in  a  set,  and 
these  rest  on  the  beams  p. 

H  has  five  voussoirs  q  forming  a  flat  arch  resting 
on  the  beams  r. 

/  has  ceiling  tiles  s  suspended  from  cleats  on  the 
ribs  t. 

J  has  I-shaped  girders  v^  supporting  tiles  whose 
soffits  have  cofiers  and  moldings. 

.S"  is  a  roof  in  which  the  concrete  surface  x  is  held 
by  corrugated  plates  y  tied  to  the  rafters  s  by  angle- 
pieces. 


FLOOR-CLOTH. 


888 


FLOOR-CLOTH. 


Z  is  a  similar  arrangement  for  ceilings  ;  a  the 
joists,  c  the  suspension  bolt,  b  d  the  sheet-iron,  e 
the  i>la.ster. 

Ill  Fig.  2032,  A,  the  joists  have  iron  lath,  and 
strips  of  metal  are  spiked  to  the  joists  to  support 
arches  of  concrete  beneath  the  flooring.  The  stud- 
ding has  also  metallic  lath. 

B  has  girders  of  iron,  with  metallic  plat«s  for 
holding  the  ceiling  laths,  which  are  completely 
covered  by  the  plaster.  The  floor  rests  upon  con- 
Fig.  2032. 


Fire-Proof  Floors. 

Crete  bedded  upon  cornigated  plates,  and  these  rest 
upon  transverse  cross-plates  which  tie  the  girders 
together. 

2.  The  bottom  part  of  the  hold  on  each  side  of 
the  kei'lson.     The  Hat  portion  of  a  vessel's  hold. 

3.  The  inner  piece  of  the  two  which  together  form 
the  liiu'ket  of  an  overshot  water-wheel.    See  BncKET. 

Floor-cloth.  1.  A  heavy  painted  fabric  for  cov- 
ering; floors. 

Tlie  canvas  or  backing  of  floor-cloth  is  a  strong 
textile  fabric  of  hemp  or  flax,  known  as  burlaps.  It 
is  woven  of  a  width  of  from  four  to  eight  yards. 
The  pieces  of  convenient  size  are  stretcheil  in  a  ver- 
tical frame,  and  size  is  applied  by  workmen  who 
stand  on  ranges  of  scaffolding  in  front  of  the  canvas. 

It  is  pumice-stoned  to  remove  asperities.  The 
color  for  the  back  is  a  thick  paint  laid  on  with  a 
peculiar  trowel.  The  front  is  then  sized,  pnmiced, 
and  receives  several  coats  of  paint.  The  pattern 
was  at  first  stenciled,  but  since  1780  has  been  put 
on  with  blocks  about  18  inches  square,  one  for  each 
color,  and  the  blocks  register  with  each  other  as  in 
calico-printing  or  paper-staining.  The  canvas  is 
spread  upon  a  large  table.  Each  block  in  turn  is 
dipped  face  downward  upon  a  cushion  wetted  with 
paint  of  the  partioilar  color  for  that  block.  A  layer 
of  paint  is  thus  taken  up  and  transferred  to  the  can- 
vas, as  in  printing.  The  colors  are  applied  one  by 
one,  occupying  their  proper  places  in  the  pattern, 
which  is  made  of  little  square  types  answering  to 
the  pattern  and  the  color. 

The  print  in  cj -table  is  30  feet  long  and  4  wide  ;  the 
roll  of  painted  cloth  is  nndemeath  it,  and  is  gradu- 


ally unwound,  jiassing  over  the  surface  of  the  table 
where  the  printing-blocks  are  applied.  As  it  is 
printed,  the  cloth  slips  over  the  table  and  hangs 
down  through  a  slit  in  the  floor,  so  that  it  may  re- 
main vertical  while  the  paint  is  drying. 

A  United  States  patent  has  been  granted  for  a 
printing-block  in  which  each  square  is  repi-esented 
iiy  a  square  prism  in  a  chase  of  the  requisite  size, 
say  18  X  18  inches.  Each  prism  is  separately  mov- 
able and  may  be  set  out  to  the  plane  of  the  face. 
Any  set  of  the  prisms  may  be  forwarded  according 
to  the  pattern  recjuired. 

The  art  originated  with  Nathan  Taylor,  in  Eng- 
land, in  1754,  at  Knightsbridge,  near  London. 

The  canvas  for  the  jjurpose  was  originally  made  of 
ordinary  width  and  the  strips  sewed  together.  It 
was  afterwards  woven  four  yards,  then  seven  yards, 
and  eventually  nine  yards  wide. 

At  the  original  Knightsbridge  factor}'  it  is  now 
made  in  pieces  8  x  20  yards  and  7  x  30  yards. 

2.  An  artificial  fabric  painted,  varnished,  or  satu- 
rated with  a  water-proof  material.  The  kinds  are 
numerous  ;  e.  g. :  — 

Whiting  and  ocher,  mixed  with  glue  dissolved  in 
milk. 

Leather  scraps  treated  with  alkali,  ground,  mixed 
with  flax  or  hemp  fiber,  and  rolled  into  sheets. 

Cotton  batting  treated  with  a  cement  of  beeswax, 
glue,  Venice  tui-pentine,  and  boiled  linseed  oil  ; 
covered  with  a  jiigmcnt  of  burgundy  pitch,  litharge, 
and  boiled  linseed  oil,  colored  to  suit. 

Wall-paper  varnished. 

Wall-paper  on  canvas,  sized  and  varnished. 

Painted  cloth. 

Sheets  of  rubber  and  cork  dust,  softened  with 
benzole  rolled  between  two  fabrics,  a  coarse  and  a 
fine  ;  the  latter  is  stripped  off,  leaving  the  composi- 
tion attached  to  the  other. 

Painted  paper. 

Duck  treated  with  boiled  oil,  resin,  and  cork  dust, 
or  saw-dust.     Varnished. 

Paper  printed  in  oil  and  varnished  with  solution 
of  caoutchouc. 

Cloth  varnished. 

Manila  paper  on  both  sides  of  burlaps. 

Fabric  coated  with  paper-pulp  in  the  machine. 

Roofing-paper  treated  with  warm  linseed  oil  and 
naphtha,  to  which  is  pasted  a  sheet  of  wall-paper, 
varnished. 

Burlaps,  sheared,  damped,  calendered,  printed. 

Paper  floor-cloth  treated  with  varnish,  having  in 
it  powdered  felspar  or  glass. 

Fabric  covered  with  paper,  treated  wHth  oil,  resin, 
and  japan  varnish.  Ornaments  of  water-color 
placed  thereon  and  fixed  with  white  glue. 

Jute  and  manila  grass  combined  and  colored  in 
stri]ies. 

Fabric  coated  with  ground  slate  or  clay ;  with 
lin.seed  oil,  japan  varnish,  and  paints. 

Ground  leather,  vegetable  fiber,  and  bullock's 
blood  or  fibrine,  jiainteil,  stained,  or  printed. 

Jute  fiber  printed  with  aniline. 

Canvas  sized  with  glue  and  painted. 


Fig.  2033. 


Floor- Cloth  Eni/t. 


FLOOR  CLOTH  KNIFE. 


889 


FLOUR-PACKER. 


Lamiua  of  wood  backed  by  fabric  or  paper. 

Paper  cemeuted  ou  cloth,  printed  or  gniined,  Emd 
varnished. 

See  also  Lf.athf.r,  Artificial 

Floor-cloth  Elnife.  A  pushing  knife  for  slit- 
ting floor-cloth.    The  caster  keeps  it  above  the  floor. 

Floor-head.  (S/iipbuildimj.)  The  ujiper  ex- 
tremity of  a  ttoor-tiinber. 

Floor'iag-clamp.  An  implement  for  closing  up 
the  joints  of  tiooring-boards.  In  the  example,  the 
clamp  straddles  the  joist ;  is  retained  by  the  serrated 


Fig.  2034. 


Flooring-  damp. 

cams,  and  the  forward  thrust  of  the  lever  is  main- 
tained by  a  pivoted  brace,  which  engages  the  joisl 
behind  it. 

Floor-plan.  1.  (ShipbuilJitifi.)  A  longitudinal 
section,  showing  the  ship  as  divided  at  a  water  or 
rib-band  line. 

2.  {.Architecture.)  .\  horizontal  section,  showingthe 
thickness  of  the  walls  anil  partitions,  thearmngeaient 
of  the  pa,ssages,  apartments,  and  openings  at  the 
level  of  the  principal  or  receiving  floor  of  the  house. 

Floor-tim'ber.  {ShipbuUding.)  The  lower  sec- 
tion of  a  rib  secured  between  the  keel  and  beehon, 
the  flat  timbers  crossing  the  keel  forming  the  floor 
of  the  hold.  The  timbers  in  continuation  of  the 
rib  are  called  first,  second,  third,  etc.,  fiittocks. 

Flop-damp'er.  A  stove  or  furnace  damjier  which 
rests  by  its  weight  in  open  or  shut  position. 

Flo'ran.  Fine-grained  tin  ;  either  scarcely  per- 
ceptible in  the  stone  or  stamped  very  small. 

Flo'ra-scope.  A  microscope  contrived  for  exam- 
ining flowel'S. 

Flor'ence-leaf.     Fine  leaf  yellow  alloy.     See 

BiMNZE-PuWDEU. 

Flor'en-tine.     (Fubric.)    A  kind  of  silk. 

Flor'eu-tias-re-oeiv'er.  A  form  of  receiver  (a) 
(<i\-  the  results  of  the  distilla- 
tion of  essential  oils.  It  is 
conical  in  form,  and  has  a 
side  spout  at  which  accumu- 
lated water  discharges  as  it 
rises  to  the  level  of  the  bend 
of  the  spout,  while  the  oil, 
which  is  lighter  than  water, 
collects  at  the  top,  and  may 
be  decanted  off'. 

Oils    heavier    than    water 
are  collected  in   the  separa- 
tor b  and  drawn  off'  at  bot- 
tom. 
Floss-silk  (which  see). 


2035. 


Florentine-Receiver. 


Flor'et-Bilk. 


Flosh.  (Metallurgy.)  A  hopper-.shaped  box  in 
which  ore  is  placed  for  the  action  of  the  stamps. 
The  side  of  the  box  has  a  shutter  which  is  raised  or 
lowered  to  allow  the  ore  to  escape  when  it  has  ac- 
quired the  desired  lineness. 

Floss.  Fluid  glass  floating  in  a  puddling-fur- 
nace. 

Floss-hole.  (Metallurgi/.)  a.  A  hole  at  the 
back  of  a  puddling-furnace,  beneath  the  chimney, 
at  which  the  slags  of  the  iron  pass  out  of  the  fur- 
nace. 

b.  The  tap-hole  of  a  melting  furnace. 

Floss-silk.  The  exterior  soft  envelope  of  a  silk- 
worm's cocoon  ;  the  raveled  downy  silk  broken  off 
in  the  filature.  It  is  carded  and  spun  for  various 
purposes. 

Floun'der.  A  slicking-tool  whose  edge  is  used 
to  stretch  leather  for  a  boot  front  in  a  bloclcing  or 
crimping  b.^nrd. 

Flour-bolt.  (Hilling. )  A  gauze-covered  re- 
volving, cylindrical  frame  or  reel,  into  which  meal 
or  ehop  from  the  stones  is  fed,  in  order  to  have  the 
flour  sifted  through  and  separated  from  the  oH'al. 
The  cylinder  is  large  and  long,  and  its  axis  is  usually 
inclined  ;  the  bolting-cloth  with  which  it  is  covered 
is  of  different  grades  of  fineness,  the  meshes  at  the 
reception  end  being  closer  than  towards  the  dis- 
charge. The  matters  passing  through  at  tlic  difl'erent 
portions  of  the  length  are  of  different  grades,  and 
are  kept  separate. 

The  "line-flour"  of  Scripture  was  doubtless 
bolted  flour,  in  contradistinction  to  unbolted  flour 
or  brown  meal. 

Pliny  speaks  of  sieves  of  horsehair  as  first  made 
by  the  Gauls,  and  those  of  linen  by  the  Spaniards. 
The  method  of  applying  "a  sieve  in  the  form  of  an 
extended  bag  to  the  works  of  a  mill,  that  the  meal 
might  fall  into  it  as  it  came  from  the  stones,  and  of 
causing  it  to  be  turned  and  shaken  by  the  machinery, 
was  first  made  known  in  the  beginning  of  the  six- 
teenth centuiy"  (Bec-km.\nnV  The  best  bolting- 
cloths  used  in  Germany,  when  Beckmann  wrote, 
came  from  England,  and  were  made  of  wool. 

Flour-cool'er.  (Milling.)  A  chamber,  trunk, 
or  machine  in  which  meal  from  the  stones  is  placed 
to  cool,  or  is  stirred  by  a  blast  before  aniving  at  the 
bolt. 

Flour-dress'ing  Ma-chine'.  The  flour-dress- 
ing machine  is  a  hollow,  stationary,  inclined  cylin- 
der or  frame  covered  with  wire  cloth  of  different  de- 
grees of  fineness,  64,  60,  38,  and  16  meshes  to  the 
inch,  the  finest  being  at  the  Tipper  end.  Within 
the  cylinder  is  a  reel  whose  rails  are  covered  with 
brushes,  which,  in  their  revolution,  act  against  the 
interior  wire  surface  of  the  cylinder.  The  meal  is 
conducted  within  the  cylinder  by  a  spout  or  hopper, 
and  is  thus  rubbed  through  the  wire  meshes,  the 
finest  at  the  top,  the  next  at  the  succeeding  grade, 
and  so  on.  The  various  (jualities  are  collected  in 
the  separate  partitions  of  the  box. 

The  machine  is  described  in  the  patent  of  John 
Milne,  167.->. 

Flour-mill.     See  Grixdixg-mill. 

FlotiT-pack'er.  A  machine  for  compactly  fill- 
ing barrels  or  bags  with  flour.  It  is  usually  a  fol- 
lower or  piston  which  presses  upon  the  flour,  but  in 
some  cases  the  flour  as  it  falls  into  the  barrel  is  con- 
tinuously packed  by  a  spiral,  as  in  the  example. 

The  barrel  is  )ilaced  on  a  platform  suspended  by 
a  steelyard  and  by  a  weighted  cord  passing  over  a 
pulley.  The  steelyard  takes  under  and  clamps 
another  pulley  attached  to  the  former  one,  driving 
it  against  a  block  above.  On  sufficient  deposit  of 
flour  the  steelyard  is  depressed,   the   roller  freed 


FLOUR-SIFTER. 


890 


FLUE. 


Fig.  2036. 


from  tlie  upper  brake, 
anil  the  barrel  of  Hour 
(lescriids. 
Flour-sift'er.     A 

domestic  sie\'e  for 
separating  lumps  or 
accidental  trasli,  such 
as  insects,  from  the 
Hour  of  the  bin  or 
barrel.  As  a  substi- 
tute foi'  the  hands,  a 
flat  coil  of  silvered 
wire  is  adapted  to  vi- 


Ftour- Packer.  Flour-Sifter. 

hrate  over  the  meshes  of  the  sieve  and  expel  the 
flour. 

Fig.  2038. 


Branching-MachiMfor  Artificial  Fltiwers. 


Flo'w'erB,  Ar'ti-fi'cial.  Ornaments  simulating 
the  natural  products  of  the  garden  ;  made  from  wire, 
gauze,  cloth,  paper,  shavings,  wax,  shell,  feathers, 
etc.  Cutting-punches  and  scissors  are  used  for 
shaping  ;  gautlering-presses  for  stamping  into  the 
various  graceful  shapes  and  puckers. 

The  I'eather-Hower  makers  of  South  America  and 
Mexico  had  attained  great  .skill  in  the  time  of  Cortes. 
Italy  led  the  way  in  Europe  ;  France  followed,  and 
now  leads. 

Fig.  2038  shows  a  French  machine  for  branching 
artificial  flowers,  that  is,  braiding  them  or  leaves  to 
a  stem. 

Tlie  basis  of  the  stems  is  wire,  and  two  threads 
of  suitable  material  are  laid  along  this  wire  to  pre- 
vent  subsequent   slipping   of   the   colored    thread, 
which  forms  the  outer  covering  of  the  stems.     The 
endsoftheshort.stemsof  leaves,  flowers,  buds,  and 
i'ruits  being  laid  against  the  wire  are  wound  un- 
derthe  outercovering,  and  are  thus  fastened  to  it. 
The  wire  is  fed  from  a  spool  a,  passes  through 
a  hollow  spindle  6,  and  lies  upon  an  endless  feed- 
belt  c,  to  which  it  is  clamped  by  small  pijicheis. 
The  belt  is  driven  by  gearing  underneath,  and 
cai'ries  with  it  the  wiie  stem,  which  is  slowly 
unwound  from  the  spool  a.     Two  threads,  jiass- 
ing  through  an  eye  c,  are  also  diawn  tlirough  the 
hollow  spindle  6,  in  conjunction  with  the  wire,  by  the 
motion  of  the  endless  belt.     These  threads  are  un- 
wound from  the  sjiools/.     At  the  same  time  a 
rajiid   rotary    motion  is  given    to  tlie  hollow 
spindle  by  a  small  belt  from  the  driving  pul- 

On  the  revolving  hollow  spindle  h  is  fixed 
a  spool-frame  h,  which  cariies  two  siiools. 
The  covering  threads  are  led  from  these  spools 
through  the  loop  of  a  small  flyer  on  the  end  of 
tlie  hollow  spindle  h,  and  being  held  in  con- 
tact with  the  wire  as  the  latter  is  slowly  fed 
thi'ough  the  spindle,  are  wound  unil'ormly 
over  its  surface,  the  spool-frames  revolving 
with  the  spindles. 

The  ends  of  the  stems  of  leaves,  fruits,  or 
flowers  being  thrust  into  the  ends  of  the  hol- 
low  spindle   are   at  once  caught,  and  firmly 
wound  under  in  a  rapid  manner. 

The  upper  figure  is  a  general  view,  and  the  lower 
an  enlaiged  \'iew  of  the  jirincipal  working  parts. 

Flo'w'er-pot.  A  flaring  earthenware  ve.'isel  to 
hold  a  plant  with  a  sufticient  quantity  of  soil  for  its 
growth. 

Flow'ing-fur'nace.  (Foundbuj.)  Another  name 
for  the  cu]iola  for  melting  iron  in  Ibundries. 

Fluc'can.  (Mining.)  A  soft,  clayey  substance, 
generally  accompanying  the  cross-courses  and  slides. 
Floohm. 

Flue.  1.  A  passage  for  the  conveyance  of  the 
volatile  results  of  combustion.  A  smoke-dud  or 
chimney.     See  Fireplace  ;  Chimney. 

One  of  a  cluster  of  smoke-ducts  in  a  stack  of 
chimneys. 

The  longest  flue  with  which  we  are  acquainted  is 
that  of  the  lead-furnaces,  Allen  Mill,  Northumber- 
land, England.  It  is  used  for  cooling  the  volatile 
products  of  combustion,  and  condensing  the  escap- 
ing lead  fumes.  It  is  8,789  yards  in  length  (nearly 
five  miles),  is  8  feet  high,  6  wide.  It  may  be  called 
a  condenser,  so  far  as  the  fume  is  concerned. 

2.  A  pipe  for  the  conveyance  of  the  caloric  cur- 
rent through  a  boiler,  to  heat  the  surrounding 
water.  It  is  usually  secured  in  the  sheets  of  the 
fire-box  and  smoke-bo.x  respectively,  as  in  the  loco- 
motive-boiler.    Perhaps  invented  by  Smeaton. 

3.  The  technical  abbreviation  of  flute ;  used  by 


FLUE-BOILER. 


891 


FLUSH-DECK. 


orgau-builders  to  signify  a  Jiute-pipe,  in  contradis- 
tinction to  a  mouth-pipe  or  reed-pipe. 

Flue-boU'er.  A  .steam-boiler  whose  water  space 
is  traversed  by  tiues  ;  that  is,  a  tube  in  whieli  the 
heated  gases  are  conveyed.  There  are  several  vari- 
etie.s,  as,  drup-fluc :  muHiple-Jitie ;  return-flue,  etc. 

Smeaton  is  credited  with  the  invention.  It  is 
now  the  usual  form  on  our  Western  rivers  ;  the  cyl- 
indrical boilers  have  usually  two  Hues.  The  hre 
heat  lirst  passes  beneath  the  boUer,  and  then  returns 
through  the  flues. 

The  term  flue,  properly  used,  distinguishes  the  boil- 
er from  those  which  have  lubes,  which  are  full  of  wa- 
ter, and  the  heat  surrounds  them,  but  does  not  fill 
them. 

In  the  boiler  represented,  the  fire  is  built  in  the 
flues,  and  the  caloric  current  returns  beneath  the 
boiler. 

Fig.  2039.  Fig.  2040. 


Fairbairn^s  Flue-Boiler. 


Flue-brush.    A  cylindrical  brush    Fim-Bmsh. 
of  wire  or  steel  stiips  used  to  clean  the 
scale  and  soot  from  the  interior  of  a  flue,  to  lay  bare 
the  metallic  surface. 

Flue— olean'er.  A  bni.sh  of  wire  or  steel  slips, 
or  a  scraper  to  clean  flue  surfaces  of  steam-boilers. 

A  device  by  which  a  jet  of  steam  may  occasionally 
be  projected  along  a  boiler  flue  to  blow  out  the  scale 
of  soot. 

Flue-ham 'mer.  (Coopering.)  One  whose  jxen 
has  a  working  edge,  the  length  of  which  is  in  the 
plane  of  the  sweep  of  the  hammer.  It  is  used  in 
Jlaring  one  edge  of  each  iron  hoop  to  enable  it  to  ti* 
the  bdlge  of  the  cask.     See  Peen. 

Plue-plate.  A  plate  into  which  the  ends  of  the 
flues  are  set. 

Flue-scrap'er.  An  implement  having  circular 
or  s]iiral  blades  to  scrape  the  scale  from  the  fire-sur- 
face of  flues  of  steam-boilei's. 

Flue-sur'face.  {Steam-engine. )  Tlie  area  of 
surface  of  the  boiler  which  is  exposed  to  the  action 
of  the  flame  and  heated  gases  after  they  have  left  the 
fire-chamber  or  furnace. 

The  heating  surface  of  a  boiler  is  made  up  of  the 
fire-surfnce  and  flue-surface. 

Fluid-com'pass.  {Xauiicnl.)  That  in  which 
the  card  revolves  in  its  bowl  floated  in  alcohol. 

Fluid-lens.  One  in  which  a  liquid  is  imprisoned 
between  circular  glass  disks  of  the  required  curva- 
tures. 

Attempts  to  obtain  achromatism  have  been  made 
by  using  metallic  solutions  and  other  li<]uids  having 
a  higher  dispersive  power  than  flint  glass.  Though 
several  of  these  liquids  appear  to  have  given  ex- 
cellent results  experimentally,  they  have  never  been 
brought  into  general  use. 

Fluid-me'ter.  A  device  to  ascertain  the  quan- 
tity of  fluid  passing  a  selected  point. 

Some  of  these  are  driven  by  clock-work  or  other 
motor,  others  by  the  pres.sure  of  the  fluid.  When 
this  is  an  elastic  body,  as  air  or  gas,  the  question  is 
complicated  by  the  compressibility  ;  when  the  fluid 


is  such  as  water,  alcohol,  or  oil,  the  problem  is  more 
simple.     See  Liquid-.meteb. 

Among  fluid-meters  proper  may  be  cited  Gas- 
METEEs  (which  see).  As  to  mechanical  construc- 
tion, they  may  be  described  as  fans  rotating  spiral 
vanes,  expanding  bags,  cylinder  and  piston,  revolv- 
ing partially  submerged  meter-wheels,  inverted  cyl- 
inders.    See  AlK-HOLDER,  etc. 

Fluke.  1.  {Nautical.)  The  palm  of  an  anchor. 
The  bioad,  holding  portion  which  penetrates  the 
ground.     See  Anchor. 

2.  (Mining.)  The  head  of  a  charger  :  an  instru- 
ment used  for  cleansing  the  hole  previous  to  blast- 
ing. 

Flume.  A  chute  or  penstock,  open  or  covered, 
for  the  passage  of  water  to  a  wheel  or  washer.  Used 
with  water-wheels  and  gold-washers  of  various 
kinds.     A  penstock. 

The  illustration  shows  a  flume  crossing  a  valley 


Fig.  2041. 


Flume  near  SmartsvilU,  Yuba  0)unty,  California. 


in  California,  uniting  the  feeder  canal  on  one  ridge 
with  the  distributing  canal  of  another  ridge. 

Flu'or-o-type.  (Photograph.)  A  process  into 
which  fluoric  acid  enters  in  the  shape  of  fluorate  of 
soda. 

Flush.  1.  A  term  signifying  an  unbroken  or  even 
surface,  or  applied  to  surfaces  on  the  same  plane. 

2.  To  turn  on  a  sudden  dash  of  water.  See 
Flusiiint,. 

Flush-bolt.  a.  A  screw  bolt  whose  head  is 
countersunk  so  that  it  shall  not  protrude  from  the 
surface  of  the  object. 

b.  A  sliding  bolt  let  into  the  face  or  edge  of  a 
door  so  as  to  make  an  even  surface  therewith. 

Flush-deck.  (A'autical.)  One  running  the 
whole  length  of  the  vessel,  from  stem  to  stern,  with- 
out forecastle  or  poop,  as  in  a  frigate.     The  "  Great 


FLUSHING. 


892 


FLUTE. 


Eastern  "  has  a  tiusli-deck  692  feet  long  and  83  feet 
wide. 

Flush'ing.  1.  (Hydraulic  Enghiecring.)  To 
turn  on  a  sudden  and  copious  dash  of  water  as  in 
Jlushiiuj  a  sewer  to  cleanse  it  of  .silt.  When  a  col- 
lected body  of  water  is  turned  into  the  channel  of  a 
harbor  to  deepen  it  and  keep  it  navigable,  it  is  terui(;d 
sluicing ;  the  sluice  being  opened  to  let  the  water 
out  of  the  reservoir.  Where  the  water  of  a  river  is 
dannued  to  obtain  a  fall,  and  the  head  of  water  is 
turned  through  a  sluice-way  to  increase  the  depth 
of  water  at  that  point  to  float  a  boat  ou  to  another 
level,  it  is  termed  flashing. 

When  the  water  from  a  dam  is  suddenly  turned 
by  a  sluice-way  down  a  ravine,  to  turn  up  the  earth 
and  stones  and  e-vpose  ore,  it  is  called  hiixhiiic/. 

2.  {IVeaciiuj.)  A  term  applied  to  a  thread  which 
spans  a  number  of  other  threads  without  intersec- 
tion. (See  Twill.)  Usually  called  Floating 
(which  see). 

Flush-joint  One  in  which  the  abutting  parts 
make  no  prujectiou  beyond  the  general  face  of  the 

Objr   t. 

Flush-pan'el.  {Joinery.)  One  whose  surface 
comes  out  even  with  the  face  of  the  stile. 

Flush-TO'heel.  A  wheel  used  in  raising  water 
for  draining  ;  it  is  shaped  like  a  breast- whfcl,  but  is 
drir  II  by  power  to  raise  water.     See  Sooop-wheel. 

Flute.  1.  (.l/(6s'tc\)  An  ancient  wind  instrument 
which  hull  several  furms  in  ancient  times,  wliich  it 
still  maintains  among  savage  nations.  The  New- 
Fig.  2042. 


Flutes  o/ancient  Egypt  and  of  Brazil. 

Zealanders  play  it  with  a  blast  through  the  no.se. 
In  some  barbarous  countries  it  has  two  barrels. 
The  mouth-piece  is  generally  at  the  end,  like  our 
clarinet.  Captain  Speke  found  one  of  the  native 
kings  of  Equatorial  Africa  proficient  after  his  style. 


The  instrument  called  a  flute  in  the  translation 
of  the  Hook  of  Daniel  may  have  been  the  pandean 
pipes,  which  are  very  ancient,  or  it  may  have  been 
the  flute  as  used  in  Egyjjt. 

The  Hute  is  very  common  in  the  paintings  of  the 
Egyptian  tombs.  The  accomi)anying  cut  is  from  a 
painting  in  a  tomb  near  the  Pyramids.  The  action 
indicates  the  si<le  position  of  the  niouth-|)ieces  and 
holes.  Of  the  chromatic  scale  we  may  learn  more 
from  what  Pythagoras  has  written,  for  no  donljt  he 
ilerived  his  information  from  the  Egyptian  priests, 
who  were  scientific  musicians. 

The  flutes  of  ancient  Egypt  were  single  and 
double  ;  the  latter  are  shown  on  the  paintings  of 
Eleythya.  In  one  case  the  flute  is  apinirently  blown 
through  the  nostril,  like  the  New  Zealand  flute. 

Herodotus  (450  B.  c.)  mentions  the  marching  of 
the  troops  of  Alyattes  the  Lydian  "to  the  sound 
of  pipes  and  harps,  and  flutes  masculine  and  femi- 
nine." This  has  been  understood  to  refer  to  the 
sexes  of  the  players,  hut  more  probably  indicates 
lower  and  higher  musical  pitch. 

Flutes  among  the  classic  Greeks  were  made  of 
asses'  bones,  which  are  said  to  be  remarkably  solid. 
The  euphony  of  the  sound  may  be  presumed  to  lie 
in  the  inverse  ratio  of  the  natural  tone  of  the  original 
proprietor. 

The  same  much-belied  animal  contributes  his  hide 
to  the  making  of  diiim-heads,  which  have  a  fullness 
ol  tone  highly  .suggestive  of  the  inflated  style  of  the 
creature 

"  Out  of  whose  mouth  there  issues  a  blast." 

See  Dr.UM.  The  ossea  tibia  was  made  of  the  leg-bone 
of  a  crane. 

Alcides  loquitur:  — 

"The  Alexandrians  are  especially  skillful  with 
the  flute  ;  and  not  only  in  those  kinds  called  girl's 
flutes  and  hoy's  flutes,  but  also  in  men's  flutes, 
which  are  also  called  jierfect  and  super-perfect ;  and 
al.so  in  those  which  are  called  har]i-Hutes,  and  linger- 
flutes.  For  the  flutes  called  clymi,  which  Sophocles 
mentions  in  his  'Niobe,'  and  in  his  '  Drunimer.s,' 
we  do  not  understand  to  be  anything  but  the  com- 
mon Phrygian  flute.  And  the.se,  too,  the  Alex- 
andrians are  very  skillful  in.  They  are  also  ac- 
(piainted  with  the  flute  with  two  holes,  and  also 
with  the  intermediate  flutes,  and  with  tho.se  called 
hypotreli,  or  bored  underneath. 

"  We  know  of  some  that  are  called /(«//- Jorcrf,  which 
Anacreon  mentions  :  — 

*  What  lust  ha.s  now  seized  thus  upon  your  mind, 
To  wish  to  dance  to  tender  half-bore  j  flutes  ? ' 

And  these  flutes  are  smaller  than  the  perfect  flutes. 
I  am  acquainted,  too,  with  other  kinds  of  flutes,  the 
tragic  flute  and  lysiodic  flute  [used  by  the  actor  per- 
sonating a  female]  and  the  harp-like  flute  ;  all  which 
are  mentioned  by  Ephorus  in  his  '  Inventions,' and 
by  Euphranor  the  Pythagorean  in  his  'Treatise  on 
Flutes,'  and  also  by  Alexon,  wlio  wrote  another 
treatise  on  'Flutes.'  But  the  flute  called  W^i/raiws 
among  the  Dorians  in  Italy,  and  the  flute  magadis 
[a  Lydian  instrument],  sends  forth  a  sharp  and  a 
deep  note  at  the  same  time,  as  Anaxandrides  says  in 
his  'Armed  Fighter'  :  — 

*  I  will  speak  like  a  magadis,  both  loudly  and  gently.' 

And  the  flutes  called  lotus-flutes  are  the  same  which 
are  called  photingcs  by  the  Alexandrians  ;  and  they 
are  made  of  wood  growing  in  Libya.  But  Juba  says 
that  the  flute  which  is  made  out  of  the  leg-bones  of 
the  kid  is  an  invention  of  the  Thebans  ;  ami  Try- 
phon  says  that  those  flutes  which  are  called  elcphan- 


FLUTE. 


893 


FLUTING-LATHE. 


line  [ivory]  were  first  boreil  among  the  Phoenicians." 
—  Deipiwsophists,  by  AthexjEUS,  a.  d.  220. 

"The  Phrygian  deep-toned  fiule  had  a  bell  mouth, 
like  a  trumpet."  —  Ibid.. 

So  they  had  no  lack  of  flutes  and  writers  on  the 
same  2,000  years  ago. 

Flutes  are  e.xtensively  made  and  used  by  the  Bra- 
zilian nitives.  The  hones  of  wliich  they  are  made 
are  yellow,  jagged,  and  far  from  inviting  to  delicate 
lips.  Their  tones,  however,  are  singularly  soft  and 
mellow.  The  largest  has  two  bones,  each  12  inches 
long  and  |  inch  bore.  They  are  united  by  twine 
neatly  wound  and  worked.  On  tlie  back  of  the 
lower  part  are  finger-holes,  sliown  in  Fig.  2042. 
The  whistle  part  is  constructed  liy  a  cone  of  resin- 
ous cement  beneath  tlie  mouth-oriliee,  the  ridge 
of  cement  rising  to  the  center  of  the  tube.  The  in- 
strument is  played  by  blowing  through  the  upper 
end,  as  in  a  clarinet.  A  smaller  llute  is  made  to 
play  by  blowing  in  at  either  end.  Another  has  a 
swelled,  wooden  mouthpiece,  and  no  side  opening. 
Dual  bone-flutes  with  finger-holes  are  yet  used  in 
tlie  northern  provinces  of  Brazil  ;  besides  bamboo 
flutes  and  instruments,  with  which  tlie  voices  of 
wild  beasts  are  imitated  with  singular  accuracy. 

The  Peruvians,  among  a  multitude  of  musical  in- 
struments, had  Hutps  of  various  sizes,  the  tambour- 
ine, and  the  tiiiga,  a  kind  of  guitar  with  five  or  six 
strings.  They  had  also  a  syrinx,  or  pan's  reed,  with 
eight  pipes,  —  one  more  than  the  classical  aud  the 
modern. 

The  flute,  as  we  now  know  it,  was  long  known  as 
the  German  flute,  having  one  end  closed  by  a  plug, 
the  mouth-orifice  being  on  the  side.  The  common 
varieties  of  tliis  flute  have  si.t  open  holes  and  a  sev- 
enth closed  by  a  key,   as  in  oboes,  bassoons,   etc. 

Fig.  2043. 


FliUe. 

Flutes  are  now  made  with  from  seven  to  ten  keys, 
by  which  the  fiugeiing  of  many  musical  passages  is 
much  facilitated. 

Flutes  are  made  of  hard  wood,  ivory,  glass,  metal, 
or  vulcanized  rubber. 

In  the  Smithsonian  Institute,  Washington,  is  a 
Guiana  native  flute  made  of  the  thigh-bone  of  a  tiger. 

Vaucanson's  automaton  flute-player  was  a  life- 
sized  figure  dressed  in  the  habit  of  the  period  (1730), 
and  standing  on  a  pedestal.  The  figure  and  the 
stand  were  filled  with  the  machinery.  The  figure 
was  wound  up  with  a  key,  and  played  music  on  a 
real  flute.  Air  was  emitted  at  the  mouth  of  the  fig- 
ure and  projected  into  the  mouth-hole  of  the  flute. 
The  force  of  the  blast  was  proportioned  to  the  loud- 
ness or  softness  required,  and  we  presume  the  size 
and  perhaps  shape  of  the  embouchure  formed  by  the 
lips  was  varied  according  to  the  pitcli  and  perhaps 
tlie  timbre.  Thf  '■etails  of  the  invention  in  this  re- 
spect have  not  come  down  to  us.  The  fingers  were 
made  of  some  elastic  material,  and  were  made  to  stop 
the  lioles  in  the  order  required.  The  compass  of  the 
machine  is  not  stated,  nor  the  number  of  tunes 
within  its  repertoire. 

In  a  flageolet-player  subsequently  made  by  the 
same  artist,  the  number  of  holes  was  but  three,  and 
the  variation  of  the  pressure  on  the  bellows  was  from 
one  o'lnce  for  the  lowest  to  fifty-six  pounds  for  the 
higliest. 

About  1820  two  automaton  flute-players  were  ex- 
hibited in  London.     They  played  eighteen  duets. 


2.  {Architecture.)  a.  A  long  vertical  groove  in 
the  shaft  of  a  column. 

It  is  usually  circular  in  section,  but,  when  angu- 
lar, the  shaft  is  called  a  canted  column. 

The  Doric  column  has  twenty  flutes. 

The  Corinthian,  Ionic,  aud  composite  have  each 
twenty-four  flutes. 

The  Tuscan  none. 

b.  A  hollow,  concave  chamfer,  gutter,  groove,  or 
channel ;  the  receding  member  of  a  compound  mold- 
ing. 

3.  A  species  of  rufBe. 

4.  A  stop  in  an  organ. 

Flute-bit  A  wood-boring  tool  adapted  to  be 
used  in  a  brace,  aud  used  in  boring  ebony,  rosewood, 
and  other  hard  woods.     See  Bit  ;  Boring. 

Flute-or'gan.  (Mu.^ic)  An  organ  in  which  the 
sound  is  produced  by  the  action  of  wind  on  a  cutting 
edge,  iu  contradistinction  to  the  recd-oryaii,  in 
which  the  sound  is  produced  by  a  vibrating  tongue 
of  metal.     See  Kef.d-org.\n. 

The  flvte-pipe  has  a  hollow  foot  to  conduct  the 
mnd  to  the  body,  which  is  fastened  thereto.  Be- 
tween the  foot  and  the  body  is  a  diaphragm  with  an 
aperture  through  which  the  wind  esca]ies,  coming 
in  contact  with  the  upper  lip  of  the  mouth  and 
being  set  in  vibration,  thereby  causing  the  sound. 
As  in  the  flute,  the  quality  of  the  sound  is  governed 
by  the  proportions  of  the  pipes. 

The  pipes  are  made  of  metal  or  wood,  are  generally 
cylindrical  and  open  at  the  end. 

The  wooden  pipes  are  square  in  section,  their  ends 
being  stopped  with  tompimis,  whose  distance  from 
the  lip  modulates  the  tone,  as  in  the  flute. 

The  longer  the  pipe  the  gi-aver  the  sound,  — like 

the  flute  again,  as  may  be  observed  by  blowing  it 

after  stopping  all  the  side  holes  in  the  flute 

with  the  fingers,  and  again  after  raising  the 

fingers. 

The  flute-organ  is  also  called  the  mouth- 
organ,  and  the  mouth  or  flute  pipes  are  tech- 
nically known  as  flues;  a  contractiou  of 
flutes. 

Flute-pipe.  (Jliisic.)  An  organ-pipe  having  a 
sharp  lip  or  wind-cutter  which  inqiarts  vibrations  to 
the  column  of  air  in  the  pipe,  producing  a  musical 
note.     See  Mouth-pipe. 

Flute-6top.  {Music.)  A  stop  of  an  organ  in 
unison  with  principal,  and  tuned  one  octave  above 
open-diapason.     See  Stop. 

Flu-ti'aa.  A  kind  of  accordeon  resembling  the 
concertina. 

A  form  of  melodeon.  An  instrument  worked  by 
a  bellows  and  keys  in  bank,  and  having  one  set  of 
reeds. 

Flut'ing.     1.  A  species  of  ruffle. 

2.  One  of  the  longitudinal  grooves  in  a  screw-tap, 
giving  cutting-edges  to  the  thread.     See  Flute. 

Flut'lng-cyl'in-der.  One  having  longitudinal 
grooves  to  corrugate,  crimp,  or  flute  thin  sheet-metal 
plates  or  fabrics. 

Flut'ing-i'ron.  A 
species  of  laundry-iron 
which  flutes  the  clothes. 
In  the  example,  the  iron 
has  a  segmental  corru- 
gated face,  and  works 
upon  a  flat  corrugated 
bed. 

An   Italian -iron  ; 
ga  n  tfe  ring-i  ron .  Ftuting-IroTi. 

Plut'ing-lathe.  One 
which  cuts  flutes  or  scrolls  upon  columns  or  balus- 
ters.    The  flute  proper  is  the  vertical  gioove  in  a 


Fig.  2044. 


a  Lea  r — -^~ — , 


FLUTING-MACHINE. 


894 


FLY. 


colunin  or  pillar,  but  the  flute  of  the  lathe  is  a 
bpiral.  Several  I'uriiis  of  machines  are  adapted  to 
this  purpose.  One  is  allied  in  its  principle  to  tlie 
rifling-machine,  as  in  January's  patent,  1829.  The 
balu.ster  is  fed  endways  against  a  lateral  tool,  being 
rotated  on  its  a.xis  at  such  a  rate  as  shall  inijiait  tlie 
number  of  turns  or  part  of  a  turn  to  the  foot  in  length. 
Of  this  kind  is  Fig.  2045  [A),  in  which  the  piece  a 

Fig.  2045. 


Flvting-Lathes, 

to  be  cut  is  moved  longitudinally  through  the  holder 
4,  and  at  the  same  time  is  rotated  so  that  the  tool  c 
in  its  revolutions  may  cut  the  spiral  groove  shown 
at  a. 

B  is  a  fluting-lathe  in  which  a  pair  of  cutters  re- 
volves in  a  plane  oblique  with  the  line  of  motion  of 
the  baluster.  The  latter  is  moved  longitudinally 
by  the  rack  and  pinion  c  g,  and  rotated  by  the  wheel 
and  iiinion  h  i ;  the  cutters  m  in  rotating  in  parallel 
planes  cut  two  groves  at  once. 

Fluting-ma-chine'.  One  having  a  pair  of 
rollers,  each  one  having  projections  which  enter  the 
interdental  spaces  of  the  other.  By  turning  the 
operating  screw,  the  bent  bar,  and  with  it  the  upper 

Fig.  2046. 


Fattin^-^Iarhine. 


Fig  2f47. 


Flutter-  Whed. 


roller,  can  be  adjusted  up  or  down  at  will  to  regu- 
late tlie  distance  between  the  two  rollers. 

Flut'ing-plaae.  {Joinery.)  A  plane  adapted  to 
cut  grooves. 

Flut'ter-wheel.  A  water-wheel  of  moderate 
diameter  placed  at  the  bottom  of  a 
chute  so  as  to  receive  the  impact  of  the 
head  of  water  in  the  chute  and  penstock. 
Its  name  is  derived  from  its  rapid 
motion. 

Flux.    A  salt   added  to  assist  the 
fusion  of  a  mineral. 

Limestone  is  used  with  iron  ore. 

Crude    flux   is  a  mixture  of 
niter   and    tartar   added    to   a  ,^AIJ/^\ 
metal  in  the  crucible.  /iS>„-,/>r    I 

While  flux  is  obtained 
hy  projecting,  in  small 
portions  at  a  time,  equal 
parts  of  niter  and  tartar 
into  a  red-hot  crucible. 

Black  rtu.x  has  double  the  proportions  of  tartar, 
and  the  resulting  product  is  dark  colored. 

Mowean's  flux  consists  of  pulverized  glass,  16 
parts  ;  calcined  borax,  2  parts  ;  charcoal,  1  part. 

Lime  acts  as  a  flux,  when  in  excess,  in  brick- 
making. 

Livie,  soda,  potash,  lead,  borax,  are  used,as  fluxes 
in  glass-making. 

Fluor-spar  is  used  in  certain  metallurgic  opera- 
tions. 

The  fluxes  used  by  solderers  are,  — 

Borax.  Venice  turpentine. 

Sal-annnoniac.  Tallow. 

Chloride  of  zinc.  Gallipoli  oil. 
Resin. 

Flux-spoon.  {Metallurcfy.)  A  small  ladle  for 
dijjping  out  a  sample  of  molten  metal  to  be  tested. 

Ply.  1.  [Horology.)  A  regulating  device  {a) 
used  formerly  in  clocks,  and  latterly  in  musioal  boxes, 
to  control  the  rate  of  speed. 

The  vanes  impinge  upon  the  air  and  meet  with  a 
resistance  depending  upon  their  area,  radial  width, 
angle,  number,  and  speed.  By  changing  these  con- 
ditions, or  any  of  them,  the  rate  of  going  of  the  ma- 
chine may  be  regidated  ;  the  lesistance  of  the  air 
increasing  in  a  very  rapid  ratio. 

The  device  is  still  used  in  the  striking  parts  of 
clocks  and  watches. 


FLY-BLOCK. 


895 


FLYING-MACHINE. 


In  musical  boxes  the  position  of  the  wings  is  ad- 
justable, so  as  to  vary  their  angle  of  impact  upon 
the  air,  thus  increasing  or  diminishing  the  resistance 
of  a  given  surface  of  wing  and  modifying  the  speed. 

Tliis  regulator  was  probably  the  first  device  at- 
tached to  the  going  works  of  a  clock,  many  centuries 
before  the  oscillating  arm  or  the  pendulum  were 
adapted  to  the  purpose.     See  Pendulum. 

Among  the  clocks  thus  regulated  may  be  cited 
that  of  Richard  of  Wallingford,  abbot  of  St. 
Albans,  A.  D.  13S0.  It  is  likely  that  the  clock 
erected  in  the  Old  Palace-Yard,  London,  in  1288, 
and  that  of  Canterbury  Cathedral,  a.  d.  1292,  were 
similarly  constructed.  To  go  a  step  farther  back, 
we  may  suppose  that  the  clocks  presented  by  Pope 
Paul  I.  to  Pe])in  of  France,  a.  n.  760,  and  to 
Charlemagne  by  the  Caliph  Haroun  Al  R:ischid, 
A.  D.  810,  were  of  similar  construction  ;  or  perhaps 
were  clepsydras. 

2.  (Printing.)  A  vibrating  frame  b  with  fingers, 
taking  a  printed  sheet  from  the  tapes  and  delivering 
it  on  to  tlie  heap. 

3.  (Knitting-machine.)  Another  name  for  the 
Latch  (which  see). 

i.  (Spinning.)  The  arms  which  revolve  around 
the  bobbin  in  a  spinning-frame,  to  twist  the  rowing 
or  yarn  which  is  wound  on  the  bobbin.     See  Flyer. 

5.  (Machinery.)     A  Fly-wheel  (which  see). 

6.  (Weaving.)  A  shuttle  driven  through  the 
shed  by  a  blow  or  jerk. 

7.  a.  The  length  of  a  flag  from  the  staff  to  the 
outer  edge.     The  perpendicular  hight  is  the  hoist. 

b.  The  part  of  a  ilag  beyond  the  jack;  which  oc- 
cupies the  upper  left-hand  corner.     See  Flag. 

8.  (NmUieal.)  A  compass-card  ha\'ing  marked 
upon  it  the  points  or  rhumbs,  thirty-two  in  num- 
ber. The  card  is  moved  by  a  magnetic-needle  be- 
neath. The  angle  of  the  ship's  course  with  the 
magnetic  meridian  is  shown  on  the  marginal  plate 
by  a  line  called  the  lubber's  line.  See  M.^rinek's 
Compass. 

9.  A  kind  of  carriage  ;  usually  a  closed  vehicle 
plying  for  hire  and  drawn  by  one  horse. 

10.  A  certain  part  of  theatrical  stage  scenery. 

11.  The  swinging  weighted  arm  of  some  kinds  of 
presses.     See  Fly-press. 

12.  A  factitious  insect  as  a  bait  for  fish  in  angling. 
A  hackle. 

Fly-block.  (Naxdical.)  A  large  flat  block, 
do  ible  or  single.  The  double  block  sometimes  has 
two  sheaves  at  one  part  and  one  sheave  in  the  otlier 
portion.     Used  iu  the  hoisting-tackle  of  yards. 

Fly-board.  (Printing.)  The  board  upon  which 
the  printed  sheets  are  laid  by  \\\e  fly. 

riy-boat.     1.  A  rapid  passenger-boat  on  canals. 
2.  A  large,  flat-bottomed   Dutch   coasting-vessel. 
An  ironical  term. 

Fly-drill.     One  having  a  reciprocating  fly-wheel 
whii.'h  gives  it  a  steady  momentum.     The  driving 
powr  consists  of  a  cord  winding  iu  reverse  direc- 
tions upon  the  spindle  as  it  rotates  first  in  one  di- 
rection and  then  in  the  other. 
Fig.  2049.  Pressure  on  the  end  of  the 

spindle  keeps  the  drill  to  its 
work.  The  fly-wheel  pulsates 
like  the  balance-wheel  of  a 
watch,  and  as  it  reaches  each 
end  of  its  stroke  the  cord  has 
become  wound  on  the  sjiindle, 
so  as  to  be  ready  to  communi- 
cate the  impulse  in  the  other 
direction,  by  a  pressure  on  the 
bar  which  unwinds  the  cord  by 
F:y-iyriU.  rotating  the  spindle.     A  relaxa- 


7 


tion  of  pressure  on  the  bar  allows  the  spindle  to 
pass  beyond  the  point  of  unwinding,  and  the  cord 
winds  upon  it  in  a  reversed  spiral. 

This  drill  may  be  run  by  a  bow. 

Fly'er.     1.  A  contrivance  with  arms  which  re- 
volves around  the  bobbin  in    the 
bobbin  and  fly  frame,  or  the  throstle-         Fig.  2050. 
frame,  which  machines   draw  and 
twist  the  sliver  into  a  roving,  or  the 
latter  into  yarn. 

The  flyer  fits  on  to  the  top  of  the 
spindle,  and  one  arm  (in  the  bobbin 
and  fly  frame)  is  made  hollow  to 
form  a  passage  for  the  yarn,  which 
enters  at  the  cup  above  the  top  of 
the  sjiindle,  and  after  a  turn  or  two 
round  the  end  of  the  arm  is  dis- 
tributed on  the  bobbin.  In  the 
throstle-frame  the  roving  entering 
above  is  wound  ronnd  the  arm  of 
X\\ii  flyer,  instead  of  passing  through 
a  tubular  arm.     See  Throstle. 

The  tiyer  rotates  with  the  spin- 
dle, and  their  rotation  gives  the 
twist  to  the  yam.  The  bobbin  is 
independent  of  the  spindle  motion, 
but  in  roving-machines  has  a  sur- 
face motion  equal  to  the  rate  of  de-  Flyer. 
livery  of  the  yarn  from  the  draw- 
ing-rollers. See  EoviNG.  The  .same  also  occurs  in 
the  Bobbin  and  Fly  Frame  (which  see). 

In  the  throstle,  the  winding  occurs  by  the  deten- 
tion of  the  bobbin,  which  rests  on  the  ciippiug-ndl, 
the  bobbin  being  dragged  around  by  the  yarn  pro- 
ceeding from  the  end  of  the  flyer,  the  resistance  to 
revolution  on  tlie  part  of  the  bobbin  ett'ecting  the 
winding.     See  Throstle  ;  Equatorial  Box. 

2.  The  fan-wheel  on  the  vane  of  a  windmill  cap 
which  rotates  the  latter  as  the  wind  veers.     See  Cap. 

3.  A  step  in  staii-s  that  ascend  in  one  inclined 
plane,  without  winding. 

A  straight  reach  of  stairs.     A  flight. 

i.  (Printing. )  A  vibratory  rod  with  fingers  which 
take  the  sheet  of  paper  from  the  tapes  and  carry  it 
to  the  delivery-table,  the  sheet  resting  flatly  against 
the  flyer-fingers  by  the  resistance  of  the  air.  See 
Fly. 

Fly'er-lathe.  (Wearing.)  A  lay.  lath,  or  batten 
for  beating  up  the  weft  into  the  shed,  compacting 
it.  Specifically,  it  may  mean  a  suspended  lathe,  as 
distinguished  from  the  batten  in  a  frame  joumaled 
below. 

Fly-gov'em-or.  One  which  regulates  speed  by 
the  impact  of  vanes  upon  the  air.     A  fly. 

Fly'ing-ar-til'ler-y.  Field  artillery  when  the 
gunners  are  all  mounted  ;  either  on  horses,  or  ou 
the  limbers. 

Fly'ing-bridge.  A  temporary  bridge,  suspended 
or  floating.  A  militarj-,  ponton,  or  boat  bridge. 
See  Bridge  for  varieties. 

Fly'ing-but'tress.  A  structure  spanning  the 
roof  of  an  aisle  between  an  outer  buttiess  and  the 
wall  of  the  nave.  It  assists  in  resisting  the  thrust 
of  the  roof. 

Fly'ing-jib.  (Nntitical.)  A  sail  extended  by 
the  flying  jib-boom  beyond  the  standing  jib. 

Fly'ing  Jib— boom.  (Xauticn!.)  An  extension 
of  the  jib-boom.  It  is  sometimes  in  one  piece  with 
the  latter,  and  sometimes  connected  therewith  by 
means  of  a  boom-iron,  in  a  manner  analogous  to  that 
of  the  jib-bnom  on  the  bowsprit. 

Fly'ing-ma-chine'.  To  Dfedalus,  who  is  said 
to  have  flourished  about  1300  B.  c. ,  is  ascribed  the 
invention  of  the   first  flying-machine.     Being  de- 


FLYING-MACHINE. 


896 


FLY-WHEEL. 


sirous  of  escaping  from  the  wrath  of  Minos,  king  of 
Crete,  and  no  method  of  sea  conve3-ance  presenting 
itself,  he  resolved  to  attempt  flight  through  the  air, 
and  made  accordingly  wings  of  feathers  united  by 
wax  for  himself  and  his  son  Icarus.  They  ascended 
into  the  air,  and  Dajdalus  arrived  safely  in  Sicily, 
but  Icarus  rose  too  high,  and  approaching  too  near 
the  sun,  the  wax  of  his  wings  was  melted,  and,  the 
unceraented  fabric  falling  asunder,  the  rash  youth 
fell  into  the  sea  and  was  drowned.  Notwithstand- 
ing the  multiplicity  of  attempts  which  have  been 
made  to  accomplish  the  feat  of  rising  above  the 
earth  by  means  of  wings,  Icarus  remains  a  solitary 
warning  of  the  danger  of  approachmg  too  near  to 
the  sun. 

Roger  Bacon  asserted  in  his  time  that  there  ex- 
isted a  Hying-machine  ;  he  had  never  seen  it  him- 
self, nor  did  he  know  any  one  who  had  seen  it,  but 
he  knew  the  name  of  the  inventor. 

In  1709,  Gusman,  a  Portuguese  monk,  constructed 
a  machine  in  the  form  of  a  bird.  He  was  pen-ioned 
for  this,  and  nas  thus  perhaps  enabled  to  rise  in  the 
world,  which  his  machine  signally  failed  to  do.  Not 
discouraged,  however,  in  1736  he  constructed  a 
wicker  basket  covered  with  pajjer,  which  I'ose  to  the 
liight  of  200  feet  in  the  air,  by  which  he  gained  at 
least  fame,  if  not  money,  for  he  was  afterwards  re- 
puted a  sorcerer. 

It  was  in  17S3  that  the  Montgolfiers  discovered 
that  the  lesser  speciKc  gi-avity  of  heated  air  created 
an  ascensive  force  by  which  heavy  objects  might  be 
raised  through  the  atmosphere  ;  and  iu  less  than  a 
month  afterwards  hydrogen  gas,  which  had  then 
been  known  for  about  seventeen  years,  was  success- 
fully employed  in  a  balloon  for  the  same  purpose. 

This  seemed  to  render  the  idea  of  aijrial  navigation 
more  feasible,  and  accordingly  Blanchard,  one  of  the 
earliest  aeronauts,  on  his  hrst  ascent  from  Paris  in 
March,  17S4,  prnviderl  his  balloon  with  wings  and 
a,  Tudcler,  but  found  them  useless.  After  this  we 
hear  little  of  attempts  to  guide  or  propel  balloons 
through  the  air  until  about  18-13,  when  Mr.  Monck 
Mason  proposed  the  Archimedean  screw  as  a  motor, 
and  constructed  an  egg-shaped  balloon,  which  was 
placed  on  a  wooden  frame  in  the  form  of  a  canoe, 
with  an  Archimedean  screw  at  one  end  and  an  oval- 
shaped  rudder  at  the  other.  A  model  of  this  ma- 
chine, .set  in  motion  by  a  screw  moved  by  clock- 
work, was  propelled  arouml  a  room  by  this  means  ; 
but  the  larger  machine  appears  to  have  met  the  fate 
of  all  its  kindred  contrivances. 

About  the  same  time,  a  Mr.  Henson,  in  England, 
patented  a  machine  consisting  of  a  car  attached  to  a 
huge,  rectangular,  wing-like  frame,  covered  with 
oiled  silk  or  canvas,  and  to  be  propelled  by  a  steam- 
engine  in  the  car  working  two  vertical  fan-wheels 
with  obli'iue  vanes  ;  while  a  frame  like  the  tail  of  a 
bird  was  to  act  as  a  rudder,  and  make  the  apparatus 
ascend  or  descend  at  pleasure.      It  did  not  ascend. 

In  1850,  a  Mr.  Bell  ascended  from  Kennington, 
England,  in  an  "  aerial  machine  "  in  the  form  of  a 
prolate  spheroid,  which,  it  is  said,  he  propelled  by 
a  screw,  and  steered  by  means  of  an  apparatus  for 
that  purpose,  during  a  liight  of  nearly  thirty  miles. 
If  this  be  so,  it  must  have  been  probably  owing  to 
the  serenity  of  the  atmosphere. 

During  the  same  year,  M.  Julien  at  Paris  made  a 
model  balloon,  shaped  like  a  fish,  which  was  made 
to  Tuove  in  the  air  by  clock-work  operating  a  pair  of 
wings.  The  model  was  fo'.ir  yards  long,  formed  of 
gold-beater's  skin,  and  filled  with  gas. 

A  similar  machine  on  a  large  scale  had  been  tried  in 
England  some  twenty  years  before,  and  failed,  though 
a  model  of  it  had  been  to  a  certain  degree  successful. 


Mr.  Petin,  a  countryman  of  Julien's,  projected  at 
the  same  time  (1850)  a  "system  of  aerial  naviga- 
tion." Certainly  a  high-sounding  name  ;  but  then 
the  machine  itself  was  to  be  on  a  large  scale.  It 
was  to  consist  of  an  immense  framework  480  feet 
long,  supported  by  four  balloons,  each  90  feet  in 
diameter,  was  to  have  four  parachutes,  and  a  plat- 
form for  passengers.  Two  horizontal  screws  were 
provided  lor  its  propulsion.     See  Balloon. 

Fly'ing-pin'ion.   (Horolngy.)  The  Hy  of  a  clock. 

riy-net.  1.  (Menage.)  A  net  of  meshes,  or  a 
fringe  of  leather  strips,  to  protect  a  horse  from  Hies. 

2.  A  net  in  an  open  window  to  prevent  entrance 
of  Hies  and  other  insects. 

Fly-nut.  A  nut  with  wings,  to  be  twisted  by 
the  hand  ;  as  the  screw-nut  of  a  hand-vise. 

Fly-press.  A  screw-press  in  which  the  power 
is  derived  from  a  weighted  arm,  swinging  in  a  hori- 
zontal plane,  as  in  embossing  and  die  presses. 
Presses  of  this  kind  are  used  in  making  buttons, 
washers,  flat  links  for  chains,  cutting  and  gunaniug 
saw-teeth,  making  percussion-caps,  steel-pens,  etc. 

Fly-punch 'ing  Press.  A  press  for  cutting' teeth 
on  saws  and  for 

othei-  purjioses.  f'K  2051. 

The  fly  is  the 
weighted  lever, 
which  accjuires 
an  impetus  in 
its  descent. 

Fly-rail.  A  hinged  cleat 
or  bracket  attached  to  the 
frame  of  a  table,  and  turned 
out  to  support  the  leaf. 

Fly-shut'tle.     A    shuttle 
driven  by  a  2>i''kcr,  in  contra- 
distinction   to   one    thrown 
by  hand.    The  picker  was  in- 
venteil  bv  Kay,  about  1750.      ^^ 

Fly-trap.     A  device  for  r|,;|,;l  ||ii,.,-i|ii||||,|j|]ii«, 
catching   flies.       There    are  Ui^: — ! 
.several  forms.    In  Fig.  2052,        Fhj- Punching  Press. 
the  faces  of  the  bait-pans  are 
brought  together  by  spiral  springs  on  the  removal 

Fig  2052. 


Fly-  Trap. 

of  the  detent-pin.     On  separating  the  pans  for  re 

setting,  the  flies  di-op  into 

the  receiver  beneath.  Fig.  2053. 

Another  form  is  that  in 
which  the  flies  unconscious, 
ly  walk  into  a  cul-de-sac, 
whence  they  fail  to  find  a 
way  of  retreat. 

Other  forms  have  rollers 
baited  and  turned  by  clock-  j, 
work  so  a.s  to  gi'adnally  ; 
carry  the  I'ies  around  into 
the  gauze  traj)  or  to  a  posi- 
tion from  whence  they  drop 
into  the  drowning-tray. 

Fly-Tvheel.  A  heavy 
wheel  .attached  to  machin- 
ery to  equalize  the  move- 
ment.   By  its  inertia  it  oppo  es  any  sudden  accelera- 


Fly-  Trap. 


FOAM-COCK. 


897 


FOG-ALAKM. 


tlon  of  speed,  and  by  its  momentum  it  prevents  sud- 
den diminution  of  speed  ;  in  tlie  latter  case  it  acts 
as  a  store  of  power  to  continue  the  movement  when 
tlie  motor  temporarily  flags,  or  in  passing  dead  cen- 
ters when  the  motor  is  inoperative. 

Fly-wheel.s  were  first  mounted  with  teeth  on  their 
eripheries,  to  act  as  first  motions,  by  Fairbairn  of 
rianchester,  England. 

The  fly-wheel  attached  to  the  engine  set  up  at 
Millwall  by  Boulton  and  Watt,  for  rolling  armor- 
plates,  weighs  100  tons. 

The  Mahovo  is  the  name  given  by  the  inventor, 
Captain  C.  Von  Schubersky,  of  Russia,  to  an  adap- 

Fig.  2054. 


I 


Von  Sckuberfky^s  Mahovo. 

tation  of  the  fly-wheel  to  accumulate  a  reserve  of 
force  to  be  used  at  intervals  when  a  greater  power  is 
needed. 

A  pair  of  he^vy  cast-.steel  fly-wheels  have  an  in- 
dependent truck  of  their  own,  which  is  introduced 
into  the  train  immediately  behind  the  engine.  The 
truck  has  three  pairs  of  running-wheels  approaching 
each  other  very  nearly  by  their  circumferences.  In 
the  intervals  between  these  wheels  are  placed  two 
pairs  of  friction-wheels  resting  immediately  on  them  ; 
and  in  the  interval  between  these  rests  upon  their 
circumferences  the  large  axis  of  the  mahovos  ;  the 
huge  fly-wheels  themselves  overhanging  the  truck 
upon  the  two  opposite  sides.  When  the  train 
moves,  the  running-wheels  impart  motion  to  the 
friction-wheels,  and  the  latter  transfer  this  move- 
ment to  the  fly-wheels.  The  diameters  of  the 
wheels,  and  that  of  the  axis  of  the  fly-wheels  where 
it  rests  upon  them,  are  so  related  th.it  a  velocity  of 
18.6  miles  in  the  train  will  generate  in  the  circum- 
ference of  the  fly-wheel  a  rotary  velocity  of  466  feet 
per  second  ;  and  as  the  fly-wheels  themselves  weigh 
26  tons,  it  is  computed  that,  with  this  velocity,  they 
will  embody  a  living  force  of  144,000,000  foot- 
pounds. 

As  the  train  moves  from  rest,  the  velocity  of  the 
fly-wheels  is  gradually  accelerated  until  it  attains  a 
maximum  corresponding  to  the  maximimi  velocity 
of  the  train.  If  steam  be  now  shut  oH',  the  fly- 
wheels become  a  source  of  power,  and  will  return 
the  work  stored  up  in  them.  To  stop  the  train 
^vithout  expending  this  accumulated  force,  the  fric- 
tion-wheels are  raised  out  of  contact  with  the  driving- 
wheels.  In  ascending  a  grade,  the  force  of  the  fly- 
wheels comes  in  as  auxiliary  to  that  of  the  engine. 

Foam-cock.  (Slcam-enginc.)  A  cock  at  the 
water-level  to  blow  ofl^  scum. 

Poam-col-lect'or.  (Stemn-boilcr.)  A  pan  or 
other  device  at  the  water-level  in  the  steam-boiler, 
to  catch,  retain,  and  discharge  the  foam  which  rises 
to  the  surface  of  the  water. 

Fo'cal  Length.  {Optics.)  The  distance  between 
the  object-glass  and  eye-glass  of  a  telescope. 

Fo-cim'e-ter.  (P/wtograph;/.)  An  instrument 
for  assisting  in  focusing  an  object  in  or  before  a 
57 


camera.  This  consists  usually  of  a  lens  of  small 
magnifying  power.  Formerly,  when  the  fact  that 
the  actinic  spectrum  was  mainly  outside  of  the  vio- 
let end  of  the  spectrum  was  not  properly  understood, 
and  lenses  were  not  corrected  so  as  to  make  the 
visual  and  chemical  pictures  coincident,  an  instru- 
ment was  used  to  determine  the  amount  of  move- 
ment necessary  to  throw  the  actinic  picture  upon  the 
sensitized  plate,  subordinating  the  visual  image. 

In  Claudet's  instrument,  a  number  of  objects  are 
arranged  in  a  spiral  form  around  the  horizontal  axis 
at  ditt'erent  distances,  so  as  to  lie  all  visible  at  once 
from  the  lens.  If,  when  one  of  them  is  in  the  exact 
visual  focus,  another  is  found  to  come  out  more  dis- 
tinctly in  the  photograph,  the  discrepancy  evidences 
that  the  visual  and  actinic  foci  do  not  coincide,  and 
the  glass  should  be  rejected. 

G.  Knight's  plan  was  to  place  a  sheet  of  negative 
paper  in  an  inclined  position  in  the  camera.  A 
printed  sheet  being  placed  before  the  camera  and  a 
picture  taken,  the  relative  clearness  of  the  image 
will  determine  the  true  photogenic  focus. 

Fo'cus-ing-glass.  (Photography.)  A  glass  used 
for  magnifying  the  image  on  the  ground  glass  in  the 
camera,  to  enable  the  operator  to  get  it  in  better 
focus. 

Fog-a-larm'.  (Nautical.)  An  audible  signal 
warning  vessels  from  shoals  or  other  dangerous 
places.  Fog-alarrns  are  various  in  their  kind,  their 
operation,  and  their  construction.  As  to  kind,  they 
consist  of  bells,  whistles,  and  trumpets.  As  to 
operation,  they  are  sounded  by  the  current,  by  the 
ebbing  and  flowing  tide,  by  the  swaying  of  the 
waves,  by  the  wind,  by  bellows,  by  clock-work  im- 
pelled by  weight  or  spring.  As  to  constniction, 
they  are  adapted  for  headlands,  light-ships,  buoys, 
or  to  be  anchored  by  piles  on  spits,  sand-bars,  or 
shoals. 

A  somewhat  notable  signal  of  this  kind  was  the 
bell  on  the  Inchcape  Kock,  which  was  placed  there 
by  the  "good  old  abbot  of  Aberbrothock,"  as  sung 
by  Southey  in  his  ballad  of  "  Ralph  the  Rover." 
The  bell  or  its  clapper  was  swung  by  the  motion  of 
the  waves,  and  was  anchored  to  the  dangerous  sub- 
merged rock,  in  the  track  of  navigation  in  the 
Frith  of  Forth.  A  substantial  lighthouse  now 
stands  on  the  rock,  which  is  named  from  the  bell 
formerly  placed  on  the  spot  by  the  courageous, 
pious  monks. 

In  A  the.  apparatus  is  erected  on  the  deck  of  a 
ship  which  is  moored  in  the  position  required. 
From  posts  on  the  hull  is  su.spended  a  pendulous 
frame  which  is  swung  back  and  forth  by  the  motion 
of  the  vessel.  A  transverse  bar  in  the  lower  part  of 
the  swinging  frame  actuates  the  wheel,  which  is 
joumaled  between  the  pendent  arms.  Thus  the 
motion  of  the  frame  partially  rotates  the  wheel  and 
rings  the  bell,  by  means  of  a  band  passing  over  the 
wheel  and  over  a  pulley  on  the  bell-shaft.  In  B 
the  clapper  is  moved  by  cam-wheel  actuated  by 
chains,  which  run  over  pulleys  as  the  float-arn,  rises 
and  falls  by  the  motion  of  the  waves. 

Another  form  is  a  bell-buoy  with  paddles  which 
move  the  clapper.  The  clapper  of  another  is  moved 
at  regular  times  by  a  train  of  clock-work. 

C  has  a  spiral  coil  of  tubing  jouinaled  upon  stand- 
ards, and  oscillating  by  the  motion  of  the  vessel. 
Each  end  of  the  spiral  has  a  whistle  and  a  valve 
opening  inward.  The  coil  contains  a  quantity  of 
water,  which,  as  the  coil  is  oscillated,  changes  its 
position,  and  forces  the  air  out  through  the  whistles 
with  a  prolonged  sound. 

In  D  the  air  is  mechanically  condensed  and  stored 
in  a  reservoir.    The  cam  on  the  rotary  shaft  actuates 


FOG-ALARM. 


898 


FOIL. 


the  valve  for  the  purpose  of  varying  tlie  sounds,  to 
give  a  series  of  audible  signals  more  intelligible  than 
mere  ijidependent  souuds  repeated.  A  trumpet  and 
whistle  are  attached  to  connecting  pipes  proceeding 

Fig.  2055. 


Fog-Alarms,  , 

from  the  reservoir.  The  valve  governs  the  air-aper- 
ture in  the  ])ipe  leading  to  the  trumpet. 

Among  other  devices  may  be  cited  :  — 

One  drives  compressed  air  or  steam  through  per- 
forated, rotating  disks  or  plates.  The  sound-trum- 
pet has  a  jiarabolically  shaped  extension. 

Another  has  cylinders  provided  with  interior  clap- 
per-valves near  the  heads  ;  these  admit  air  when  the 
water  recedes,  but  prevent  its  escape  at  the  valve- 
way  when  the  water  rises  ;  the  air  has  its  exit  through 
the  whistles,  and  sounds  the  alami. 

Another  h.as  two  whistles  and  a  single  mouth-piece, 
the  aim  being  to  produce  discordant  souuds,  which 
arrest  attention. 


A  very  large  fog-whistle,  worked  by  a  ten-horse- 
power engine,  is  placed  on  Thatcher's  Islaud,  oil' 
Salem,  Mass. 

Fog-bell.  A  bell  upon  a  vessel,  buoy,  or  spit  of 
land,  and  rung  by  the  motion  of  the  waves  or  force 
of  the  wind,  as  a  warning  to  mariners.     See  FoG- 

ALAUM. 

Foge.  (Miniiig.)  A  forge  for  smelting  tin. 
(Cornwall.) 

Fog-horn.    See  Fog-alakm. 

Fog-trump'et.  A  bom  or  tmnipet  placed  on  a 
projecting  headland,  a  ves.el,  or  a  spar,  and  blown 
by  mechanical  means  or  by  the  wind,  as  a  warning 
to  mariners.     See  Fog-alarm. 

Fog-sig'nal.  A  detonating  ball  placed  on  a  rail- 
road  track ,  to  indicate  danger  ahead  to  the  engineer 
of  a  passing  train. 

For  nautical,  see  Fog-alarm. 

Fog-w^his'tle.  {Nautiad.)  A  signal  of  warning 
for  vessels  off  a  coast.  A  sounder  on  the  principle 
of  the  steam-whistle  is  exposed  to  a  blast  of  air  or 
of  steam,  according  to  the  facilities  of  operation. 
Usually,  motion  derived  from  the  waves,  the  tide, 
the  wind,  or  clock-work,  make  it  automatic.     In 


Fig.  2066. 


Fog-\VhislU. 


the  example,  the  semicircular  tubular  ves.sel  is 
mounted  upon  a  rock-shaft,  and  has  at  each  ex- 
tremity an  ordinaiy  whistle  and  a  valve  opening  in- 
ward. AVhen  tlie  vessel  is  partially  filled  with 
Wider  and  rocked  to  and  fro,  the  air  is  forced 
through  the  whistle  and  sounds  an  alaim. 

On  dit :  The  most  powerfuf  log-whistle  in  America 
is  at  Cape  Fourcher,  N.  S.  It  can  be  heaid  fifteen 
miles  in  clear  weather,  and  twenty-five  with  the 
wind. 

Foil.  1.  A  thin  leaf  of  metal,  for  plating,  or  to 
color  a  gem  behind  which  it  is  placed.  A  colored 
foil  imparts  its  tint  to  a  gem  whose  natural  color  is 
vague  and  insipid. 

Foil  is  made  by  rolling  into  thin  sheets  a  plate 
of  copper  covered  with  a  layer  of  silver.  The  silver 
surface  is  polished  and  covered  with  a  clean  varnish, 
colored  or  white. 

Tin  or  lead  foil  are  very  thin  sheets. 

2.  An  amalgam  of  silver  and  tin  at  the  back  of  a 
looking-glass. 

3.  A  blunt  weapon  for  fencing.  A  thin  blade 
with  a  button  on  the  end. 

4.  A  leaf  in  architecture  or  can'ing  ;  as  a  trefoil 
ornament :  or  a  window,  having  lobes  like  clover. 


FOLD. 


899 


FOLDING-MACHINE. 


Fold.     1.  A  fenced-in  inclosure  for  stock. 

2.   A  iloubling  of  fabric  ;  a  plait ;  a  hem. 

Fold'ed-aui'gle  Joint.  See  Angle-Joint,  Fig. 
221. 

Pold'er.  1.  An  ivory  or  bone  blade,  used  in 
folding  sheets  for  binding  ;  also  in  forwarding  sheets 
from  the  pile  in  feeding  to  presses. 

2.  A  form  of  spectacles  in  which  the  lenses  fold 
together  for  the  pocket,  and  grasp  the  nose  by  a 
spring  bow  or  stiff  joint  when  in  use. 

Fold'ing.  The  process  by  which  printed  sheets 
are  so  doubled  up  as  to  bring  the  pages  into  consecu- 
tiveness  for  gathering  and  binding. 

Sheets  are  of  varj'ing  sizes,  as  demy,  medium,  royal, 
imperial,  etc. 

The  number  of  pages  to  each  side  of  the  sheet  is 
indicated  by  the  name  4to,  8vo,  12mo,  16rao,  24mo, 
32mo,  48mo.  The  folio  sheet  has  two  pages  on 
each  side  and  is  once  folded. 

The  size  of  the  book  will  therefore  depend  upon 
the  size  of  the  paper  and  the  number  of  times  it  is 
folded.  Each  distinct  sheet  of  a  book  has  a  certain 
mark,  called  a  signature.  These  are  gaihered  con- 
secutively to  form  the  book. 

Fold'ing-boat.  One  whose  frame  is  collapsible 
for  compact  stowage,   either   on   shipboard   or   for 


Fig.  2057. 


Folding' Boats. 

transportation  on  land.  In  a  military  point  of 
view,  the  folding-boat  may  be  used  for  crossing 
streams  or  reconnoitering,  or  it  may  be  for  use  as  a 
bridge  ponton.  Snch  boats  are  also  used  by  sports- 
men who  travel  a  distance  to  meet  aquatic  game, 
finny  or  feathered,  on  coast,  lake,  or  river. 


The  illustrations  show  several  kinds,  and  a  score 
more  might  be  readily  given  would  room  permit. 
The  upper  one  is  a  davit-boat,  which  lies  compactly 
against  the  ship's  side  until  the  toggle- frame  is  ex- 
tended, and  the  elastic  skin  distended  thereby.  It 
is  then  swung  clear  and  lowered. 

Ne.xt  are  two  views,  in  the  extended  and  collapsed 
forms  respectively,  of  a  boat  whose  sides  are  hinged 
to  the  keel,  and  whose  stem  and  stern  njay  be  lai<l 
over  towards  the  midship  section  in  a  similar  man- 
ner, though  this  does  not  appear  in  the  engraving. 
c  c  are  bags  of  cork  which  are  pendent  in  the  col- 
lapsed form,  but  are  caught  up  against  the  gunwale 
when  the  boat  is  ready  for  duty. 

The  lower  figure  has  a  frame  which  may  be  folded 
up  to  the  length  of  the  ribs,  and  a  width  equal  to 
the  thickness  of  the  ribs  when  laid  up  close  to- 
gether. In  use,  a  skin  of  sufficiently  tough  water- 
proof material  is  stretched  over  the  extended  frame. 
See  also  Life-boat. 

Fold'ing-chair.  A  chair  which  is  collapsible 
for  carriage  or  stowage.     One  of  the  examples  is  a 


Fig.205S. 


Folding-  Chairs. 

Ubraiy-chair.  Another  is  a  camp-chair  in  two  posi- 
tions. The  lower  oue  is  in  its  most  prolonged  form, 
and  is  a  lounge. 

Fold'iiig--door.  A  pair  of  doors  hung  from  op- 
posite sides  of  the  aperture,  and  meeting  midway  of 
the  pa.isage. 

Fold'ing-ma-chine'.  1.  A  machine  for  folding 
printed  sheets  for  books  :  or  newspajiers  for  mailing. 

The  book-folding  machine  illustrated  is  for  octavo 
work,  sixteen  pages  on  a  sheet,  eight  pages  on  a 
si'le.  The  sheet  is  placed  on  the  table,  so  that  two 
register-points  pass  through  holes  in  the  sheet  pre- 
viously made  on  the  printing-press.  The  folder  b 
comes  down  upon  the  folding  edge,  the  pins  give 
way,  and  the  sheet  passes,  doubled-edge  first,  be- 
tween a  pair  of  rollers  which  compress  it ;  tapes  de- 
liver it  to  a  second  table  beneath,  where  a  second 
and  a  third  folder  act  upon  it  in  turn,  and  it  is  de- 
livered into  a  trough. 

With  12mo  work,  imposed  in  two  parts  of  six- 
teen and  eight  pages  respectively,  the  machine  cuts 


FOLDING-MACHINE. 


900 


FONT. 


tliem  apart,  folds  the  larger  part  like  an  octavo,  the 
smaller  folds  but  once,  and  is  then  inset  into  the 
octavo  poi'tion  whirli  forms  the  outset. 

The  two-sheet  folder  and  paster,  for  large  24-page 
periodicals,  folds  one  sheet  of  sixteen  pages,  30^  x  454 
inches,  and  another  of  eight  pages,  22J  x  30^  inches, 
insetting  the  eight   pages  within  the  sixteen,  and 

Fig  2059. 


Chambers's  8t'0  Book-Foldine  Machine. 


pasting  and  trimming  all,  delivering  a  complete 
cojiy  of  twenty-four  pages  ready  to  read.  It  will 
fold  eight  pages  alone,  sixteen  pages  alone,  with  or 
without  pasting,  or  trimming  ;  or  will  fold,  paste, 
and  trim  the  sixteen  pages,  and  fold,  paste,  and 
trim  the  eight  pages,  insetting  same  without  pasting 
in  the  inset. 

Machines  of  this  general  character  are  also  made 
for  folding,  pasting,  and  trimming ;  or  for  folding, 
pasting,  trimming  all  round,  and  putting  on  a  cover 
of  different  colored  paper.  Rev.  H.  W.  Beecher's 
weekly  journal,  the  "Christian  Union,"  is  folded, 
inset,  and  covered  in  this  manner.     This  paper  uses 


Fig.  2060. 


Falilins  -  Valve. 


a    single   large 
sheet  of  43  x  47 
inches,  making 
twen  ty-  four 
pages,         and, 
with  the  added 
cover,    twenty- 
eight.       Tlie 
sheet  is  printed 
on  a  four-cylin- 
der press,  and, 
by  an  ingenious 
arrangement  of 
rollers     and 
tapes,   fed   me- 
chanically 
from  the  im- 
pression-cyl- 
indei's      into 


four  folding-machines,  an  attendant  being  at  each 
machine  to  secure  accurate  pointing.  This  economy 
of  time  in  feeding,  etc.,  makes  easily  possible  the 
printing,  folding,  pasting,  trimming,  and  mailing 
(by  Dick's  system)  of  nearly  150,000  papers  every 
week,  within  two  and  a  half  working  days, 

2.   {Metal.)     One  which  bends  pans  and  tin-ware 

to  form.  Some 
are  rollers,  others 
presses,  and  yet 
others  act  like 
the  envelope-ma- 
chine, having 
hinged  leaves 
which  press  up 
the  sides  against 
a  former. 

Fold'ing-net 
A  bird-net  shut- 
ing  upon  its  prey. 
Fold'ing- 
valve.  A  Hexi- 
bli  tiaj)  which  lies 
u]  on  tlie]ierforat- 
ed  plate  form- 
ing its  seat,  and 
rolls  or  unrolls 
thereupon  to  open 
or  close  the  ]>as- 
sage-way.  The 
hand  is  connected 
to  an  arm  on  a 
shaft  which  passes 
through  a stu fling- 
box  to  the  outside 
of  the  case. 

Fo'li-at'ed- 
arcb.  {An-hitcc- 
turc.)  One  hav- 
ing a  number  of 
lobes  or  leaves. 
See  Arch. 

Po'U-at'ed-joint.  (Carpentry.)  A  rabbeted 
joint,  where  one  part  overlies  another. 

Fo'lio.  1.  The  running  number  of  the  pages  of  a 
book.  The  even  folios  are  on  the  left-hand  pages,  the 
odd  upon  the  right.  The  folios  of  juefatory  matter 
are  frequently  in  lower-case  Konjan  numerals. 

2.  A  book  whose  sheets  are  folded  but  once,  four 
pages  to  the  sheet. 

Fo'lio-poBt.  A  fiat  writing-paper,  usually  17  x 
24  inches. 

Pol'lo'w-board.  (Founding.)  A  board  beneath 
the  pattern,  and  on  which  it  lies  while  the  loam  is 
being  rammed.     See  Flask. 

Fol'lovr-er.  1.  A  portion  of  a  machine,  usually 
sliding  in  guides,  and  moved  by  another  portion  ; 
as  the  reciprocating  punch-stock  in  a  fly-press, 
which  is  moved  by  the  screw  to  which  it  is  swiv- 
eled.  It  is  analogous  to  the  platen  of  many  j)resses. 
2.  The  cover  or  ping  of  a  stufKng-box,  which  rests 
upon  and  compresses  the  packing.     A  gland. 

Fol'low-er-Twheel.     The  driven  wheel,  as  dis- 
tinguished from  the  driver,  or  the  wheel  which  impels. 
Fon'duB.     A  style  of   calico-printing  or  paper- 
hanging  in  which  the  colors  are  in  bands  and  blend 
into  eacli  other. 

Font;  Fount.  (Printing.)  An  assortment  of 
type  of  one  size,  of  a  given  weight,  containing  large 
and  small  capitals,  .small  letters,  points,  accents,  fig- 
ures, spaces,  quads,  etc.  The  weights  of  fonts  vary 
according  to  the  business  requirements  of  the  printer. 
While  a  500-pound  book-font  was  considered  a  good 
weight  during  the  last  century,  someAmerican  houses 


FONT. 


901 


FOOT-BOARD. 


now  keep  a  font  of  from  20,000  to  30,000  pounds  in 
use. 

The  following  table  gives  an  English  bill  of  Pica, 
weight  800  pounds,  italic  one  tenth. 


k. 


t, 
u, 

V, 

w, 

X, 
.V, 
z, 

&, 
fi, 
ff, 
rt, 
ffl, 
ffi, 


8,500 

i,   100 

] 

150 

1,600 

6,       100 

' 

700 

3,000 

u,   100 

» 

100 

4,400 

k,      200 

t 

100 

12,000 

e,   100 

+ 

100 

2,500 

1,   100 

f 

150 

1,700 

6,   100 

II 

100 

6,400 

u,   100 

§ 

100 

8,000 

a,   200 

( 

300 

400 

e,   200 

IT 

60 

800 

i,   100 

1, 

1,300 

4,000 

o,   100 

2, 

1,200 

3,000 

il,   100 

3, 

1,100 

8,000 

a,   100 

4, 

1,000 

8,000 

e,   100 

5, 

1,000 

1,700 

i,   100 

6, 

1.000 

300 

b,   100 

7, 

1,000 

6,200 

ii,   100 

8, 

1. 000 

8,0(10 

a,   100 

9, 

1,000 

9,000 

6,   150 

0. 

1,300 

3,400 

i,   100 

1 

100 

1,200 

6,   100 

A, 

600 

2,000 

u,   100 

B, 

40n 

400 

a   100 

c. 

500 

2,000 

e   150 

D, 

500 

200 

i    100 

E, 

600 

200 

0   100 

F, 

400 

500 

ii   100 

G, 

400 

400 

9,   100 

H 

400 

200 

a  100 

I, 

800 

100 

,  4,500 

J, 

300 

150 

800 

K, 

300 

100 

:   600 

U 

500 

60 

.  2,000 

M 

400 

100 

-  1,000 

N, 

400 

250 

?    200 

0, 

400 

400 
ISO 
400 
500 
650 
300 
300 
400 
180 
300 
80 
40 
30 
300 
200 
250 
250 
300 
200 
200 
200 


P, 

Q, 
R, 

s, 

T, 

u, 

V, 

w, 

X, 
Y, 
Z, 

M, 
CE, 

A, 
B, 

C, 
D, 
B. 
F, 
(J, 
H, 

Spaces. 
Think         .     18,000 
Middle  .         12,000 
Thin.         .      8,000 
Hair       .  3,000 

Em-quadrats    2,500 
En-quadrats     5,000 

Large  Quadrats. 
2-em  1 

3em  >  80  pounds. 
4-em  ) 

Afelal  Jiu'cs. 
1-em,  2-eui,  3-em. 


I, 

J. 

K, 
L, 
M, 
N, 
O, 
P, 
Q. 
R, 
s, 

T, 
V, 
V, 

w, 

X, 
Y, 

z, 

M, 
(E, 


400 

150 

150 

250 

200 

200 

200 

200 

90 

200 

250 

320 

150 

150 

200 

90 

150 

40 

20 

15 


For  indB.'fes  and  similar  matter,  the  above  would 
be  deficient  in  capitals. 

For  setting  up  French  or  Italian  matter,  it  would 
be  deficient  in  accented  vowels. 

It  comprises,  — 

Capitals  ;  as.  A,  B,  etc. 

Small  capitals  ;  as.  A,  B.  etc. 

Lower  case  ;  as  a,  b,  etc. 

Figures  and  fractions  ;  as,  1,  2,  3  ;  J,  i,  ^,  etc. 

Points,  -  ,;;.  M  -'()[]*  +  J  §  II  IT — 

Spaces.     Quads. 

Accents  ;  as,  a,  k,  a,  a,  a,  a. 

The  above  bill  does  not  include,  — 

Superior  letters  in  caps  or  lower  ca.se  ;  as.  A*,  B", 
etc.  ;  A*,  B',  C^  etc.  ;  a*,  b",  etc.  ;  c',  d"",  h*,  etc. 

Inferior  letters  in  caps  or  lower  case  ;  as,  Ac,  Cb, 
etc-  ;  A„  B.,  B,,,  etc.  ;  aj,  c^,  etc.  ;  a„  b.,  Cb,  etc. 

Superior  figures  in  Arabic  or  Roman  ;  as  15',  C"^, 
D',  etc.  ;  a',  b",  c"',  etc. 

Inferior  figures  in  Arabic  or  Roman;  as,  A„  Bj, 
Cj,  etc. ;  ai,  bi,,  Cv,  etc. 

Prime  letters  ;  A',  B",  C";  a',  b",  c'",  etc. 

Arithmetical  signs;  such  as  -1-,   x,   -,  -=-,  :,  ::, 

=.  ^■ 

Notation  of  arc :     (degreesV '  (minutes),   (seconds). 

Of  quantity,  fc.   5,   3.  9.  '«• 

Commercial :  9,  e,  t?,  %,  @,  "/c  £. 

Besides  these,  there  are  hundreds  of  arbitrary 
signs,  which  are  found  in  the  most  perfect  fonts, 
and  used  in  astronomical,  classic,  commercial,  musi- 


cal, chemical,   botanical,  arithmetical,  and  mathe- 
matical dissertations. 

For  these,  see  an  excellent  digest  on  pp.  1692-96 
of  Webster's  Unabridged  Dictionary,  edition  of  1867. 

Almost  every  science  has  symbols  of  its  own. 
Algebra  has  one  set,  chemistry  another.  For  a  dic- 
tionary which  attemjits  to  represent  the  minute 
shades  of  pronunciation  a  gieat  number  are  required. 
Thus  in  Weljster  or  Worcester,  what  with  letters 
with  dots  above  and  dots  below,  lines  above,  below, 
and  across,  there  are  probably  a  hundred  additional 
characters.  Some  foreign  languages  Ihive  a  very 
complicated  alph.abet.  The  Greek,  with  its  "ac- 
cents" and  "breathings,"  requires  about  200. 
Formerly  there  were  so  many  logotypes  and  abbre- 
viations as  to  require  750  sorts.  The  Oriental 
alphabets  are  complex.  The  Hebrew,  with  the  Mas- 
oretic  points,  requires  about  300  sorts,  many  iliH'er- 
ing  only  by  a  point,  stroke,  or  angle.  The  Arabic 
has  quite  as  many.  In  Robinson's  Hebrew  Lexicon, 
eight  or  ten  Oriental  languages  appear,  and  required 
3,000  sorts  distributed  through  at  least  forty  cases. 

Fools'cap.  A  size  of  folded  writing-paper  named 
from  the  water-mark  of  a  "foolscap  and  bell "  which 
formerly  ornamented  (?)  it. 

In  England,  it  has  four  grades  of  size  and  weight. 
Size.  Weight. 

Sheet  and  a  half  foolscap,  25i  x  13:J  inch.  22  pounds. 
Sheet  and  third       "  22x13^    "      20 

Extra  thick  "  lejxisl    "      18       " 

Ordinary  "  16|xl3|    "     15       " 

The  American  average  may  be  stated  at  16  x  12J. 

Foot  1.  {Music,  y  The  lowerend  ofanorgan-jiipe, 
whicli  conducts  the  wind  to  the  reed  or  /;)),  which 
gives  tlie  vibration  to  the  air  and  causes  the  sound. 

2.  (Nautical.)    The  lower  edge  of  a  sail. 

3.  (Machine.)  A  Hange  at  the  lower  end  of  a  leg 
to  give  a  wider  basis  of  support. 

4.  A  third  of  a  yani.     See  U.nit. 

Foot,  Arti-fi'cial.  A  prosthetic  contrivance 
which  copies  the  articulations  of  the  natural  foot. 
In  the  best  efforts  in  this  line,  the  ankle-joint  is  a 
Fig  2061. 


Artijlcial  Foot. 

bolt  which  is  transverse  with  the  foot,  a  certain  de- 
gree of  lateral  flexure  in  a  vertical  plane  being  also 
permitted,  as  seen  by  the  interval  shown  in  the  left- 
hand  figure  opposite  to  a.  The  other  figure  also 
shows  a  certain  liberty  of  forward  and  liackward 
rocking  motion.  Tlie  middle  rod  c  is  a  permanent 
tension-rod,  and  the  rods  m  n  n  have  a  certain 
amount  of  elasticity  by  means  of  rubber  nuts,  so  as 
to  allow  Hexnre  of  the  joint. 

Foot-bel'lOTWs.  A  form  of  bellows  with  a  col- 
lapsible bag,  or  an  ordinary  bellows  arranged  to  be 
worked  by  treadle.  It  is  shown  (Fig.  2062)  as 
adaiited  to  a  spray  apparatus. 

Foot-board.     1.   A  treadle. 

2.  A  boaril  at  the  foot  of  a  bed  ;  a  board  for  the 
feet  on  the  driving-box  of  a  coach. 


FOOT-BRIDGE. 


902 


FOOT-PEESS. 


Fig.  2062.  3.    The  plat- 

form on  which 
the  driver  and 
stoker  of  a  lo- 
comotivestand. 
A  foot-jyiate. 

F  o  o  t  - 
bridge.  1. 
One  lor  pedes- 
trians over  a 
railway  or 
crowded  city 
thoionglifare. 

2.  (Machiu- 
ery.)  A  curved 
bar  supporting 
the  fuot  or  toe 
of  a  mill  sjiin- 
dle.  SeeSTKP. 
Foot-guard. 
(Mcnai/c.)  A 
boot  or  pad  to 
prevent  the 
cutting  of  the 
feet  l5y  inter- 
fering or  over- 
reacliing.  See 
Leg  and  Foot 
Guard. 
Foot-ham'- 
^  m  e  r .  One 
^  worked  by  a 
'  treadle.  "The 
hammer  is  ad- 
justably pivot- 
ed to  the  up- 
right, and  has  toggle  connection  with  the  treadle, 
whose  depression  causes  the  descent  of  the  hammer 
upon  the  anvil.     The  hammer  is  raised  by  a  spring. 

Fig.a06a 


Foot- Bellows 


Fig.  20M. 


Foot-Hammer. 


Foot-pace.    A  rfais,  or  raised  floor. 

Foot-pad.  (Menaiic.)  a.  A  piece  of  elastic 
.substance,  say  rubber,  to  cover  the  sole  of  a  horse's 
foot  and  prevent  balling. 

b.  An  anklet  or  ridge-piece  on  the  corona  to 
prevent  cutting  of  one  foot  by  the  other  in  travel- 
ing. 

Foot-plate.  The  platform  for  the  driver  and 
fireman  of  a  locomotive. 


Fig.  2065. 


Foot-&idge. 

Poot'ing.  1.  (HijdrmiUc  Engineering. 
The  lower  portion  of  the  slope  of  a  sea  em 
bankment.  It  should  liave  a  base  of  five  feet 
to  one  foot  perpomlicular  and  be  protected  by 
gravel.  The  portion  above  the  footing  is  the 
culbursl  bank,  and  has  a  base  of  two  to  one 
perpendicular.  The  crowning  portion  is  the 
swash-bank,  which  has  a  ba-se  of  two  to  one 
perpendicular,  the  level  on  to])  being  four  or 
five  feet.  In  Hollanil,  where  the  summit  is 
used  for  roads,  this  width  is  much  increased. 

2.  (Masonry. )  The  spreading  courses  at 
the  bottom  of  a  wall,  to  give  a  greater  basis 
of  support. 

Foot-i'ron.     A  carriage-step. 

Foot-key.     (Mii.tii-. )     An  organ  pedal. 

Poot-latie.  A  lathe  ilriven  by  the  foot 
on  a  treadle,  connected  to  a  crank  on  an  axle 
beneath  the  bench.  A  driving-wheel  on  the 
axle  is  connected  by  a  banil  to  a  cone-wheel 
on  the  mandrel  of  the  head-stock. 

Foot-lev'el.  A  form  of  level  nsed  by  gunners 
in  giving  any  proposed  angle  of  elevation  to  a  piece 
of  nrdnniH'p.      See  Lkvel. 

Foot-light.     A  light  on  the  front  of  a  stage. 


SeUeTs's  Foot-Lathe. 

Foot-pound.  A  term  in  mechanics  ;  the  unit  of 
energy,  1  jioimd  avoirdupois  raised  1  foot.     See  Unit. 

Foot-press.  A  form  of  standing  press  in  which 
the  upper  die  or  follower  is  depressed  by  a  treadle. 


FOOT-RAIL. 


903 


FORCE-PUMP. 


Fig.  2066.  In  the  example,  the 

motion  is  obtained 
by  the  mashing  of 
two  segmental  cam- 
gears  forming  a 
toggle. 

Foot-rail.    A 
railroad-rail  having 
wide-spreading  foot 
flanges,    a    vertical 
web,  and     a    bulb- 
shaped  head.    Such 
a  rail  may  \k  spiked 
to  tlie  sleepers,  dis- 
pensing with  chairs. 
Poo  t-r  est. 
(Menage.)     A  stake 
in   a   shoeing   shop 
on  which  a  horse's 
foot  is  rested  to  re- 
:-  lieve  the  shoer  from 
3  the    labor    of    sup- 
Foot-Press.  porting  it. 

Fo  ot-rope. 
{Nautical.)  a.  A  rope  stretched  beneath  a  yard, 
upon  which  the  seamen  stand  in  reefing  or  furling 
sails. 

b.   A  rope  at  the  foot  of  a  rail. 
Foots.     Sedimentary  matter ;  the  remainder  or 
refuse  of  decantation  or  distillation. 
Foot-screw.    A  supporting  foot,  for  giving  a 
machine  or  table  a  level  standing 
Fig.  2067.  on  an  uneven  floor. 

Foot-stalk.  {Machinery.) 
The  lower  portion  of  a  mill 
spindle  ;  it  rests  in  a  st^;p. 

Foot-stall.  1.  {Architecture.) 
The  plinth  or  base  of  a  pillar. 

2.  {Menage.)  The  stirrup  of  a 
woman's  saddle. 

Foot-step.    An  inclined  plane 
under  a  hand  printing-press. 
Foot-stick.      (Printing.)     A 
J  wedge-shaped   piece  of  furniture 
Fooi-Screio.        placed   against    the    foot   of    the 
page.     The  qiwim  are   driven  in 
between  the  foot-slick  and  the  chase  in  locking  up 
the  form. 
Foot'stooL    A  low  stool  for  the  feet. 
Foot-stove.   A  foot-warmer  ;  usually  heated  by 
a  lamp. 

Fig.  2068. 


.BJ 


Foot-Slove. 

Foot-valve.  {Stenm-engine. )  The  lower  valve 
between  the  air-pump  and  condenser.  See  AiK- 
PUMP,  p.  53. 

Foot-vise.  A  vise  whose  jaws  are  brought  to- 
gether by  means  of  a  strap  passing  through  the  two 
and  operated  by  a  treadle.  It  has  not  a  very  pow- 
erful grasp,  but  from  the  facility  with  which  the 


jaws  are  opened  or  closed  is  useful  in  operating  on 
objects  which  do  not  reijuire  to  be  held  very  fimily. 

Foot-^al'ing.  (•'ihipbtUlding.)  The  inner  skin 
of  a  ship  between  the  deck-beams  and  the  limber- 
strakes  on  each  side  of  the  keelsmi.  Also  called  the 
ceiling. 

Foot-wann'er.  A  heated  stool  for  the  feet.  A 
chating-dish.     A  foot-stove. 

A  hot-water  bottle  shaped  to  fit  against  the  soles 
of  the  feet  of  a  person  lying  in  bed. 

Por'ceps.  A  tool  applied  to  grasping,  and  con- 
sisting of  two  portions  pivoted  together,  the  ends 
forming  respectively  handles  and  jaws. 

SliearSj  scissors,  pincers,  pliers,  tongs,  calipers, 
nippers,  punches,  and  some  other  tools,  agree  in  the 
pivoting  of  duplex  parts,  but  they  difl'er  in  some 
peculiarity  of  the  jaws  or  in  their  special  application 
lor  cutting  or  grasping.     See  Jaw-tools. 

Forceps  for  teeth,  u^Tila,  arteries,  esophagus,  etc., 
were  found  in  a  house  in  Pompeii  in  1819.  They 
were  of  iron  and  copper. 

Specifically  :  in  obstetrics,  an  instrument  having 
a  pair  of  curved  blades  for  grasjiing  the  head  of  the 
fetus  and  assisting  delivery. 

See  under  the  following  heads  :  — • 


Alveolar  forceps. 

Arteiy-forceps. 

Bone-forceps. 

Bullet-forceps. 

Calculi-forceps. 

Cow-horn  forceps. 

Crane's-bill. 

Craniotomy-forceps. 

Crow's-bill. 

Dental  forceps. 

Dissecting-forceps. 

Esophagus-forceps. 

Eye-forceps. 

Fulcrum-forceps. 


Locking-forceps. 

Needle-forceps. 

Obstetrical-forceps. 

Placenta-forceps. 

Plugging-forceps. 

Polypus-forceps. 

Screw-forceps. 

Speculum-forceps. 

Spicula-forceps. 

Stage-forceps. 

Strabisnnis-forceps. 

Trachea-forceps. 

Uvula-forceps. 


Force-pump.  1.  A  pump  which  delivers  the 
water  under  pressure,  so  as  to  eject  it  forcibly  or 
deliver  it  at  an  elevation.  The  term  is  used  in  con- 
tradistinction to  a  lift-pump,  in  which  the  water  is 
lifted,  and  simply  runs  out  of  the  spout. 

The  single-acting  force-pump  is  that  in  which  the 
lift  and  delivery  are  alteniate.  The  double-acting  is 
that  in  which  the  passages  are  duplicated,  so  that  a 
lift  and  delivery  are  obtained  by  each  motion  of  the 
plunger :  the  pump  has  a  distinct  water-way  both 
above  and  below  the  piston,  so  as  both  to  draw  and 
force  water  at  each  stroke,  and  thus  cause  a  con- 
tinuous stream,  which  is  rendered  more  uniform  by 
an  air-chamber. 

The  invention  of  the  force-pump  is  ascribed  to 
Ctesibus  of  Alexandria,  who  is  assumed  to  have,  been 
the  tutor  of  Hero,  who  wrote  so  largely  on  hydrau- 
lics.    It  was  also  described  by  Vitruviiis. 

In  1582,  Peter  Moricc,  a  Dutchman,  erected  a 
pumping-engine  at  London  Bridge,  where  it  or  its 
successors  remained  till  1821.  The  power  was  a 
current-wheel  turned  by  the  flow  and  ebb,  and  first 
placed  near  the  bridge,  then  u  nder  the  northern  arch  ; 
afterwards  three  wheels  were  added  under  the  third 
arch  ;  Smeaton  added  another  under  the  fifth  arch, 
and  afterwards  a  steam-engine  to  a.ssist  at  low-water 
and  neap  tides.     See  Current-wheel. 

The  water-wheel  of  ilorice  worked  sixteen  force- 
pumps,  each  seven  inches  in  diameter,  the  pistons 
having  a  stroke  of  thirty  inches,  throwmg  216  gal- 
lons per  minute  into  a  cistern  elevated  120  feet, 
whence  the  dwellings  in  the  vicinity  were  supjilied 
with  water  by  leaden  pipes. 

In  1731  the  works  are  again  described.     Sixty- 


FORCER. 


904 


FORE-LOCK  BOLT. 


eight  pumps  were  then  at  work,  throwing  2,052 
gallons  per  minute.  The  cylinders  were  of  cast- 
iron,  4  leet  9  inches  long,  7  inches  bore,  and  dis- 
charged by  a  stand-pipe  into  a  cistern  elevated  120 
feet. 

The  Verpillpu.x  pump  (a)  is  a  single-acting  force- 
pump  in  wliich  a  column  of  water  comnuinicates  be- 
tween the  working  cylinder  and  the  water  level. 
When  the  plunger  //  rises,  water  ascends  and  passes 
through  C  into  />' and  upward  into  A  ;  owing  to  the 
pressure  of  air  upon  the  surface  of  the  water  in  the 
cistern,  supi)leniented  for  bights  above,  say  30  feet, 
by  the  weight  of  the  loaded  piston  D.     When  the 


Fig.  2069. 


Force-Pumps. 

plunger  H  descends,  the  column  of  water  in  B  acts 
upon  the  piston  D,  and  raises  water  in  E  to  the  re- 
cejition  cistern  F  above. 

b  c  are  two  forms  of  double-acting  force-pumps, 
in  each  of  which  /  is  the  induction  and  E  tlie  educ- 
tion. 

2.  The  boiler-supply  pump  connected  to  the  pis- 
ton-rod of  the  cyliniler  of  a  locomotive. 

Por'cer.  A  .small  pump  \vorked  by  hand  ;  used 
in  .siTikinir  pits,  draining  cellars,  etc. 

Forc'ing-pit.     A  sunken  hot-bed. 

Fore.  {Nnulicnl.)  The  term  expressive  of  the 
forward  portion  of  a  vessel,  or  the  appiirtenances  of 
the  saiil  forward  )>ortion.  The  term  is  used  in  con- 
tradistinction to  afl. 

Fore-and-aft  Sail.  (Nautical.)  A  sail  whose 
middle  position  is  fore-and-aft ;  one  which  is  at- 


tached to  a  spar  or  stay  in  the  midship  line  of  the 
vessel,  and  not  to  a  yard,  wliich  is  athwart  ship. 

It  may  be  three-cornered,  as  a  stay-sail  or  jib,  or 
four-cornered,  as  a  try-sail,  spanker,  etc. 

Of  the  latter,  — 

The  upper,  after  comer  is  the  peak. 

The  upper,  forward  corner,  the  throat  or  neek. 

The  lower,  after  comer,  the  clew. 

The  lower,  forward  corner,  the  tack. 

The  clcio  is  hauled  aft  by  a  rope  called  the  sheet. 

The  tack  is  hauled  foiTvard  by  a  rope  also  called 
the  tack. 

In  a  fore-and-aft  sail, — 

The  head  is  the  upper  edge  if  the  sail  be  four-cor- 
neied,  or  the  upper  corner  if  the  sail  be  three-cor- 
nered. 

Thc/oot  is  the  lower  edge. 

The  foremost  edge  is  called  the  luff  or  weather- 
leech. 

The  aftermost  edge  is  called  the  lee-leech,  or  the 
leech. 

Schooners,  smacks,  and  cutters  are  fore-and-aft 
rigged.  The  spankers,  drivers,  jibs,  try-sails,  and 
stay-sails  of  other  vessels  are  also  fore-and-aft. 

Fore-bay.  (Hydraulics.)  A  reservoir  or  con- 
ductor between  a  mill-race  and  a  water-wheel.  The 
discharging-end  of  a  head  or  mill-race.  The  terra  is 
the  equivalent  of  penchutc  or  penstock,  but  is  u>ed 
especially  in  regard  to  watcr-wheels,  which  receive 
and  discharge  water  at  their  peripheries,  such  as  the 
under-shot,   over-shot,  breast,  and  Hotter-wheels. 

Fore-beam.  (Weaving.)  The  breast-beam  of 
a  loom. 

Fore-bo'w.  (Menage. )  The  pommel  or  horn  of 
a  saddle. 

Fore-car'riage.  (Vehielc.)  The  fonvard  part 
of  the  running  gear  of  a  four-wheeled  vehicle.  The 
fore-wheels,  axle,  and  hounds  ;  with  or  without  the 
pole  and  the  j'erch. 

Fore'cas-tle.  (Shipbuilding.)  a.  In  flush- 
decks  ;  a  part  of  the  upper  deck  forward  of  the  after 
fore-shrond. 

b.  A  short  upper  deck  forward.  Formerly  raised 
like  a  castle  to  conmiand  the  enemy's  decks.  A 
top-gallant  forecastle. 

c.  A  forward  part  of  the  space  below  decks  in 
merchant-.shi]is,  for  the  seamen. 

Fore-edge.  The  front  edge  of  a  book  or  a  folded 
sheet ;  in  i-ontradistinction  to  the  back,  which  is 
folded,  and  holds  the  stitching. 

Fore-foot.  (Shiphtildiny.)  The  forward  end 
of  a  vessel's  keel  on  which  the  .stem-|>ost  is  stepped. 

Fore-gang'er.  (\autical.)  A  short  rope  gralted 
on  to  the  haijioon,  and  to  which  the  ro]>e  is  bent. 

Fore-ham'mer.  A  sledge-hannner,  working  al- 
ternately or  in  time  with  the  hand-hammer. 

Fore-hook.  (Shipbuildijiy.)  A  strengthening 
piece  in  the  stem,  binding  the  bows  together.  A 
hrrasf-hook. 

Fo'rel.  (Bookbinding.)  A  kind  of  parchment  for 
book-covers. 

Fore'land.  1.  (Hydraulic  Engineering.)  That 
portion  of  the  natural  shore  on  the  outside  of  the 
embankment  which,  .standing  several  feet  above  low- 
water  mark,  and  having  a  considerable  breadth,  acts 
as  an  advanced  guard  to  the  embankment  to  receive 
the  shock  of  the  waves  and  deaden  their  force  upon 
the  bank. 

2.  (Fortification.)  A  space  between  a  fortified 
wall  and  the  moat. 

Fore-lock.  .A.  cutter  or  split  pin  in  the  slot  of 
a  bolt  to  prevent  retraction.  A  linch-pin.  A  pin 
fastening  the  cap-square  of  a  gun.     A  key. 

Fore-lock  Bolt.     One  retained  by  a  key,  gib,  or 


FORE-LOCK  HOOK. 


905 


FORGE-KOLLS. 


cotter  {lassiiig  through  a  slot  of  the  shank.  See  Key  ; 
Cotter. 

Pore-lock  Hook.  (Rope-mating  )  A  winch  or 
whirl  in  the  tackle-block  by  which  a  bunch  of  three 
yarns  is  twisted  into  a  strand. 

Fore'maBt  (Xautical.)  The  one  nearest  to  the 
bow,  in  vessels  carrying  more  than  one  mast,  except 
in  the  ease  of  a  ketch,  whose  forward  mast  is  the 
inaiii,  as  being  the  longer  of  the  two,  the  after-mast 
being  the  niizzen. 

Pore-part  I'ron.  An  edge  rubber  or  burnisher 
for  boot  and  shoe  soles. 

Pore-piece.  {Saddlcnj.)  The  flap  attached  to 
the  fore-part  of  a  side-saddle,  to  guard  the  rider's 
dress. 

Pore-plane.  {Joinery.)  Intermediate  in  length 
and  application  between  a  jack-p\a,nfi  and  a  smooth- 
M!9-plane. 

Pore-rake.  (Shipbuilding.)  So  much  of  the 
forward  part  of  a  vessel  as  overhangs  the  keel. 

Pore-run'ner.  (X'autical.)  A  piece  of  red  bunt- 
ing on  a  log-line  at  a  certain  distance,  say  twelve  or 
hfteen  fathoms,  from  the  log-chip ;  the  fathoms 
begin  to  count  at  the  fore-runner,  and  the  non- 
counting  portion  is  called  the  stray-line.  The  latter 
is  an  allowance  to  allow  the  log  to  be  out  of  the 
ship's  dead-water.     See  Log. 

Pore-shore.  (Hydraulic  Engineering.)  a.  A 
bank  a  little  distance  from  a  sea-wall  to  break  the 
force  of  the  surf. 

b.  The  seaward  projecting,  slightly  inclined  por- 
tion of  a  breakwater. 

Pore-shot  The  first  portion  that  comes  over 
in  distillation  of  low  wines.  It  is  a  milky  liquid 
and  abounds  in  fusel  oil. 

Pore-sight.  1.  A  sight/onm/-rfat  the  leveling- 
staff  or  through  the  sights  of  the  circumferentor. 

2.  The  muzzle-sight  of  a  gun. 

Pore-staff.  (Optics.)  An  instrument  formerly 
used  at  sea  for  taking  the  altitude  of  heavenly  bod- 
ies, and  also  known  as  a  cross-staff.  The  observer 
faces  the  object,  the  position  being  the  reverse  of 
that  assumed  in  using  the  back-staff  for  a  similar 
purpose.  The  fore-statf  has  a  straight,  square  stalf 
graduated  like  a  line  of  tangents,  and  four  avsses  or 
vanes  which  slide  thereon.  The  first  and  shortest 
of  these  vanes  is  c.illed  the  <c«-cross,  and  belongs  to 
that  side  of  the  instrument  whereon  the  divisions 
begin  at  3°  and  end  at  10°.  The  ne.xt  longer  vane, 
called  the  thirty-cvoss,  belongs  to  the  side  of  the 
stiff  graduated  from  10°  to  .30°.  The  sil£^i/-cross  be- 
longs to  the  siile  graduated  from  20°  to  60°.  The 
ni)i.-<i/-cross  belongs  to  the  side  of  the  staff  gradu- 
ated from  30°  to  90°. 

Pore-starling.  An  ice-breaker  in  advance  of 
the  starting  of  a  bridge. 

Pore-wale.  (Saddlery.)  The  smaller  roll  of  a 
horse-coUai'. 

Porge.  1.  A  blacksmith's  open  fire,  where  iron 
is  heated  by  the  aid  of  a  blast.  The  illustration 
shows  a  portable  form,  in  which  the  bellows  isworked 
by  a  treadle,  the  air-pipe  passing  upward  and  through 
a  tuyere  into  the  coal-bo.K  a,  which  is  shown  empty. 
b  is  the  slake-trough. 

2.  A  building  in  which  blacksmith's  forges  or 
furnaces  are  arranged.  When  on  a  large  scale,  fur- 
naces, cranes,  and  steam-hammers  are  necessary  ad- 
juncts.     A  smithy. 

3.  A  place  where  iron  is  puddled  and  shingled. 

4.  A  field-forge  in  militai-y  service.    See  BArrEBT- 

FOBOE. 

The  subject  oi  forging  is  incidentally  considered 
under  Cannon,  Aiimor-plating,  and  elsewhere,  and 
the  appliances  under  Anvil,   Hailmeb,   etc.     See 


Ham.mer  ;   also  list  under   Blacksmith's  Tools, 
etc. 

Considering  how  lately  it  has  been  deemed  possi- 
ble to  forge  very  large  masses  of  iron,  aud  how  all 


Fig.  2070. 


Fig.  20n. 


Portable  Forge. 

the  best  modern  appliances  of  furnaces,  cranes,  and 
steam-hammers  are  engaged  in  the  production  of 
heavy  cannon,  screw  and  paddle  shafts  of  steanishi]is, 
anchors,  etc.,  we  may  well  besurprisedat  the  existence 
within  the  cincture  of  the  ancient  Jlo.sque  of  the 
Kutub,  near  Delhi,  of  a  wrought-iron  pillar  of  a  size 
which  would  be  deemed  a  first-class  forging  in  the 
most  capalile  works  of  Euro])e  or  America.  The  jiillar 
is,  however,  more  than  1,000  years  old,  and  maybe  as 
nmch  as  1,500.  It  is  believed  that  the  ornamental 
capital  was  chipped  from  the  solid.  Digging  has 
shown  that  the  greater  portion  of  the  length  is  bur- 
ied in  the  ground.  It  has  about 
midlength  an  inscription  in  San- 
scrit, in  a  character  which  has 
been  assigned  to  the  period  A.  D. 
300  to  400.  It  has  been  described 
at  length  by  Mallet  in  the  "En- 
gineer." The  present  writer  con- 
cludes that  it  is  a  casting  from 
iron  smelted  by  a  process  allied 
to  the  Catalan, —  the  ordinary 
smelting  process  of  Asia  and  Af- 
rica, in  fact,  —  from  a  magnetic 
or  hematite  ore  by  charcoal.  Such 
.an  iron  may  be  worked  to  some 
extent  by  the  hammer. 

The  iron  pillar  of  Delhi  has  the 
following  dimensions  :  — 

Hight  above  ground        .  22  feet. 

Depth  beneath  ground,  so 
fai'  as  is  known  by  dig- 
ging   .         .         .         .   26    " 

Estimated  hight  .         .       60    " 

Hight  of  capital      .         .     3A" 

Upperdiameter  of  shaft  12. 05  inch. 

Lowerdiameterofshaft  16.4      *' 

Weight  (calculated)  .   38,080  lbs. 

Porge-rolls.  The  name  con- 
ferred ujion  the  train  of  rolls  by 
which  the  slab  or  bloom  is  con- 
verted into  puddled  bars.  Iron  Pillar  o/DeUii. 


FOBGETTE. 


906 


FORK. 


Fig.  2072. 


They  consist  of  two  pairs,  the  raughing-dcwn  rolls 
B.nA  finishing  rolls. 

For'gette.  (Glove-making.)  Yt.,  fourgfttt.  The 
piece  jiut  between  the  fingers  of  a  glove,  and  to 
wliich  the  front  and  back  parts  of  the  lingers  are 
sewed. 

rorg'ing-ham'mer.  A  hammer  used  by  gold- 
beaters. It  weighs  three  pounds,  has  a  liead  at  one 
end  and  a  wedge  at  the  other,  the  face  having  a 
square  area  of  IJ  inches  on  the  side.  Its  handle  is 
6  inches  long,  it  is  the  first  hammer  in  the  scries, 
and  reduces  the  ingot  of  gold  to  one  .si.xth  of  an 
inch.  The  anvil  is  a  mass  of  steel  four  inches  long 
and  three  broad.  The  lamiimting-machine  is  often 
used  instead  of  the  forging-hamnicr. 

Forg'ing-ina-chine'.  A  machine  having  a  num- 
ber of  jilunging  mandrels  and  stakes  between  which 
a  heated  bar  is  pressed  to  form.  The  opposing  faces 
of  the  plungers  and  stakes  may  be  merely  hammer- 
faced,  or  may  be  shajied  to  act  as  swages. 

Forg'ing-press.  One  for 
forging  by  means  of  pressure, 
as  in  the  Bessemer  press 
(Fig.  2072),  which  acts  by 
hydraulic  ]iressure.  j  is  a 
piston  working  in  the  cylin- 
der h  to  drive  the  water 
against  the  base  of  the  piston 
jjr,  on  which  is  the  anvil  face. 
e  is  the  forging  which  is 
raised  by  the  piston  g  against 
the  face  d  of  tlie  hammer  c, 
if  it  may  be  so  called  ;  /  b 
are  the  means  for  lowering 
the  hammer  c  d  to  such  a 
distance  as  may  suit  the  size 
of  the  work,  a  a  are  through- 
bolts  which  sustain  the  press- 
ure. 

Fork.    An  im- 
plement    with 
prongs  for  lifting, 
digging,  carrying, 
or  throwing.     Its  u.ses  maybe  principally  included 
uniler  the  heads  of  agricultural  and  husbandry  uses 
and  domestic  uses. 
Of  the  former  are  ;  — 

Bung  or  manure  forks. 

Horse  lui>j-{ovks. 

/)iV/f/iii(/-forks. 

Gra  iH-forks. 

Hnif-forks. 

PifcA-forks. 

Of  the  domestic  are  :  — 

Chdinnry  or  flesh  forks.      Table-iorks. 

1.  The  fork  of  the  husbandman  is  shown  on  the 
Egyptian  tombs,  and  referred  to  in  the  Book  of 
Judges,  1093  B.  c.  :  "Yet  they  had  a  file  for  the 
mattocks,  and  for  the  colters,  and  for  the  forks." 

The  pitch-fork  is  used  for  grain  in  the  straw  or 
sheaf,  hay,  and  manure.  It  has  from  two  to  four 
teeth,  according  to  its  purpose.  The  four-pronged 
is  used  for  manure,  the  others  for  straw,  sheaves,  or 
hay. 

Another  form  of  grain-fork  («)  is  of  wood,  the 
operative  end  being  slit  into  three  prongs,  which  are 
held  apart  by  wedges  and  braced  by  rods. 

It  is  used  in  delivering  the  gavel  of  grain  from  the 
platform  of  the  reaping-machine,  and  is  preferred 
for  the  reason  that  its  tines  do  not  injure  the  plat- 
form, or  offer  so  much  danger  to  the  person  or  the 
machine  as  do  sharp  iron  tines. 


Sessemer^s  Forging-Press. 


In  the  scenes  where  the  thrashing  of  grain  is  repre- 
sented on  the  tombs  of  Egypt,  we  see  several  in- 
stances of  the  three-jironged  fork.  It  appears  to  be 
of  wood,  the  end  split  into  three  tines,  which  are 

Fig.  2073. 


Grain-Fork  ( Thtbe$). 

held  apart  in  some  way,  perhaps,  as  with  us,  by 
wedges. 

The  digging-fork  has  four  flat  steel  tines,  and  is 
a  very  eH'ective  tool. 

Tile  pitch-fork  has  two  or  three  long,  round  tines, 
and  is  used  for  pitching  hay  or  sheaves.  The  bar- 
ley-fork is  a  peculiar  fork  having  a  guard  on  the 
head,  and  used  for  pitching  gavels  of  short  gi~ain 
without  binding. 

The  horse  hay-foik  is  designed  to  obviate  the 
great  labor  of  pitching  hay  from  the  wagon  into  the 
mow,  or  from  the  wagon  or  the  ground  into  the 
stack.     They  are  of  four  kinds  :  — 

1.  The  An77)oo)i -fork. 

2.  Tl\i(i  jointed-toi\i. 


Fig.  2074. 


Operating  Horse  Hay-Forks. 

3.  The  tovgs-h\\i. 

4.  The  cm'kscrew-iork. 

Fig.  2074  gives  a  general  idea  of  the  mode  of  oper- 
ating the  fork.  A  rope  passes  from  the  single-tree 
of  the  horse  over  three  pulleys  to  the  fork,  which  is 
thrust  into  the  load.  When  the  horse  starts  up,  the 
load  is  lifted,  and  when  it  has  reached  the  desired 
bight  a  trigger  is  pulled  and  the  load  dropped.  The 
horse  is  backed,  allowing  the  fork  to  descend,  assist- 
ed by  the  weight  which  takes  up  the  slack  of  the 
fall. 

1.  The  harpoon-fork  is  thrast  endwise  into  the 
hay,  the  tines  being  sheathed  ;  then,  by  the  motion 
of  a  lever,  the  tine  or  tines  are  exposed  so  as  to  catch 
the  hay  and  elevate  it  when  the  fork  is  lifted.  On 
reaching  the  place  where  the  forkful  is  to  be  de- 
posited, the  catch  which  holds  the  tines  in  their  ex- 


FORK. 


907 


FORK. 


tended  position  Is  drop^ied  by  drawing  on  a  trigger  ; 
the  tines  becoming  sheathed  by  the  pressure  upon 
them  of  the  hay,  the  latter  slips  off.  Two  forms  of 
this  are  shoi\Ti,  but  twenty-eight  are  before  the 
writer  while  makiug  this  notice.  Fig.  2075  has  a 
tube  from  which  protnide  two  prongs  F  F,  which 
are  thrust  out  into  the  hay  after  the  stem  has  been 
driven  in  to  the  required  depth.  AVhen  lifted,  the  load 
rests  on  the  prongs,  and  when  a  trigger  on  the  stem 
is  pulled  by  the  cord  </,  tlu  prongs  retreat  ;  the  tube 
falls  until  it  catches  on  the  cross-piece  of  the  stem  D. 
In  Fig.  2076  the  parts  E  and  F  form  the  entering 
portion  and  maintain  a  genei-al  longitudinal  direc- 
tion while  the  fork  is  thr'i-st  into  the  hay,  and  are 
vibrated  outwardly  to  hold  the  hay  by  the  pivoted  rod, 
which  is  actuated  by  a  lever  and  auxiliary  rope,  to 
drop  the  load  when  it  has  arrivedover  the  desired  spot. 
2.  The  sintile-jovUcd  fork  is  one  in  which  the 
tines  are  hinged  to  the  stock,  so  as  to  assume  a  posi- 
tion in  which  the  hay  will  be  sustained,  but  capable 
of  being  dropped  from  this  position  so  as  to  allow 
the  hay  to  slip  off.     The  modiis  operandi  is  this  : 


Fig  2076. 


tripped  by  lifting 
the  trigger  e  on  the 
end  of  the  rope  /. 

3.  The   tongs,  or 
grabbing  -fori-,    has 
two    hands,    so    to 
speak,  which   clasp 
upon  the  bunch  of 
hay,  and  are  locked 
in  their  closed  posi- 
tion while  the  hay 
is      being      lifted. 
When     arrived     at 
the   place    to    drop 
the  hay,  a  rope  at- 
tached to  a  trigger 
is   pulled,   the   two 
heads  of  tlie  fork  are 
unlocked,   and  the  weight 
of   the   hay   presses    them 
open,  the  hay  falling  out. 
The  two  forms  shown  are 
held  closed  by  a  straight 
toggle,   and   opened  when 
the  toggle  is  bent  by  a  pull 
on  the  rope.     In  Fig.  2079 
the  fork  is  swung  from  one 
prong,    and   in   Fig.   2080 
from  both  prongs. 

4.  The  corkscrctr-fork  is 
screwed  down  into  the  hay,  /J  \ 
turning  in  its  handle  or 
stock  ;  a  latch  holds  it  in 
position  while  the  hay  is 
lifted.  A  trigger  then  re- 
leases the  catch,  and  the  tine  being  freed  is  rotated 
by  the  weight  of  the  hay  which  slips  therefrom. 

Fig  2080. 


Jointtd  Forks. 


The  tines  of  the  fork  in  its  effective  position  are 
thrust  into  the  hay,  and  the  fork  with  its  load  is 
then  elevated.  On  reaching  the  place  where  the 
load  is  to  be  depositeil,  a  trigger  is  pulled,  releasing 
the  tines  ;  the  weight  of  the  hay  causes  them  to 
drop,  and  the  load  slips  off. 

Of  fifteen  kinds  at  hand,  two  may  he  selected  as 
representative.  In  Fig.  2077,  the  tines  are  on  a 
head  attached  to  the  stock  C  and  hinged  to  the  bail 
D.  F  \s  3.  hinged  brace,  which  thrusts  against  a 
stud  in  a  slot  of  the  stock  C,  to  hold  the  tines  in 
their  holding  position.  The  tines  are  tripped  by  the 
rope  and  trigger  i,  which  pushes  the  brace  F  off  the 
detent  and  allows  the  head  and  stock  to  rotate  on 
the  bail. 

Fig.  2078  has  its  tines  a  hinged  at  midlength,  and 


Tongs-Forks. 


As  the  vertical  tines  descend  into  the  bunch  of 
hay,  the  spiral  tines  are  rotated  and  then  locked. 
Tlie  load  being  elevated,  the  cord  is  pulled,  disen- 
gaging the  iletent  and  revolving  the  spiral  tines  to 
discharge  the  load. 

2.   Forks  for  culinary  purposes  were  common  in 

ancient  times,  vidt  the"  observances  of  the  Hebrew 

(  priests,  who  dipped   their  forks  into  the  seething- 

j  pot  and  lifted  the  meat  thence.     The  table-fork  is  a 

I  modem  invention,  deriving  its  name  from  the  Italian 

forc/i. 

The  Greeks  and  Romans  had  also  ilesh-forks  or 
rakes  to  lift  meat  from  the  ]>ot,  but  they  had  no 
table-forks.  The  carver,  carjitar,  had  a  knife  for 
carving,  and  the  guests  furnished  their  own.  The 
meat  was  grasped  by  the  linger  and  thumb  of  the 


FORK-BEAM. 


908 


FORTIFICATION. 


Fig.  2081. 


Corkscrew  Hay-Pork. 


left  hand,  and  a 
piece  excised.  The 
NewTestainent,  Ho- 
mer, and  Oviil  men- 
tion tlie  putting  of 
the  hands  in  the 
dish. 

The  "dipping  in 
the  dish "  refers  to 
making  a  scoop  of  a 
piece  of  bread  and 
dipping  out  tlie  soup 
or  gravy.  To  give 
a  "sop"  thus  pre- 
pared to  a  friend  at 
table  was  a  delicate 
attention.  Judas  re- 
ceived hisand  "went 
out."  The  mark  of 
kindness  wa.s  too 
much  even  for  his 
selfish  heart. 

The  Chinese   use 


chop-sticks  instead  of  forks. 

Uronze  forks  were  used  by  the  Egyptian  priests  in 
preiienting  ott'erings  to  the  gods.  Two  of  them  e.x- 
hunieil  at  Sakkarah  are  in  tlie  Abbott  collection. 

A  fork  is  mentioned  in  the  accounts  of  Edward  I., 
and  is  sujiposed  to  have  been  lirought  from  the  East 
by  a  returning  crusader.  Voltaire  says  that  they 
were  used  by  tlie  Lombards  in  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tury ;  and  Martins  states  that  they  were  common  in 
Italy  in  the  fifteenth  century. 

Table-forks  are  heard  of  in  Italy  from  1458  to 
1490.  An  Italian  at  the  court  of  Matthias  Cor- 
vinas,  king  of  Hungary,  notices  the  lack  of  the  fork 
in  the  taljle  furniture  of  the  king.  A  century  after, 
they  were  not  known  in  France  or  Sweden. 

Coryat,  in  his  "Crudities,"  1611,  says:  "I  ob- 
served a  custom  in  all  those  Italian  cities  and  towns 
through  which  1  passed,  that  is  not  vsed  in  any 
other  country  that  I  saw  in  my  tmules,  neither  doe 
I  think  that  any  other  nation  in  Christendome  doth 
vse  it,  but  only  Italy.  The  Italians  and  also  most 
strangers  that  are  commorant  in  Italy,  doealwaiesat 
their  meales  vse  a  little  fork  when  they  cut  their 
meat." 

Fyne  Moryson's  "  Itinerary,"  in  the  reign  of 
Elizabeth,  refers  to  their  use  in  Venice. 

Heylin  in  his  " Cosmograpli,"  1662,  says:  "The 
use  of  silver  forks,  which  is  by  some  of  our  spruce 
gallants  taken  up  of  late,  came  from  China  into 
Italy,  and  thence  into  England." 

Table-forks  have  long  been  in  use  in  Feejee.  At 
a  time  when  all  Northern  Europe  was  destitute  of 
the  article,  tliese  remarkable  savages,  the  most  cruel 
and  ingenious  of  all  the  natives  of  Polynesia,  used 
forks  in  conveying  to  their  mouths  morsels  of 
pualca-balava,  long-pig,  as  they  called  cooked  man. 

Table-forks  of  the  best  quality  are  forged  from  the 
end  of  a  rod  of  cast-steel,  about  three  eighths 
square.  The  tang,  shoulder,  and  shank  are  roughly 
formed  ami  cut  ort',  the  prongs  being  a  flat  portion 
which  is  stamped  out  by  a  swage  drop.  The  film 
between  the  tines  is  cleaned  away  by  the  file.  These 
processes  are  followed  by  hardening,  tempering, 
grinding,  and  hafting. 

Fork-beam.  (Shipbuilding.^  A  half-beam  to 
support  a  deik  where  hatchways  occur. 

Fork-chuck.  {Tuminri.)  A  piece  of  steel  pro- 
jecting from  the  live  spindle  and  carrying  the  front 
center  and  a  pair  of  joints  which  enter  the  wood  and 
rotate  it. 

Fork-head.    The  double. head  of  a  rod  which 


divides  in  order  to  form  a  connection  by  means  of  a 
pin. 
Fork 'staff-plane.     (Jointry.)     A  joiner's  plane 

for  woi'king  convex  cylindrical  surfaces. 

Fork-Twrench.  A  spanner  with  two  jaws  which 
embrace  a  nut  or  a  square  on  a  coujiling. 

Form.  1.  (Printiny.)  a.  A  body  of  type,  com- 
posed and  made  ready  for  priuting. 

h.  A  stereotype  in  the  like  condition  of  readiness. 

The  one  containing  the  first  page  is  the  outer  form. 
The  form  for  the  opposite  side  of  the  sheet  is  the 
inner  form. 

2.  A  shape  or  mold  for  metal,  glass,  or  jelly. 

Form'er.  A  shape  around  whidi  an  article  is 
molded,  woven,  wrapped,  pasted,  or  otherwise  con- 
stnicted. 

A  templet,  pattern,  or  gage  by  which  an  article  is 
shaped,  as  pottery,  or  an  object  in  the  lathe. 

A  cutter  by  which  patteins,  blanks,  wads,  or 
pieces  are  cut  from  sheets  for  various  purjioses. 

Form'ing.  (Sliipbuildi7ig.)  Shaping  exactly  the 
converted  (partially  shaped)  timbers,  so  as  to  give 
them  the  required  figure.     This  consists  in  :  — 

Siding  ;  giving  them  the  correct  breadth. 

Molding ;  giving  the  correct  outline  and  depth. 

Beveling;  giving  the  faying  surfiice  the  proper 
shape  to  meet  the  planking  or  iron  skin. 

Form'ing-cyl'in-der.  (Paper. )  That  cylinder 
in  a  pa]ier-making  machine  on  which  the  film  of 
pulp  is  gathered,  and  which  delivers  it  as  a  soft  and 
weak  web  to  the  hardening  and  drying  devices. 

For'ril.     Lambskin  jiarchnient.     Vellum. 

Fort.     A  small  fortification. 

The  orthography  of  a  fort  is  its  profile. 

The  iehnography  is  its  ground  plan.     See  Forti- 

FirATION. 

Fortal-ice.     An  outwork  of  a  fortification. 

For'ties.  (Printing.)  A  sheet  of  paper  having 
forty  |irinti'd  pages  on  each  side.     40's. 

For  ti-fi-ca'tion.  Fortifications  are  known 
as,  — 

Natural,  when  cliffs,  swamps,  rivers,  etc.,  conduce 
to  give  the  advantage  to  the  defending  foive. 

Artificial,  when  labor  and  skill  create  advantages 
or  add  to  the  natural  ones. 

Vcfensire,  wlien  opposed  to  an  attacking  force. 

Offensive,  in  investing  a  place. 

Permanent,  of  a  lasting  character. 

Field,  for  emergency  or  temporarj'  uses. 

There  is  no  room  here  for  a  treatise  ;  see  details 
under  the  following  heads  :  — 


Abattis. 

Ante-mural. 

Approach. 

Arrow. 

Augette. 

Avant-fosse. 

Banquette. 

Barbaean. 

Barbette. 

Barrier. 

Bartizan. 

Base. 

Basket-work. 

B.astion. 

Bastioned  fort. 

Batardeau. 

Battery. 

Bavins. 

Berme. 

Blind. 

Blindage. 

Block-house. 


Body  of  a  place. 

Bomb-proof. 

Bonnet. 

Bonnet  de  pretre. 

Boom. 

Branch. 

Bray. 

Break. 

Breast-hight. 

Breast-work. 

Biidge-head. 

Biisure. 

Bulwark. 

Buttress. 

Caltrop. 

Camoutlet. 

Canditeer. 

Capital. 

Caponniere. 

Casemate. 

Cavalier. 

Cavin. 


FORTIFICATION'. 


909 


FOUNDER'S  CLEANSING-MILL. 


Chamber. 

C'heinin  des  rondes. 

Clieval  de  frise. 

Circumvallation. 

Citadel. 

Coffer. 

Coffin. 

Contour. 

Contravallation. 

Cordon. 

Corridor. 

Coanterguard. 

Countermine. 

Counterscarp. 

Counter  swallow-tail. 

Counter-trench. 

Cointervallation. 

Counter-works. 

Coupunis. 

Covereil  way. 

Creniaillere. 

Crenette. 

Crest. 

Crotchet. 

Crown-work. 

Crow's-feat. 

Cunette. 

Curtain. 

Dead-angle. 

Deblai. 

Demi-bastion. 

Demi-lune. 

Demi-revetment. 

Detached  works. 

Ditch. 

Ecoute. 

Elevated  battery. 

Embrasure. 

Enciente. 

Envelope. 

Epaule. 

Epaulement. 

Escarp.       ^ 

Esplanade. 

Estacade. 

Exterior  slope. 

Face. 

Fascine. 

Fausse-braye. 

Field-work. 

Fl;uik. 

Fleche. 

Fort. 

Fortalice. 

Fortress. 

Fougasse. 

Fraise. 

Front. 

Gabion. 

Gallery. 

Glacis. 

Gorge. 

Half-moon. 

Half-sunken  battery. 

Herrison. 

Herse. 

Hersillon. 

Horn-work. 

Hurdle. 

Hurler. 

Indented  line. 

Indented  parapet. 

Interior  slope. 


Intrenchment. 

li-on  fortitication. 

Klicket. 

Line. 

Liziere. 

Lodgment. 

Loop-hole. 

Lunette. 

Magazine. 

Magistral. 

Mantlet. 

Martello  tower. 

JIasked  battery. 

Merlon. 

Mine. 

Moat. 

Moineau. 

Orgues. 

Orillon. 

Outwork. 

Palisade. 

Parados. 

Parallel. 

Parapet. 

Picket. 

Place  of  anus. 

Plane. 

Platform. 

Plongee. 

Portcullis. 

Posteni. 

Priests'  cap. 

Profile. 

Ramp. 

Kampart. 

Ravelin. 

Redan. 

Redoubt. 

Re-entering-angle. 

Relief. 

Remblai. 

Retired  flank. 

Retrenchment. 

Revetment. 

Revolving-tower. 

Ridge. 

Rifle-pit. 

Rimer. 

Salient-angle. 

Sally-port. 

Sand-bag. 

Sap. 

Sap-roller. 

Saucisse. 

Scarp. 

Shoulder. 

Sill. 

Sillon. 

Slope. 

Sole. 

Spur. 

Star-fort. 

Stockade. 

Sunken  battery. 

Superior  slope. 

Swallow-tail. 

Tenailles. 

Tenaillon. 

Terre-plein. 

Tete  de  pont. 

Tower. 

Trace. 

Travei-se. 

Traversing-platfonn. 


Trench. 
Trench-cart. 
Trench  cavalier. 
Trous  de  loup. 


Turret. 

Van-fosse. 

Zigzag. 


For'tress.  A  large  permanent  fortification,  such 
as,  on  our  continent.  Fortress  Monroe,  Quebec,  St. 
Juan  de  Ulloa,  Moro  Castle.  They  are  too  numer- 
ous in  Europe  to  be  thus  summarily  cited. 

Por'ty-eightmo.  {Printinr/.)  A  book  made  up 
of  sheets  printed  4S  pages  on  a  side.     48mo. 

For'ward-fire  Car'tridge.    One  in  which  the 
fulminate  is  at  or  in  the 
base  of  the  baU,  forward  ^  Fig-  2082. 

of  the  powder.  It  is  ex- 
ploded by  a  stem  d,a<  ii 
the  figure,  or  else  by  a 
needle  which  penetrates  |^ 
the  whole  extent  of  the  i  -.  :-:-F,re  Cartridge. 
l)0wder,  and  strikes  the 
fulminate  in  the  base  of  the  bullet.   SeeNEEDLE-GCN. 

For'ward-ing.  (Boo/cbmcling.)  That  department 
which  concerns  the  operation  of  plain  covering  a 
sewed  book,  ready  for  the  finisher. 

Fosse.  (Fortification,.)  A  moat  or  ditch  around 
a  fortitication. 

An  advance  fosse  is  a  ditch  encircling  the  glacis  or 
esplan.ade  of  a  fortification. 

Foth'er-ing.  (Xautical.)  A  mode  of  stopping  a 
leak  at  sea  by  thrumming  a  sail  with  oakum  and 
yarn  and  drawing  it  under  the  bottom  so  as  to  clog 
the  aperture. 

Fou'catilf  s  Pen'du-him.  A  pendulum  for  ren- 
dering visible  the  diurnal  motion  of  the  earth. 

It  consists  of  a  bob  suspended  from  a  considerable 
hight,  say  the  apex  of  the  dome  of  the  Pantheon  or 
Capitol,  and  set  to  vibrating  above  a  circular  table 
marked  «-ith  degrees.  Owing  to  certain  indepen- 
dence of  motion  which  the  bob  possesses,  vibrating 
in  space,  as  it  were,  the  earth  in  its  diurnal  motion 
tunis  round  beneath  it,  as  is  e\idenced  by  the  ap- 
parent change  of  direction  of  the  bob  relatively  to 
the  graduated  table.     See  Pendulum. 

Fou-gasse'.  {Fortification.)  A  small  mine,  con- 
sisting of  a  hole  charged  with  combustibles  and  pro- 
jectiles hidden  by  earth,  and  placed  in  a  position 
liable  to  fall  into  the  hands  of  the  enemy. 

Fou-lard'.  (Fabric.)  A  thin  silk  or  silk-and- 
cotton  dress-stuft'. 

Found.  1.  A  three  square,  single-cut  f\\f  or  float, 
with  one  very  acute  angle,  used  by  comb-makers. 
See  Comb. 

2.  To  cast ;  as  metal. 

Foun-da'tioa.  1.  The  bed  or  ba.sis  of  a  struc- 
ture. 

2.  (Eat-nwJcing.)  The  body  of  a  hat,  of  wool 
or  inferior  fur,  upon  which  the  napping  of  superior 
fur  is  laid  and  united  at  the  batttry. 

Fovin-da'tion-bolt.  One  which  keeps  a  bed- 
plate —  of  an  engine,  for  instance  —  down  to  its  sub- 
stnicture. 

Foun-da'tion-iiiuslin.  (Fabric.)  An  open- 
worked,  gummed  fabric,  used  for  stifiening  dresses 
and  bonnets. 

Poun-da'tion-pile.  (ffydraulic  Engineering.) 
One  driven  into  soft  or  treacherous  giound  to  form 
—  with  others  —  an  unyielding  basis  for  a  .structure. 

Foun-da'tion-plate.  1.  {Bookbinding.)  The 
base  pla^e  on  which  ornaments  are  arranged  in  the 
stamping  or  embossing  press. 

2.  {.Steam  Ei^giiucring.)  The  bed-plate  of  a 
steam-enaine. 

Found'er's  Cleans'mg-milL  A  tumbUng-hox 
in  which  small  castings  are  cleansed  from  adhering 


FOUNDER'S-LATHE. 


910 


FOUNTAIN. 


sand.  In  a  similar  box  articles  may  be  polished  or 
rounded  by  mutual  attrition,  assisted,  if  need  be,  by 
an  abradant,  smdi  as  sand  or  emery. 

Found'er's-latiie.  A  lathe  u.sed  in  preparing 
the  cores  lor  loam-molding,  such  as  those  for  iron 
pipp-s.  A  central  spindle,  being  prepared,  is  placed 
on  centers  or  on  V's,  and  the  clay  loam  covering  is 
l>lastered  on  and  regulated  by  a  templet  or  pattern. 

Found'ing.  The  art  of  casting  metals.  See  un- 
der the  following  heads  :  — 


Blackening. 

Casting-box. 

Casting-ladle. 

Chamber. 

Clieek. 

Chill. 

Chipping-piece. 

Cleaner. 

Cliche. 

Compression-casting. 

Contraction-rule. 

Core. 

Core-bar. 

Core-box. 

Core-print. 

Crucible-tongs. 

Dead-head. 

Dryer. 

Facing. 

False  core. 

Flask. 

Fl.ask-clamp. 

Follow-board. 

Founder's  lathe. 

Gagger. 

Gate.     Geat. 

Gland. 

Gruntcr. 

Hollow  board. 

Ingate. 

La,Ue. 

Lingot. 

Loam. 

L  )am-cake. 

JIantle. 

Mitch-pIate. 

JI  drix. 

Mold. 


Molder's  clamp. 
Molder's  flask. 
Molder's  table. 
Mold-faring. 

Molding  and  casting  appa- 
ratus. 
Molding-board. 
Nowell. 
Parting. 
Perier. 
Pickle. 

Pig- 

Plasm. 

Rammer. 

Runner. 

Sand. 

Shank. 

Shuttle. 

Slicker. 

Sow. 

Spill-trough. 

Spray. 

Sprue. 

Stalk. 

Statuary-casting. 

Steady-pin. 

Stopping-olf. 

Strickle. 

Strike. 

Sullage. 

Tamping-bar. 

Tedge. 

Tile. 

Trowel. 

Tumbler. 

Tumbling-box. 

Undercut. 


Foua'dry-crane.     One  used  to  lift  and  trans- 


port molds,  (tasks,  castings,  etc.,  in  a  foundry. 
Also  known  as  a  molding-crane,  from  its  l)eing  used 
for  lifting  into  and  out  of  position  the  drags  of 
mohls,  cores,  and  what  not,  in  heavy  casting,  loam- 
work,  and  pit-casting.     See  Crane. 

Fount  An  assortment  of  printer's  type.  See 
Font. 

Foun'tain.  1.  An  upward  jet  of  water,  natural 
or  artificial.     With  tlie  latter  we  have  alone  to  do. 

Many  ingenious  pneumatic  and  hydraulic  de\-i<'es 
are  shown  in  "  Spiritalia  Heronis,"  i50  B.  c.  Some 
were  toys  merely,  and  some,  probably,  were  a  part 
of  the  illusive  machinery  of  the  temples. 

In  the  fountain  of  Hero,  the  motion  of  a  column 
of  water  is  ti-ansmitted  to  an- 
other by  the  intervention  of  a  Fig.  2084. 
body  of  air   between  the  two.  f.H 
The   pressure    of   the   elevated 
body  of  water  compresses  the 
air   in    a   lower  chamber  ;  the 
pressure  is  transmitted  to  the  air 
in  a  chamber  above,  the  water 
of  which  is  ejected  in  a  jet. 

The  princi|ile  has  been  made 
use  of  in   emptying  the  water  ^ 
from   the   mines  of  Schemnitz, 
Hungary.     (See  Fig.  58.) 

Hero  has  anticipated  by  2,000 
years  some  of  the  modern  par- 
lor fountains,  in  which  a  body 
of  compressed  air  above  the 
watei'  in  the  reservoir  below  is 
maile  the  means  of  driving  a 
jet  of  water  into  the  air.  An 
adju.stment  in  two  planes  is 
given  to  the  nozzle,  so  as  to  direct  the  stream  in  the 
rei|uired  direction. 

■phis  contrivance,  which  appeal's  simple  enough 
when  exhibited  in  section,  was  one  of  the  liydraulic 
marvels  of  the  pagan  priests.  Fig.  20S5  is  a  late 
form,  which  has  an  ice-chamber  and  non-conducting 
casing.  The  gardens  of  Montezuma  were  adorned 
and  nourished  by  streams  and  fountains.  For  the 
fonner  they  were  indebted  to  extensive  aqueducts. 
The  possession  of  the  lat- 
ter shows  that  they  were  Fig  2085. 
acquainted  with  the  prin- 
ciples of  hydraulics. 

Among  the  most  remark- 
able fountains  are  the  Fon- 


HfTo's  Fountain 
(160  b  c). 


Found  rtf'C  ram. 


Portable  Fountain. 


FOUNTAIN. 


911 


FOLTRCHETTE. 


tana  di  TreH  at  Romp,  constnicted  for  Pope  Clement 
XII.  in  1735  ;  the  Foutana  Paolina,  erected  for  Pope 
Paul  V.  in  1612  ;  the  Fontana  dell'  Acijua  Felice, 
or  Fountain  of  Mose.'s.  The  fountains  of  Vers.ailles, 
made  for  Louis  XIV.,  and  the  Jet  d'Eau  of  St. 
Cloud,  are  much  admired.  The  fountains  of  Chats- 
worth,  in  Derbyshire,  England,  the  residence  of  the 
Duke  of  Devonshire,  are  particularly  grand ;  as 
are  also  those  of  the  Crystal  Palace  at  Sydenham, 
near  London.  Cincinnati  is  also  ])roud  of  a  fountain 
made  in  Germany,  and  of  a  very  Teutonic  asjject. 

2.  The  "beer  fountain,"  as  it  is  called,  used  for 
drawing  liquors  in  a  tavern  bar  from  barrels  in  the 
cellar,  by  means  of  a  force-pump,  is  the  invention 
of  Bramah,  and  was  patented  by  him. 

3.  A  copper  vessel --1  (Fig.  2086)  containing  aerated 
water  for  a  beverage.     It  is  used  in  connection  with 

Kg.  2086. 


The  sirup  fountain  is  for  the  supply  of  the  sirup 
which  flavors  the  "soda,"  so  called. 

5.  An  upper  reservoir  chamber  to  contain  a  Uijuid 
and  su]iply  a  wick,  a  dip-hole,  a  trough,  etc.  As 
in  the  oil-chamber  of  an  Argand  lamp,  the  resen'oir 
of  an  inkstand,  a  drinking-glass  in  a  bird-cage,  etc. 

6.  The  ink-re.servoir  in  a  printing-press. 

7.  The  supply-chamber  in  a  reservoir  pen. 

Foun'tain  Ink'stand.  One  which  has  a  con- 
tinual supply  of  ink  from  an  elevated  fountain  (see 
Fig.  20871,  or  which  has  an  elastic  diaphragm  by 
which  the  dip-cup  may  be  supplied  or  emptied,  as 
in  Fig.  2088. 


Kg.  2087. 


Fig.  2088. 


Fovntain-Inkslamis. 

Foun 'tain-lamp.  One  with  an  elevated  reservoir 
for  supply,  as  in  most  forms  of  the  Argand,  —  the 
student's  lamp,  for  instance. 

Gerard  used  an  air-pump  to  force  oil  from  a  low 
chamber  to  the  burner  of  an  Argand  lamp,  so  as  to 
avoid  throwing  a  shadow  upon  surrounding  objects. 

Fotin'tain-pen.  One  which  has  an  ink  reservoir 
for  the  supply  of  the  pen. 

Schelfer's     fountain-pen,    introduced     in  F'E  2089. 
England  about  1835,  had  a  reservoir  of  ink 
in  the  holder,  and  the  ink  is  admitted  to  the 
pen  by  the  pressure  of  the  thumb  on  a  pro- 
jecting stud. 

Parker's  hydraulic  pen,  invented  about 
the  same  time,  had  a  piston  in  the  holder, 
operated  by  a  screw  stem  and  a  nut  on  the 
end  of  the  holder.  The  lower  end  of  the 
reservoir  being  dipped  in  ink,  the  piston 
was  drawn  up  by  rotating  the  nut,  hlling 
the  reservoir.  The  ink  was  ejected  as  re- 
quired by  the  contrary  motion  of  the  thumb- 
nut. 

Foun'tain-pump.  1.  One  in  which  a 
stream  with  a  natural  head  is  led  through  a 

Fig  2090. 


Soda- Fountain. 


an  ornate  counter  arrangement  through  which  the 
liquid  is  drawn  into  tumblers.  They  are  lined  with 
block -tin  to  prevent  corrosion  of  copper. 

4.  A  box  B  containing  ice  and  a  coil  through 
which  aerated  water,  known  as  "soda-water,"  is 
conducted  to  the  nozzle,  when  it  is  drawn  into 
glasses. 


Fountain-Pump. 


Fountain-Pen- 


stock and  nozzle,  and  thus  bears  the  appearance  of 
a  pump,  though  perennial. 

2.  One  in  which  a  packed  piston  is  replaced  by  a 
plunger  with  a  leathern  annular  disk  or  diaphragm. 

Four-cant.    [Xauti^fil.)   A  rope  of  four  strands. 

Four-chette'.     1.    {Surgical.)    An    instrument 


FOURDRINIER-MACHINE. 


912 


FRAME. 


for  holding  up  the  tongiie  while  the  frenuni  is  being 
cut. 

2.  {Glove-making.)  The  forked  piece  between  two 
adjaiviit  lingers  of  a  glove,  uniting  the  portions  of 
the  Inick  anil  in.side  of  the  linger.     FougcUc. 

Pour'dri-nier'-ma-chine'.  A  paper-making 
machine,  the  lirst  to  make  a  continuous  web.  It 
was  invented  by  Louis  Robert,  of  E.ssonne,  and 
patented  by  him  in  France.  He  experienced  some 
pecuniary  dilficultie.s  and  sold  the  right  to  M. 
Leger-Didot.  The  latter  came  to  England  and  made 
arrangements  for  working  it.  A  Mr.  Gamble  and 
the  brothers  Fourdrinier  improved  it,  and  made  a 
valuable  machine  which  was  pirated,  and  bank- 
rupted the  gentlemen  whose  name  is  imperishably 
associated  with  it.  The  enterprise  is  the  glory  of 
the  mecluuiical  genius,  and  the  disgrace  of  the  law 
lonls  and  law  courts  of  the  "tight  little  island." 

The  m  icliine  was  perfccteil  Ijy  Bryan  Donkin, 
John  Wilks,  and  others  not  known  to  fame. 

The  esse  itiil  features  of  the  machine  are  :  — 

1.  A  stream  of  paper  pulp  Howing  on  to  the  sur- 
face of  an  endless,  horizontal,  wire  web. 

2.  .A.  tremulous  motion  to  the  web  to  shake  out 
the  water,  which  falls  in  a  rain  beneath,  and  to  felt 
the  fiber. 

3.  A  traveling  deckle  which  keeps  up  with  the 
motion  of  the  web,  and  forms  the  lateral  margin  of 
the  paper. 

i.  A  porous  d'indij  which  presses  the  pulp  and 
absorbs  some  of  the  water. 

5.  A  couching  roller  to  take  up  the  web. 

6.  A  pressure  roller  to  abstract  moisture. 

7.  Drying,  sizing,  finishing,  measuring,  cutting 
devices,  itd.  lib.     See  Papek-.machine. 

Four'gon.    1.   A  tumbrel  or  ammunition-wagon. 
2.    A  French  baggage-vehicle. 
Fourth-rate.     Formerly  a  50  to  70  gun  vessel, 
now  a  gunboat  carrying  from  1  to  4  guns. 

Four-way  Cock.    A  cock  having  two  separate 
passages     in     the 
Fig.  2091.  plug,  and  commu- 

nicating with  four 
pipes.  The  inven- 
tion of  James  Watt. 
FoTwl  'in  g- 
piece.  A  fire-arm 
adapted  for  ordi- 
nary sporting.   See 

FIRE-.4KM. 

Fox.  (Nauti- 
cal.) A  small  strand  of  rope  made  by  twisting  sev- 
eral rope-yarns  together.  Used  for  seizings,  mats, 
seiiiiitu,  g  i.':kcls. 

Fox-bolt.  A  description  of  bolt  which  is  made 
tight  by  a  fox  or  wedge  driven  into  a  split  in  the 
end.     See  Bolt. 

Fox'ing.  (Shocnvil-ing.)  1.  An  outer  covering 
or  upper  leather  over  the  us'ual  upper.  One  mode  of 
repairing  a  worn  upper  by  clothing  it. 

2.  Ornamental  strips  of  a  different  material  on  the 
up]iers  of  shoes. 

Fox-key.  (ifachinerri .)  A  split-cotter  with  a 
thin  wedge  of  steel  driven  into  the  end  to  prevent 
its  working  back. 

Fox-tedl  Saw.     A  dovetail  saw. 


Fig  2092. 


Four-Way  Cock. 


Fox-Tail  Wtdging. 


Pox-tail  'Wedg'iiig.  A  mode  of  spreading  the 
end  of  a  tenon  in  the  mortise,  so  as  to  give  it  a  dove- 
tail character  to  resist  withdrawal.  The  same  is  ap- 
plied to  wooden  pins  which  occupy  holes  not  bored 
through.  In  the  point  of  the  pin  is  inserted  a  thin 
wedge  of  hard  wood.  When  this  reaches  the  bottom 
of  the  hole,  it  sinks  into  and  spreads  the  end  of  the 
pin  so  as  to  bind  it  very  fiiinly  in  the  hole. 

With  a  tenon,  it  is  usual  to  insert  a  number  ol 
small  wedges,  so  that  it  may  not  be  split  much  at 
any  one  point. 

iPox-type.  (Plwtographi/.)  A  printing  process 
in  which  a  transparent  positive  is  used,  and  the 
action  of  the  light  is  the  reverse  of  the  usual  process. 

Foy'er.  The  ci-ucible  or  basin  in  a  furnace,  to 
receive  the  molten  metal. 

Frache.  A  shallow  iron  pan  to  hold  glass-ware 
while  being  annealed  in  a  iccr. 

Frag'ments.  (Pri7iting.)  A  few  pages  at  the 
end  of  a  book.  The  title,  preface,  contents,  etc., 
inijio-sed  so  as  to  print  oft'  economically.     Oddments. 

Fraise.  1.  {Fortijication.)  Palisading  jilaced 
horizontal  at  the  crest  of  the  scarp  and  projecting 
over  the  ditch. 

2.  A  tool  used  by  marble-workers  to  enlarge  a  hole 
made  by  a  drill.     It  is  grooved,  and  slightly  conical. 

Frame.     The  skeleton  of  a  structure. 

1.  {Shipbuilding.)  The  parts  of  a  ship's  frame  are 
.shown  in  Fig.  2093,  which  represents  a  midship  sec- 
tion. 

Fig.  2093. 


Ship*s  Frame. 


a,  keel. 

b,  keelson. 

c,  keelson-rider. 

d,  middle  line  or  center 
line. 

e,  floor-timber,  ground- 
futtock,  or  navel-fut- 
tock. 

/,  chock  for  filling  to  the 

timbers. 
g,  second  futtocka. 
h,  top  timbers. 
i,   rough-t:ee   timber   or 

stanchion. 


/,  rough-tree  rail,  or  rail. 

k,  upper-deck  beam. 

I,  hold-beam. 

m,  standard  knees. 

?i,  water-ways. 

0,  plank-shears. 

p,  sheer-strakes. 

g,  wales. 

r,  bilge-planks,  inside  and 

out. 
s,  futtock-planks. 
i,  clamps  or  sea-crafts. 
!(,  limber-boards. 
v;  shelf-pieces  or  stringers. 


2.  The  strong  work  which  supports  the  engine 
nnd  boilers  of  a  locomotive  upon  the  wheels,  and 
known  as  inside  frame  or  outside  frame,  according  to 
the  position  of  the  wheels  relatively  to  the  frame. 

3.  The  head  of  the  batten  in  a  loom. 


FRAME-LEVEL. 


913 


FRAMING. 


4.  The  I'ibs  and  stretchers  of  an  umbrella,  or  other 
structure  with  a  fabric  covering. 

5.  (Car/) -III ri/.)  a.  The  skeleton  structure  of  a 
wooden  ImiUliug,  consisting  of  sills,  posts,  beams, 
sleepers,  joists,  and  rafters,  with  the  studding  that  is 
to  form  partitions. 

b.  The  outward  work  enclosing  a  door  or  window. 

c.  The  part  of  a  door  or  window  enclosing  panels. 

d.  A  border  or  inclosure  for  a  picture,  or  panes 
of  glass. 

6.  (Hornhrjij.)  Tliat  which  contains  the  mechan- 
ism of  a  watch  or  clock,  it  consists  of  two  plates 
and  a  suHiciency  oi pillars ;   usually  four. 

7.  (Printing.)  A  desk  containing  two  pairs  of 
cases,  containing  roman  and  italic  letters  for  the 
use  of  a  compositor  (see  Case),  or  the  stand  sup- 
porting them. 

8.  A  structure  of  four  bars  arranged  in  a  square 
and  adjustalile  in  size,  on  whiili  cloth  or  other  fabric 
is  stretched  for  qniltiug,  embroidery,  etc. 

9.  A  terra  applied,  especially  in  England,  to  ma- 
chines built  upon  or  within  a  framework  of  tim- 
bers—  e.  g.  the  stochinr)-framc,  lace-frame,  water- 
frame,  silk-frame,  etc.  It  is  one  degree  more 
complex  than  the  quilting-frame,  tambour-frame, 
embroidenj-frame,  glass  or  picture  frame  ;  or  a  wiit- 
doio  or  tVior  frame, 

10.  (Soap-makinrj.)  A  bo.x  whose  sides  are  re- 
movable wlien  recjuired,  and  locked  together  w'hen 
tile  soap  is  to  be  ]>oured  in.  As  soon  as  the  soap 
has  acquired  sufficient  solidity,  the  sides  are  un- 
locked and  taken  down,  exposiiig  tlie  block  of  soap, 
wliich  is  then  cut  up  by  wires  which  are  passed 
throii<;h  it  to  divide  it  into  parallelepipeds. 

Franie-lev'el.     A  mason's  level. 

Frame-saw.  A  thin  saw  stretidied  in  a  frame 
which  gives  it  sufficient  rigidity  in  its  work. 

The  buhl-saw,  for  enlarging,  is  of  this  character. 
It  is  common  to  make  the  handle-attachment  at  each 

Fig.  2094. 


1\ 


<=iik 


Il-JC3 


Frame-Saws. 


end  rotatable,  so  as  to  present  the  saw-edge  in  any 
direction. 

A  frame-saw  is  shown  in  a  painting  at  Hercnla- 
neum.  The  sawyers  are  at  each  end,  one  standing 
and  the  other  .sitting.  The  bench  to  whicli  the  tim- 
ber is  secured  by  cramps  is  su]iported  by  four-legged 
stools.  The  saw-frame  is  sr^uarc  and  the  saw-blade 
is  strained  in  the  middle  ;  the  teeth  stand  perpen- 
dicularly to  the  pl.ine  of  the  frame. 

Frame-saws  w'ere  common  in  Egypt  many  centu- 
ries previous  to  this  time. 

Fram'ing  1.  A  mode  of  putting  parts  of  a  struc- 
ture together 

Joinery  framingis  of  various  descriptions,  as  square, 
bead,  bead  and  fillet,  ogee,  etc.,  etc.  See  the  fol- 
lowing exanqiles,  wliich  all  hav(!  flat  panels  and 
square  barks  ;  — 

a,  ovolo  and  square.  c,  quirk-ovolo  fillet. 

b,  quirk-ovolo.  d,  (piirk-ovolo  bead. 

58 


c,  quirk-ovolo  cock-bead  g,  quirk-ogee. 

or  bead  and  fillet.  i,   rmirk-ogee,   bead,   and 

/,  ogee  and  square.  fillet. 

h,  quirk-ogee  aud  quirk-  j,  cavi-tto. 

bead.  k,  cavetto,  bead,  and  fillet. 

Fig.  2095. 


i — 

.....             J 

■^F 

*   7 

ll 

1 

\ 

f^—- 

../^r:''^ 

''X" 

"1 
} 

i 

( 

— t 

-I 

- 

1 

S 

f 

fc      fa 

-;-■/'} 

Jotning-Framing. 

The  following  vary  in  the  panels :  — 

1,  quirk-ovolo  and  bead,  raised  panel  and  square 
back. 

)«,  quirk-ovolo  and  bead,  raised  panel  with  ovolo 
on  the  rising,  and  s(|nare  back. 

n,  quirk-ovolo  and  bead,  raised  panel,  with  ovolo 
on  the  rising  groove  round  the  face,  and  square  back. 
The  list  miglit  be  much  extended. 

0  is  sqi'.are-franiing,  the  simplest  description  of 
framing,  having  no  molding  on  either  side. 

2.  (.1/ining.)  An  operation  upon  pounded  or 
stamped  ores  by  which  they  are  sorted  into  grades 
of  comparative  weight  and  consequent  richness. 

The  frami'ng-tabic  is  eight  feet  long,  four  feet 
wide,  and  has  a  ledge  around  it.  It  is  suspended  in 
an  inclined  position,  on  pivots,  so  that  it  may  be 
tipped  into  a  vertical  position  when  full,  discliarg- 
ing  its  contents  into  separate  cisterns  beneath  :  the 
reason  for  the  separation  of  the  receptacles  wOl  be 
apparent  presently. 

At  the  upper  end  of  the  frame  is  the  japging- 
board,  over  which  the  sluices  are  so  distributed  that 
a  small  stream  of  water  shall  carry  them  gradually 
down  on  to  the  frame.  Tlie  licher  portions  of  the 
ore  rest  upon  the  upper  part  of  the  frame,  and  the 
poorer,  lighter  portions  are  carried  farther  down  ; 
light  impurities  escape  with  the  water  at  the  lower 
part  of  the  frame.  The  ore  on  the  frame  is  occa- 
sionally stirred  with  a  rake,  tlnit  every  portion  may 
be  subjected  to  the  action  of  the  water. 

When  the  frame  is  sufficiently  full,  the  latch 
which  held  it  horizontal  is  lifted,  and  the  fiame 
tipped  up  into  a  vertical  position,  so  as  to  tip  out  its 
contents,  which  fall  into  the  vats  beneath.     These 


FKAMING-CHISEL. 


9U 


FREICxHT-ENGINE. 


Fig.  2096. 


Tats  are  arranjjpil  in  a  row,  so  that  they  may  re- 
spectively receive  the  dimes  which  liave  acciiniu- 
lated  nearer  to  or  farther  from  tlie  lieail  of  the  fiaiix', 
the  riclines.s  being  ileterniineil  by  the  proximity  to 
the  head  or  upper  ))c)rtion.  The  frame  is  then  ri-- 
adjusteil,  a  quantity  of  slimes  spread  oil  the  jaijr/iiiy- 
baard,  and  the  operation  reeorameni'es. 

Tlie  contents  of  the  cisterns  are  treated  by  sub- 
sequent processes  of  a  nature  adapted  to  their  re- 
spective (lualities.  Analogous  processes  are  descriljed 
under  Buddle;  Tuunk  ;  Keeve  ;  Jigoeii  ;  TvE, 
etc.  (whicli  .see). 

Fram'ing-chis'el.  (Cnrpenlnj.)  A  heavy  chisel 
for  niakirig  mortices.  It  has  a  soeUet-.shank  wliich 
receives  the  wooden  liandle  on  which  the  blows  of 
the  mallet  ari!  delivered. 

Frank'ing.  (Joincrif.)  The  notching  out  a  por- 
tion of  a  sash-bar  for  tlie  passage  of  the  transverse 
bar,  to  make  a  miter-joiiit. 

Frap'ping.  1.  (Xnatkal.)  a.  The  binding  to- 
gether of  the  several  ropes  of  a  tackle  at  a  point  be- 
tween the  blocks,  so  as  to  increase  still  farther  the 
tension. 

b.  Securing  a  ship  in  emergency  by  wrapping  ropes 
around  it,  to  prevent  starting  of  tlie  planks. 

"They  used  helps,  undergirding  the  ship."  — 
Luke's  iiccount  of  Paul's  voijayc. 

2.  Bracing  the  cords  of  a  drum  by  pulling  them 
together. 

Free'board.  (Shipwrir/htuig.)  So  much  of  the 
vessel's  side  as  is  included  between  the  plank-slieer 
and  the  water-line. 

Free-reed.  (Music.)  An  elastic  tongue, 
usually  of  brass,  and  playing 
Fig.  2097.     in  a  long  rectangular  opening 
in  a  jilate  to  which  one  end 
of  it  is  riveted.     The  name 
free-reed  is  given  to  distin- 
guish it  from  the  reed  which 
batters  against  the  seat,  as  in 
the     clarinet,    some     organ- 
j)ilies,  the  bassoon,  and  oboe. 
These  baffering-ix'ei\&  are  usu- 
Free-Reed.     ally  of  wood.      The  free-reed 
is    used    in    the   accordeou, 
melodeon,  concertina,  harmoneon,  jiarlor- 
organ,  and  in  most  of  the  reed-pipes  of  organs. 

The  opening  in  the  plate  is  slightly  larger  than 
the  margin  of  the  tongue,  so  that  the  portion  of  the 
latter  concerned  in  tlii^  vibration  does  not  batter 
against  or  touch  tlie  ]ilate.  At  one  end  is  a  stud 
by  which  the  plate  is  drawn  in  or  out  from  the  seat 


of  the  reed  over  the  aperture  whence  it  derives  the 
air-blast  jiroduciug  the  vibration  and  the  conse- 
(pieut  musical  tone.  At  some  point  on  the  plate 
is  denoted  the  note  to  which  the  tongue  is  tuned. 

Free'stone.  An  oolitic  stone,  so  called  fioin  the 
facility  witli  which  it  is  rived  in  any  direction. 

Free-Stuff.    (Car^jcidry.)   Timberfreefroni  knots.  , 
Clair-sliijr. 

Freez'er.  .\n  apparatus  in  which  cream  or  other 
food  is  placed  to  be  frozen.  In  the  example,  the 
liquid  to  be  congealed  or  cooled  is  contained  in  a 

FiR.  2098. 


Freez  in^-  Apparatus. 

metallic  cylinder  inclosed  by  another  cylinder  and 
surrounded  by  the  chemical  refrigerating  substances, 
the  aiiparatus  being  rotated  oroscillated  to  thoroughly 
agitate  the  liquids,  and  bring  new  particles  to  the 
cold  surface. 

Master's  machine  for  icing  drinks  consists  of  a 
central  cylinder  for  the  confectionery,  a  surrounding 
cylinder  lor  the  freezing  mixture,  and  one  outside 
of  this  again,  for  containing  water.  The  inner  cyl- 
inder is  rapidly  revolved,  its  contents  become  frozen, 
and  the  water  in  the  outer  vessel  becomes  a  hollow 
cylinder  of  ice,  in  which  a  decanter  may  be  set  to 
ice  its  contents. 

Freez'ing-mix'ture.  A  mixture  of  salt  and 
pouiiiled  ire  ;  or  a  coiiibination  of  chemicals  with  or 
withimt  ire.      Sec  Ice-MAKI.ng. 

Freight-car.  One  constructed  for  the  carriage 
of  merchandise. 

Fig.  2099. 


(fflZ 


Freight-  Car. 


Preight-en'gine.  {Sfeam  Engineerinej.)  A  lo- 
comotive adapted  for  drawing  liea\'y  tiains  at 
moderate  sjieed.  The  drivei's  are  coupled  together 
so  as  to  increase  adhesion,  anil  are  of  smaller  diameter 
than  usual  with  passenger  engines  adapted  for  more 
rapid  transit. 


FRENCH-BIT. 


915 


FRICTION-BRAKE. 


French-bit.  (Carpcntn/.)  A  boring  tool  adapted 
to  use  on  a  lathe-head  or  Ijy  a  bow.  It  is  intended 
for  boring  liard  wood,  and  approaches  the  charaeter- 
istii-s  of  a  dri/l.      See  Bit. 

French-fly'ers.  (Carpcntrij.)  Staire  that  fly 
forwards  until  tliey  reach  within  a  lengtli  of  a  stair 
from  the  wall,  where  a  ijuarter  space  occ.uis  ;  the 
steps  ne.Kt  a.scend  at  a  right  angle,  when  another 
quarter  space  oix'urs  ;  they  then  ascend  in  an  opjio- 
site  Hii;lit,  parallel  to  the  first  dii-ection. 

French-horn.  A  wind-instrument  formed  of  met- 
al, liaviiig  a  rirrular  shape  and  a  gradual  taper  from 
the  moath-pii'ce  to  the  Haring  pavilion.     See  HuUN. 

French-pol'ish.  A  solution  of  resin  or  gum 
resin  in  alcohol  or  wood  naphtha.  A  good  recipe  is, 
shellac,  IJ  pounds  ;  spirits  of  wine,  1  gallon.  Or, 
shellac,  2i  lbs.  ;  gum  mastic  and  sandarac,  each  3 
ounces  ;  alcohol,  1  gallon  ;  copal  varnish,  1  pint. 
Or  for  a  dark  color,  shellac,  1  pound  ;  benzoni,  h 
pound  ;  alcohol,  \  gallon.  Or,  shellac,  IJ  pouml ; 
guaiacum,  ^  pound  ;  alcoliol,  1  gallon. 

It  is  laid  on  with  a  sponge,  a  brush  of  wadding 
enveloped  in  a  rag,  or  a  rubber  made  of  a  roll  of 
list.  These  are  saturated  with  the  varnish  which 
they  gradually  yield  by  pressure  to  the  surface  of 
the  wood,  over  which  they  are  kept  in  constant 
motion  in  uniform  circular  strokes.  The  surface  of 
the  rubber  is  covered  witli  an  oiled  cloth,  which  is 
renewed  as  it  becomes  clogged. 

French-roof.  A  roof  having  portions  of  two 
dirteient  pitches.      .\  curb  roof.      A  Mansard  roof. 

French-win'dow.  A  large  casement  window, 
moving  on  hingi'S  instead  of  sliding  vertically  in 
grooves.     A  casement. 

Fres'co.  A  mode  of  painting  in  which  tlie  colons 
are  mixed  with  and  laid  on  in  the  manner  of  plas- 
ter. 

The  picture  is  prepared  as  a  cartoon,  and  is 
pricked  through  on  to  tlie  soft  surface  of  plaster 
ujion  whicli  the  fresco  is  to  be  placed. 

The  surface  is  rough,  and  is  damped  to  receive 
the  colors,  which  are  mi.xed  and  ground  up  with 
lime. 

A  solution  of  silex  instead  of  lime  was  used  by 
Oberrath  von  Fuchs,  being  laid  on  a  chemically 
pre]iared  ground.     It  becomes  exceedingly  hard. 

Fret.  1.  An  ornament  of  zigzag,  interlacing,  or 
variously  contorted  fillets,  used  as  an  architectural 

Fig.  2100. 


a 

uurLrum 


0 


^ZZZZ2ZZZZZ>     -^^^^"h^^i^ 


Frets. 


decoi-ation.     Some  frets  are  included  in  the  folio 


a,  intersecting  fret.  c,  nail-head  fret. 

b,  zigzag     or     chevron  /,  billet-fret, 
molding.  <j,  cable-molding. 

c,  embattled  fret.  h,  wavy  nioliling. 

d,  triangular  fret.  i,  nebular  molding. 

2.  {Music.)  One  of  the  bai-s  of  wire  on  the  finger- 
board of  a  guitar  and  some  other  instruments,  to  in- 
dicate where  the  fingers  are  to  be  placed  for  playing 
certain  notes. 

Fret-saw.  1.  A  .saw  (a)  with  a  relatively  long, 
narrow  blade,  used  in  cutting  the  frets,  scrolls,  etc., 
on  verge  boards,  ornamented  screens,  etc.  A  key- 
hole saw  -^  a  compass-saw. 

2.  A  machine  (i)  mounted  on  a  stand  with  a  treadle 
to  give  the  reciprocating  motion  to  the  gig-saw.    The 


Fig.  2101. 


f/ 


marliine  shown  is  spiecially  intended  for  fret-work  on 
a  small  scale,  ornamental  inlaying,  buhl  and  reisner 
work  (which  .see). 

Fret-work.  1.  {Ghizivf/.)  A  mode  of  glazing 
in  which  a  number  of  separate  pieces  of  stained  glass 
are  fitted  together  in  leaden  caiiies  so  as  to  fonn  pat- 
erns.  The  cames  are  fastened  by  leaden  bands  to 
saddle-bars  of  iron,  which  cross  the  window-fiame. 

2.  {Wood.)  Carved  or  open  wood  work  in  orna- 
mental patterns  and  devices. 

Fri'ar.  (Prinlhirj.)  A  pale  patch  in  a  printed 
sheet. 

Fric'tion-baUs.  Balls  placed  beneath  a  travers- 
ing object  to  relieve  friction.  Some  forms  of  swing- 
bridges  are  thus  supported.  Properly,  «)i^i-frictiou 
balls. 

Fric'tion-brake.     A  form  of  dynamometer  in- 


D 


Fig.  2102. 


Pronifs  Friction- Brake. 


vented  by  Prony,  in  which  a  pair  of  friction-blocks 
are  screwed  to  a  journal  rotating  at  a  given  speed. 


FRICTION-CLUTCH. 


916 


FRICTION-TUBE. 


a7id  tislitened  to  such  an  extent  that  the  unweighted 
lever  will  remain  horizontal  between  the  stiuls  in  m'. 
The  shaft  is  now  .set  in  motion  by  the  juinie 
mover,  the  serews  are  then  gradually  tightened  to 
SUL-Ii  a  degree  that  the  shaft  moves  exactly  with  the 
veloeity  at  which  its  useful  elleet  has  to  be  deter- 
mined. Wi-rc  it  not  for  the  stud  m,  the  lever,  with 
the  whole  brake  apparatus,  would  move  round  in  a 
circle  with  the  shaft,  so  that  this  stud  has  to  with- 
stand a  certain  force  from  the  lever  i^ressing  against 

Fig.  2103. 


y/  vy  ■  '-y//-y/..y.  >//.V'yA'-'J'J^-'^A  ■ 


Broten^s  Friction-  Clutch. 

it.  Now  place  gradually  upon  G  such  a  weight  as 
will  counteract  the  pressure  of  the  lever  against  //(, 
and  bring  it  back  to  its  horizontal  position.  It  is 
evident  that  this  w^eight,  in  comliination  with  the 
lever  F.  expresses  the  amount  of  friction  between 
the  blocks  and  the  drum. 

Pric'tion-clutch.  A  device  for  connecting  t\co 
shafts  by  bringing  a  jiiece  on  one  shaft  in  contact  with 
apieceonanothei'shaft,  which  revolves  with  such  force 
that  the  former  partakes  of  the  motion  of  the  latter. 


Frkiion-Hamtner, 


In  Fig.  2103,  the  shipper-handle  F  cairies  the 
shaft,  and  with  it  the  toggles  J  J,  expanding  the 
segments  against  the  rim  of  the  pulley.     See  also 

CLflTll. 

Fric'tion-cones.    A  form  of  friction-coupling  in 

which  the  CI. cctiiig  portions  have  respectively  a 

conical  ilisk  and  a  hollow  cone,  which  become  fric- 
tioually  adhercnl  by  contact. 
Fric'tion-coup'ling.     See  Fuiction-cltttch. 
Fric'tiou-gear.     \\  heels  which   act  upon  eacli 
other  by  tlie  adlicsion  of  their  contacting  surfaces, 
instcail  of  by  cogs,  bands,  or  chains. 

Fric'tiou-liam'raer.  One  deriving  its  name 
fi'om  the  lunnmer  being  lifted  liy  means  of  the  fric- 
tiini  of  revolving  rollers,  which  n\\i  the  hanmier-rod. 
Tlie  framework  consists  of  a  pillar  A,  to  which  are 
bolted  the  two  cheeks  C  C  carrying  the  working  ap- 
paratus. On  the  o.scillating  frame  E  £  are  the 
plummer-blocks  for  the  spindles,  carrying  the  driv- 
ing gear  and  fiiction -rollers.  The  motion  is,  in  the 
fust  instance,  comnnmicated  to  the  drum  0,  and 
conseiiucntly  to  G',  lixed  ujion  the  same  shalt ;  this 
communicates  the  motion  hy  means  of  a  crossed 
strap  to  the  drum  i/,  and  hence  also  to  a  pinion 
which  works  into  the  spur-wheel  i  fixed  upon 
the  same  shaft  with  the  friction-roller  A'.  In  a 
similar  maimer,  a  friction-roUci-  on  the  other  siile 
of  the  hanmier-rod  is  set  in  motion  by  means  of 
a  spur-wheel  and  pinion  deriving  motion  from  the 
drum  G'. 

The  friction-rollers  have  wooden  rims.  The  oscil- 
lating frana^  E,  when  tilted  upon  its  axis,  causes  the 
friction-rollers  to  nip  the  hammer-rod,  the  one  a  little 
aliove,  the  other  a  little  below,  the  axis.  When  the 
frame  F  resumes  its  horizontal  jiosition,  the  hannner 
is  allowed  to  fall,  being  guided  by  the  rollers  P  P  and 
Q  Q.  The  tilting  of  the  frame  is  done  by  niciins 
of  the  lever,  connected  with  the  same  by  means  of 
the  rod  and  chain  passing  over  the  fixed  pulley  /. 

Fric'tion  -  pri'- 
mer.  A  sncall  brass 
tube  tilled  with  gun- 
powder, and  having 
a  smaller  tube  con- 
tainingfriction  com- 
position inserteil  at 
right  angles  nearthe 
top.  The  composi- 
tion is  ignited  by 
means  of  a  roughed 
wire  inserted  in  the 
smaller  tube,  which 
is  I'apidly  drawn  out 
by  a  lanyard  hav- 
ing a  hook  at  the 
end. 

The  composition 
consists  of  2  jiarts 
sulphuret  of  anti- 
mony and  1  part 
chlorate  of  jiotassa, 
moistened  with  gum 
water  and  di'ied. 

Fric'tion-pul'- 
iey.  See  Fiuction- 
cuTf'H  ;  Ci.rTCH. 

Fric'tion-tube. 
{Ordnance.)  A  tube 
containing  a  com- 
position which  is 
inflamed  by  fric'tion, 
and  which  is  placed 
in  the  vent  of  a  gun 
to  ignite  the  charge 


FRICTION-VHEEL. 


917 


FRIZZING-MACHINE. 


when  the  lanyard  is  pulled.  See  Fi;iCTlON-PKl- 
MKit. 

Fric'tion-wheel.  A  wheel  the  motion  of  which 
is  caused  by  the  friL'tion  of  a  moving  body,  or,  con- 
v;'rsely,  wliich  eoniniunicates  motion  to  a  body  liy 
frietional  contact.  In  the  annexed  illustration  a  b, 
one  wheel  being  driven  becomes  a  motor  to  the 
other,  their  perimeters  being  in  contact.  The  sur- 
face is  usually  clothed  with  leather,  rubber,  or  s(jme 
.suffii-iently  elastic  material  which  does  not  polish 
too  readily,  and  thus  induce  slipping. 

By  grooving  tlie  perimeters  of  the  wheels,  the 
contact  may  be  made  more  intimate,  as  the  surface 
engaged  is  increased,  and  the  elastic  material  of  the 
respective  faces  caused  to  bind. 

Tlie  term  friction-inhce/  is  often,  but  erroneously, 
applied  to  wheels  which  diminish  friction  ;  these  are 
properly  called  ANTi-FracTioN  \Viii;i;ls  (which  see.) 


Friction-  Gearing, 


Howlett's  fi'ietion  gear- 
ing c  has  an  upper  india- 
rubber  wheel  with  a  V- 
edge,  clamped  between 
two  metallic  plates.  By 
sci-ewiug  up  the  nut  which 
holds  the  jiarts  together, 
tlie  disk  is  made  to  ex- 
pand radially,  and  thus 
increase  the  tractive 
power  on  the  lower  driv- 
ing-wheel. 

d  shows  anotlier  form. 


A  collar  fastened  to  the  central  shaft  has  four  pivoted 
arms.  Wlien  the  rim  turns  in  one  diiection,  the 
arms  turn  on  thi'ir  pivots,  le;Tving  the  rim  and  fail- 
ing to  transt'er  tlie  motion  to  the  shaft. 

When  the  rim  turns  in  the  contrary  direction,  the 
arms  catch  against  it  and  are  rotated  by  the  contact, 
turning  the  shaft  also. 

The  friction-wheel  fi-ed,  by  which  logs  are  fed  to 
the  gang-saws  in  thi'  large  lumber-mills  of  Ottawa, 
Canada,  consists  of  a  horizontal  wheel  40  imdies  in 
diameter,  and  an  upright  one  driven  by  band  from  the 
engine-shaft,  and  2-4  inch's  diameter.     (See  Fig.  1601.) 

The  horizontal  wheel  is  vertically  adju.staljle  by  a 
hand-wheel  and  shaft  on  the  working  floor  of  the 
mill,  the  frii'tion-wheel  slipping  on  a  spline.  As 
the  said  wheel  a|iproaches  towards  the  center  of  the 
driving-wheel,  th'  speed  of  the  feed  is  lessened,  and 
conversely  ;  if  it  cross  the  center,  tlie  motion  is  in 
the  other  direction,  and  the  feed  is  reversed. 

Frieze.  1.  (Architcclnrr.)  A  Hat  member  of  an 
entablature  between  the  architrave  and  cornice. 

Frieze-panel ;  one  of  the  upper  panels  of  a  six- 
panel  door. 

Frie:x-rn,il :  the  one  next  to  the  top  rail. 

2    (Fnhrk.)     A  coarse  woolen  cloth. 

Frig'ate.  ( Vessel. )  The  original  frigate  was  a 
Mediterranean  vessel  propelled  by  sails  and  oars. 

It  is  now  a  vessel  of  war,  having  an  upper  flush 
deck  (spar-deck)  and  one  covered  gun-deck  (main- 
deck).     The  armament  is  from  2S  to  4i  guns. 


The  grade  is  below  a  man-of-war  and  above  a  cor- 
relte.  The  rating  of  ironclads  is  different;  the 
gnus  being  larger  and  fewer  in  number. 

Frig'a-toon.  A  Venetian  vessel  with  a  square 
stern,  maiu-inast,  jigger-mizzen,  and  bowsprit. 

Frig'er-a-to-ry.     A  cooling-chamber. 

A  chamber  maintained  at  a  low  temperature  for 
the  preservation  of  meat  or  vegetables. 

Fiill'lng.  A  species  of  plaited  or  fluted  edging 
or  trimming  of  fine  linen.  The  gathered  or  plaited 
edge  is  sewn  to  a  band,  and  the  crimped  or  ruffled 
edge  forms  a  collar,  a  cull',  or  an  ornament  to  a  shirt- 
front. 

Fringe-loom.  One  in  which  the  weft-thread  is 
carried  and  detained  beyond  the  limit  of  the  warj), 
which  has  thus  a  series  of  loops  beyond  the  seh'age. 

Frisk'et.  (Printing.)  A  rectangular  frame  hav- 
ing tapes,  cords,  or  paper  stretched  across  it  for  hold- 
ing the  sheet  to  the  tijinpan.     ' 

The  frisket  is  a  frame  around  the  type-form,  and 
keeps  tlie  margin  of  the  paper  clean. 

Frit.  (Glajis-makin(i.)  A  calcined  mixture  of 
sand  and  fluxes  ready  to  be  melted  in  a  crucible  to 
form  glass. 

The  tenn  is  also  applied  to  other  vitreous  combi- 
nations or  compo-sitions  for  use  in  manufacturing. 
It  is  not  applied  to  manufactured  articles,  but  to  those 
in  course  of  conversion,  as  the  calcined  kelp  and 
lead,  which  are  ingredients  in  the  glaze  of  delft-ware. 

A  frit-mixer  is  a  horizontal  cylinder  with  oblirjue 
beaters,  or  a  box  with  semi-cylindrical  bottom  and 
a  rotating  shaft  with  beaters  or  stirring  arms. 

Frit-brick.  {Glas.s-Ma/cin;}.)  A  lump  of  cal- 
cined glass  materials,  which  have  been  united  and 
brought  to  a  pasty  condition  in  a  reveiberatory  fur- 
nace preliminary  to  the  perfect  vitrification  in  the 
melting-pot.     See  Fritti.ng-fukn.^ce. 

Frith.     (ITi/r/reiulies.)     A  fish-weir. 

Frit'ting-fur'nace.  (G!ci.is-inakin(j.)  A  rever- 
bcratory  furnace  in  which  the  materials  for  making 
glass  are  calcined  {fritted)  as  a  process  preliminary 
to  melting.  The  object  is  to  effect  a  partial  union 
of  the  silicic  acid  and  alkali,  to  avoid  volatilization 
of  the  latter  in  the  subsequent  vitrification. 

The  materials  (sand,  chalk,  .soda-ash,  and  cullet) 
being  introduced  into  the  furnace,  the  temperature 
is  gradually  raised  for  three  hours.  The  jiasty  mix- 
ture is  stirred,  and  the  temperature  increased  to  in- 
cipient fusion.  The  stuff'  is  then  raked  out  and 
transferred  to  the  melting-pot,  or  is  j)laced  in  cast- 
iron  trays,  cut  into  blocks  by  a  spade,  and  stored 
away  as  frit-hrieks. 

Fri'zel.  The  movable  jtlate  of  steel  placed  verti- 
callv  above  the  pan  of  a  gun-lock  to  receive  the  blow 
of  the  .inttjihitnee.  The  form  of  flint-lock  which  su- 
perseded the  wheel-lock. 

Friz'zing.  1.  (Lenthcr-mamifacture.)  A  process 
to  which  chamois  and  ira,ih  leather  are  subjected 
after  the  skins  are  unhaired,  baled,  scraped,  fleshed, 
anil  raised. 

It  consists  in  rubbing  the  skins  with  pumice-stone 
or  a  blunt  knife  till  the  yraiii  ajijiearance  is  entirely 
removed,  the  surface  softened,  and  an  even  thickness 
obtained  throughout. 

2.  (Fabric.)  A  peculiar  finish  given  to  certain 
kinds  of  cloth.      See  next  article. 

Friz'zing-ma-chine'.  1.  (Fabric.)  A  machine 
on  which  the  nap  of  woolen  doth  is  formed  into  a 
number  of  little  prominences  or  tufts.  Petersham 
cloth,  so  called,  is  thus  formed. 

The  machine  consists  of  three  parts,  —  the  frizzer, 
t]w  frizzing-tnblc,  the  draininri-beam.  The  cloth  is 
ilrawu  by  the  beam  between  the  two  former  portions, 
which  are  respectively  about  ten  feet  long,   fifteen 


FROG. 


918 


FRUIT-DRYER. 


inches  wide,  and  laid  parallel,  a  short  distance 
apart.  The  tabic  is  unilenicath,  and  its  nppctr  sur- 
face is  covered  with  a  coarse  nappy  cloth.  The 
frizzcr  has  a  slow  seiuii'irc'ular  motion,  and  its  sur- 
face is  incrusted  with  a  ccTiient  composed  of  glue, 
gum-arabic,  and  yellow  .sand. 

The  dmwimj-bnini  is  covered  with  sharp  points, 
and  dra;;s  the  cloth  between  the  iVizzer  and  the 
table,  the  latter  preventing  its  heing  shifted  about 
liy  the  rotary  reciprocation  of  the  frizzer  above, 
wliose  nunu'rous  protuberances  catch  tlie  libers  of 
the  cloHi  under  treatment  and  roll  them  into  little 
aggregated  tul'ts  or  bunches,  as  the  cloth  is  fed 
gradually  tluough. 

2.  ( l^'ond-workinr/.)  A  bench  with  a  circular 
eutter-head  slightly  protruding  above  tlie  working 
surface,  and  adapted  to  dress  boards  which  are  passed 
over  it. 

Frog.  1.  A  section  of  rail  at  a  point  where  mils  di- 
veigc,  or  o!ie  track  leads  to  two  Viranches.  In  the 
illustration,  a  feature  of  connection  is  introduced, 

Fig.  2106. 


Railwai/~Frog. 

the  end  of  the  frog  being  dovetailed  to  receive  the 
necks  of  the  rails,  and  a  chair  placed  under  the  dove- 
taib'il  end.  The  chair  has  one  or  two  recesses  to 
support  the  rails,  and  suitable  holes  to  receive  the 
bolts. 

A  c)'OM-/>v«/  is  one  placed  at  a  rectangular  inter- 
section of  railroad  tracks. 

•2.  A  biitton  or  toggle  of  spindle  shape  and  covered 
with  silk  or  other  material,  which  is  passed  through 
a  loop  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  breast  of  a  military 
cloak  or  overcoat,  serving  to  fasten  the  two  breasts 
together. 

3.  The  loop  of  a  bayonet  or  sw'ord  scabbard. 

Fig.  2107. 


Cross-Frog, 

Frog-plate.  An  acces.sory  to  the  compound  mi- 
croscope in  which  tlie  web  of  a  frog's  foot  is  exjiosed 
on  the  .stage,  to  exemplify  the  circulation  of  the 
blood. 

Front.  {Fortificatinn.)  Two  half-bastions  and  a 
curtain. 

Fron'ton.  (ArrJtitrcture.)  The  decorated  en- 
trance to  a  liuilding  consisting  of  a  cornice  .supported 
by  cnnsiiles  and  sunnouuted  by  a  pediment. 

Frost'ed.  The  dead  or  lusterless  appearance  of 
gold,  silver,  or  glass,  when  polishing  the  surface  is 


omitted.     It  is  supposed  to  resemble  the  hoar-frost, 
and  hence  the  name. 

Frosted  work  is  introduced  as  a  foil  or  contrast  to 
hurnUh  work,  in  whicli  the  metal  receives  the  full 
luster  In'  an  agate  or  Hint  burnisher. 

Elcctro-]ilateil  wiiik  is  in  the  frosted  condition  as 
it  comes  I'rom  the  bath,  and  may  be  burnislied  in 
whoU^  or  in  |iart. 

Tlie  frosted  appearance  on  glass  is  given  by  grind- 
ing, making  nniiiiu!  i/liiss,  which  diffuses  the  rays, 
auil  docs  not  transmit  a  direct  ray  or  a  clear  image. 
Frost'ed-glass.     (fUnss-maiiti/adarc.)     A  form 
of  glass  f  jiiiiciiy  made  liy  the  Venetians,  and  recently 
revived  liy  Apslcy  I'ellatt,  wlio  thus  describes  it  :  — 
"  Frosted  glass  has  irregularly  varied  marble-like 
projecting  dislocations  in  the   intervening  fissures. 
Suddenly  plunging  hot  glass  into  cold  water   pro- 
duces crystalline  convex  fractures,  with  a  jiolished 
exterior,  like  Derbyshire  spar;  but  the  concave  in- 
tervening  ligures  are  caused,  first  by  chilling,  and 
then  reheating  at  the  furnace,   and  simultaneously 
expanding  the    reheated    ball  of    glass  liy 
blowing,  thus  sejiarating  the  crystals  from 
each  other,   and  leaving  open   figures  be- 
tween, which  is  done  preparatory  to  form- 
ing vases  or  ornaments.     Although  it  ap- 
pears covered  with  fractures,  it  is  peil'ectly 
sonoi'ous. " 

Frost-lamp.     An  oil-lamp   placed  be- 
neath the  oil-tube  of  an  Argaud  lamp  to 
keep  the  oil  in  a  Howing  condition  on  cold 
nights.      Used    espe- 
cially in  lighthouses.  Fig-  2108. 
Frost-naii.     A    roughing 
nail  ;  driven  into  a  horse's  shoe 
in  sli|i])ery  weather. 

Fro'w.  (fonprriiir/.)  A  cleav- 
ing tool  for  riving  staves, 
shingles,  or  clapboards  from 
the  balk  or  jui/ijk.  Froivcr, 
/roe. 

It  has  a  sharp  edge,  wedge- 
shaped  blade,  and  a  handle  set 
in  the  )ilaue  of  the  blade,  but 
at  right  angles  to  its  length.  Fmo. 

It  is  driven  by  a  mallet. 

Fro'w'er.  A 
Fnuw  (which 
seeV 

Fruit-box. 
A  small  box  of 
certain  dimen- 
sions in  which 
fruit  is  shipped 
to  market. 
Berry-boxesare 
made  of  straw- 
board,  scale- 
board,  splints, 
and  many  other 
materials. 
Some  of  tbem 
are  intended  to 
be  so  cheap  as  to  be  sold  with  the  fruit,  others  are 
frustums  which  pack  in  nests,  others  are  collapsible 
for  back  shipment. 

The  larger  fruits  are  carried  in  small  crates,  or 
opr'U  boxes  made  of  .slats, 

Fruit-dry'er.  A  small  house  or  kiln  with  fur- 
nace, shelves,  ami  means  for  ventilation,  used  for 
drying  fruits.  There  are  many  forms,  which  differ 
mainly  in  the  arrangement  of  the  pai'ts  named.  In 
the  exam)ile,  tluf  lire  is  made  in  furnace  B,  the  heated 
surrounding  air  is  deflected  by  plate  C,  passes  in  a 


FEUIT-FRAJIE. 


919 


FRUIT-JAR. 


Fig.  2109. 


Fritit- Dryer. 

sinuous  course  up  among  tlie  .shelves  c  c,  and  out  at 
til  ■  cluL't  '?.     The  f.un;u'e  B  h;vs  its  own  Hue  F. 

Fruit-frame.     A  trellis  or  esimlier. 

Fruit-gath'er-er.  Tlieyiireot'twokind.s.  One  in 
which  a  canvas  is  str.-tc-hi-il  beneath  the  tree  to  cuteh 
the  fruit  without  bruising,  as  in  Fig.  2110,  wliich 

Fig.  2110. 


Fruit-house.     A  storage  house  for  fruit.     The 
walU  hove  double  tliiekuess,  with  intervening  non- 
Fig.  2112. 


Fruit-  Gatherer. 


shows  a  jointed  frame,  over  wliich  a  sheet  is  secured 
by  the  i>iiis,  the  inner  ring  encircling  the  trunk. 

Another  form  is  really  a  fruit-incker,  being  on  the 
end  of  a  long  staff,  as  in  Fig.  2111,  in  which  prongs 


hook  off  the  fmit  and  a  bag  catches  it.  This  latter 
kind  has  many  varieties,  with  different  modes  of 
prasping  or  cutting,  catching,  and  leading  down  the 
fruit. 


Fruit-House. 


conducting  material,  and  provision  is  made  for  effec- 
tive ventilation. 

The  Willis  and  floors  liave  wooden  surfaces  with 
non-conducting  linings  or  blank  spaces  between  all 
inner  surfaces  and  the  outer  walls  or  the  earth. 
Ventilating  entrances  are  at  the  level  of  the  ice-Hoor, 
with  hatches  opening  down  to  the  .storage  rooms, 
and  inclosed  spaces  to  carry  off  b;id  air  through  the 
mass  of  ice  uiiward  wlicu,it  is  light  air,  and  down- 
ward out  at  the  bottom  of  the  entrance-doors  when 
it  is  carbonic-acid  gas,  the  light  air  pa.ssing  through 
the  upper  space  above  the  ice,  and  thence  out  at  the 
windows  of  the  observatory. 

Fruit-jar.  Jars  for  preserving  fruit  are  made  of 
earthenware  or  glass,  especially  the  latter.  Some 
have  been  made  of  metal  with  porcelain  (so  called) 
lining,  but  these  have  met  with  little  favor,  as  the 
acids  of  the  fruits  attack  the  lead  of  the  enamel  and 
destroy  it,  and  themselves  become  unwholesome.  The 
same  remarks  apply  to  the  earthenware,  whose  glaz- 
ing has  generally  salts  of  lead,  and  is  therefore  unlit 
for  the  purpose.  Some  kinds  of  glass  even,  where 
lead  has  been  used  as  a  flu.v,  are  not  entirely  be- 
yond suspicion.  Glass  jars  were  formerly  blown, 
like  bottles,  but  are  now  usually  pressed  and 
blown  in  molds.  The  e.xercise  of  ingenuity  has 
princi|ially  concerned  the  modes  of  closing,  to 
render  them  air-tight,  protecting  the  contents 
from  access  of  oxygen  and  consefjuent  fermentation. 
Among  the  devices  for  this  purpose  are  lids  which 
screw  down  on  the  threaded  neck  of  the  jar,  the  edge 
of  the  lid  coming  against  a  caoutchouc  gasket  on  a 
shoulder  nf  the  jar,  or  a  gasket  on  the  lip  of  the  jar 
coming  against  the  inner  surface  of  the  lid.  Another 
favorite  form  is  a  flat  or  flanged  lid  pressed  down 
upon  a  gasket  on  the  lij)  by  some  mechanical  locking 
contrivance. 

In  the  illustration  are  shown  several  forms  of 
fastening  the  lid  hermetically  to  the  jar,  after  tilling 
the  latter  and  driving  out  a  small  remainder  of  air 
by  the  steam  of  the  heated  contents. 

a  is  a  tin  can  with  a  lid  whose  flange  dips  into  a 


FRUIT-JAR. 


920 


FRUIT-PICKER. 


trough  on  the  can,  which  is  closed  by  wax  that  is  I      in  has  a  cover  locked  hy  a  yoke  and  cam. 
nin  into  the  trough.  n  has  a  grooved  lid  wliich  holils  the   lip   of  the 

b  has  a  cover  secured  by  hooks  and  a  yoke,  and  i  neck,  and  has  a  shoulder  which  lits  against  u  g.usket 


pressed  down  upon  a  gasket  on  the  lip.  The  holes 
in  the  lid  are  tor  the  lilling  of  any  remaining  space 
and  the  e.scape  of  the  resiilual  air.  They  are  tlieu 
both  stoijped. 

Fig.  2113. 


FYitlt-Jars. 

c  has  a  cover  secured  by  an  elastic  band  which  is 
held  by  lugs  on  the  neck  of  the  jar. 

d  has  a  cover  secmred  by  a  yoke  whose  ends  piss 
beneath  inclined  lugs  on  the  neck  so  as  to  screw- 
down  the  lid  as  the  yoke  iS  rotated. 

e  has  a  glass  lid,  depressed  by  a  slieet-metal  screw 
collar,  which  engages  the  threaded  neck  of  the  jar. 

/  lias  a  glass  screw-stopper  whose  threads  imbed 
themselves  in  the  elastic  gasket  wliich  is  held  in  an 
interior  groove  of  the  neck. 

g,  a  yoke  fits  in  slots  in  the  neck,  and  holds  a  cen- 
ter screw  which  presses  the  cover  upon  the  gasket. 

h  i  j  k  I  are  all  forms  in  wliicli  an  oval  mouth 
admits  the  oval  flange  of  the  lid  ;  the  rotation  of  the 
latter  brings  the  major  diameter  of  the  flange  coinci- 
dent with  the  minor  axis  of  the  opening,  and  locks 
the  flange  under  the  neck  of  the  bottle. 


Fig.  2114. 


round  tint  neck. 

Fruit-knife.  A  knife  for  cutting  fruit,  having 
a  liladi-  ^\hirh  is  not  acted  u]ion  peri'cjitilily  by  the 
aciils  c.r  the  liuit.      Silver  is  the  usual  material. 

Fruit-lad'der.  A  light  ladder  to  rest  against 
the  limlis  (if  tlie  tree,  or  stand  by  itself  while  the 
picker  slaiuls  upon  it  to  gather  fruit. 

Fruit-mill.  A  mill  fur  grinding  grapes  for  must 
or  apidcs  for  cider.  (See  C'lliKn-MiLi,.)  The  exam- 
ple shows  a  pair  of  studded  grinding  ridlers,  an  apron 


Fig.  2115. 


2116. 


FruU-Mm. 

on  to  whi''li  the  fruit  falls  and  is  cariicd  bi'tween 
seveial  consecutive  pairs  of  rollers,  which  exjiress 
the  juice. 

Fruit-pick'er.     An  im)dement  for  reaching  up 
to    and    picking  fruit  from  a  tree. 
Thiee  forms  of  many  are    shown. 
One  (Fig.   2116)  has  two  .sliding 
prongs   d,   which,  by  means  of 
the  rope  c,  are  pulled  down  upon 
the  jaws  e.     The   fruit  drojis 
into  a  basket. 
Fig.    2117    has    a    metallic 
hoop  around  the  mouth  of 
the    bag.      The   edges    of 
the   flange    around    the 
notch    are    sharpened, 
the  better  to  cut  the 
stem  and  detach  the 
fruit ;  and  the  band 
or   casting    has   a 
stem  or  projection 
(.    by   which   it  is 


Fruit-Picker. 

attached  at  an  angle  to  the 
handle. 

In  Fig.  2118  a  vertical  blade 
is  fixed  to  the  end  of  the  han- 
dle,  and  against  this  blade  an- 
other is  caused  to  work  like  a  pair 


FRUIT-PRESS. 


921 


FUEL  PRESS,  COMPRESSED. 


of  shears,  the  movable  blade 
being  operated  by  a  cord  and 
spring.  Tile  .stem  of  the  fruit 
is  cut,  the  fruit  falling  into 
a  pocket  attached  to  the  top 
of  the  pole. 


Fig.  21 1(. 


Fig.  2119. 


Fruit-press.  One  for  expressing  the  juice  of 
fruit.  The  subject  is  con- 
sidered under  Ciuku-pkrss 
(which  see).  The  example 
shows  a  small  dunicstic 
press  for  fruit,  such  as 
those  u.sed  hi  limited  (juan- 
tities  for  curraut-wiue,  jel- 
lies, plc. 

Fry'ing-pan.  A  pan  in 
which  fciod  is  rooked  in 
fat.  In  the  illustration, 
a  duct  leails  the  fumes  of 
the  cooking  down  into  the 
stove-Hue. 

Fruit-Press.  Fudge-wheel.    (Shoc- 

mukijitj.)     A  tool  to  orna- 
ment the  edge  of  a  sole. 

Fu'el,  Ar'ti-fi'cial.  Agglomerated  peat,  sawdust, 
coal-du.-:,  and  slack,  one  or  more  of  them  in  various 
combinations,  bound  together,  by  heavy  ]ir<'ssure, 
with  cements,  clay,   coal-tar,    or   the   residuiim  of 

Pig.  2120 


Frying-Fart. 

starch-manufacture.  The  latter  is  nsed  in  the  Bel- 
gian and  Austrian  works.  Dehaynin's  works 
in  Belgium  turn  out  175,000  tons  of  tliis  fuel 
per  year.  It  leaves  six  per  cent  of  ashes.  The 
Northern  Railway  of  Austria  has  works  which  ))io- 
duce  15,000  tons  per  annum;  prisms  9  x  5  x  4i 
inches,   weighing  eight  pounds,  evaporating  seven 


pounds  of  water  per  pound  of  fuel.  The  coal  is  com- 
pres.sed  with  the  refuse  of  stardi-works  as  a  lement, 
and  dried  in  a  kiln  heated  overhead  by  a  current  of 
hot  air. 

Small  coal  two  parts  and  clay  one  pait,  molded 
into  blocks  like  cannon-balls  and  dried,  have  been 
used  for  a  century  pai^t  in  Haiuault. — London 
Monthly  Magazine,  April  1,  1800. 

Peat  and  turf  cut  into  Idocksand  dried  have  been 
used  any  time  these  tlumsands  of  years  pa.st,  but  the 
business  of  ]ire]paring  peat-fuel  by  mechanii'al  means 
and  by  admixtures  is  coniparativelv  modern.  (See 
Peat- .M.iCH INF..)  In  16113  Sir  Hugli  Piatt  ]iublished 
a  book  in  which  he  described  a  new  fuel  block  made 
of  coal  and  loam  in  "the  manner  of  Lnkeland  of 
Gei-manie."  He  also  u.sed  coal-.slack,  .sawdust,  tan- 
ner's bark,  aggicgated  by  loam  and  cow-dung. 
Chabanne's  English  ]iatent  of  1799  claimed  sejiarat- 
ing  the  large  coal  from  the  small  coal  by  jiassing  the 
latter  through  sieves  or  giatings  made  of  wood  or 
metal,  and  then  con.solidating  I  he  i-mall  coal  by- 
mixing  it  with  earth,  clay,  cow-dung,  tar,  jdtch, 
bioken  glass,  snlj^luir,  .'■awdust,  oil-cakes,  tan,  or 
wood,  or  any  other  ccmbustilile  ingredient,  to  be 
mixed  together  and  giouiid  with  a  wheel  in  water, 
in  a  wooden  vessel;  this  mixture  he  afteiwaids 
placed  in  pits  provided  with  diains  for  the  water  to 
run  off,  and  tlien,  when  diy,  molded  the  mass  into 
cakes  of  a  consideialde  size. 

The  following  United  States  patents  may  be  con- 
sulted :  — ■ 


13,056  . 

.  1855. 

44,262  . 

.  1864 

15,688 

1856. 

44.940 

1804 

26,541  . 

.  1859. 

47,296  . 

.  1865 

35,472 

1862. 

50,588 

1865 

40,753  . 

.  1863. 

51,833  . 

.  1866 

40,791 

1863. 

53,431 

1866 

40,920  . 

.  1863. 

55.369  . 

.  1866 

42,163 

1864. 

61,006 

1867 

43,112  . 

.  1864. 

^^Vrn 


Fuel-dry'er.  A  kiln  for  drying  blocks  of  artifi- 
cial fuel.  1  lie  trays  sup- 
porting the  blocks  of  fuel  Fig  2121. 
run  upon  rollers  ujjon  the 
angle-iron  bars  secured  in 
the  walls.  The  walls 
have  perfoiations  to  allow 
the  escape  of  the  vai:ors 
resulting  from  the  drying 
of  the  blocks.  Either 
heated  air  or  steam-pipes 
may  be  placed  between 
the  trays.  The  ends  of 
the  chamberinay  be  closed 
by  metallic  doors. 

Fu'el-feed'er.  A  de- 
vice for  feeding  fuel  in 
graduated  (juantities  to  a  Fml-Dnjer. 

furnace,  either  for  metal- 
lurgical purposes  or  for  steam-boilers.  The  exam- 
ple shows  an  apparatus  for  carrying  coal,  sawdust, 
and  other  fuel,  from  a  bunker  to  the  fninace,  and 
feeding  it  regul.arly  and  evenly  ujon  thegrate  under 
the  boilers.  It  is  worked  by  the  engine.  It  will  be 
readily  understood  without  specific  desciiption. 
James  Watt,  1769,  and  some  even  before  him,  tried 
to  feed  furnaces  mechanically  to  save  fuel.  Some 
of  the  devices  are  noted  under  Smoke-coxsi'-Ming 
Fl'RS'.tcE  (which  seel. 

Fu'el  Press,  Corn-pressed'.  A  machine  for 
compressing  coal-dust  and  a  cementing  material 
into  a  block. 

In  one  form  the  material  is  forced  within  cylindri- 


FULCRUM. 


922. 


FULLING. 


Fig.  2122. 


Fai-.i-Fttdtrfor  Steain-BoiUr  Furnace. 

cal  pipes  of  ca.st-iron  by  tlie  resistance  offered  to  its 
passage  tlirougli  the  pipe,  and  caused  by  the  friction 
of  the  niatei'ial  against  the  sides  of  the  pipe.  The 
conipressi-d  fuel  jiasses  out  of  tliese  cast-iron  pipes, 
as  a  continuous  cylindrical  bar,  which  is  broken  in 
suitaLile  lengths,  ami  sold  in  the  form  of  round  logs. 

Mazi'line's  machine  produces  bricks  of  prismatic 
form.  It  consists  of  a  mixing  apparatus,  which  feeds 
the  material  into  a  machine,  having  twelve  square 
ninhls  arranged  in  a  circular  frame,  which  ha^  a  ro- 
tating movement.  Each  die  is  worked  by  a  sipian^ 
piston  projecting  into  it  from  the  bottom,  and  acted 
upmi  liy  an  inclined  plane  wliich  presses  the  ]iistons 
upward  during  the  revolulion  of  the  circular  frame, 
so  that  each  biick  is  completed  and  delivered  by  the 
respective  mold,  making  one  complete  turn  7'ound 
tile  central  axis  of  the  machine.  See  Peat-MA- 
ClllNK. 

Ful'crum.  .V  prop  or  support  ;  the  point  on 
■which  a  lever  turns. 

Ful'crum  For'cepa.  -A  dentist's  iirstrunient 
in  which  one  be.dv  i.s  furnished  with  a  hinged  plate 

Fig.  2123. 


Fulcrum-  Forceps. 

which  bears  against  one  side  of  the  object,  while  the 
other  beak  has  tlie  usual  tooth  or  gouge  .shape. 

The  plate  is  covered  witli  an  india-rubber  pad  or 
cushion  about  J  of  ui  inch  thick,  secured  by  fine 
wile.      The  ]iail  rests  on  the  gum. 

Ful'gu-ra'tion.  (MeUiUurgy .)  The  sudden 
bri'^hti'niug  <if  gold  or  silver  in  the  crucible  as  the 
last  traci's  of  dioss  leave  the  surface. 

FuU-bound.  {Bookbinding.)  Covered  with 
leather. 

Full-cen'ter  Arch.  A  semicircular  arch  or 
vault.      One  descriljing  the  full  amount  of  ISO". 

FuU'er.  (Fon/iivi.)  l.  A  tool,  sometimes  known 
as  a  crnifici;  struck  by  the  hammer  or  placed  in  the 
liardy  hole  of  the  anvil  and  eni])loyed  to  swage  down 
or  spread  the  iron  by  a  series  of  parallel  indenta- 
tions. 

The  tools  are  known  respectively  as  the  lo})  (a) 
and  bottom  fuller  (b). 


Fig.  2124. 


)        ( 


1 


2.  A  tool  liaving  grooves,  and 
forming  a  die  or  swage  into 
wdiicli  iron  is  driven  by  the 
haninicr  to  coid'ei-  a  shajie.  Used 
in  forming  the  fullering  of  horse- 
shoes. 

Full'er's-earth.      .An    unc-  i 
tuous,  aluminous  earth  used  by 
fullers   to   absorb   the   oil  with  I 
which  wool  has  been  treated  in  a        Fulling-Tools. 
previ(nis  ]iart  of  its  inanulactnre. 

FuU'ing.  A  process  by  which  cloth  made  of  a 
felting  liber  is  conden.sed,  strengthened,  and  tldck- 
ened,  with  a  loss  of  width  and  length.  Some  libei-s 
will  felt,  others  will  not.  (See  Felt.)  In  felting, 
the  libers  —  wool,  for  instance  —  sliji  past  each  other, 
ami  their  toothed  edges  interlock,  .so  that  a  con- 
tinuation of  the  process  causes  them  to  be  more  and 
more  intimately  associated,  huddling  together  and 
holding  tiglit. 

The  doth  is  folded  or  rolled,  and  treated  with 
soapy  water.  It  is  then  beaten  with  wooden  stocks 
or  mallets,  by  wliiidi  the  serrated  edges  are  forced 
}iast  each  other  and  the  libers  closely  commingled. 
Precautions  are  taken  in  some  cases  to  pre^-ent  ad- 
herence of  the  folds  of  cloth  by  felting  together. 
For  this  ])nr]iose  cotton  cloth  may  intervene  between 
the  folds  of  woolen  cloth  in  the  roll.  It  is  usually 
foldi'd,  however. 

Fulling  and  felting  are  dependent  upon  the  same 
principle  of  action.  Felted  cloth  is  maile  by  this 
process  of  associating  the  libers,  and  is  not  woven. 
Woven  cloth  ex]iosed  to  the  fulling  or  felting  action 
is  .said  to  be  willed.  Ue]ietition  of  the  process  con- 
stitutes it  dovhh'-viillcd  or  fjrblc-vu'/lcd,  as  the  case 
may  be.  Each  milling  thickens  and  solidities  it, 
wdiile  dinunishing  the  area. 

In  a  tomb  at  Peni  Hassan  about  the  time  of 
Osirtasen,  who  was  ]uobably  the  I'liaroah  that  in- 
vited .lacob  to  Egypt  and  .settled  him  in  Oo.shen, 
we  iind  a  representation  of  the  lulling  ]iiocess  (s1k(\\  n 
at  CI,  Fig.  2125).  The  roll  of  cloth  is  wetted  ami 
worked  between  a  block  and  the  inclined  table,  the 
water  running  into  a  trough  below. 

After  this  record  of  the  eighteenth  century  B.  c, 
it  is  easy  to  discredit  the  .statement  of  Pliny  that 
the  art  of  siouring  and  fulling  cloth  and  wocden 
stuffs  was  inventeil  by  Nicras,  the  son  of  Hermias, 
who  was  a  governor  of  Mega>ra  under  Augustus. 
The  Romans  wtn-ked  the  cloth  with  lye  and  fuller's 
earth,  then  washed  it  in  a  decoction  of  .sa]ionac('ous 
]ilant,s,  and  then  bleached  it  by  fundgation  with 
sulphur. 

Tlie  instruments  of  the  fuller  are  mentioned  by  the 
Greek  authors.  One  form  is  a  pounder,  and  the 
other  a  wooden  roller. 

The  o]ierations  of  fulling  .are  .shown  in  the  paint- 
ings on  the  walls  of  Poinjieii.  At  that  time  the 
fullers  were  also  the  washers  of  ordinary  clothes. 

"The  largest  and  best  executed  paintings  reju'e- 
sentative  of  the  art  were  discovered  in  1S20,  in  the 
house  of  a  fuller  o]ieuing  on  one  side  on  the  street 
of  Mercuiy,  and  on  the  other  on  a  street  called  after 


FULLING. 


923 


FULLING. 


hiin,  Fiillonica.     In  the  court,  a  pillar  covered  with  | 
jiiitures  was  staniling  alongside  a  fountain.      This 
pillar  has  been  retuoveil  and  deposited  in  the  Xaples  [ 
Jlusevim.     In  the  lowest  division,  a  woman,  sitting, 
hands  a  piece  of  cloth  to  a  little  female  slave.     A 
workniau,  whose  tunic  is  closely  tiedaronnd  the  body, 
is  looking  at  them  while  at  the  same  time  canling  a  ; 
white  cloak  with  a  purple  border,  suspended  from  ' 
a  stick.     Another  workman  is  in  the  act  of  sitting 
down  alongside  a  crate  of  wicker-work  on  which  the 
clqth  is  to  be  spread  out ;  in  one  hand  he  holds  a 
vase,  on  which  sul[)hur  thrown  on  burning  charcoal  [ 
will  develop  a  gas  capable  of  bleaching  the  cloth.  | 
This  is  the  same  method  which  is  used  to-day.     On 
another  face  of  the  pillar  arched  niches  contain  large  1 
vats  where  the  gooils  are  soaked.     Slaves  standing 
in  those  vats  trample  the  fabric  with  their  bare  feet 
in  the  same  manner  as  Afabian  women  wash  their 
clothes  by  trami>ling  them  against  the  rocky  bed  of  a 
stream  ;  this  is  what  the  ancients  called  "  the  fuller's 
dance"  {saltus  fullonicus).     The  artist  has  painted 
with  the  same  care  the  |>ress  with  its  two  uprights, 
its  two  enormous  screws,  which  were  turned  by  meaus 

Fig.  2125. 


I, LiiJ^|i'ihb["^ 


as  much  to  the  whiteness  of  the  goods  as  the  fumi- 
gation with  sulphur." —  M.  Beii.e. 

The  modern  fulling-mill  b  consists  of  an  iron 
framework  supporting  the  shanks  of  heavy  wooden 
mallets,  which  are  raised  by  projecting  cams  on  a 
ta|>pet  wheel.  The  mallets  being  raiseil  to  their  full 
higlit  are  released,  and  dro|i  by  gravity  on  the  cloth, 
which  is  contained  in  an  iron  trough  beneath.  Soap 
is  added  as  a  detergent,  grease  in  any  form  tending 
to  mar  the  felting  action  of  the  fibei's.  The  end  of 
the  trough  is  cuived,  so  that  the  cloth  is  turned 
round  and  round  by  the  action  of  the  mallets. 

Fig.  21:i6  is  a  vertical  section  of  a  double  mill  in 
which  a  spring  or  weight  forces  the  tub  up  to  the 

Fig.  2126. 


Fu!!ing-M!U. 

of  cranks,  in  order  to  Hatten  the  cloth  beneath  the 
planks,  which  imparted  the  iieces.sary  hnish.  Fi- 
nally, the  drying-chamber  is  shown  by  long  sticks 
hanging  on  chains  from  the  ceiling.  The  linen  is 
spread  out  on  them  ;  a  slave  hands  to  a  young  wo- 
man an  open  fabric,  while  the  wife  of  the  fuller 
makes  a  note  of  it  on  her  tablets.  I  have  visited 
with  particular  curiosity  the  houses  in  Pomjieii 
where  these  pictures  had  been  g;ithered.  I  counted 
there  in  a  court  twenty-two  tanks  constructed  of 
stone,  and  at  different  levels,  so  that  the  water  could 
run  from  one  into  the  other.  Little  benches  in  front 
of  them  s Mved  for  the  reception  of  the  goods.  At 
the  other  end  of  the  court,  seven  smaller  tanks  served 
for  fulling.  The  store-room,  with  traces  of  the 
planks,  which  were  laiil  like  rays  radiating  from  a 
center,  the  hearths,  the  drying-chamber,  may  still 
be  recognizi>d.  In  other  fullei-s'  establishments  I 
have  seen  very  thick  sheet-lead  lining  the  interior 
of  vats  made  of  cement.  Sometimes,  also,  we  fiml , 
jars  full  of  greasy  earth,  which  must  be  the  fuller's 
earth  of  which  Pliny  speaks,  and  which  contributed ; 


Double  Fultins-ilarkine. 


beatera  with  a  yielding  pressure,  rendering  the  tub 
capable  of  adjusting  itself  to  a  larger  or  smaller 
(luantity  of  goods.  The  beaters  are  arranged  in 
pairs,  each  pair  being  connected  together  by  springs 
and  acted  ujion  by  a  common  eccentric. 

In  Fig.  2127  the  felted  cloth  is  held  slack  be- 
tween two  pairs  of  fluted  rollers  while  a  beater 
operates  upon  it.  The  v.iriation  in  the  velocity  of 
the  respective  pairs  of  rollers  is  ei]ual  to  the  contrac- 
tion of  the  cloth,  which  is  damped  and  diied  at  the 

Kg.  2127. 


commencement  and  close,  respectively,  of  the  opera- 
tion. 

.  Fig.  2128  shows  a  machine  for  fulling  and  felting 
hat  bodies,  in  which  the  roUei-s  carry  around  the 
apron,  which,  by  contact,  rotates  the  "form,"  and 
acts  upon  every  portion  of  the  perimeter  of  the  hat 
body,  the  latter  being  saturated  with  water,  which 
m,ay  be  comlucted  through  the  tubular  support  of 
the  form,  and  be  dill'used  between  the  walls  of  the 
foiTii,  so  as  to  escape  outward.  Owing  to  the  eccen- 
tricity of  one  of  the  rollers,  the  apron  is  repeatedly 
stretched  and  relaxed,  laterally,  and  in  the  act  of 


FULLING. 


924 


FUMIGATOR. 


Fig.  2128. 


Hat  Fiilling'Machine. 

drawin,^'  naiTower  the  apron  produces  a  greater  press- 
ure  u|i()ii  the  hat  boily,  and  has  the  effect  to  inter- 
lork  and  conipai't  the  liliers. 

A  hroad-doth  having  3,600  threads  in  the  warp,  a 
width  of  Zfg  yards,  and  a  Umgth  of  .54  yards,  will 
Vie  reduced  in  fulling  to  1  j  yards  wide  and  40  feet 
long.  The  proi;ess  will  take  60  to  65  hours,  and 
i'e<|uire  11  pounds  of  soap. 

A  I^'iuiidii.  iloth  will  require  about  twelve  hours, 
talce  from  6  to  7  pounds  of  soap,  and  will  shrink  in 
wiilth  from  1  If;  yards  wide  to  IjJ;. 

After  fulling,  the  cloth  is  washed  to  remove  the 
soap. 

The  method  of  fulling  woolen  goods  in  early  times 
in  Ohio  is  well  described  by  Judge  Johnston  of 
Cincinnati,  in  his  address  before  the  Pioneer  Society 
of  that  city,  1870. 

KiCKiN'f!  Blankets. 

"When  wool  became  abundant,  the  method  of 
scouring  and  fulling  blankets,  tlaunels,  cassinets, 
and  even  cloths,  was  simjde.  Every  house  had 
hand-cards,  and  as  many  spinning-wheels  as  spin- 
ners, and  no  respectable  house  was  without  a  loom. 
"VVlieu  the  goods  were  {-arded,  spun,  and  woven,  then 
came  the  kicking  frolic.  Half  a  dozen  young  men, 
and  a  corresponding  number  of  young  women,  "to 
make  the  balance  true,"  were  invited.  The  floor 
was  cleared  for  action,  and  in  the  middle  was  a  circle 
of  six  stout  splint-bottomed  chairs,  connected  by  a 
cord  to  prevent  recoil.  On  these  sat  si.K  young  men 
witli  shoes  and  stockings  off  and  trousers  rolled  up 
above  the  kn<'e.  In  the  center  the  goods  were 
placed,  wetteil  with  warm  soapsuds,  ami  then  the 
kicking  commenced  by  measured  steps,  driving  the 
bundle  of  goods  round  and  round  ;  the  elderly  lady, 
vitli  a  Iniig-neeked  gourd,  pouring  on  more  soap- 
suds, and  every  now  ami  then,  with  .spectacles  on 
nose  anil  yardstick  in  hand,  measuring  the  goods 
till  they  were  shrunk  to  the  desired  width,  and  then 
calling  the  young  men  to  a  dead  halt. 

"  Thert  H'hile  tlie  lads  put  on  their  hose  and  shoe.s, 
the  lasses  stript  their  arms  above  the  elbows,  rinseil 
and  wrung  out  the  blanket  and  flannels,  and  hung 
them  on  the  garden  fence  to  dry." 


Full'ing-ma-chine'.  A  machine  in  which  the 
operation  of  fulling  cloth  is  perforaied.  See  Full- 
INC. 

Full'ing-mill.  A  common  name  for  the  fidling- 
machiiie.     See  Fri.i.iNG. 

Ful'nii-nate.  lieckman  states  that  fulminate  of 
gold  was  discovered  by  a  monk  in  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury. This  substance,  which  explodes  more  rapidly 
ami  with  greater  local  force  than  gunpowder,  is  made 
by  precipitating  a  solution  of  chloride  of  gold  by 
an  excess  of  ammonia.  Mr.  Forsyth  discovered  that 
liy  treating  mercury  as  the  old  monk  had  tieated 
gold,  an  e(nnilly  powerful  but  lar  less  expensive  ful- 
minate might  be  made.  This  he  mixed  with  si.K 
times  its  weight  of  niter,  ami  the  result  is  the  per- 
cussion-powder which,  in  the  form  of  paste,  is  used 
for  charging  copiier  caps  for  fire-arms.  In  modern 
practice  the  proportion  of  niter  has  been  much  re- 
duced. 

"  Dr.  Allen  tells  me  that  something  made  of  gold, 
which  they  call  in  chymistry  Auruni  Fuhnr.uins,  a 
grain,  I  think  he  .said,  of  it,  ]uit  into  a  silver  spoon 
and  fired,  will  give  a  lilow  like  a  musquett,  and 
.strike  a  hole  through  the  silver  sjioon."  —  PliPYS, 
1663. 

A  fulminating  powder  which  exjilodes  when 
heated  to  360°  may  be  made  of  niter,  3  parts  ;  dry 
carbonate  of  potash,  2  parts  ;  .sulphur,  1  part. 

The  tulldwing  patents  may  be  consulted  by  those 
desirous  of  ascertaining  the  ingredients  of  various 
patented  fulminates  :  — 

Guthrie           .     1834.  Boldt    .  .     1866. 

Kling         .         1857.  Rand          .  1867. 

liu.schauptrfrtf.  1862.  Goldmark  .     1867. 

Lipps          .          lSli4.  liuschaupt  1868. 
Stockwcll       .     1865. 

Fu'mi-ga'tor.  An  apparatus  for  applying  smoke, 
gas,  or  perfume  :  — 

1.  To  destroy  insects  or  veimin  in  their  holes,  or 
upon  clothing,  trees,  or  plants. 

2.  To  destroy  infection  or  miasma  in  buildings, 
ships,  clothing,  or  feathers. 

3.  To  difl'use  a  fragrant  or  invigorating  perfume 
through  an  apartment  or  ward. 

4.  To  suH'use  the  lungs  with  a  soothing  or  healing 
vapor. 

The  fumigator  involves  the  use  of  heat,  and 
generally  that  of  an  artificial  blast. 

1.  A  fumigator  for  expelling  or  killing  animals 
usually  consists  of  a  chamber  in  which  burning 
matters  are  placed,  and  a  bellows  by  which  a  bla.st 
of  air  is  driven  through  the  retort,  issuing  with  the 
fumes  at  a  nozzle  directed  to  the  burrow  or  haunts 
of  the  vermin. 

Sometimes  powder  is  substituted  for  fumes. 

2.  Fumigators  for  destroying  infection  are  some- 
times only  agents  for  making  a  stench  which  over- 
powers tiie  'precedent  nuisance.  The  burning  of 
tobacco,  featheis,  leather,  brown  paper,  etc.,  will 
conceal,  but  does  not  remove,  an  unwholesome  smell. 
More  potent  agents,  such  as  pastiles,  Jiepper,  hot 
vinegar,  etc.,  have  been  used  as  disinfectants  with 
but  small  effect. 

The  eflVitive  agents  in  fumigating  are  suliihurons 
acid  gas,  chlorine,  tar,  roasting  coflee,  etc. 

The  ordinary  disinfectant  is  chlorine,  either  in 
the  form  of  cbloiide  of  lime  or  in  the  direct  evolu- 
tion of  gas  from  a  mixture  of  salt,  njanganese, 
su])huric  acid,  ami  water. 

This  was  the  ]ilan  adopted  by  Faraday  in  the 
disinfecting  of  a  penitentiary  in  London.  The  space 
being  about  2,000,000  cubic  feet,  he  u.sed  700 
pounds  of  common  salt  and  the  same  quantity  of 


FtJMIXG-BOX. 


925 


FUR-CUTTER. 


black  oxide  of  manganese.  The  mixture  was  set 
about  in  numerous  pans  throughout  the  wards  and 
corridoi'S.  Three  and  a  half  pouuds  of  a  mixture  of 
salt  and  manganese  were  placed  in  a  pan,  and  on 
them  was  jxiured  ii  pounds  of  dilute  acid.  (Sul- 
phuric  acid,  2;  water,  1.) 

■i.  Tile  perfuming  fumigator  is  generally  of  the 
form  of  an  Atomizer  (which  see). 

4.  As  applied  to  the  mouth  it  is  an  Ixhaler 
(wliich  see), 

Pum'ing-box.  (Plmtography. )  In  printing  pho- 
tographically, the  sensitive  paper,  having  chloride 
and  nitrate  of  silver  upon  its  surlace,  is  exposed  to 
the  fumes  of  ammonia  immediately  before  its  exj^sure 
to  light  under  the  negative  ;  the  object  being  to  se- 
cure greater  depth  and  brilliancy  in  the  resulting 
print.  The  apparatus  for  this  purpose  is  simply  a 
tight  box,  in  which  the  sensitive  sheets  can  hang, 
leaving  a  space  l)elow  them  for  a  Hat  b:isin  contain- 
ing ammonia.  Bo.xes  of  this  kind  are  variously  con- 
structed, the  object  in  all  cases  being  to  admit  of 
the  ready  introduction  and  removal  of  the  sheets,  as 
well  as  of  the  vessel  containing  ammonia,  without 
subjecting  the  oi>erdtor  to  unnecessiuy  annoyance 
from  the  fumes. 

Pu-nic'u-lar-ma-chine'.  One  actuated  by 
means  of  a  cord  whose  ends  are  attached  to  two  ob- 
jects and  which  bears  a  weight  suspended  from  the 
bight.  Some  double-toggle  presses  come  within 
the  terms  of  this  description.  The  name  is  princi- 
pally applied  to  in.struments  illustrative  of  mechani- 
cal principles,  and  having  a  rope,  pulley,  and  sus- 
pended weights. 

Fun'nel.  1.  The  chimney  of  a  steamship.  It  is 
of  sheet-iron,  and  is  carried  to  a  sufficient  hight  to 
a.ssist  the  draft  of  the  furnace. 

It  is  made  telescopic  in  war-vessel.s,  so  as  to  be 
lowered  beyond  the  reiich  of  shot. 

2.  The  pouring-hole  of  a  mold.     A  gale :  a  talge. 

3.  A  conical  vessel  which  terminates  below  in  a 
spout,  and  used  for  comluctiug  a  Iwjuid  into  a  vessel 
which  has  a  small  opening. 

An  implement  with  a  wide  mouth  and  tapering 
spout,  used  for  conducting  linuids  into  a  narrow- 
throated  vessel. 

a  a'  are  elevations  and  sections  of  a  funnel,  wlrich 

Fig  2129. 


lias  a  discharge  around  the  spout  for  the  air  dis- 
placed by  the  liquid. 

6  is  a  graduated  funnel,  which  indicates  the  quan- 
tity of  the  contents.     See  ME.\srRiNC-FUSXEL. 

c  is  a  pierced  filter  of  porcelain  or  gla-ss,  used  in  a 
laboratoiy,  with  a  cone  of  bibulous  paper  inside. 


(i  is  a  filter  of  similar  use,  but  with  lieavy  ridges, 
to  keep  the  pajier  from  adhering  to  the  sides. 

c  is  a  combined  measure,  faucet,  and  tunuel. 

The  hlter-fuuncl  should  have  sides  which  subtend 
an  angle  of  tiU',  for  the  reason  that  a  sheet  of  bibu- 
lous paper,  folded  quarterly  and  one  Hap  opened, 
forms  a  cone  the  vertical  section  of  which  is  a  tri- 
angle with  sides  forming  that  angle. 

Fua'ny.  i,XaiUiail.)  A  narrow,  clinker-built 
pleasure-boat,  to  be  rowed  by  a  pair  of  sculls. 

Fuor.  (Carpentry.)  Apiece  nailed  upon  a  raf- 
ter to  strengthen  it  when  decayed. 

Fur'bish-er.     A  burnhher. 

Pur-cut'ter.  1.  A  machine  for  cutting  the  fur 
from  the  skill. 

Johnson,  1S37,  has  a  knife  hinged  at  the  end,  and 
descending  to  make  a  shear  cut  against  a  stationary 
blade.  The  skin  passes  over  a  small  roller,  which 
displays  the  fur  and  enables  the  knife  to  reaih  the 
hairs  near  the  roots,  without  to  any  gieat  extent  cut- 
ting to  waste  or  cutting  the  same  hairs  twice. 

Petre,  1827,  has  a  pair  of  rollers,  between  which 
the  skin  passes.  As  the  skin  is  bent  over  one  of  the 
rollers,  the  hairs  are  displayed  and  thus  laid  over  a 
straight  edge.  The  knives  aiv  fixed  radially  to  a 
rotating  disk,  and  shear  iiast  the  straight-edge,  sev- 


Pttre's  Fur- Cutter. 

ering  the  hairs  with  nearness  to  the  .skin  detennined 
by  the  -lel  of  the  machine. 

Williams,  1S32,  has  a  frame  with  a  series  of  paral- 
lel knife-edges  presented  upwardly.  Over  them  is 
a  block  earning  an  oblii|ue  knife  which  makes  a 
shear  cut  upon  the  fixed  knives  in  succession. 

Flint's  fur-cutting  knife,  1837,  has  an  edge  on  one 
jaw  and  a  cushion  on  the  other. 

See  also  Harlow's  patent  for  cutting  bristles,  1868. 

2.  A  mechanical  contrivance  for  shaving  the  backs 


FUR-DRESSING. 


926 


FURNACE-HOIST. 


of  j)eltry  skins,  to  loo.sen  the  Ion;;,  deeply  rooted 
hairs,  leaviiij,'  tlie  tine  lur  undi.stiiil)eJ. 

Fur-dress'ing.  Fur,  in  its  usual  trade  accepta- 
tion, is  till'  shoit,  line  hair  of  certain  animals,  grow- 
ing thick  on  the  skin  and  deprived  of  the  long, 
coarse,  iirotectiug  hairs. 

Furs  arc  dressed  Ijy  greasing  and  traTn]iing,  or  by 
beating  in  a  fulling-uiill,  the  skin  being  soltencd  by 
the  absoi'|itiou  of  grease  ami  the  mechanical  treat- 
ment. Tliey  are  then  wetted,  Heshed,  curried, 
tramped  in  vat.s  with  sawdust,  and  again  with  whi- 
tening to  remove  the  grease.  They  are  then  beaten 
with  a  stick  and  combed. 

The  term  drcssimj  incluiles  the  cleaning,  cutting, 
ami  dyeing  ot  furs.  The  long  hair  that  covers  the  fur 
is  removeil  by  a  process  carrieil  on  in  but  few  places 
successfully.  The  skins  are  (ilaced  on  frames,  and 
the  inner  surface  parol  oti",  until  the  roots  of  Wu:  hair 
are  completely  severed,  while  the  roots  of  the/«r 
remain  untouched,  on  account  of  their  nearness  to 
the  outside  surface.  The  hair  is  then  very  easily 
removeil,  and  the  light  yellow  fur  made  ready  for 
dyeing,  either  to  a  more  golden  yellow,  a  dark  pur- 
ph%  or  lilaik,  and  is  afterwards  brought  to  the  gen- 
eral fur-market. 

In  one  process,  the  hair  and  skin  are  separated 
and  a  substitute  for  the  skin  ajiplied  to  roots  of  the 
hair  to  retain  thcni.  IJelatine  is  applied  in  solution 
to  the  hair,  so  as  to  form,  when  cool,  a  body  to  hold 
the  hair  in  position  during  the  rennival  of  the  natu- 
ral skin  and  the  ajijilication  of  a  snlistitute  to  the 
roots.  Tin'  hair  and  natural  skin  are  loosened  by 
soaking  in  lime-water  or  other  suitable  means.  The 
artilicial  .skin  may  be  formed  of  ind. a- rubber,  gutta- 
jiercha,  or  compounds  thereof,  boiled  or  drying  oil, 
or  other  ailhesive  matters,  strengthened,  if  desiri'd, 
l)y  woven  fabrics,  and  when  fip|ilied  and  set,  the 
glutinous  matter  enijiloyed  as  temporary  holding 
medium  may  be  removed  by  dissolving  in  warm  wa- 
ter or  steam. 

Furl.  (NaiUical.)  To  roll  a  sail  and  con  line  it 
to  the  yani. 

The  sail  being  gathered  by  the  men  on  the  yard, 
the  /ccch  is  jiassed  along  the  yard  to  the  bun/,  where 
the  body  of  the  sail,  Uu: /hot  and  c/civs,  are  cidlected. 

Cunningham's  patent  (English)  nnide  of  setting 
and  furling  sails  is,  by  rolling  the  yard  by  unmans  of 
ropes  from  the  deck,  unwinding  or  winding  the  .sail, 
as  the  case  may  be.  The  plan  involves  a  vertical  di- 
vision of  the  sail,  and  has  not  cnnie  into  general  use. 

Furl'ing.  The  wrapping  or  rolling  of  a  sail  on  a 
yaid  or  lioum  and  securing  it. 

Fur'uace.  A  chandjer  in  which  fuel  is  bnrned 
for  the  pi'odnctiou  of  heat,  which  is  directed  upon 
an  object  in  the  vicinity,  such  as  an  ore  or  metal 
under  treatment,  a  steam-boiler,  an  air-heating  cham- 
ber, a  glas.s-pot,  or  what  not. 

Furnaces  are  distinguished  by  con.struction,  by 
mode  of  operation,  and  by  purpose.  See  under  the 
following  heads  :  — 


Air-furnace. 

Air-heating  furnace. 

Almond- furnace., 

.■Mudcl-furnaee. 

Anncaling-aridi. 

.\nncaling-luruaee. 

.\ntiniony-turnace. 

Arsenic-furnace. 

Ash-furnace. 

Asplmltum-furnace. 

Assay-furnace. 

Athanor. 

Balling-furnace. 


Bar-heating  furnace. 

Bath -furnace. 

Be.id-furnace. 

Biseayan-forge. 

Bismuth-furnace. 

lUast-fninace. 

I'hiniary-furnace. 

Blowing-furnace. 

Boiler-furnace. 

Boiling-furnace. 

Bone-black  fnrnace. 

Bottoming-holc. 

Brass-furnace, 


Brick-kiln. 
Hurning-liou.se. 
t'alcar. 

Calcining-furnace. 
Carlioniziiig-furnace. 
Caripiaise. 
Car-wheel  furnace. 
Castilian-fuinace. 
C'a.st-steel  furnace. 
Catala)i-lurnace. 
Cementing-furinice. 
Challer. 

Cliarcoal-fnrnace. 
Charcoal-kiln. 
Cluuifer. 

Chemical-furnace. 
Coke-furnace. 
Coke-oven. 
Converting-furnace. 
Copper-furnace. 
Cujiello. 
Cupola-furnace. 
I)ecarboni?ing-furnace. 
Dental-furnace. 
Dcsnljiliuriziiig-furnace. 
Draw-kiln. 
Dnnib-furnace. 
Du.st-fuel  furnace. 
Enamcling-furnace. 
Enamel-kiln. 
Engine-furnaee. 
Eva]io  rating-furnace. 
Finery-furnace. 
Fire-back. 
Fire-bar. 
Fire-door. 
Fla.sliing-fnrnace. 
Flatting-furnace. 
Fogc. 
Forge. 

Fritting-furnace. 
Fruit-dryer. 
Fnel-fecder. 
tiallery-fnrnace. 
(ias-rurnace. 
Gas-heated  furnace. 
Gas-reverberatory       fur- 
nace. 
Glass-furnace. 
G  lass-annealing  furnace. 
Glaze-kiln. 
Glory-hole, 
(ilost-oven. 

(iold  or  silver  furnace, 
(i  rain-dryer, 
(iypsnm-furnace. 
Hardening-kiln. 
Haymaking- furnace. 
Heating-furnace. 
Hot-air  furnace. 
Hot-blast  fuinace. 


Hydro-carbon  luinacc. 
Iron-furnace. 
Kiln. 

Kiln-dryer. 
Lamp-black  furnace. 
Lead-furnace. 
Leer. 

Lime-kiln. 
Lii|uidation-furnace. 
Liipiid-carboii  fnrnace. 
Locomotive-furnace. 
Lumber-kiln. 
Jlalleable^-iron  furnace. 
Malt-kiln. 
IMcrcury-furnace. 
JIuttle-fnrnace. 
Nitric-acid  furnace. 
Nose-hole. 
Oast. 

Ore-calcining  fnrnace. 
Ore- roasting  furnace. 
Ore-smelting  furnace. 
Oven. 

Oxidizing-furnace. 
I'eat-burning  fnrnace. 
Petroleum -furnace. 
Bortable-furnace. 
Pottery-kiln. 
Puildling-furnace. 
t.Uiicksilvcr- fuinace. 
Ivcdncing-furnace. 
lletining-furnace. 
Kegenerating-furnace. 
Kcheatiiig-furnace. 
Ki'verhe  rating- furnace. 
Kiveting-hcarth. 
Boasting-furnace. 
Salt-furnace. 
Silver-furnace. 
Slag-furnace. 
Slip-kiln. 
Snieltiiig-furnace. 
Smoke-consuming      fur- 
nace. 
Soldering-furnace. 
S|ireading-furnace. 
Steam-boiler  furnace. 
Steel-furnace. 
Stiick-furnace. 
Sugar-funiace. 
Suliihnr-fnrnace. 
Sweating-furnace. 
Test-furnace. 
Tile-kiln. 
Tin-furnace. 
Upsetting-furnace. 
Vnlcaiiizer. 
Wi'ldiiig-fnrnace. 
'Winil-furiiace. 
Wrought-iron  furnace. 
Zinc-furnace. 


Fur'nace-bridge.  A  barrier  of  fire-bricks  or  of 
iron  plates  containing  water  thrown  across  the  fur- 
nace at  the  extreme  end  of  the  tire-bars,  to  prevent 
the  fuel  being  carried  into  the  Hues,  and  to  ipiickcu 
the  draft  liy  contracting  the  area. 

Fur'nace-grate.  The  bars  supporting  the  fuel 
in  a  furnace.      See  Gii.\TE. 

Fur'uace-hoist.  An  elevator  for  raising  the 
ore,  lime,  and  coal  to  the  mouth  of  a  blast-furnace. 
These  are  of  several  dilfcrent  forms;  the  example 
shown  is  on  the  pneumatic  principle.  It  consi.sts 
of  a  central  tube  a  in  Hhich  is  a  heavy  piston  b. 


FCRXITURE. 


FUR-PULLER. 


wliioh  forms  a  coiintprnpif;ht  for  the  platform  c, 
which  works  against  guiiles  on  the  outside  of  the 
tube.  The  piston  is  lightly  iiaekiil  by  eotton  gas- 
kets, ami  is  connected  to  the  platform  by  four  wn-e- 
ropes,  two  of  which  only  appear  in  the  vertical  sec- 
tional new. 

The  hoist  is  workeil  by  an  engine  with  a  ])air  of 
inclined  cylinders,  o|>eri»ting  a  jiair  of  single-acting 
air-pumps,  which  can  be  made  to  compivss  air  into 
or  exhaust  air  from  the  siKice  in  the  tuW  Ijelow  the 
piston.  Supposing  the  empty  table  with  the  empty 
barrows  to  be  at  the  top,  and  the  piston  at  the  bot- 
tom of  the  cylinder,  the  air-pnnii)s  ai-e  connected 
with  the  latter  so'as  to  deliver  air  into  it,  and  thus 
lift  the  ])iston,  a  pressure  of  r.l)out  two  pounds  per 
scpiare  inch  being  sufficient  to  do  this.  On  the  other 
hand,  if  the  table  is  at  the  bottom  of  its  travel  and 
loaded,  the  exhausting  side  of  the  air-pump  is,  by 
means  of  the  reversing  slide,  placed  in  lommunica- 
tion  with  the  cylinder,  and  a  partial  vacuum  pro- 
duced under  the  piston.  If  the  Uible  be  loaded  with 
the  heavy  iron-stone  wagons,  carrying  about  5,000 
pounds  of  stone,  thei-e  is  a  weight  of  alwHit  1,000 
I>ounds  left  unbalanceil,  and  exhaustion  of  alwut 
4  pounils  per  S(^ual■e  inch  is  rei[uired  to  bring  the 
piston  down,  while,  with  the  coke-barrows,  weigh- 
ing only  2,000  pounds,  thei-e  is  but  alxiut  1,000 
pounds  of  unbalanced  load,  and  the  ]>iston  is  brought 
down  and  the  table  raised  by  a  vacuum  of  about  one 
poind  onlv. 

Fur'ni-ture.  1.  (Xauiiai!.)  The  masts  and  rig- 
ging of  a  sliip. 

2.  The  niountings  of  a  gun. 

3.  Builders'  hardware,  such  as  locks,  door  and 
window  trimmings,  etc. 

i.  Movable  articles  of  use  and  decoration  in  a 
house. 

The  ancient  Egyptians  excelled  in  furniture,  chairs 
with  arms  and  backs  magnificently  upholstered,  with 
.seats  like  our  rush-bottoms,  or  folding  like  our  camp- 
stools. 

Their  bedsteads  were  couches,  generally  designed 
for  one  person,  ami 
variously  ornamented. 
Some  have  legs  repre- 
senting those  of  men 
or  of  dogs,  the  bed 
portion  Iieing  a  ridicu- 
lously attenuated  body 
to  correspond.  See 
CH.4.1R ;  Bedstead, 
etc  -  ^- 

Their    tables    were 
round,    square,    oblong ;    of    wood,    stone,    metal  ; 
carved,  painted,  gilded  ;  n-ith  a  central  column  or 
with  several  legs. 

5.  {Priulin^i.)  The  wooden  inclosing  strips  and 
quoins  which  surround  the  mriltcr  in  the  chase. 

The  pieces  are  about  half  an  inch  high,  of  various 
lengths.  The  strips  are  called  head,  foot,  or  side 
sticks,  according  to  their  position  in  the  chase. 

Strips  between  the  pages  are  giMcrs. 

The  slicJ.-s  are  slightly  tapering,  so  as  to  allow  the 
wedge-shaped  quoins  to  jam  the  matter  firmly  to- 
gether in  the  ch'uv. 

The  quoins  are  driven  by  the  shooting-sticl-  and  a 
milli't. 

Fur'ni-ture— pad.  A  piece  of  india-rubber  or 
similar  thing  attached  to  a  piece  of  furniture  to  jire- 
vent  rubbinij  or  striking  against  objects. 

Fur'ni-ture-spring.  A  coiled  spring  beneath 
the  hair  tilling  which  foi-ms  the  seat,  liack,  or  .side 
of  a  cushioned  chair.  A  spring  of  a  bed-bottom 
beneath  a  mattress,  or  forming  the  lower  portion  of 


one  beneath  the  elastic  material  which  constitutes 
the  top. 

Fur'ni-ture— tip.     An  india-rublier  disk  placed 
on  the  loot  of  a  chair-lig,  to  enable  the  chair  to  be 


Kg.  21.31. 


Fitmacf-Hoist. 


moved  and  replaced  noiselessly  upon  bare  boards  or 
maiMe  floors. 

Fur-puU'er.    The  fine  fur  of  fur-bearing  animals 
is  protected  by  a  cop.t  of  long,  straight  haii-s.  which 

i  is  removed  before  the  line  hair  is  sheared  off  to  fur- 
nish the  material  for  felt. 

I      This  operation,  formerly  effected  by  hand,  is  now 

!  performed  by  machines.  The  skin  is  p.is*ed  around 
the  projecting  edge  of  a  bed,  the  tension  of  the  skin 
being  maintained  by  weights.  As  the  skin  is  drawn 
forward  over  the  projecting  edge  of  the  beil,  the  long 

i  hairs  stand  out  nearly  at  right  angles,  and  are  seized 


FURRING. 


928 


FUSE. 


anil  iwtracti'd  by  ribs  on  a  pair  of  revolving  cylinders 
which  ai-e  (ilaiicd  in  f'lont  of  the  bed. 

Uraham'.s  niacliiue,  183"i,  ]jas.sps  the  skin  between 
two  feud-rollers  over  a  thinl  liigher  roller,  wbieli 
S|)reads  the  b.-iirs,  wbieh  are  pinehed  between  a  re- 
volving blade  and  the  ela.stie  snrface  of  a  leatlier- 
covered  cyliniler,  and  so  pulled  out  of  the  .sUin, 
whieh  is  stretched  and  fed  by  two  pairs  of  rolleis 
between  whieh  it  ])asses. 

Fur'ring.  1,  Fi.\ed  thin  pieces  on  the  edge  of 
timber  to  make  the  surface  even. 

2.  Doulde  planking  of  a  ship's  side. 

3.  The  S(^aly  de)iosit  on  the  inside  of  a  boiler. 

4.  A  lining  of  srantling  and  pla.ster-work  on  a 
brick  wall,  to  prevent  the  dainpi.ess  of  the  latter 
reaching  the  room. 

Fur'row.  1.  {Agriculture.)  The  trench  made 
by  a  |ilo\v. 

2.  (Mi/liiiri.)  The  grooves  in  the  face  of  a  mill- 
stone ;  the  plane  surface!  is  /and. 

A  leader-furrow  e.vtends  from  the  eye  to  tlw  skirt 
of  the  stone  at  such  draft  as  may  be  determined. 
The  draft  is  the  degree  of  deflection  from  a  radial 
direction.  In  a  seven-incdi  draft  the  track  edges 
are  tangential  to  a  seven-inch  circle  around  the  eye 
of  the  stone.  The  steep  edge  of  the  furrow  is  called 
the  track-eilge  ;"the  more  inclined  edge  is  called  the 
fcallier-eAge. 

The  second  furrow  is  that  brandling  from  tlie 
leader  nearest  to  the  eye. 

The  skirt-farrow  departs  from  the  leader  nearer 
to  the  skirt. 

A  gouije-furrow  is  concave  at  bottom.     See  Mill- 

STliN'K. 

Fur'row-ing-ham'mer.  A  mill-stone  dresser's 
haniiiier.     Si'c  Mip.i.-sru.N'K  H.VMMHR. 

Fur'row-ing-plo'w.  One  with  a  double  mold- 
boaid  fur  tlirowiug  the  earth  both  ways. 

Fu'sa-role.  (Arcliilednrc.)  A  molding  or  orna- 
ineut  ]ilared  innnediately  under  the  echinus  in  the 
Doric,  Ionic,  and  composite  capitals. 

Fuse.  A  tube  or  i:asing  lilled  with  combustible 
material,  and  used  for  igniting  a  charge  in  a  mine 
or  hollow  pi'ojectile. 

The  invention  was  uiuloubtedly  contemporaneous 
with  that  of  hollow  projecitiles. 

Blastinq-fuse :  used  in  mining  and  quarrying  is 
filled  with  a  slow-burning  composition,  allowing 
time  for  the  operatives  to  reach  a  place  of  safety  be- 
fore it  burns  down  to  the  chai'ge. 

Coinbiiialion-fusc ;  for  hollow  projectiles,  com- 
prises a  time-f\ise  and  a  percussion  or  concussion- 
fuse  united  in  the  same  case. 

The  former  is  designed  to  explode  the  charge  in 
case  the  latter  fails  to  act  on  striking. 

Coiieussion-fuse  ;  for  hollow  projectiles.  Designed 
to  explode  the  charge  when  the  shidl  strikes  an  oliject. 

E  cctric-fu.se.  One  a(la|ite(l  to  be  igidted  by  tlie 
passage  of  an  electric  spark  through  it. 

Percussion-fuse  ;  embraces  a  cajisule  charged  with 
fulminate,  which  is  exploded  by  a  plunger  or  its 
eiinivalent,  when  the  projectile  strikes.  The  plunger 
is  held  by  a  pin  sultii'iently  strong  to  keep  it  in 
place  in  case  of  a  fall,  yet  weak  enough  to  be  sevei'ed 
by  the  shock  of  striking. 

Safetij-fuse  :  a  cord  or  ribbon-shaped  fuse  filled 
with  a  fulnunating  or  c|uick-burniug  com|iosition, 
and  sufficiently  long  to  be  ignited  at  a  safe  distance 
from  the  chamber  where  the  charge  is  placed. 

Tape-fuse;  belongs  to  the  class  just  mentioned, 
and  is  so  called  I'rom  its  shape. 

Time-fuse ;  one  which  is  adapted  either  by  cutting 
ott'  a  portion  of  its  length  or  by  the  character  of  its 
composition  to  bum  a  certain  definite  time. 


Fig.  2132,  a  h  is  the  common  wooden  fuse  for 
shells  ;  the  central  cavity  is  filled  with  a  comjiosi- 
tion  of  niter  suljihur  and  meab-d  powder  thoroughly 
iucor]iorated  together,  and  uniformly  and  com]iactly 
driven  by  means  of  a  mallet  and  drift.  The  open 
end  is  capped  with  water-proof  ]iaper  or  parchmi'Ut. 

For  use,  a  part  is  sawed  off  at  the  smaller  end. 
Tlie  number  of  .seconds  which  the  remaining  com- 
position will  burn  is  indicated  by  the  annular  lines, 
so  that  cutting  off  a  greater  or  less  portion  regulates 
the  time  of  bursting  of  the  shell.  The  fuse  is  in- 
serted in  the  fuse-hole  when  the  projectile  is  re- 
(juired  for  use,  and  the  cap  removed  previous  to 
loading  the  idece. 

Paper  fuses  containing  compositions  which  burned 
at  the  rate  of  two,  three,  four,  and  five  seconds  to 

Fit'.  2132. 


Fuses. 

the  inch  were  formerly  emjiloyed  fm-  field  artillery 
in  the  United  States  service.  A  wooden  fuse-plug 
was  driven  into  the  projectile  when  prepared  for  ser- 
vice, and  the  fuse  inserted  therein  at  the  moment  of 
loading.  The  dill'crent  kinds  were  indicated  by  their 
color. 

These  were  succeeded  by  the  Bormann  fu.se  c, 
which  consists  of  a  fiat,  circular,  screw-threaded 
piece  of  an  alloy  composed  of  ei[ual  parts  of  tin  and 
lead,  having  a  deeji  annular  channel  extending 
nearly  around  its  lowijr  snrface,  into  which  the  fuse 
composition  is  pressed,  communicating  with  a  maga- 
zine of  fine  powder.  The  composition  is  protected 
by  an  annular  piece  of  the  same  metal,  which  is 
forced  down  over  it  by  pressure,  and  turned  to  a 
smooth  surface.  The  upper  part  of  the  fuse  is  ' 
graduated  to  r^uarter-scconds  up  to  five  seconds,  so 


FUSE. 


929 


FUSE-CUTTER. 


that  by  removing  the  thin  metal  covering  with  a 
small  gouge  at  any  particular  mark,  the  uoinpo.sition, 
when  ignited,  will  burn  the  length  of  time  that  the 
mark  indicates  before  reaching  the  magiizine  which 
communicates  lire  to  the  bursting  charge  of  the  j)ro- 
jectile.  This  fuse  rests  in  part  on  the.  walls  of  the 
shell  and  in  part  on  a  perforated  iron  fuse-plug, 
set  in  a  smaller  orifice  central  to  tlie  exterior 
fuse-hole.  When  screwed  in,  it  is  cemented  to  the 
shell  by  white  lead  ground  in  oil,  rendering  its  e.x- 
traction  somewhat  difficult  and  dangerous.  To 
obviate  this  a  modification  has  been  contrived  con- 
sisting of  a  Hat  ring  which  contains  tlie  composition 
inserted  into  an  annular  groove  surrounding  tlie 
hole  through  which  powder  is  poured  into  the  shell. 
As  this  may  be  made  smaller  than  the  ordinary 
fuse-hole,  the  efficacy  of  tlie  bursting  cliarge  for 
sliattering  tlie  .shell  is  increased,  while  the  charge 
may  be  removed  without  disturbing  tlie  fuse  ;  thus 
greatly  lessening  the  danger  of  accidents,  when  it  is 
desired  to  remove  the  powder.  This  form  also  ad- 
mits of  longer  burning  fuses  than  the  original  Bor- 
mann. 

Brass  fuses  having  a  crooked  channel  to  prevent 
the  entrance  of  water  between  the  exterior  priming 
and  the  fuse  composition  are  also  employed,  more 
particularly  in  the  naval  service. 

The  English  Boxer  fuse  has  a  main  channel  for 
the  fuse-composition,  and  two  smaller  channels  tilled 
with  mealed  powder  communicating  therewith  and 
with  each  other.  Holes  I'orresponding  to  the  lengths 
required  to  burn  various  times  are  bored  from  the 
exterior  of  the  fuse-civse  to  these,  and  filled  with 
pipe-clay,  which  is  removed  from  the  jjioper  hole 
when  the  projectile  is  inserted  into  the  gun. 

Powel's  fuse  I  (Fig.  2132)  admits  of  being  turned 
within  the  lilug,  which  is  screweil  into  the  shell  so 
as  to  bring  corresponding  apertures  in  the  fuse  and 
tlie  plug  into  communication.  These  are  so  ad- 
justed to  each  other  that  the  composition  may  be 
maile  to  fire  the  bursting  charge  at  the  expiration  of 
a  greater  or  less  number  of  seconds. 

Fuses  on  this  principle  have  lieen  combined  with 
the  percussion-fuse,  constituting  the  comhinatiou 
fuse. 

Previous  to  the  introduction  of  rifled  cannon  and 
elongated  projectiles,  a  number  of  attempts  had 
been  made  to  produce  a  fuse  adapted  to  spherical 
projectiles  which  would  explode  on  striking. 

One  of  these,  of  Prussian  origin,  was  composed  of 
a  glass  case  containing  strong  sulphuric  acid,  and 
wrapped  with  cotton  wick  soaked  in  a  composition 
of  chlorate  of  potash  and  liowei's  of  sulphur,  with 
jiulverized  white  sngar  and  alcohol  added  to  give 
consistency.  This  was  capped  with  a  leailen  breaker, 
vhich  projected  beyond  a  paper  case  in  which  the 
tube  and  wrapiter  were  enclosed,  and  the  whole  in- 
serted within  a  fuse-case  partially  filled  with  hard 
diiven  mealed  priwder.  This  was  ignited  on  firing, 
xnd  soon  burned  away,  leaving  the  glass  tube  un- 
]U"otected,  so  that  the  weight  of  the  breaker  would 
",ause  it  to  be  shattered  on  striking  an  object,  setting 
fire  to  the  wrapper,  which  in  turn  exploded  the 
bursting  charge. 

Splingard's  Belgian  concussion  fuse  contained  a 
conical  tube  of  jilaster  of  paris  closed  at  top  sur- 
rounded by  ordinary  fuse-composition,  which  in 
burning  left  tlie  tulie  unsu|iporte<l,  alloHing  it  to 
break  when  striking,  so  that  the  fire  should  com- 
municate directly  with  the  charge. 

Fuses  which  explode  by  peroussion  or  concussion 
present  no  difiiculty  when  employed  with  elongated 
projectiles  for  rifled  guns,  which  strike  point  fore- 
)uost ;  and  a  variety  of   such,   diBering  slightly  in 


details  of  construction,  have  been  successfully  em- 
ployed. 

Bickford's  fuse,  English  patent,  1831,  was  specially 
intended  for  miners"  use. 

It  consists  of  a  cylinder  of  gunpowder  or  other 
explosive  matter  covered  by  a  double  layer  of  cord 
and  varnished.  A  siniilar  fuse  covered  with  a  water- 
proof composition  was  designed  for  submarine  blast- 
ing. 

In  electric  fuses  the  heat  necessary  to  fire  the 
charge  is  imparted  either  by  the  passage  of  the  cur- 
rent through  a  fine  wire,  usually  platinum,  or 
through  a  chemical  mixture  rendered  conducting  by 
containing  a  salt  of  cop]ier.  /  illustrates  one  of  the 
former,  in  which  the  gutta-percha  covering  is  re- 
moved from  the  ends  of  the  conducting  wires,  which 
are  connected  by  a  fine  wire  of  platinum  ;  these, 
with  the  charge  of  fine  grained  powder,  are  enclosed 
in  a  water-tight  envelope  of  gutta-2)ercha.  g  is  one 
of  the  second  class,  known  as  f^tathara's.  Its  opei-a- 
tion  depends  on  the  fact  that  a  copper  wire  covered 
for  some  time  w  itli  vulcanized  mbber  becomes  coated 
with  a  layer  of  sulphide  of  copper,  which  is  a  mod- 
erately good  electric  conductor.  This  is  utilized 
by  twisting  a  piece  of  rubber-covered  wire  so  as  to 
form  a  loop,  when  part  of  the  covering  is  removed 
as  shown  at  «,  and  the  wire  severe<l!  Conseciuently, 
when  a  spark  is  pa.s.sed  along  the  wire,  on  reaching 
this  s]iot  it  must  follow  the  lilm  of  sulphide  adher- 
ing to  the  rubber ;  and  the  resistance  which  it  has 
to  overcome  causes  the  sulphide  to  ignite. 

i  j  k  illustrate  Shaffner's  blasting  fuses  and  car- 
tridges, i,  a  hollow  cartridge  provided  with  central 
and  diverging  spaces  occupied  by  a  series  of  fuses 
and  loose  uitro-cottou,  the  whole  covered  with  a 
water-jiroof  casing  into  which  the  ends  of  the  con- 
ducting wires  pa.ss. 

j.  The  main  wires  which  jiass  to  the  mine  or  car- 
tridge are  connected  hy  smaller  wires  to  the  fuses,  a 
number  of  which  are  placed  in  a  single  charge  of  ex- 
plosivi;  material. 

k  is  provided  with  a  wooden  head  enclosed  in 
an  indented  cylinder  closed  by  a  cap  ;  the  head 
has  a  recess  for  the  fuse  composition,  and  another 
for  the  non-conducting  cement  which  suiTounds 
the  wires  where  they  enter  the  head. 

h  is  the  Abel  fuse.  This  con.sists  of  a  wooden 
head  having  a  central  longitudinal  opening  and  two 
parallel  transverse  ones.  Through  the  former  two 
insulated  conducting  wires  are  pa.ssed,  the  ends  b  of 
each  being  cut  o9'  smooth  at  .some  distance  from  the 
head,  and  covered  with  a  tin-foil  cap  containing 
jiriming.  The  gutta-percha  is  removed  from  the 
other  ends  of  the  wires,  and  they  are  inserted  and 
secured  in  the  two  transverse  holes  before  men- 
tioned. When  re([uired  for  use,  a  case  containing 
fine  grained  powder  is  fitted  over  the  shoulder  c  and 
secured  by  twine. 

Bishop's  electric  fuse  d  c  comprises  an  inner  and 
outer  cylinder  protected  by  a  perforated  cap  through 
which  the  separatriy  insulated  conducting  wires 
pa.ss. 

Fuse-cut'ter.  An  implement  for  gaging  time- 
fuses to  the  desired  seconds  and  fractions.  The 
Borinann,  or  metal-fuse  cutter,  is  merely  a  small 
gouge,  about  one  tenth  of  an  inch  in  width  across 
the  blade,  and  is  used  for  cutting  away  the  thin 
shell  of  metal  which  overlies  tile  fuse-composition. 
The  cutter  for  pa]icr  fuses  for  rifled  guns,  which  ne- 
cessarily are  required  to  burn  much  longer,  is  more 
usually  called  a  fuse-gage.  It  is  a  block  of  wood 
with  a  graduated  bra-ss'  gage  let  into  one  side,  and 
having  a  hinged  knife  working  on  the  same  side, 
like  a  tobacco-knife,   by  which   the  fuse,  which  is 


FUSEE. 


930 


FUSIBLE  ALLOY. 


nmrkeil  on  the  .side  to  seconds  ami  fnictions,  is  cut 
oir  so  MS  to  liuin  any  i-eiiuiied  lengtli  of  time. 

Fu-see'.  1.  A  conical  pulley  «  used  in  connection 
with  a  spring,  ani.i  desii^netl  to  e(|Ualize  the  power  of" 
the  lattei'.  The  sj)i-ing  is  coiled  within  the  barrel  h, 
and  when  fully  wound  nji  and  at  its  greatest  tension 
the  chain  c  is  wound  upon  the  fusee  and  draws  upon 
its  smaller  [jortion.  As  the  fusee  unwinds,  hy  the 
motion  of  tlic  train  of  gearing  in  the  watch,  the 
spring  also  uncoils  and  loses  a  part  of  its  tension  ; 
as  this  ]irocei'ds,  the  chain  draws  upon  a  larger  por- 
tion of  th(^  fusee,  and  attains  an  increased  leverage 
on  the  latter  to  counterbalance  the  decreased  power 
of  tlu;  spring.  The  object  is  to  obtain  an  eipial  power 
at  all  times,  so  that  the  watch  may  run  regularly. 

The/;'s<  wheel  of  a  watch  is  attached  to  ihnfuficx. 

Tile  ffoi}ig-/iisee,  invented  by  Harrison  to  contiinie 
the  motion  of  the  watch  while  it  is  being  wound  up, 
has  an  au.\iliary  spring  d  through  which  the  power 
of  the  mainspring  is  communicateil  to  the  wheels. 
While  the  watch  is  being  wound,  a  ratchet  and  click 
prevent  the  reaction  of  the  auxiliary  spring,  which 


Fig. 2133 


Fusee-Marhine. 

acts  during  the  time  of  winding,  although  the  jiower 
of  the  mainspring  is  removed.  The  chain  connect- 
ing the  barrel  and  fiuiec  has  honks  at  each  end  ;  in 
winding,  the  chain  is  wound  off  the  former  on  to  the 
latter.  The  fuscc  cannot  be  introduced  into  veiy 
flat  watches,  and  the  tirst  wheel,  in  that  case,  is  at- 
taclied  to  the  barrel.  The  latter  is  then  called  a 
gobui-barrrl,  having  teeth  cut  on  its  sides. 

A  double  fu.see  (c)  to  communicate  a  variable  recip- 
rocating motion  isnseJ  in  Roberts's  self-acting  mule. 

2.  A  cigar-lighter  made  of  cardboard  impregnated 
with  niter  and  tipped  with  a  compositiou  which 
ignites  by  friction. 

3.  A  fuse. 

4.  A  light  firelock  or  musket.  The  name  is  anti- 
quated.    A  fusil. 

Fu-see'-ma-chine'.  A  macliine  (Fig.  2133)  for 
cutting  the  snail-shaped  or  spirally  grooved  wheel 
on  which  the  chains  of  certain  cleseriptions  of  watches 
are  wound.  It  wa.9  invented  by  the  renowned  Dr. 
Hooke  about  1655.  Tlie  machine  (/)  shown  is 
the  form  that  was  used  in  1741,  and  illustrates  the 
iilea  thoroughly.  It  is  also  interesting  as  being  the 
tirst  machine  in  which  c/utnfjf-whrels  were  used,  and 
is  the  germ  of  the  screw-cutting  lathe.  —  Thiiuon, 
4to.  Paris,  1741. 

Fu-see'-Twind'lass.  A  pump-windlass  with  a 
conical  baiivl  (<(,  Fig.  2133). 

Fuse-ex-tract'or.  This  implement  is  designed 
for  extraiting  woo(h'n  fuses  from  shells.  It  has  jaws 
which  grasp  the   fuse  while  the  lower  part  of  the 


Fig.  2134. 


extractor  rests  upon  the  shell.  The  jaws  are  at- 
tached to  a  screw,  which  works  in  a  screw-socket 
in  the  body  of  the  extractor,  and  has  an  iron  lever 
passing  through  its  head.  The  jaws  being  clasped 
around  tlie  projecting  part  of  the  fu.se,  it  is  drawn 
by  turning  the  h'ver. 

Fuse-lock.    For  miners. 

A  spur  on  the  sjiring  at- 
taches the  lock  to  the  fuse 
when  the  hammer  is  set. 
The  dog  is  pulled  by  a  long 
cord  from  a  distant  position 
of  safety,  reh-asing  the  ham- 
mer, which  explodes  the  cap 
and  lights  the  fu.se. 

Fuse-mak'ing.  A  ma- 
chine having  a  vertical  rota- 
ry shaft  through  which  the 
]iowder  descends  around  a  central  cord  delivered 
i'rom  the  spool  A'.  Threads  from  the  spools  d  d,  etc., 
placed  on  a  rotating  frame,  are  wound  about  it  as  it 
descends,  forming  a  twofcdd  covering,  which  is  com- 
pacted aiound  the  composition   as  the  fuse  passes 

Fig.  2135. 


Fust-Lock. 


Fuse  -Making  Machine. 

through  the  ring  t  at  the  upper  part  of  the  slotted 
shaft  M. 

Fuse-sa^y.     A  tenon-saw  used  by  artillery-men. 

Fuse-set'ter.  An  implement  for  driving  home 
wooden  fuses.  It  consists  merely  of  a  cylinder  of 
wood  or  hra.ss,  with  a  recess  at  the  enil  fitting  the 
end  of  the  fuse,  which  is  driven  into  place  by  a 
mallet. 

Fuse-tape.  A  flat  form  of  fuse,  coated  exter- 
nally with  pitch  or  tar,  and  served  to  prevent  the 
coating  from  cracking,  or  covered  with  two  warps 
and  an  interposed  lap  of  cotton.  Other  forms  might 
be  noticed. 

Fu'si-ble-al-Ioy'.  An  alloy,  usually  of  lead,  tin, 
and  bisnnith,  com]>onnded  in  snch  definite  propor- 
tions as  to  nii'lt  at  a  given  temperature. 

Used  as  plugs  in  steam-boilers,  so  as  to  melt  when 


FUSIBLE-PLUG. 


931 


FYKE. 


a  certain  pressure  and  heat  is  attained  and  allow 
steam  to  escipe.     See  Alloy,  p.  62. 

Pu'si-ble-plug.  One  placed  in  the  skin  of  a 
steam-boiler,  so  as  to  be  melted  and  allow  the  dis- 
charge of  the  contents  when  a  dangerous  heat  is 
reached.  See  "  Le  Dictionnaire  de  Industrie,  Hanu- 
fac,  Commerc,  et  Agricole."  Par  A.  Baudrimar. 
Blanque  aine  et  autres.    Paris,  1833.    Vol.  I.  p.  326. 

Fu'si-ble-por'ce-lain.  A  silicate  of  alumina 
and  soda  obtained  from  cryolite  and  saml,  fused  and 
worked  a.s  glass. 

Cryolite  is  a  mineral  consisting  of  fluoride  of 
aluminium  and  sodium.  It  is  found  in  gieat  abun- 
dance and  purity  in  Greenland,  and  serves  to  make 
a  fine  mUk-glass,  which  is  called  fusible  porcelain. 
It  is  known  in  Bohemia  and  Silesia  as  milk-glass. 
One  part  of  cryolite  is  mixed  with  two  to  four  parts 
of  quartz  or  pure  sand,  thus  being  a  silicate  of 
alumina  and  soda,  containing  some  Huorine  that 
ha-s  not  been  dissijiated  during  the  meltirg  process. 
The  material  is  easily  wrought  into  any  form,  and 
may  be  readily  ground  and  polished.  It  is  stronger 
than  common  glass,  and  is  said  to  withstand  €he  tile 
better. 

Pu'siL  A  light  fire-arm  or  musket  of  an  anti- 
quated pattern. 

Fus'ing-points.  (Some  boiling-points  and  other 
data  are  added  for  the  purpose  of  comparison.)  Bv 
P.  H.  Van  der  Weyde,  il.  D.  Fahr" 

Degrees. 
Platinum ;  iridium ;  osmium  .  .  .  3, 992 
Manganese        ......         3,452 

Cobalt 3,272 

Melted  tin  boils 3,092 

Pure  bar-iron  ;  nickel.         ....    2,912 

White  heat  of  iron 2,372 

Gold;  white  cast-iron 2,282 

Silver 1,832 

Copiier         .......     1,742 

Br.Lss ;  bronze 1,652 

Aluminium  ......     1,562 

Full  red- heat  of  iron        ....         1,472 

Magnesium.         ......     1,382 

Cherry-red  heat  of  iron     ....         1,292 

Iron,  red-hot,  \isible  in  daylight  .         .     1,112 

Iron,  red-hot,  visilile  iu  dark   .         .         .  932 

Barium 887 

Sulphur  boils 842 

Antimony  melts ;  cadmium  volatilized  .        797 

Tellurium        ......  752 

Zinc 707 

Mercury  and  whale-oil  boil       .         .         .  662 

Lead ;  cadmium .         .         .         .         .         .617 

Amber  melts  ;  linseed-oil  and  phosphorus  boil     572 
AVatch-spring  temper  (deep  blue)      .         .  554 

Sword  temper  (blue)     .....        536 

Knife  temper  (pink)  ....  518 

Steam  at  50  atmospheres      ....        509 

Bismuth  melts  ;  steam  at  45  atmospheres  .  500 

Penknife  temper  (brown  yellow)  .         .         .        482 
Steam  at  34  atmospheres  ....  464 

Chisel  temper  (yellow)  ....        446 

Tin  melts  ;  steam  at  24  atm.     .         .         .  428 

Razor  temper  (straw)  ;  steam  at  20  atm.        .        410 
Pale  yellow  temper  .....  382 

Steam  at  10  atmospheres      ....        356 

Camphor  ......  347 

Naphtha  boils ;  sulphur  ignites    .         .         .        320 

Turpentine  boils 311 

Low  vulcanizing  temperature        .         .         .        293 
Steam  at  3  atmospheres   ....  275 

Steam  at  2  atmospheres         ....        248 

Sulphur 230 

Water  boils 212 


Fahr. 
Degrees. 

176 


158 

131 

113 

104 

95 

32 

0 

-4 

-40 

-49 

-112 

-202 


Alcohol  and  benzine  boil 
I  Stearic  acid  ;  white  was 
'  Potassium  ;  spermaceti    . 
'  Phosphorus 

Blood  heat       

Lard   ..... 
Ice  melts  .... 

Mixture  of  salt  and  snow 
Linseed-oil  and  brandy  freeze  . 
Mercury  freezes   . 
Liquid  ammonia  freezes   . 
Carbonic  acid  freezes    . 
Alcohol  (thick  as  castor-oil)  at 

For  fusing-points  of  alloys,  see  p.  62. 

Fust.  The  shaft  of  a  column  from  the  a.sti'agal 
to  the  capital. 

Fus'tian.  (Fabric.)  a.  A  heavy  woolen  cloth 
with  a  napped  surface  for  men's  wear. 

b.  A  coarse,  thick,  twille<l  cotton  stuff  for  men's 
wear,  and  generally  of  a  dark  color.  The  plain, 
common  fustian  is  specifically  known  as  jnlloir-fus- 
tian  ;  other  varieties  of  fustian  are  known  by  the 
names  of  corduroy,  idvercit,  rclrcteoi,  thkXscU, 
double-jean,  vclvei-tuft,  moleskin  (cropped  before 
dyeing),  bcarcrtecn  (crojiped  after'dyeing),  cantoon. 

These  goods  were  first  made  in  Nomich,  England, 
in  1554,  and  were  called  "Xonvich  satins." 

Fut'cheL  {Carriage.)  The  jaws  between  which 
the  hinder  end  of  a  tongue  is  in.serted  ;  the  similar 
parts  in  a  wagon  are  called  tongue-hounds. 

Put'tock.  {Shijncrighling.)  One  of  the  timbers 
in  the  compound  rib  of  a  vessel.  A  timber  of  the 
dimensions  and  form  for  the  rib  of  a  vessel  cannot 
be  procured  in  one  piece  ;  the  rili  is  built  up  of  pieces 
scarfed  together.  The  number  is  according  to  the 
length  of  the  sections  of  the  requisite  bight.  They 
are  known  as  the  frst,  second,  and  third  fuUock,  ter- 
minated by  the  top-timber.     See  Fkajie. 

Fut'tock-hoop.  {Xontical.)  A  hoop  encir- 
cling the  mast  at  a  ))oint  below  the  head,  and  serving 
for  the  attachment  of  the  shackles  of  the  futtock- 
shrouds.     .*ee  Fig.  2136. 

Fut'tock  -  plank.  (ShipbuHdinij.)  The  first 
plank  of  the  ceiling  next  to  the  keelson.  The  limber- 
strake.  The  first  plank  of  the  sk-in  next  to  the  keel 
is  the  qarboard-slrakc. 

Fut'tock-plate.     (Xaiitical.) 
the    edge   of   the    top,    to 
which  the  fuUock-shrouds 
and  the  dead-eyes  of  the 
topmast  sAro!«&are  secured. 

s  s,  futtock-shrouds. 

b,  lower  mast. 
«,  futtoik-hoop. 
a,  dead-eyes. 

c,  topmast. 

d,  mast-battens. 
ft,  cross-tiees. 
i,  trestle-tree. 
m,  futtock-plate. 
r,  cheek  or  hound. 
t,  bolster. 
Put'tock-shronds. 

(Xnulienl. )       The       short 

shrouds    attached    to    the 

chain-necklaces  on  the  mast, 

and  to  the  sides  of  the  top, 

by   which   ascent    is    had 

from  the  principal  shrouds   Futtoci  Plate  and  Shrouds. 

to  the  top.     See  Fig.  2136. 

Fyke.  A  bag-net,  open  to  allow  fi.sh  to  enter, 
but  opposing  their  exit. 


An  iron  plate  on 
Fig.  2136. 


GAB. 


932 


GAFF. 


G. 


Gab.  Tlie  liook  on  an  eccentric-rod  which  en- 
gages the  wrist  on  the  'rock -shaft  lever  of  a  valve- 
motion.  The  word  fji-i.h  means  mouth  in  several 
languages,  ami  the  term  signilies  that  it  is  ojien  to 
bite  uiioii  that  placed  within  it.     See  Gab-lifteh. 

Gab'ar-age.  (Fabric.)  A  coarse  linen  packing- 
cloth. 

Ga'bi-on.  A  long  hasket  of  osiers  or  withes. 
When  hlled  with  earth,  they  are  adapted  to  revet 


Fig.  2137. 


GabioTts. 


parapets  and  emlinisures  of  fortifications.  They  are 
also  used  in  other  earthworks,  such  as  hatteries  or 
rifle-pits. 

Gabions  filled  with  stones  are  used  in  civil  engi- 
neering as  defences  for  ularlings  of  bridges  ;  lur 
making  dikes  or  river-walls,  where  the  shore  is  sub- 
ject to  washing ;  for  making  isolated  islands,  or 
chains  of  such,  olf  .shore,  as  a  breakwater  ;  also  to 
arrest  silt,  sand,  and  mud,  and  gradually  raise  the 
bottom  above  the  level  of  high-water,  in  the  manner 
of  groiiis. 

Military  engineers  make  their  gabions  about  20 
feet  long,  and  3  feet  in  girth  on  the  mean,  with  bands 
at  distances  of  from  1  foot  to  1  foot  6  inches  ;  in 
Holland    the  gabions 


Fig.  2138. 


are  made  I'rom  24  to 
27  feet  long,  from  1 
foot  4  inches  to  1  foot 
8  inches  in  girth,  and 
with  bands  at  eviM-y  ti 
inches  apart ;  and 
upon  the  Upper  Rhine 
the  gabions  are  made 
from  2  feet  6  inehi-s  to 
3  feet  4  inches  in 
girth. 

Tlie  gabions  of  the 
Greeks,  used  in  form- 
ing foundations  or 
makinginclined  i)laues 
for  raising  architraves 
of  buildings,  were 
baskets  of  sedge  filled 
with  chalk  and  called 
herones. 


Gia'ble.    The  triangular  portion  of  the  end  of  s 


building,  bounded  by  the  sides  of  the  roof  and  a 
line  joining  the  eaves. 

Gublc-window  :  a  window  in  the  gable  of  a  house. 

Ga'blet.  A  small  ornamental  gable  or  canopy 
formeil  over  a  tabernacle  or  niche. 

Gab-lift'er.  A  device  lor  lifting  the  gab-ltouk 
from  the;  wrist  on  the  crank  of  the  rock-shaft,  in  or- 
der to  disconnect  the  eccentric  from  the  valve-gear. 
In  small  engines,  the  eccentric-rod  is  sinjply  lifted 
by  means  of  the  handle  on  the  end. 

lu  the  apparatus  A,  by  pulling  up  the  spring  han- 


Fig.  2139. 


a.  A  steel  wedge  for  opening 
Fig.  2140. 


Gab-LiJlfTS. 

die  below  until  it  catches  in  the  notch  n,  the  pin  is 
disengaged  from  the  gab  on  the  eccentric-rod. 

In  £,  the  gab  is  lifted  by  the  oscillation  of  an  ec- 
centric. When  the  handle"  of  the  latter  is  raised,  the 
eccentric  surface  bears  down  on  the  pin  and  pries 
out  the  gab-hook. 

In  C,  the  operating  rod  proceeds  from  above  and 
oscillates  a  rock-shaft,  from  which  is  suspended  a 
link  reaching  to  the  eccentric-rod. 

Gad.  (Milling.) 
crevices,  natural  or 
made  by  the  pick. 

The  figure  shows 
the  mode  of  carry- 
ing them. 

b.  A   small  iron 
punch  with  a  wood- 
en handle,   used  to< 
break  up  ores. 

c.  A  jiimjicr ; 
boring-liar. 

Gaff.  1.  {Nauti- 
cal.) The  spar  which  extends  the  upper  edge  of 
fore-and-aft  sails,  such  as  the  »(rt/«-sail  of  a  cutter, 
smack,  or  other  one-masted  vessel  ;  the  main  and 
fore  sails  of  a  schooner,  the  spanker  of  a  ship,  the 
<n/-sails  or  spencer  of  a  brig  or  ship. 

The  lower  end  of  the  gaff  has  jaws  which  rest 
.against  and  partially  grip  the  mast.  It  is  supported 
by  the  throat-hobjards  at  the  mast  and  the  peak- 
hu!iiard.s  at  the  outer  end. 

The  ropes  which  steady  the  gaff  laterally  are  called 
vangs. 

Gaff-sails  are  bent  at  the  weather-leech  to  masts, 
or  to  hiio/is  or  hanks  which  run  on  the  mast  as  the 
sail  is  raised  or  lowered. 


Gads. 


GAFF-HOOK. 


933 


GAGE. 


2.  The  metallic  spur  fastened  to  the  leg  of  a  fight- 
ing-cock. 

I'ock-tighting  was  a  common  amusement  in  Eng- 
land in  the  twelfth  century,  and  Fitz-Stephen  says 
tliat  it  was  customary  I'or  the  schoolmaster  to  super- 
intciiil  the  pit  on  the  usual  holiday  eock-tighting  on 
Shrove-Tuesday.  The  English,  like  the  ancient 
Greeks,  armed  the  heels  with  spurs.  So,  after  all, 
our  St,  Domingo  period  was  not  so  very  long  ago. 

3.  A  lish-spear. 

Gaff-hook.  X  heavj%  barbed  hook  with  a  line, 
usi'<l  in  l:uidiiii,'  large  fish. 

Gaff-top'sail.  A  sail  spread  by  a  gaff  above  the 
main-sail  of  a  cutter,  or  other  fore-and-aft  rigged 
vessel. 

Gage.  1.  .A.n  instrument  for  determining  dis- 
tances, sizes,  proportions,  as  the  carpentei-s'  gages 
of  various  kinds  ;  sheet-metal  and  wire  gages,  which 
are  standards  of  me;isurement  of  thickness  ;  test- 
gages  or  templets,  by  which  work  in  detail  is  made 
to  an  exact  set  of  standards,  so  that  the  pieces  may 
he  assembled  ;  a,s  the  Springfield  and  other  rifii-s, 
the  Singer  and  other  .sewing-machines.  There  are 
aI)Out  seventy-eight  gages  used  for  detenuining  and 
verifying  dimensions  of  the  parts  in  the  rille  musket, 
pattern  of  1855  ;  its  lock,  stock,  barrel,  ramroil, 
leaf-sight,  bayonet,  and  mountings. 

Whitworth's  contrivance  for  testing  the  truth  of 
a  .solid  measure  representing  an  English  inch  is  a 
remarkable  specimen  of  mechanical  skill  and  ac- 
curacy. Tlie  block  representing  the  inch  is  a  rec- 
tangular i>rism  of  polished  steel,  originally  cubical, 
but  having  its  angles  so  truncated  for  convenience 
of  manipulation  that  the  terminal  surfaces  are  one 
quarter  inch  square.  At  one  of  its  e.Ktremities  it 
abuts  against  a  ti-xed  stop,  the  other  is  o|)posed  to 
the  e.xtremity  of  a  screw  of  twenty  threads  lo  the 
inch,  ]daced  directly  in  the  line  of  the  axis.  A 
single  re^'olution  of  the  screw  advances  the  ex- 
tremity, therefore,  one  twentieth  of  an  inch.  But 
the  head  of  the  screw  is  ten  inches  in  circumference, 
and  is  divided  into  200  parts.  In  turning  this 
wheel,  every  division  acconlingly  .advances  the  screw 
one  foui'-thousandth  yiart  of  an  inch.  The  divisions, 
however,  are  not  traces,  but  teetli  ;  and  the  screw- 
head  is  a  gear-wheel,  which  is  driven  by  a  tangent 
screw  lying  horizontally  in  its  plane  and  across  its 
summit.  .\nd  tliis  tangent  si:rew  has  also  a  head 
of  12A  inches  in  circumference,  which  is  di\nded 
into  250  parts,  each  part  being  the  twentieth  of  an 
inch.  An  entire  revolution  of  the  tangent  screw 
advances  the  gear-wheel  only  one  tooth,  which,  a.s 
we  have  seen,  moves  forward  the  end  of  the  measur- 
ing screw  one  four-thousandth  of  an  inch.  A  single 
division  of  the  limb  of  the  tangent  screw -head  will 
therefore  produce  a  movement  in  the  direction  of 
measurement  of  only  one  two-huudred-and-fiftieth 
of  one  four-thousandth  of  an  inch  ;  that  is  to  say, 
of  one  one-millionth  part  of  an  inch.  Between  the 
plane  face  of  the  standard  inch  ami  tlie  extremity  of 
the  measuring  screw  opposed  to  it  is  a  little  steel 
plate  with  parallel  and  perfectly  true  surfaces.  As 
the  screw  advances  towards  the  jdate  a  point  is 
reached  where  the  latter  appears  to  be  in  contact, 
but  wlieu  lifted  it  will  be  found  to  be  free,  as  it 
will  fall  freely  back,  not  being  held  by  friction.  If 
now  the  tangent  screw  be  turned,  a  .single  division 
at  a  time  lifting  the  plate  after  each  movement,  a 
point  will  be  reached  at  which  a  single  additional 
movement  of  advance  will  fasten  the  plate  com- 
pletely, so  that  the. friction  will  prevent  its  fall. 

Between  these  points  the  screw  is  advanced 
nnrJinra  of  *"  inch,  and  a  retraction  of  the  screw  to 
this  extent  will  free  the  plate  so  that  it  will  fall ; 


care  being  taken  that  disturbance  of  the  equilibrium 
of  temperature  shall  not  change  the  conditions. 

M'lutworth's  cylinder  gages  at  the  Paris  Exposi- 
tion were  perforated  steel  plates,  the  perforations 
being  highly  polished  within,  and  diH'ering  fiom 
each  otiier  in  diameter  by  Tirfrtn!  of  an  inch.  Cor- 
responding to  them  were  {lolished  steel  cylinders, 
one  exactly  fitted  to  each.  As  these  cylinders  lie 
side  by  side,  it  would  be  difficult  for  the  eye  to  dis- 
tinguish a  difi'erence  of  diameter  between  several  of 
them  ;  but  when  they  are  tried  by  the  gages,  each 
will  pass  freely  through  the  aperture  corresponding 
to  its  own  nundier,  but  no  one  can  be  forced  without 
an  effort  into  one  of  a  higher  order.     See  JlE-isuR- 

IXG-.M.AIIIINF.. 

2.  iPlii/sicK.)  An  instnmient  for  detennining  the 
condition  of  a  Hmtuating  object ;  as  a  tide,  steam, 
rain,  water,  wind,  oirri'iit  gage,  etc.     See  Meter. 

3.  o.  The  quantity  of  plaster  of  paiis  added  to 
plasteiing  mortar  to  facilitate  setting. 

h.  Fine  mortar  with  an  addition  of  plaster  of 
paris  for  a  finishing  coat. 

4.  The  width  of  a  railway  track.     See  Eailway- 

GAGE. 

5.  The  length  of  a  shingle,  slate,  or  tile  which  Is 
exposed  to  the  weather.  Also  called  the  margin. 
The  hiilden  portion  is  called  the  corcr. 

a.  SkiiHiles  are  18  inches  long  and  expose  6 
incdics.  That  is  the  yugc.  Tliere  are  thus  three 
thicknesses  ou  a  roof. 

b.  Plain-tiles  are  lOi  inches  long  and  have  a  gage 
of  6i  inches. 

c.  Pint-tiles  are  14i  inches  long  ;  gage,  10  inches. 

d.  Shilcs  vary  in  length  and  size.  The  gage  is 
usually  nearly  half  the  length,  so  that  the  slates 
have  a  little  over  two  thickne.s.ses  on  the  roof. 

6.  {Prinfinrj.)  A  .strip  of  reglet  with  a  notch  in 
it  to  indicate  the  length  of  a  page. 

7.  The  depth  of  immersion  of  a  vessel. 
See  under  the  following  heads  :  — 


Angle-gage. 

Auger-gage. 

Axle-gage. 

Ball-caliber. 

Barometer-gage. 

Biirrel-gage. 

Barrel-filling  gage. 

Bilge- water  gage. 

Bisec  ting-gage. 

Boanling-gage. 

Boring-gage. 

Broad-gage. 

Bur-gage. 

C'ali|>er-gage. 

Carpenter's  gage. 

Center-gage. 

Chamber-gage. 

Clapboard-gage. 

Coltin-g;ige. 

Condenser-gage. 

Counter-gage. 

Croze. 

Current-gage. 

Cutting-gage. 

Depth-gage. 

Diamond-g-age. 

Diill-gage. 

Electric  steam-gage. 

Evaporation  -gage. 

Giige  and  caliper. 

Gage-box  for  shingles. 

(i.ige-cock. 

Gage-concussion. 


Gage-dial. 

Gaged  biick. 

Gage-glass. 

Gage-ladder. 

Gage-lathe. 

Gage  pajjer-cutter. 

Gage-pile. 

Gage-rod. 

Gage-saw. 

Giige-wheel. 

Gaging  caliper. 

Gaging-rod. 

Gas-titteis'  gage. 

Gas-gage. 

Gram-gage. 

Gun-barrel  gage. 

Hydraulic  indicator. 

Index-gage. 

Joinei's'  gage. 

Knitting-gage. 

Liquor-gage. 

JIarking-gage. 

Measuring-apparatus. 

Meter  (varieties,  see  Me- 

teh). 
Meter-gage. 
Mortise-gage. 
Narrow-gage. 
Nipjier-giige. 
Page-gage. 
Pear-gage. 
Plasterers'  gage. 
Pressure-gage. 


GAGE-BOX  FOR  SHINGLES. 


934 


GAG  REIN. 


Printers'  gage. 

Railway-gage. 

Rain-gage. 

Ri'cording-gage. 

Ring-gage. 

Rounding-gage. 

Router-gage. 

Salt-gage. 

Saw-gage. 

Sawing-machine  gage. 

Screw-cutting  gage. 

Screw-thread  gage. 

Scribing-gage. 

Sea-gage. 

Setting-gage. 

Sewing-machine  gage. 

Sheet-metiil 

Shell-gage. 

Shingling-gage. 

Shingles.   Gage-box  for 

Shot-gage. 

Sliding-gage. 


Slitting-gage. 

Spectacle-gage. 

Sjieed-gage. 

Spokc-gage. 

Standard-gage. 

Star-gage. 

Stcani-gage. 

Stepped-gage. 

Surl'ace-g;ige. 

Templet. 

Testing-gage. 

Therniometric  steam-gage. 

Tide-gage. 

Tool-gage. 

Tucking-gage. 

Turning-gage. 

Vacuuni-guge. 

Water-gage. 

Weather-boarding  gage. 

Wind-gage. 

Wire-gage. 


GftsC'  Cock. 


Gage-box  for  Shin'gles.  A  box  of  a  certain 
size  in  wlucb  sbiaglrs  an-  laid  to  form  bunches  of  a 
certain  mnnbi-r.  A  shingle  is  about  18  inches  long, 
and  every  4  inches  of  tlie  edge  counts  as  one  shingle, 
so  that  if  it  were  12  x  18  imdu-s  it  would  count  as  :!. 
The  box  being  2  feet  stjuare,  anil  the  tails  of  the 
shingles  lapping  6  inches,  the  butts  of  the  layers 
are  jjresented  in  alternate  directions,  each  layer 
counting  as  six  shingles.  The  box  facilitates  the 
counting'  and  hunching. 

Gage-cock.  (Slcmn-emjinc.)  One  of  two  or  more 
stop-cocks  which  arc  screwed  into  the  boiler,   oni' 

above  the  Icvid 
Fig.  2U1.  at  which  water 

onght  to  stand 
in  the  boiler 
and  the  other 
l)elow  it.  Tlie 
ejection  of 
steam  and 
water  respec- 
tively from  the 
cocks  indicates 
the  water-level 
in  the  boiler  to  be  between  the  two  gage-cocks. 
Steam  from  both  shows  the  water  to  be  too  low. 
Water  from  both  shows  the  water  to  be  too  high. 

In  the  gage-cock  shown,  tlie  valve  is  operated  in 
one  direction  by  the  tubular  cap,  and  in  the  other 
by  the  steam  pressure  and  a  spring. 

The  watcr-ijaria  is  an  exterior,  vertical  tube  in 
connection  with  the  boiler,  and  in  which  the  water 
rises  to  an  eiiual  liiglit. 

Gage-con-cus'sion.  Tlie  rocking  laterally  of  a 
railway  ciuriage  liriiiging  the  flanges  of  the  wheels 
in  contact  with  the  c-il^cs  of  the  rails. 

Gaged-brick.  liricks  for  arch-building,  molded 
or  rublied  to  a  wedge  shape  to  suit  the  radius  of  the 
so  Hie. 

Gage-glass.  {Steam-aiginc. )  A  strong,  verti- 
cal, glass  tube,  connected  at  its  ends  by  two  cocks 
to  the  boiler,  and  forming  an  indicator  of  the  depth 
of  water  in  the  boiler.  It  is  illuminated  at  night  by 
the  i/Dfic-himp. 

Gage-lad'der.  A  square  timber  "frame  for  rais- 
ing the  ends  of  wheeling  planks  in  excavating.     A 

Gage-lamp.  [Railroad-engine.)  A  lantern  to 
throw  light  on  the  water-gage  of  a  steam-boiler. 

Gage-lathe.  One  designed  to  turn  out  cliair- 
rounds,  bani.ster-columiis,  and  all  similar  objects  in  | 


which  the  cylindrical  form  is  modihed  by  contrac- 
tion or  enlargement  of  diameter,  the  formation  of 
Fig.  2142. 


Gage-tathe, 

beads,  etc.,  so  as  to  present  curves  or  broken  lines 
in  its  contour. 

The  wood  is  placed  between  the  centers,  and  is 
first  brought  to  tlie  form  of  a  regular  cylinder  by 
means  of  a  fixed  chisel  in  a  slide-rest.  The  slide- 
rest  has  two  chisels,  one  of  which  reduces  the  wood 
to  the  form  of  a  uniform  cylindiu',  while  the  other 
cuts  away  the  portions  of  the  cylinder  which  must 
be  removed  in  order  to  produce  the  varied  outline 
wliich  the  design  reiiuircs.  This  latter  chisel  is  in  a 
hinged  holder,  and  a  foot  firmly  connected  witli  it 
rests  on  an  iron  rail  or  gage,  which  is  cut  to  the 
contour  which  the  wood  is  to  have.  As  the  slide- 
rest  advances,  this  foot  rises  on  the  swells  and  sinks 
into  the  depressions  of  the  gage  ;  and  the  tool-holder, 
with  its  tool,  ri.ses  and  sinks  with  it,  and  thus  trans- 
fers to  tlii^  wood  the  precise  contour  of  the  gage. 
See  Nrni.Kii  Wcjiik, 

Gage  Pa'per-cut'ter.  A  machine  having  a 
guillotine-knile  descencUiig  with  a  draw-cut  upon 
a  pile  of  paper  on  a  table.  An  adjustable  fence  reg- 
lUati's  the  tjcijc,  or  size.  See  Paper-ci'tting  Ma- 
chine. 

Gage-pile.  (Pilc-driring.)  A  preliminary  pile 
to  mark  the  desired  course. 

Gage-rod.  A  giaduated  rod,  used  in  measuring 
the  rajiacitv  of  barrels  and  casks. 

Gage-saTV.  A  saw  having  an  adjustable  frame 
or  clainp,  which  deterniines  the  depth  of  kerf.  Used 
by  comb-makers  and  others. 

Gage-stuff.  A  stiff  and  compact  plaster  used  in 
making  cornices,  moldings,  etc.  It  consists  of  two 
thirds  fine  mortar,  one  tliird  plaster  of  paris,  with 
a  little  water. 

Gage-wheel.  One  attached  to  the  forward  end 
of  a  plow-beam,  to  gage  the  de]>th  of  furrow. 

Gag'ger.  {Foundinti.)  A  T-headed  piece  of  iron 
with  a  shank  gradnally  enlarging  towards  tlie  end, 
and  placed  in  a  mold  so  as  to  lock  the  sand  together. 

Gag'ing-cal'i-per.  A  tool  in  which  are  com- 
bined dividers,   inside  and  outside  calipers,  and  a 

Fig.  2143. 


Gage-  Caliper, 


graduated  double  scratch-gage.  It  is  graduated  to 
IBths,  32ds,  anil  64ths  of  an  inch. 

Gag'ing-rod.  An  exciseman's  er  inspector's 
measuriLig-statf,  for  determining  the  interior  dimen- 
sions of  casks  ;ind  other  ve.ssids  holding  liquids. 

Gag-rein.  {Smhllirii.)  .\  rein  which  passes  over 
riiiiih'i'f:  attacdied  to  the  throat-latch,  so  as  to  draw 
the  bit  up  into  the  corners  of  the  horse's  mouth 
when  pulled  upou. 


GAG-RUNXER. 


935 


GALLEY. 


Gag-nin'ner.  {Harness.)  A  loop  depeiuling 
from  tli(^  throat-lateh  ;  through  it  the  gag-reiu  passes 
to  the  hit. 

Gain.     A  morti.se. 

A  beveled  shoulder  of  a  binding  joist  to  strei^then 
the  tenon. 

Gain 'ing-ma-chl n e'.  A  machine  for  cutting 
grooves  across  the  face  of  a  beam,  usually  to  receive 
the  shoulder  of  the  tenon,  so  that  the  stud  joist  or 
post  framed  into  the  beam  may  have  a  strength  to 
resist  later.il  strain  gieater  than  that  due  merely 
to  the  tenon  which  rests  in  the  mortise  proper.  The 
niacliine  is  also  adapted  for  rabbeting  and  transverse 
cutting  generally.  Two  circular  saws  are  placed  at 
a  distance  apart  ecjual  to  the  width  of  the  desired 
gain.  A  routing  cutter  may  clear  out  the  chip  be- 
tween the  kerfs.  The  beam  b  is  dogged  on  the  bench 
a,  and  the  saw-carriage  c  reciprocates  above  it,  the 


RfCtproca:i    ,  .    "^Lirhine. 

saws  (I  being  brought  down  to  the  work  by  the 
counterlmlanced  lever  c  /  is  the  wheel  whereby 
the  beam  is  moved  longitudinally  the  distance  be- 
tween gains. 

Gain'ing-twist.  {Jliflinci.)  A  rifle-groove  whose 
angle  of  twist  becomes  greater  tow-ards  the  muzzle. 
This  allows  the  ball  to  be  more  easily  started,  gain- 
ing a  greater  velocity  as  it  proceeds  towards  the 
muzzle.      Incrrnse  fin'sf. 

Gai'ter.  A  covering  for  the  ankle,  fitting  down 
upon  the  shoe.  It  is  usually  buttoned  or  buckled 
upon  the  outer  .side,  ami  has  a  strap  beneath  the 
shank  of  the  shoe. 

It  is  sometimi's  callecl  a  gaiterette,  as  the  term 
gnilrr  has  been  colloquially  ap]ilied  to  the  half-boot 
with  a  cloth  top,  ami  moie  recently  to  all  bootees 
which  closely  embrace  the  ankle  and  the  .small  of 
the  leer  immediately  above  it. 

Ga'la.     (Fabric.)     A  Scotch  cotton  fabric. 


Gal'a-o-tom'e-ter.  An  instrument  for  ascer- 
taining the  quality  of  milk  by  its  specific  gravity. 
A  Itidometcr.  The  fonner  term  is  founded  upon  the 
Greek,  and  the  latter  partially  from  the  Latin. 

It  consists  of  a  stem  and  bulb,  the  hitter  charged 
with  shot  serving  as  ballast,  so  that  it  floats  ujiright 
in  the  milk,  the  relative  specific  gravity  being  indi- 
cated by  the  centessimally  graduated  stem. 

Gal'e-as.  A  low-built  French  galley  worked  with 
sails  and  oars.  Gtilcassc,  a  Venetian  gallev.  Oaliol, 
a  Dutch  galley.  ' 

Ga-le'na.  Native  sulpliuret  of  lead  ;  from  gaku, 
to  shine. 

Gal'ets.  The  .splinters  of  stone  broken  otf  by  the 
stroke  (if  the  mason's  chisel.      Also  called  spalls. 

Gal-i-le'an-tel'e-scope.  The  original  fomi  of 
reflecting  telescope  used  l>y  Galileo.  It  has  a  con- 
vex, converging  oliject-glass,  and  a  concave,  diverg- 
ing eye-glass.     .Sec  Telescope. 

Gal'i-ot;  Gal'li-ott.  (Xantical.)  Formerly,  a 
galley  propelled  by  sails  and  oars,  having  one  nuist 
and  16  to  20  seats  for  rowers  ;  used  by  most  of  the 
maritime  nations  of  continental  Europi-,  and  called  by 
substantially  the  same  name  in  the  Latinic  languages. 
Now  a  strong  and  cumbrous,  blufl'-bowed,  two-masted 
vessel,  used  in  the  Dutch  merchant  .service. 

Gal'le-on.  A  large  Spanish  vessel  with  three 
decks,  formerly  used. 

Gal'ler-y.  1.  {Fortification.)  A  covered  passage 
in  a  work,  either  for  defence  or  connnunication.  As 
one  beneath  the  counterscarp  and  loopholed,  or  com- 
municating lietween  the  enceinte  and  an  outwork. 

A  galleiy  in  a  smrj)  having  cinbrasurcs  becomes  a 
casemate. 

2.  (Xautical.)  A  balcony  projecting  from  the 
after  part  of  a  ship,  as  the  quurter-gallcry,  stern-gal- 
lery. 

3.  A  corridor  ;  a  partial  story  in  a  room  for  audi- 
tors or  musicians. 

4.  {J/iiiiiig.)  An  adit  or  drift  in  a  mine,  either 
as  a  means  of  woi'kiug,  of  drainage,  or  of  ventila- 
tion. The  great  drainage-gallery  of  the  mines  of 
Clausthal,  in  the  Hartz,  is  11, .377  yards,  equal  to  6J 
miles  long,  and  passes  300  yards  below  the  church 
of  Clausthal.  Its  excavation  occupied  fiom  1777 
to  ISOO.  and  cost  about  §330,000.     See  Adit. 

Gal'ler-y-fur'nace.  A  furnace  used  in  the  dis- 
tillation of  given 
vitriol,  consist- 
ing of  a  long  gal- 
lery containing 
two  or  three  tiers 
of  retorts,  100  in 
each  row.  The 
gallery  is  a  flue 
traversed  liy  the 
flame  of  a  fire. 
The  neck  of  each 
retort  ])rojects 
through  the 
walls  of  tlie  gal- 
leiy and  enters 
an  exterior  re- 
ceiver. 

Galley.  1.  (Nautical.)  a.  A  low,  flat-built 
vessel  with  one  or  more  rows  (banls)  (see  Baxk,  .5,  a) 
of  oars,  said  to  have  been  inventeil  by  the  Corin- 
thians 700  E.  c.  The  biremr^,  triremc.%  qiiinque- 
rcmes,  etc.,  were  galleys  having  so  many  banks  of 
oars,  —  two,  three,  five,  etc.  The^c ((/ecof/^ori'  had  fifty 
oai's  in  a  single  tier.  The  galca.'iscs  of  the  Venetians 
hail  130  feet  keel,  30  feet  beam,  three  masts,  thirty 
banks  (see  B.\XK,  5,  b)  of  two  oars  each,  each  oar 
manned  by  six  chained  slaves.      They  were  intro- 


Gallery-Fumace. 


GALLEY-ROLLER. 


936 


GALVANIC  BATTERY. 


duced  into  Fraiici!  in  the  rpign  of  Charles  VI.,  and 
manned  by  eriininals.     He  kept  Ibity  in  hi.s  .service. 

Tliey  were  abolished  by  Louis  XV.  in  1748. 

I).  A  elinker-built  lioat  for  .sliip's  n.se,  IVoni  28  to 
3(3  I'eet  loiij;,  ami  with  a  beam  eijnal  to  .'2  of  its 
len;;th.  It  Is  a  light,  .sharp  boat,  earrying  from  ten 
to  twelve  oar.s,  and  is  u.sed  for  speedy  rowing  on 
expeditions.  It  u.sually  has  six  alternate  oars  rowed 
by  a  picked  crew. 

c.  The  cook-liouse  on  boai'd  sliip  which  is  on  deck, 
or  in  a  forwards [lart  of  the  vessel. 

In  the  example,  the  caboose  has  three  grates  in 
front  so  arranged  that  one  or  all  may  be  used  at  a 


Fig.  2147. 


Skip^s  GalUy. 


time,  and  a  rear  f;rate,  over  which  are  three  large 
boiU-rs.  Over  a  central  front  grate  is  a  lai'ge  oven, 
and  between  the  front  and  rear  lires  is  another  ;  the 
])roducts  of  combustii^n  from  the  front  lires  circulate 
U|)  around  and  over  the  front  oven,  on  top  of  ivhii'li 
are  apertures  for  cooking- vessels  ;  boilers  may  b ; 
placed  over  the  side  fires  ;  and,  on  the  top  of  the 
stove,  boilers  or  cooking-vessels  may  be  nsed.  l*i|)es 
froTU  the  top  of  the  large  boilin'S  convey  the  steam 
arising  in  cooking  to  the  smoke-llue.  Convenient 
arrangements  are  ]irovided  for  the  draft  and  for 
removal  of  ashes.  Tlie  snioke-tlue  is  so  divided  Ijy 
a  central  partition  as  to  give  separate  passages  from 
the  front  and  rear  lires. 

2.  (Printlnij.)  An  oblong  tray  which  receives 
matter  from  the  composing- 
stick,  ami  on  winch  it  is  ar- 
ranged in  a  colunni  oi'  Jfiige. 
The  gallery  has  a  leilge  on  lioth 
sides  and  at  top,  half  an  inch 
in  bight.  From  this  it  is 
taken  to  the  imposing-stone 
anil  arranged  in  a  chase.  The 
galli'y  sometimes  has  a  groove 
to  admit  a  fals(!  bottom,  called 
a  (jii llfij-slice. 

In  that  illustrated  the 
space  for  the  matter  is  ad- 
jnstalde  in  width  liy  a  stiaight 
si<h>sfick  and  thumb-screws, 
so  as  to  /(«•/,■  up  the  ma/>e>: 

Gal'ley-roU'er.  (Print- 
iiitj.)  A  short  inking-roller 
for  taking  slip  proofs  of  mat- 
ter in  galley. 

Gal'ley-slice.  {Printing.) 
A  sliding    false  liottom  of    a 
galley.      See  C.VI.LKV. 
Gal'ley-stick.      {Print imj.)     A    long    tapering 
stick  less  than  type  high,  wliicli  is  placed  beside  a 


(H 


G™ 


(H 


Printers^  Galley. 


column  of  type  in  a  galley,  and  the  whole  locked  tq} 
or  wedged  in  place  liy  quoins. 

Gal'11-vat.     A  large  East  Iiulian  rowing-boat. 

Gall  of  Glass.    .Scum  of  midted  glass.    Sandivrr. 

Gal-loon'.  (Fuhric.)  A  narrow  cotton  labile 
used  lor  binding  shoes,  etc. 

A  narrow  binding  stuff  with  threads  of  gold  and 
silver.  A  silk,  woolen,  or  mixed  tape  for  edging, 
binding,  or  shoe-strings. 

Gal'lows.  1.  (Ilnslmndrii.)  The  central  core  of 
four  corn-stalks  iiiteilaeed  diagoinilly,  and  hound  at 
the  intersection,  fornung  a  stool  or  support  for  cut 
corn,  wdiicli  is  bound  around  it  to  form  a  sliock. 

2.  {Printing.)  The 
rest  for  the  tynijian 
when  open. 

3.  The  frame  sup- 
porting the  beam  of 
a  .ste.am-engine. 

4.  A  frame  on  which 
criminals  are  hanged. 

Gal'lo'ws-bitts. 
(Nuulicat.)  A  strong 
frame  elected  amid- 
shijis  on  the  deck  to 
holil  spare  spars. 

Ga-loche'.  1.  A 
clog  or  sabot. 

2.  An  overshoe. 

3.  A  legging. 
Gal-van'ic  Ap'- 

pa-ra'tus.  (.Mcdicul.) 
Contrivances  of  vari- 
ous character  and  ap- 
plication, but  agreeing  in  this,  that  tliey  keep  up  a 
certain  amount  of  galvanic  action,  wbidi  is  intended 
to  exert  a  remedial  ell'ect  upon  the  parts  of  the  body 
to  which  they  are  applied.  While  one  cannot  speak 
with  contidence  as  to  the  actvial  value  of  such,  we 
cannot  condemn  them,  for  we  have  but  a  very  im- 
perfect undeistanding  of  jn-inciples,  and  for  the  larger 
proportion  of  the  curatives  we  possess  we  are  in- 
debted to  empirics.  This  term  ought  not  to  be  con- 
sidered as  one  of  rejn'oach,  for  exiieriment  has 
given  us  about  all  we  have  ;  rather  look  for  the 
charlatans  among  tho.se  who  pretenil  to  have  [leiii"- 
trated  the  arcana.  Among  the  galvanic  appliances 
may  be  cited  bands,  belts,  chains,  combs,  rings,  soles, 
spectacles,  etc. 

Gal-van'ic  Bat'ter-y.  Galvani,  of  Bologna, 
first  observed  the  motion  of  the  mu.scles  of  a  frog  un- 
der dissection,  when  the  latter,  lying  upon  a  cop- 
per [ilate,  were  touched  Ijy  a  steel  scalpel,  exciting  an 
electric  current.  He  pursued  the  subject  by  specific 
experiments.  Volta,  of  Coino,  repi^ated  them,  and 
originated  the  voltaic  piW  in  ISdO  ;  also  demon- 
strating that  the  inlluence  was  incident  to  the 
action  of  the  metals,  and  did  not  abide  in  nerves  ; 
in  fact  that  it  was  a  current  of  eUtctiicity  pass- 
ing along  the  nerves  ami  inuseles.  Duvernay  in 
17fi2  hail  observed  and  treated  of  the  peculiar 
action  of  electricity,  now  known  as  galvanism.     • 

Electricity,  as  developed  by  the  galvanic  pile,  is 
gi'eat  in  ijuantity  and  weak  in  intensity.  In  this 
respect  it  is  the  inverse  of  the  frictional  electricity 
as  excited  by  the  electrical  machine. 

Galvanic  (dectiicity  is  also  a  steady  current, 
while  that  of  the  electrical  machine  —  as  taken  from 
the  prime  conductor  —  is  intermittent  and  explo- 
sive. 

From  the  proceedings  of  the  National  Institute 
of  France,  .Inly  4,  17SIS  :  — 

"ilany  of  the  members  have  been  principally  oc- 
cupied with  the  care  of  ascertaiuiug  by  a  multipliidty 


GALVANIC  BATTERY. 


937 


GALVANIC  BATTERY. 


of  experiments  the  phenomena  of  galvanism.  This 
name  is  given  to  a  discovery  wliich  Dr.  Galvani,  a 
member  of  the  Institute  of  Bologna,  maile  many 
years  ago,  and  from  whieh  it  results  that  when  a 
contiguous  series  of  metals,  commonly  ditferent  from 
one  another,  are  put  into  contact  on  the  one  side  of 
a  nerve,  and  on  the  otlier  with  a  muscle,  or  even 
with  diliVrent  and  distinct  parts  of  the  same  nerve, 
at  the  instant  of  the  double  contact  a  rapid  and 
convuKsive  motion  takes  place  in  the  muscle  into 
which  the  nerve  is  distributed.  This  phenomena 
seems  to  present  to  the  mind  the  idea  of  a  circle,  a 
portion  of  which  is  formed  by  the  excitatory  metals, 
and  the  other  by  the  nervous  and  muscular  organs. 
The  rapidity  of  the  effect,  and  the  promptness  of 
the  communication,  the  nature  and  the  participation 
of  the  e.xciting  and  interrupting  substances,  present 
very  sensible  analogies  between  tile  phenomena  of 
galvanism  and  tliose  of  electricity.  .Some  essential 
differences,  however,  appear  to  militate  against  this 
analogy,  and  will  not  suffer  us  to  admit,  at  least  for 
the  present,  the  identity  of  a  common  principle." 

A  simple  galvanic  battery  f-  consists  of  two  bodies 
relatively  electro  positive  and  negative,  immersed 
(or  partially  so)  iij  a  Muid  which  tends  to  act 
chemically  ujion  one  or  both  ;  the  metals  touching 
each  other  or  having  a  conducting  circuit  connec- 
tion. 

Or  ;  A  current  may  be  obtained  from  two  liquids 
and  one  metal  (or  other  substances) ;  the  respective 
sides  of  the  metal  being  exposed  to  liquids  of  vaiy- 
ing  chemical  energy  upon  the  metal  so  presented. 

Chemical  action  in  all  batteries  develops  electric 
energy  or  electro-motive  force.  This  power  is  de- 
rived from  the  ex|)enditure  of  metal,  etc.,  and  the 
actual  value  of  tlie  materials  used  is  the  principal 
item  in  determining  the  economic  value  of  the  pro- 
cess as  a  means  of  developing  power.  Its  usual  ap- 
plication as  a  motor  has  been  in  the  fcmn  of  the  elec- 
tro-magnetic engine,  with  coils  and  armatures.  See 
Electuo-m.\c;xetic  Engine. 

Two  substances,  which  are  conductors  of  electrici- 
ty, being  placed  in  contact  and  subject  to  chemical 
action  by  the  presence  of  a  fluid,  will  develop  elec- 
tric action  ;  negative  electricity  passing  from  the 
body  which  is  acted  upon  most  powerfully,  —  the 
more  easily  oxidizable  metal,  —  and  positive  elec- 
tricity from  the  other  substauce.  This  is  not  stated 
as  a  princijde,  but  a  fact. 

The  metals,  etc.,  are  arranged  in  a  series,  each 
one  of  wliich  is  [lositive  to  all  below  it  in  the  scale. 
The  order  is  as  follows  :  — 

Zinc. 
Lead. 
Tin. 

Antimony. 

The  more  remote  they  stand  from  each  other  in 
the  series,  the  more  energetic  will  be  the  electric 
action  developed  by  their  contact  under  circum- 
stances to  excite  chemical  action. 

In  the  formation  of  a  simple  galvanic  circuit,  the 
chemical  action  which  excites  electricity  takes  place 
through  a  decomposition  of  the  liquid. 

For  instance,  when  a  ]>late  of  zinc  and  one  of  cop- 
per are  plunged  in  a  weak  solution  of  sulphuric  acid, 
oxygen,  and  hydrogen,  the  elements  of  the  water  are 
separated  from  each  other  :  the  oxygen  unites  with 
the  electro-positive  zinc,  forming  sulphate  of  zinc, 
and  develops  negative  electricity  therein  ;  while  elec- 
tro-negative copper  is  contrarily  excited,  and  posi- 
tive electricity  is  said  to  flow  therefrom. 

Some  misconception  may  arise  in  the  mind  when 
it  is  said  so  frequently  in  a  description  that  electric 


Iron. 

Gold. 

Brass. 

Platinum 

Copper. 

Graphite. 

Silver. 

Charcoal. 

currents  flow :  but  this  mode  of  expression  is  perhaps 
as  good  as  has  been  devised,  and  is  certainly  quite 
eonimon.  This  curious  agent  or  excitement  is  so 
imperfectly  understood,  that  Professor  Faraday  re- 
marked :  "There  was  a  time  when  I  tliought  that 
I  knew  something  about  this  matter  ;  but  the  longer 
I  live  and  the  more  carefully  I  study  the  subject, 
the  more  convinced  I  am  of  my  total  ignorance  of 
electricity."  The  terms  flow,  current,  etc.,  must, 
therefore,  be  considered  merely  as  convenient  con- 
ventional expressions. 

This  much  seems  to  be  admitted,  that  the  positive 
and  negative  currents  are  coinciiltmt,  and  pass  in 
opposite  directions  to  restore  equilibrium.  In  doing 
this  they  possess  a  certain  energy  which  some  in- 
genious men  have  made  available  as  a  positive  force. 
In  other  cases  the  converse  of  the  proposition  is 
elucidated  ;  as  in  electro-plating,  where  the  energy 
derived  from  chemical  action  is  made  to  excite 
electrical  action  ;  this  .again  being  transferred  to  a 
bath,  where  chemical  decomposition  is  again  efitcted 
and  the  equilibrium  restored. 

Volta  discovered  that  by  a  repetition  of  the  simple 
combinations,  or,  in  other  words,  by  a  multiplication 
of  the  pairs  of  excited  plates,  the  efl'ect  might  be  in- 
creased. His  pile  of  plates  arranged  in  jiairs  is  but 
a  multiplication  of  the  single  j)air  of  ]>!ates,  iron  and 
copper,  which  caused  the  nniscular  action  in  the 
moist  anatomical  prejiaration  of  a  frog  with  which 
they  were  casually  brought  in  contact. 

The  cumulative  efl'ect  of  a  number  of  simple  bat- 
teries b  (Fig.  2148)  may  be  obtained  by  bringing  them 
all  into  one  circuit.  Eaili  co]iper  jilate  is  connected 
by  a  copper  wire  to  the  zinc  of  the  next  glass,  and 
each  transmits  the  electric  current  derived  from  the 
chemical  action  in  its  own  glass,  in  addition  to  that 
derived  from  the  action  in  the  preceding  glasses. 

The  trough -battery  c  c'  was  used  by  Sir  Humphry 
Davy  in  his  series  of  magnificent  discoveries,  18f)6  -  8, 
when  he  isolated  the  metallic  bases,  calcium,  sodium, 
potassium,  etc.  His  trough  had  2,000  double  plates 
of  copper  and  zinc,  each  ha\'ing  a  surface  of  32 
square  inches. 

It  is  like  the  compound  battery  just  cited,  except 
that  instead  of  separate  glasses,  a  row  of  water-tight 
cells  are  made  in  a  single  trough  c',  and  the  jilates 
are  united  to  a  bar  of  wood  c  and  connected  liy  wii-es, 
the  copper  of  each  to  the  zinc  of  the  next  ])air,  and 
so  on  all  through.  This  arrangement  of  tlie  plates 
enables  them  to  be  withdrawn  in  a  body  from  the 
dilute  ai-id  when  desired. 

The  elements  of  the  first  galvanic  batteries,  cop- 
per and  zinc  plates  immersed  in  a  trough  containing 
dilute  acid,  soon  bec-ame  sluggi.sh  and  ineit,  .and 
were  capable  of  exerting  their  power  for  but  a  lim- 
ited time  without  cleansing  or  renewal. 

In  1S36,  D.aiiieU's,  the  first  permanent  battery, 
was  invented.  This  consists  of  a  zinc  and  a  copjier 
element,  each  immerseil  in  a  separate  saline  solution, 
and  separated  by  a  diaphnigm,  originally  of  leather 
or  animal  membrane,  but  afterwards  of  porous  earth- 
enware. Smee  subsequently  sulistituted,  for  copper, 
silver  upon  which  a  coating  of  iilatinum  was  electri- 
cally deposited.  Silver  coated  with  platinum  being 
chea|ier  and  affording  equally  good  results  has  been 
very  generally  employed,  and  latterly  iron  similarly 
coated  has  been  used. 

In  the  Austrian   section  of  the   Paris  Exposition 

of  1867  there  was  exhibited  a  battery  on  the  Smee 

princi]ile,  in  which   the  positive  element  was  frag- 

1  meiits  of  amalgamated  zinc,  and   the  negative  lead 

j  coated  with  jilatinum.      This  is  .said    to   be   used  in 

the  .\ustrian  telegraph-offices.     Weak  sulphuric  acid 

I  is  used  as  the  bath  in  this  battery. 


GALVANIC  BATTERY. 


938 


GALVANIC  BATTEKY. 


A  very  permanent  battery  of  low  intensity  has 
been  devised  by  AL  G.  Farmer  of  Boston.  It  con- 
sists of  an  oval  copper  vessel  forming  the  negative 
element,  and  which  is  nearly  tilled  with  a  saturated 
solution  of  sulpliate. 

At  one  end  is  a  porous  cup  within  which  is  placed 
a  smaller  porous  cup,  which  receives  a  cyliniler  of 
amalgamated  ziuc.  Tlie  interior  porous  cup  contains 
pure  water,  and  the  exterior  oup  a  weak  solution  of 
sulphate  of  copper.  Tlie  saturation  of  the  liipiid  in 
the  outer  copper  vessel  is  maintained  by  placing  at 
the  opposite  end  a  third  porous  cup  containing 
crystals  of  sulphate  of  copper,  which  are  replenished 
as  they  are  dissolved.  If  care  be  taken  not  to  allow 
tlie  water  to  fall  too  low,  tliis  battery  will  maintain 
its  energy  for  many  months. 

Analogous  to  this  is  the  battery  of  Fr.  Secchi 
of  Rome,  which  consists  of  a  hollow  cylinder  of  cop- 
jvr,  having  notches  below  to  allow  the  liijuid  within 
and  witliout  to  communicate  freely,  ]>laced  in  tlie 
middle  of  a  glass  or  earthenware  cup,  tlie  bottom  of 
which  is  covered  with  crystals  of  sulphate  of  copjier. 
Oiferthis  is  placed  bibulous  paper,  fitting  the  an- 
n  dar  space,  over  which  is  a  stratum  of  saml  on 
wliich  rests  a  hollow  cylinder  of  zinc  surrounding 
tiie  copper  cylinder.  Tlds  is  filled  with  pulveiized 
s  dphate  of  copper.  The  space  around  the  zinc  is 
filled  with  sand.  The  whole  is  then  nioisteneil  with 
water.  According  to  the  inventor,  this  battery  acts 
f  )r  an  entire  year,  water  and  sulphate  of  copper  being 
added  occasionally. 

The  gravity  battery  of  M.  Callaud  of  Nantes  has 
a  single  cell,  the  separation  of  the  liquids  being  ef- 
fected by  the  diti'erence  in  their  specific  gnivities. 
The  copper  element  is  in  the  bottom,  in  the  solution 
of  sulphate  of  co]iiier  ;  and  the  zinc  element  is  sus- 
pended in  an  upper  part  of  the  cell,  in  its  own  super- 
natant liquid,  tiee  Callaud  Battery  ;  Gravity 
Battery. 

M.  Leclanche  employs  in  a  carbon  battery  peroxide 
of  miuganese  ;  subsequently  he  added  carbon  to  the 
peroxide,  the  whole  being  ground  into  a  paste. 

Professor  Bunsen,  a  few  years  sinae,  introduced 
bichromate  of  potash  instead  of  nitric  acid  in  the 
battery  bearing  his  name.  This  performs  well  for  a 
time,  but  iu  consequence  of  the  precipitation  of  ses- 
quioxide  of  chromiunr  upon  the  zinc  it  grailually 
loses  power.  Another  modification  dispenses  with 
tlie  porous  cup,  using  the  two  liquids  in  mixture. 
The  same  objection  attaches  to  this  as  to  the  former. 

In  the  battery  of  Professor  Thomsen  of  Copetiha- 
gen,  a  number  of  i)lates  of  platinum  are  immersed  in 
dilute  sulphuric  acid,  and  are,  by  means  of  an  elec- 
tro-magnetic motor,  successively  brought  into  con- 
tact with  the  poles  of  a  single  cell  of  Dauiell.  The 
plates  become  covered  by  the  decomposition  of  wa- 
ter with  oxygen  on  one  side  and  hydrogen  on  the 
other,  giving  rise  to  a  powerful  current  in  the  plati- 
num combination,  which  is  maintained  nearly  con- 
stant when  the  contacts  succeed  one  another  rapidly 
and  regularly. 

To  describe  them  more  in  detail  :  — 

Smee's  battery  (d)  has  a  plate  of  silver  coated  with 
platinum  suspended  between  two  plates  of  zinc,  the 
surfaces  of  which  have  been  amalgamated  ;  that  is, 
coated  with  mercury.  The  three  plates  are  supported 
by  a  wooden  bar,  and  depend  within  a  jar  partially 
filled  with  the  usual  aciilulated  solution,  —  dilute 
suljihuric  acid.  The  wires  and  poh's  are  connected 
with  the  zinc  and  ]ilatinum  plates  by  small  screw- 
caps.  The  amalgamation  of  the  zinc  preserves  the 
latter  metal  from  active  corrosion  by  the  acid  when 
the  battery  is  not  in  use. 

The  sulphate-of-copper  battery  (e)  has  two  concen- 


tric cylinders  of  copper  joined  to  a  bottom  of  the 
same  metal.  The  middle  cylinder  is  of  zinc,  and 
sets  w-ithin  the  annular  trough,  whiidi  has  a  solution 
of  sulphate  of  copper  as  an  exciting  licjuid. 

The  .screw  caps  are  for  attachment  of  the  wires  to 
the  respective  metals.  A  partition  in  the  bath  may 
be  introduced,  to  allow  the  solution  to  pass,  but  re- 
strain the  passage  of  tin-  solid  products  of  the  dieni- 
ical  decomiwsition.  This  would  keep  the  metals 
free  from  a  ileposition  which  soon  renders  them  in- 
active. The  partition  may  be  bladder  or  biscuit- 
[lorcelain. 

Daniell's  constant  battery  (/)  is  of  the  class  of  the 
sulphate-of-copper  batteries.  It  ditlers  from  the 
preceding  in  having  the  sulphate  of  coiqier  acidu- 
lated with  one  eightli  of  its  bulk  of  sulphuric  acid  ; 
ill  having  a  porous  porcelain  (jylinder  containing  a 
solution  of  acid,  1  part ;  water,  7  parts  ;  and  in  hav- 
ing a  reserve  of  crystals  of  suliihatc  of  copper  on  an 

Fig.  214S. 


VS^"^ 


Galvanic  Batteries. 

annular  shelf  in  the  bath.  The  reserve  of  acid  and 
the  salt  of  copper  gives  the  battery  a  longer  vitality 
and  accounts  for  the  name  constnnt ;  and  its  contin- 
ued effectiveness  and  evenness  of  action  is  due  to  the 
preservation  of  a  clear  metallic  surface  to  the  copper. 
The  action  is  similar  to  the  ordinary  battery  ;  the 
oxide  of  zinc  formed  is  dissolved  by  the  acid  set 
free,  but  the  hydrogen,  instead  of  being  .set  free  at 
the  copper  plate,  coinbines  with  the  oxygen  of  the 
sul])hate  of  copper,  and  the  copper,  thus  set  free 
fi-om  the  acid,  combines  with  the  copper  plate  of  the 
battery,  and  keeps  a  clear  metallic  surface  thereon. 

Grove's  battery  (A)  is  used  for  telegraphing  and 
otherwhere  when  a  powerful  action  is  required.  The 
glass  jar  has  a  cylinder  of  amalgamated  zinc  with  an 
opening  through  one  side  to  ]iermit  free  circulation 
of  the  dilute  sulphuric  acid.  Within  this  cylinder 
is  a  porous  cup  of  biscuit -porcelain,  containing 
strong  nitric  acid,  in  wliich  is  suspended  a  stiip  of 
platinum  fastened  to  the  end  of  a  zinc  arm  project- 
ing from  the  adjoining  zinc  cylinder. 

An  objection  to  this  battery  consists  in  its  emis- 
sion of  corrosive  nitrous-acid  fumes. 


GALVANIC  MOXA. 


939 


GALVANOMETER. 


In  Buusen's  battery,  the  platinum  of  Grove's  bat- 
tery is  replaced  by  carbon.  The  Biinsen  cell,  prop- 
erly so  called,  has  a  cylinder  ot"  carbon  immersed  in 
nitric  acid,  and  the  jiorous  cell,  containing  zinc  and 
sulphunc  acid,  is  placed  within  it.  In  another 
form,  introduced  by  Archerau,  the  zinc  and  sul- 
phuric acid  surround  the  carbon  cylinder  and  nitric 
acid,  which  are  contained  in  an  interior  porous 
cell  ;  in  conseqiience  of  the  greater  proix)rtion  of 
positive  surface,  this  latter  fonn  evolves  a  greater 
amount  of  electricity  than  the  former.  Bunsen's 
battery  Ls  more  powerful,  though  less  compact, 
than  Grove's. 

In  the  Leclanche  battery,  the  porous  vase  has  a 
graphite  plate  to  fonn  the  posi- 
Fig  2149.  tive  pole,  and  is  filled  up  with  a 

mixture  of  powdered  graphite 
and  pero.xide  of  manganese.  The 
inclosing  jar  has  a  plate  of  zinc 
and  is  filled  with  sand  or  saw- 
dust moistened  with  a  concen- 
trated solution  of  sal-ammoniac. 
The  cork  has  a  central  glass 
tubi',  and  over  this  is  a  disk  of 
rubber,  whose  edges  are  secured 
to  the  wax,  its  middle  slit  form- 
j  .  ing  a  gas-escape  valve. 
II.'     i  A  newspaper  item  gives  an  ac- 

count of  the  "  smallest  battery," 
as  follows  :  "  Mr.  CoUett  writes 
from  Heart's  Content,  '  I  have 
Galvanic  Baliery.  just  sent  my  compliments  to  Dr. 
Gould  of  Cambridge,  who  is  in 
A'alentia,  with  a  battery  composed  of  a  gun-cap, 
with  a  strip  of  zinc,  excited  by  a  drop  of  water,  the 
simple  bulk  of  a  tear.'  "  A  telegraph  that  will  do 
that  must  be  nearly  perfect. 

The  principal  galvanic  batteries  are  known  as,  — 


Bunsen  battery. 
Callaud  battery. 
Carbon  battery. 
Daniell  battery. 
Double-fluid  battery. 
Electropoion  battery. 


Gravity  battery. 
Grove  battery. 
Leclanche  battery. 
Single-fluid  battery. 
Smee  battery. 
Thermo-electric  battery. 


See  Deschanels  "  Natural  Philosophy,"  Part  III. 
Appleton  &  Co. 

Gal-van'ic  Mox'a.  A  term  applied  by  Fabre 
Palaprat  to  the  application  of  platinum  rendered  in- 
candescent by  a  galvanic  current,  as  a  cauterizing 
agent  of  the  nature  of  a  moxa. 

Gal-van'ic  Pile.  A  column  of  alternate  plates, 
such  as  zinc  and  copper.     See  VoLT.iic  Pile. 

Gal'van-ized  I'ron.  The  iron  is  cleaned  by 
dilute  acid  and  friction,  is  heated  and  plunged  into 
a  bath  of  melted  zinc  covered  with  sal-ammoniac, 
and  is  stirred  about  until  the  surface  becomes  alloyed 
with  zinc.  Small  articles  are  treated  in  the  same 
way,  and,  as  they  are  found  to  be  soldered  together 
by  the  metiil  when  dipped  therefrom  by  the  skim- 
mer, they  are  placed  in  a  crucible  with  charcoal 
powder,  heated  and  shaken.  Chains  taken  out  of 
the  zinc  are  shaken  to  separate  the  links.  Wire  is 
reeled  through  the  zinc.  Mallett  recommends  an 
amalgam  of  zinc,  2, 292  ;  mercury,  202  ;  and  about 
1  of  sodium  or  potassium  ;  this  melts  at  680°  F. 
The  cleansed  iron  is  dipped  in  this,  and  removed  as 
soon  as  it  reaches  the  temperature  of  the  alloy. 

Morewood  and  Rogers's  method.  The  plates  are 
tinned  by  placing  them  in.  a  solution  of  muriate  of 
tin  in  a  bath,  the  plates  alternating  with  granu- 
lated zinc,  and  thus  fomiing  a  weak  battery  by 
which  tin  is  deposited  on  the  iron.  The  plates  are 
then  passed  through  a  bath  of  melted  zinc. 


Gal-vau'o-giaph.  (Engrai-ing.)  An  Austrian 
process.  A  plate  of  silvered  copper  is  covered  by 
an  artist  with  ditt'erent  coats  of  a  somewhat  trans- 
parent pigment,  so  that  on  the  dark  portions  the 
paint  is  thick  and  raisetl,  and  the  surface  is  relatively 
depressed  in  the  light  tints.  A  copy  of  this  is  made 
by  the  electrotype  process,  the  darker  being  now  tlie 
deeper  portions,  the  whole  forming  an  intaglio,  like 
a  co])periilatc,  and  is  printed  from  by  the  copperplate- 
printmg  process. 

Gal-van'o-glyph.  A  form  of  engraving.  A 
ground  is  .spreaU  on  a  clean  zinc  plate  and  etched. 
Succeeding  coats  of  varnish  are  spread  by  a  roller  on 
the  ground,  avoiding  the  obliteration  of  the  lines, 
which  become  deeper  with  each  coat.  The  finished 
plate  becomes  a  niatiix  for  a  reverse  impression  ob- 
tained in  the  electro-bath,  and  this  reverse  is  used 
to  print  from  in  the  onlinaiy  manner. 

Gal'va-nom'e-ter.  An  instrument  for  measuring 
the  strength  of  magnetic  currents. 

The  instrument  as  usually  constructed  consists  of 
a  magnetized  needle  placed  parallel  to  a  wire,  which, 
when  electrically  excited,  causes  the  deflection  of 
the  needle.     See  Elkctkometeu  ;  Eleutkoscope. 

The  discover}'  of  this  property  in  an  electric  cur- 
rent was  by  (Ersted  of  Denmark,  in  1819.  The 
principle  was  soon  adopted  by  electricians  in  the 
construction  of  tlie  indicator  telegi-aph.  Ampere, 
Arago,  Schilling,  Gauss,  Weber,  and  Alexander  all 
used  the  principle,  but  it  received  its  peifected  form 
by  Cooke  and  Wheatstone,  English  patent,  1837. 
See  Indicatok-telegk.\pu. 

The  tendency  of   the  magnetic  needle  in    the 

Fig.  2150. 


GaXvanometen, 


GALVANOMETRIC  MULTIPLIER. 


940 


GANG-PLOW. 


vicinity  of  an  elei^trically  e.\cited  needle  held  parallel 
to  it  is  to  assume  a  jiosition  at  right  angles  to  the 
wire  conveying  the  current,  liy  making  the  needle 
astatic,  that  is,  by  plating  two  needles  witli  their 
poles  in  opposition  to  each  other,  they  are  not  af- 
fected by  the  magnetism  of  the  earth,  and  when 
thus  arranged  and  surrounded  by  coils  of  wire  the 
ellect  of  the  electric  current  is  multiplied. 

a  (Fig.  2150)  represents  an  apparatus  for  illus- 
trating (Ersted's  discovery.  Two  insulated  wires 
are  placed  one  above  and  one  below  a  magnetized 
needle,  and  in  a  direction  parallel  to  the  magnetic 
meridian,  and  a  current  is  passed  through  the  wires  ; 
in  the  illustration,  the  current  in  the  upper  wire  is 
represented  as  Howing  from  south  to  north,  causing 
the  north  eiiil  of  the  needle  to  move  to  the  west, 
and  the  south  end  to  the  east.  A  reversal  of  the 
cnrj-eut  causes  the  needle  to  move  in  a  reverse  di- 
rection. 

The  astatic  galvanometer  c  comprises  an  astatic 
needle  suspended  by  a  tilament  above  a  graduated 
plate,  showing  the  degree  of  deHection.  It  is  pro- 
vided with  set  screws  for  attaching  wires  from  an 
electro-magnet  to  the  multiplying  coil  beneath  the 
plate. 

d  is  an  instrument  on  the  principle  of  the  torsion 
balance  of  Coulomb,  for  observing  the  attraction  or 
repulsion  between  the  pole  of  a  suspended  bar  mag- 
net and  that  of  a  vertical  magnet  h.  See  Indic.\tou- 
TELEGR.VPH  ;   ToilsION-BALANCE. 

Thomson's  retlecting  galvanometer,  b,  such  as  is 
employed  in  working  the  ocean  cables,  consists  of  a 
sm  dl  mirror  with  a  magnet  laid  across  its  back, 
both  together  weighing  but  H  grains.  The  reflector 
is  susi)ended  by  a  silk  tilament  in  the  midst  of  a 
small  circular  coil  of  insulateil  copper  wires  /.  A 
current  transmitted  through  the  cable  ;ind  the  coil 
induces  a  current  which  deflects  the  needle,  and 
directs  a  little  beam  of  rellected  light  from  a  lamp 
behind  the  horizontal  scale  g  upon  its  graduated 
front ;  when  the  current  is  reversed,  it  semis  the 
needle  just  so  far  in  the  other  direction,  and  so  by 
a  combination  of  right  and  left  motions  and  pauses 
the  message  is  speileil  out. 

Gal'va-no-met'ric  Mul'ti-pli-er.  An  instru- 
ment for  increasing  by  re[ie- 
tition  the  intensity  of  the 
force  of  an  electric  current,  as 
in  the  series  of  coils  around 
the  astatic  needle  of  theneedle- 
telegraph. 
>\J   '  j  The     convolutions    of    the 

^"^  wire  carry  the  magnetic  cur- 

rent a  number  of  times  around 
the  needle,  so  as  to  increase 
its  d'eHection,  producing  a 
■  considerable  etfect  by  a  com- 
paratively feeble  current. 

Gal'va-no-plas'tic  Pro'- 
cess.  One  in  which  the 
obtiUning  of  casts  by  electro- 
deposition  forms  an  adjunct  in 
the  process  of  multiplying 
printing  surfaces,  or  obtain- 
ing copies  of  articles  of  "  big- 
otry ix.nA  virtue."  See  list  under  Engraving  ;  Fine- 
Aurs. 

Gal-van'o-scope.  An  instrument  for  testing 
the  presence  of  electrical  forces. 

It  differs  from  a  galvanometer  in  being  merely 
qualitative,  not  riuantitative,  having  no  provision  for 
determining  the  extent  of  the  force. 

Gam-ba'do.  A  leather  legging  for  equestrians. 
It  is   wrapped  around  the  leg,   reaching  from  the 


Fig.  2151. 


knee  to  the  foot,  and  is  fastened  at  the  side  by 
clasps. 

Gam'brel.  1.  Originally,  a  bent  stick  like  a 
horse's  Ijuid  leg  ;  used  for  suspending  carcasses. 

2.  A  roof  with  two  pitches.  A  Man.sard  or  curb 
roof 

Gam'brel-roof.  {Building.)  A  roof  with  two 
sets  of  rafters  at  ditferent  inclinations.  A  Mansard 
roof.     See  Cuub-uuof. 

Gam-broon'.  (Fabric.)  A  kind  of  twilled  linen 
cloth  fur  linings. 

Gam'mon-ing.  (Nautical.)  A  la.shing  of  ropes 
by  which  the  bowsprit  is  bound  to  the  cutwater  to 
opposi'  the  lifting  action  of  the  fore-stays. 

Gam'mon-ing-hole.  A  hole  cut' through  the 
knee  of  the  head,  for  the  gammoning. 

Gang.     1.   The  rock  enclosing  a  vein.     Gungue. 

2.  A  terra  applied  to  a  set  of  tools  so  attached  to- 
gether or  to  a  common  stock  as  to  act  together ;  as 
a  gang  of  liits,  a  gang-jilow,  a  gang-saw%  etc. 

Gang-board.  (Nautical.)  a.  A  board  with 
cleats,  f(M  ining  a  bridge  reaching  from  the  gangway 
of  a  vessel  to  the  wharf.     A  gang-plank. 

b.  A  plank  within  or  without  the  waist  for  a  sen- 
tintd  to  j)ace. 

Gang-cask.  (Nautical.)  a.  A  small  cask  for 
bringing  olf  water  in  boats. 

b.  The  cask  in  which  drinking-water  for  immediate 
use  is  k<*]it  on  deck. 

Gang-ctil'ti-va'tor.  (Husbandry.)  One  in 
which  a  number  of  cultivator-shares  are  stocked  in 
such  a  way  as  to  be  driven  in  a  set ;  usually  attached 
to  a  carriage  portion  on  which  the  driver  is  mounted. 

See  Cl'LTIVATIJI!. 

Gang-edg'er.  A  machine  in  which  a  movable 
and  a  stationary  circular  saw  are  mounted  on  one 
arbor  for  the  pmpose  of  dressing  boards  to  uniform 
width,  as  they  come  from  the  log. 

Gang-plo'w.  Several  plows  stocked  in  one  frame, 
generally  supported  on  wheels  and  ridden  by  the 
ojjerator. 

Gangs  of  plows  have  been  arranged  for  work  by 
attaching  a  number  of  plows  to  a  bai'  at  proper  <lis- 
tnnces,  the  motor  being  connected  to  the  bar. 
The  more  usual  form,  however,  consists  of  a  num- 
ber of  plows  attached  to  a  frame  which  runs  on 
wheels  ;  the  ))lows  being  the  width  of  a  fuirow 
apart,  and  arranged  in  a  receding  order,  so  that  the 
furrow  slice,  a.s  it  is  raised,  does  not  become  januned 
between  the  plows. 

The  wheeled  frame,  as  used  in  the  United  States, 
is  generally  arranged  with  a  tongue,  so  as  to  attach 
two  or  foul'  horses,  and  when  the  ])low  is  right- 
handed  the  off-wheel  is  the  Iniger,  as  it  runs  in  the 
furrow  while  the  near  wheel  runs  on  the  land. 

The  originator  of  the  double  jilow  seems  to  liave 


SomervUte^s  Double- Furrow  Flow. 

been  Lord  Somerville,  who  devoted  much  attention 
to  the  practical  iletails  of  agriculture  (1799). 

His  plow,  which  he  called  a  double -furrow  plow, 
consisted  of  a  beam  suitably  bent  for  the  attachment 
of  two  plows,  one  placed  laterally  and  to  the  rear  of 
the  other,  as  usual.  Mr.  Ducket  of  Esper,  England, 
used,  in  1797,  a  double  plow,  drawn  by  four  horses, 
and  turning  two  furrows. 


GAXG-PLOW. 


941 


GAKISTER. 


Tlie  plow  was  uot  commended  in  England,  espe- 
cially ill  those  ]ilaces  where  it  took  and  yet  takes 
two  persons  to  manage  one  plow.  The  idea  of  mak- 
ing one  man  o[)ei-ate  two  plows  was  pi-eposterons. 

Lord  Somerville  invented  a  movable-flap  mold- 
boai-d,  by  which  the  hinged  rear  portion  might  be 
set  out  or  in,  according  to  the  width  required  for 
stubble  or  sod  plowing.  A  set  screw  at  the  back 
secm-ed  the  flap  at  the  desiied  adju.stment.  It  is 
shown  in  the  illustration  of  his  g:ing-plow. 

In  the  example  (Fig.  2153),  the  plows  are  moved 
vertically  by  levers.     The  axle  is  bent  to  depress  the 

Kg.  2153. 


bar  are  arranged  to  vibrate  upon  the  ends  of  the 
axletree,  for  the  purpose  of  i-aising  and  lowering  the 


^S 


Gang- Plow. 

furrow-wheel.     The  tongue  is  attached  to  one  side 
of  the  center,  to  suit  the  position  of  the  hoi-ses. 

In  Fig.  2154,  the  plows  are  raised  or  lowered  by 
a  lever  and  pawls  attached  to  the  axle,  which  has  a 
toothed  wheel,  and  has  a  crank  near  the  hub  for 
receiving  the  axle  of  the  furrow-wheel,  the  tongue 
also  being  adjusted  for  the  line  of  draught  by  a  bolt 
through  the  clevis,  and  made  fast  to  its  i^ear  end. 


Fis-  2154. 


The  crank-shaped  plow-standards,  provided  with  a 
slot  and  set  screw  which  passes  through  the  boss 
and  rests  on  the  bed,  are  pivoted  on  holts  passing 
through  a  hole  in  the  turn  of  the  standard.  The 
illnstration  shows  a  side  elevation  and  a  plan-view. 
In  the  plow  shown  in  Fig.  2155,  the  arrangement 
of  the  whiffletrees  is  designed  to  equalize  the  work 
of  the  horses.     The  levers,  short  axles,  and  sway 


Gang-  Punch. 


Gan§-Piow. 

plow-frame.  When  the  machine  is  at  work  the 
sway-bar  rests  upon  the  folding  frame,  but  when  it 
is  desirable  to  depress  the  jilows  the  folding  frame 
is  drawn  from  beneath  the  sway-bar,  which  then  as- 
sumes a  lower  position  and  rests  upon  the  plow- 
frame. 

Gang-punch.  An  arrangement  of  a  number  of 
punches    in    a 

single  stock  for  Kg.  2156. 

punching  fish- 
plates, or  other 
thinsrs. 

Gang-sa-w^. 
An  anange- 
ment  of  saws 
placed  paraUel 
in  a  gate,  so  as 
to  make  a  num. 
ber  of  kerfs  si- 
multaneously, 
ripping  up  the 
log  into  hunber  at  one  pass,age  along  the  ways. 

In  the  large  saw-mills  of  the  lunilier  regions,  these 
saws  are  known  a-s  slubhmg-(ian(js,  stock-gangs, 
Tiinkee-gnu'ji,  live-gangs,  dittering  in  certain  par- 
ticidars  and  purposes.  See  those  heads.  The  ar- 
rangement of  several  blades  in  one  gate  was  intro- 
duced as  early  as  the  sixteenth  century. 

The  illustration  .shows  an  English  foi-m  of  the 
gang-saw.  n  a  is  a  cast-iron  framework  bolted  to 
the  foundation  ;  b,  the  saw-mill  floor  ;  c,  driving- 
shaft  ;  d  d',  fast  and  loose  pulleys  ;  c,  fly-wheel  ;  A, 
pitman  ;  g  g,  saw -gate,  which  runs  on  slides  I  I. 
The  log  is  represented  as  lying  upon  the  bearer  b, 
which  is  a  part  of  the  log-carri;ige,  which  runs  upon 
rails  on  the  timbers  m  m,  the  log  being  held  down 
by  the  bearer  above.  The  feed  is  by  means  of  the 
eccentric  /',  rod  /(',  and  ratchet-wheel  ;>'.  The 
running-back  motion  is  by  means  of  the  pulleys  t 
and  spur-wheel  if.  The  other  parts  perhaps  require 
no  detailcil  ilescription. 

Gangue.  1.  [Smelting.)  The  superfluous  earthy 
matter  of  a  smelting-fumace. 

2.  {Milling.)  the  "mineral  matters  in  which 
metallic  oies  are  imbedded. 

Gang'^ray.  {Xautical.)  The  opening  in  the 
bulwarks  of  a  ves,sel  by  which  persons  come  on 
board  or  clisembark. 

Gan'is-ter.  [Mctalhirgg.)  A  refractory  material 
used  for  lining  the  Bessemer  "con vert oi-s."  It  con- 
sists of  crashed  or  ground  silicious  stone  mi.ved  with 
fire-clay.  Its  object  is  to  save  the  iron  convertor 
from  destruction  by  the  heat  of  the  charge.  Ground 
quartz,  sand,  and  fire-clay. 


GAP-WINDOW. 


942 


GARLIC-SEPARATOR. 


Fig.  2157. 


Gar'den-er's-lad'der.  A  light  ladder  used  in 
gatheriiij;  tiuit,  inuiiiiij;  tree.s,  oi- nailing  ii]i  creepers 
or  vines.      Sec  Ex  i  KNslu.N-L.WiUlilt  ;  KuL'IT-LAIiDEK. 

Gar'den-lounge.  A  seat  of  rustic  work,  or  its 
imitation  in  iron,  with  an  awuiug  for  summer 
weather.      See  (_!ai;uex-skat. 

Gar'den-nail.  A  cast  nail  with  a  }i'raniidal 
head,  u.sed  lor  nailing  up  climbing  plants,  vines, 
and  wall-l'iuit  trees  to  lirick  walls. 

Gar'den-plo^ff'.  A  small  plowto.be  driven  by 
hand  in  plowing  between  rows  of  garden  jiUints. 

Gar'den-Pump.  A  barrow-pnnip  for  watering 
gardens,  washing  carriages  and  windows.     It  has  a 

Fig.  2158. 


English  Gan^-Saw. 


Atn-ood's  compound  for  lining  the  bottoms  of 
Bessemer  converters  consists  of  carbon,  preferably 
that  obtained  from  old  crucibles,  although  anthra- 
cite or  bituminous  coal  may  be  used,  German,  or 
other  plastic  cl.iy,  old  ground  fire-lirick.  Mount 
Savage  stonc^-clay,  and  burned,  or  unbumed  sand. 

These  materials  are  gi'ound  together,  and  tamped 
into  the  mold. 

Gap-Twin'dow.  {Architecture.)  A  long  and 
narrow  winib)W. 

Gar'board-strake.  (Shlptvrifihtlng.)  The  range 
of  planks  nearest  to  the  keel.  In  the  merchant  .ser- 
vice, the  rabbet  to  receive  the  iiarttnard-strnkc  is 
made  along  the  upper  edge  of  the  keel.  In  the 
navy,  a  groove  is  made  half-way  down  the  keel  to 
recei\-e  the  riart'iiarft-strnK'C. 

Gar'den-en'gine.  A  wheelbarrow  tank  and 
pump  for  watering  gardens.      See  BAIUtow-I'fMP. 

Gar'den-er'8-knife.  A  knife  with  a  hooking 
blade  suitable  for  pruning  by  a  draw-cut. 


Garden- Seat. 

Gar'den-shears.  Laige  shears  for  clipping 
hedges  and  trees  and  for  pruning. 

Gar'den-syr'inge.  A  form  of  syringe  for  water- 
ing jihints,  sprinkling  them  with  in.sect-destroying 
solutions,  and  .so  on.     See  Gaudkn-pi'MT'. 

Gar'goyle.  A  quaintly  foimed  head  of  a  man  or 
animal,  <-uiployed  as  a  decorative  spout  for  the  rain- 
watei'  from  a  roof. 

Garland.  1.  (Nautical.)  a.  A  grommet  or  ring 
of  rope,  made  sr.Jvage  fashion,  ai;d  used  to  place 
around  a  mast  or  spar  when  taking  aboard  or  step- 
ping a  lufust. 

b.  A  bag-net  used  by  sailors  to  hold  provisions. 

2.    An  ornamental  band  used  in  Gothic  work. 

Gar'lic-sep'a-ra'tor.  A  machine  for  extracting 
the  I'orms  of  garlic  from  wheat  in  those  States  which 
are  infested  with  the  plant.  The  device  is  usually 
an  apron  or  roller  of  a  somewhat  viscid  surface,  to 
wliich  the  corm  will  adhere. 


GARMENT-CUTTER. 


943 


GAS. 


Gar'ment-cut'ter.  A  machine  having  a  de- 
scending cuttiT  ut'  a  given  .'iliape,  which  cuts  from  a 
pile  of  cloth  beneath  it  a  number  of  pieces  of  its  own 
size.  The  ilie  is  shitted  for  the  next  piece,  and  so 
on  for  eacli  piece  which  goes  to  make  np  the  gar- 
ment.    Used  in  large  clothing  manufactories. 

Gar'ment-meas'ur-er.    A  measuring  scale  for 


Fig.  2160. 


laying 
ments. 


out     gar- 
The  verti- 


cal    and 
scales    are 


lateral 
gradu- 


Garment-Measitrer. 


D  ated  for  obtaining 
the  sizes  and  pro- 
portions of  the  fig- 
ure, being  adjusted 
to  agree  with  the 
measures  as  taken 
in  the  u.sual  man- 
ner. At  the  upper 
end  are  scales 
adapted  to  the 
width  of  the  back 
and  the  hight  ot 
the  shoulder. 

Gar'net.  1. 
{Kaulkal.)  A  sort 
of  purchase.  Fixed 
to  the  main- stay 
as  a  hoisting-in 
tackle,  but  useful 
in  other  positions 
indicateil  by  names 
such  as  clcw-ijur- 
net,  etc. 

2.  A  hinge  of  T- 
shape,    the    cross- 
bar being  attached  to  the  hanging  stile  or  post. 

Gar'nish-bolt.  (Bui/ding.)  A  bolt  having  a 
chamfered  or  faceted  head. 

Ga-rook'uh.  A  vessel  of  the  Persian  Gulf,  hav- 
ing a  length  of  from  50  to  100  feet,  a  short  keel, 
and  a  long  overhanging  jirow  ami  stern. 

Gar'ret     An  upper  apartment  of  a  house,  inmie- 
'diately  under  the  roof. 

Gar'ret-ing.  Small  splinters  of  stone  inserted  in 
the  joints  of  coaree  masonry. 

Gar'rot.  (Sunjical.)  A  tonrninuet  formed  of  a 
baud  and  a  .stick,  the  former  being  twisted  by  tlie 
revohition  of  tlie  latter. 

Gar-rote'.  A  Spanish  instrument  of  execution. 
The  victim  is  fastened  by  an  iron  collar  to  an  up- 
right post,  usually  in  a  sitting  posture,  and  a  knob 
operated  by  a  screw  or  lever  dislocates  the  spinal 
column,  or  a  small  blade  severs  the  spinal  cord  at 
the  base  of  the  brain. 

Gar'ter.  A  semicircular  plate,  acting  as  a  key, 
which  passes  through  a  slot  in  the  wooden  jaw  of  a 
bench-vise,  and  entere  an  annular  groove  in  the  cylin- 
drical neck  of  the  bench-screw,  so  that  when  the  lat- 
ter is  unscrewed  it  brings  oat  the  jaw. 
Garth.     A  fish-weir. 

Gas.  Exudations  of  gas  from  the  earth  have 
been  noticed  in  ancient  and  modern  times,  and  in 
many  countries. 

In  China,  these  exudation.?,  either  natural  or  re- 
sulting from  deep  boring,  have  been  utilized  from 
time  immemorial  for  lighting  towns  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  these  jets.  In  boring  for  salt  water,  im- 
prisoned reservoirs  of  carbureted  hydrogen  have 
been  reached,  and  the  gas  thus  obtained  has  been 
utilized  in  China,  and  in  the  valley  of  the  Kanawha, 
West  Virginia,  in  evaporating  the  brine. 

Gas  flowing  naturally  is  or  has  been  used  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Fredonia,  New  York  ;  Portland,  on 


Lake  Erie  ;  Wigan,  Great  Britain  (in  1667)  ;  and  in 
many  other  jdaces. 

The  uses  made  of  it  by  the  Magi,  or  fire-worship- 
pers of  Persia,  have  not  been  properly  examined  or 
determined  ;  but  the  holy  fires  of  Baku,  on  the  shore 
of  the  Caspian,  have  attained  some  celebrity,  and 
are  maintained  by  a  natural  stream  of  carbureted 
hyilrogen. 

Paracelsus  remarked  the  disengagement  of  gas 
when  iron  was  dissolved  in  sulphuric  acid.  Van 
Helmont,  a  Belgian  chemist,  gave  it  the  name  of 
"gas,"  and  distinguished  gases  from  atmos]iheric 
air,  and  also,  on  account  of  their  non-condensibility, 
from  vapors.      Van  Helmont  died  in  1644. 

Oxygen  was  firet  discovered  by  Dr.  Priestley  in 
1774;  he  obtained  it  by  heating  red  oxide  of  mer- 
cury, and  called  it  dephlogisticated  air. 

Schcele  and  Lavoisier  a  year  or  two  later  made 
the  same  discovery,  indejiendently  of  the  English  in- 
ventor, as  Humboldt  thinks.  It  was  termed  empy- 
real air  by  Scheele  ;  ritnl  air  by  Cordorcet.  The 
name  oxygen  was  given  to  it  by  Lavoisier. 

Black  and  Cavendish,  in  1766,  showed  that  car- 
bonic acid  {fixed  air)  and  hydrogen  gas  (cumbustihle 
air)  are  specifically  distinct  auriform  Huids. 

Gas  was  distilled  from  wood  in  Paris  in  1S02; 
from  oil  by  Dr.  Henry,  in  1805  ;  from  refuse,  oily, 
and  fatty  matter  by  Taylor,  and  patented  in  1S15. 

The  operations  of  the  Chinese  being  unknown  to 
the  "outside  barbarians,"  the  streams  of  intlanimable 
gas  were  for  many  centuries  only  objects  of  wonder 
and  conjecture  in  the  various  countries  of  Eiirojie 
where  they  issued  from  the  soil.  Occasionally,  small 
bladders  of  gas  had  been  collected  and  burned,  but  no 
suspicion  seems  to  have  entered  the  minds  of  the 
observers  that  there  was  anything  valuable  involved. 

The  artificial  jiroiluction  of  gas  from  coal  dates  in 
the  seventeenth  century,  and  the  early  examples  of 
its  manufacture  and  use  are  as  follows  :  — 

Dr.  Clayton,  rector  of  Crofton,  England,  distilled 
illuminating  gas  from  coal,  and  detailed  the  ex]ieri- 
nient  to  his  friend  Dr.  Boyle,  in  16S8.  Dr.  Boyle 
announced  it  to  the  Royal  Society  before  his  death, 
wliiih  happened  in  1691.  Dr.  Clayton  obtained 
what  he  called  an  "  uncondensalile  spirit,"  which, 
as  it  issued  in  a  jet,  was  caught  in  a  bladder  and 
useil  for  exjieriments ;  the  gas  being  repeatedly 
lighted  and  blown  out. 

About  fifty  years  aftei  wards  the  account  was  pub- 
lished in  the  "  1  hilosophical  Transactions,"  and 
a]ipears  to  have  drawn  attention  to  the  subject,  as 
from  this  point  we  find  a  chain  of  experimenters  and 
then  a  line  of  practical  developei-s. 

If  the  series  is  to  be  brielly  stated,  we  shall  give 
it  thus  :  Dr.  Clayton,  Bishop  Watson,  Murdoch, 
Winsor,  Clegg  ;  a  clergyman,  a  bishop,  an  engineer, 
an  enthusiast,  a  mechanic. 

In  1726,  Dr.  Hales,  in  his  work  on  "Vegetable 
Statics,"  states  that  158  grains  of  coal  yield  180 
cubic  inches  of  gas. 

In  1750,  AVatson,  Bishop  of  LlandafT,  distilled 
coal,  pa.ssed  the  gas  through  water,  and  conveyed  it 
in  pipes  from  one  place  to  another. 

In  1786,  Lord  Dundouald  erected  ovens  or  re- 
torts in  which  he  distilled  coal  and  tar,  and  burned 
the  issuing  gas.  He  seems  to  have  considered  it  an 
amusing  experiment,  and  no  more. 

In  17112,  Jlr.  JIurdoch,  of  Redruth,  Cornwall, 
England,  erected  a  gas-distilling  apparatus  and 
lighted  his  house  and  offices  by  gas  ilistributed 
through  ser^-ice-pipes. 

In  1798,  Murdoch  lighted  with  gas  the  works  of 
Boultou  and  Watt,  Soho,  near  Birmingham.  On 
the  occasion  of  a  public  rejoicing  for  peace,  1802, 


GAS. 


944 


GAS. 


he  inadf  an  illumination  of  the  Works  ;  jnohalily  an 
outsiilc  I'xhiliition  of  his  pi't,  on  the  walls  of  the  es- 
talilishnicnt.  Trafalgar,  Ansterlitz,  anil  Jena,  within 
four  years  afterwards,  is  a  eurious  eonmientary. 

In  1801,  Le  Bon,  of  I'aris,  lightecl  his  house  and 
garden,  ami  proposed  t"  lifjht  the  lity  of  Paris. 

The  English  pej-iodieals  of  ISlKi  ami  thereabout 
refer  to  the  jiropositimi  of  Murdoeh  to  use  the  gas 
obtained  by  the  distillation  of  coal,  and  state  that 
the  use  of  the  gas  for  light,  heat,  ammonia,  or  oil 
would  be  an  infringement  of  the  patent  of  tlie  Earl 
of  Dundonald  ;  farther,  that  the  amount  of  water 
produeeil  by  the  condiiuatiou  of  tlie  hydrogi'ii  of  the 
gas  and  the  oxygen  of  the  air  would  sulfnse  the  eur- 
tains  of  a  room  with  moisture,  and  would  render  it 
necessary  "  to  wring  out  the  eurtnin.s  and  other  linen 
furniture  of  the  apartments  on  the  morning  subs^'- 
quent  to  the  illuniinati<jn  by  the  burning  of  the 
coal  .smoke." — Monthly  Mmjiziiu;,  London,  June!, 
1805. 

In  1803-4,  Winsor  lighted  the  Lyceum  Theater 
and  took  out  a  patent  for  lighting  streets  by  gas. 
He  established  the  tirst  gas-company. 

In  1801-.'i,  Murdoeh  lighted  the  eotton-faetory 
of  Philips  and  Lee,  Manchester,  the  light  being  esti- 
mated as  ecpial  to  3,000 
candles.  This  was  the 
largest  undertaking  up 
to  that  date. 

In  1807,  Winsor  light- 
ed one  .side  of  Pall  Mall, 
London  ;  the  iirst  street 
lighting. 

Westminster  Bridge 
was  liglited  in  1813. 

Houses  of  Parliament, 
London,  in  thesameyear. 
Streets  of  London  gen- 
erally, 181.5.     Streets  of 
Paris,  the  same  year. 

James    McMurtrie   proposed   to    light    .streets 
Philadeljihia,  1815. 

Baltimore  commenced  the  use  of  gas,  1810. 
Boston,  18-22. 
New  York  City,  1825. 

The  Newton  gas-well,  six  mile?  from  Titus\illp, 
Pa.,  discharges  at  tlie  rate  of  three  millions  of  culiic 
feet  of  gas  every  day  of  twenty-four  hours.  The  gas 
issues  under  a  pressure  of  from  twenty  to  thirty 
pounds  per  sfpiare  inch,  and  for  the  most  jiart  gnr< 
to  waste.  Pipes  have  been  laid  to  Titusville,  and 
two  hundred  and  fifty  dwelling-houses,  shops,  etc., 
are  now  supplied  with  the  gas  for  illumination 
and  fuel.  For  heating  jiurposes  it  is  .admiraljlc,  but 
for  illumination  it  rcijuires  to  be  passed  througli 
naphtha,  as  it  is  deficient  in  carbon. 

If  the  owners  could  satisfy  themselves  of  the  con- 
tinuity of  the  gas  Hqw,  we  presume  that  pipes  would 
be  laid  from  the  widl  to  several  of  the  large  cities, 
such  as  Pittsburg,  Cleveland,  and  Pnill'alo. 

The  process  of  nuiking  gas  consists  in  the  distilla- 
tion of  coal,  though  other  forms  of  hydrocarlion  will 
yield  it,  and  the  subsequent  purification  of  the  same 
to  puige  it  of  noxious  matters,  —  tar,  ammonia,  and 
sulphur.  These  operations  are  conducted  respec- 
tively in  the  Gas-Rktout,  Cosdk.nsk.r,  Wasiikr, 
and  PuRIFIF.Ii  (which  see). 

The  coal  is  placed  in  the  retort  a  by  means  of 
long  scoops,  which  are  handled  by  three  men,  two 
scoopfuls  forming  a  charge,  —  220  pounds.  The  re- 
tort is  of  iron  or  clay  ;  the  latter  is  now  jirefi'rred. 
The  retort  luis  its  ojien  end  eX]iosed  at  the  furnace- 
wall,  so  as  to  receive  the  charge,  and  is  surrounded 
by  the  flames  and  heat  of  the  furnace.     Each  retort 


is  connected  by  its  branch  pipe  b  with  the  main  c, 
which  condu(!ts  the  gas  evolved  to  the  comlcnser  d. 
The  operation  of  charging  the  retort  is  (piicklv  and 
.skillfully  piuformed,  so  as  to  limit  the  escape  of  gas. 
When  tile  charge  is  introduced,  the  cap  is  replaced 
and  luted  to  make  the  joint  gas-tight.  The  fire  ex- 
pels the  gas  from  the  coal  in  the  course  of  five  hours, 
and  the  coke  is  then  ready  to  be  withdrawn.  This 
is  done  by  long  rakes,  and  it  is  wetted  to  prevent  its 
burning.  The  coke  weighs  less  than  the  coal  by  the 
amount  of  gas  evolved,  but  is  nearly  double  the  bulk. 
The  gas  Hows  in  company  with  other  vapors  from 
the  retort,  ami  these  impurities  are  removed  by  suc- 
cessive operations.  It  is  first  conducted  through 
the  convoluted  pipes  of  the  cmidciiscr  d,  by  which 
the  gas  is  cooled  and  the  tar  precipitated.  From 
thence  it  passes  to  the  washer  f,  in  which  it  is 
brought  into  intimate  contact  with  water  to  remove 
the  anmionia,  which  has  so  great  an  athinty  for  wa- 
ter that  it  leaves  the  gas.  From  thence  the  gas  is 
conducted  to  the  purijiir  /,  where  it  is  passed  be- 
tween layers  of  damp,  )iowdi'red  lime,  arranged  in  a 
tier  of  shelves  on  a  box.  Tlie  lime  absorbs  the  sul- 
jihur  and  permits  the  gas  to  i  ass  oH'  in  a  i)urified 
state,  fit  for  consumption.     See  also  GAs-PL'ttlFiKli. 


Fig.  2161^ 


of 


Gas-Manufactory. 

The  holder  '/,  in  which  the  gas  is  stored,  consists 
ol  invertcil  sheet-iron  cylindeis,  which  are  sujiported 
by  chains  and  counterweights  from  pillars  of  iron. 
The  cylinder  is  ojien  at  its  lower  end,  and  the  edge 
dips  into  a  tank  of  water,  so  that  the  cylinder  rises 
as  the  gas  is  driven  into  it  and  sinks  as  it  is  with- 
drawn by  consumption.  The  inlet  and  outlet  of  the 
gas  is  by  pipes  whose  tenninations  are  above  the 
surface  of  tlie  water.  From  tlie  lioUler  the  gas 
proceeds  to  the  mains  and  service-pipes.  See  Gas- 
holder. 

To  govern  the  flow  of  the  gas,  a  regulator  or 
governor  is  applied  (see  Gas-rf.oulatiji:),  whose 
duty  it  is  to  limit  the  flow,  according  to  the  elevation 
of  the  locality  to  whicli  the  pas  is  supplied,  and  also 
to  maintain  an  equable  jiressurc  to  avoid  flickering 
and  ineiiualities  in  the  light.  One  form  of  regulator 
is  a  bell-shapcil  chamber  suspended  from  a  beam 
whose  other  end  has  a  balance-weight,  being  in  con- 
struction .similar  to  a  ga.s-holdcr.  Gas  is  admitted 
to  the  interior  of  the  "  bell "  by  a  pipe  whose  end  is 
above  the  surface  of  the  water  in  the  tank  into 
which  the  bell  is  inverted,  and  a  similar  y\\<(  con- 
veys the  gas  away.  Over  the  upturned  mouth  of 
the  inlet-pipe  is  .suspended  a  cone  which  partially 
closes  the  aperture  when  the  pressure  of  gas  is 
greatest,  and  uncloses  the  opening  when  the  jiressure 
diminishes,  so  that  the  size  of  the  orifice  is  in  the 
inverse  ratio  of  the  pressure,  and  the  consequent 
sjieed  of  the  passing  fluid.  Valves  working  on  the 
Iirinciple  of  the  bellows,  and  aclnated  by  the  ascend- 
ing and  descending  bell,  are  ett'ective  for  this  pur- 
pose. 

In  the  distribution,  valves  are  used  to  cut  off  the 


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